CIT-201_COMPUTER NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS LECTURE NOTE

COMPUTER NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS

(CIT-201)

2023/2024 ACADEMIC SESSION

BY:

Yakubu Mohammed & Faiza Idris Abdullahi, BSc, MSc.

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CONTENTS/ COURSE OUTLINE

1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………3
2.0 Definition of Computer Network………………………………….......3
3.0 Classifications of Computer Network………………………….........4
4.0 Benefits of Computer Network…………………………………..........8
5.0 Advantages and Disadvantages of Network…………………..…..9
6.0 Components of Computer Network…….…………………………..12
7.0 Network Address and Cabling……………………….…………………18
8.0 Classification of IP Address and Subnet Mask………………….30
9.0 Network Topologies……………………………………………..............31
10.0 Network Architecture………………………………………………………33
11.0 Switching Techniques………………………………………………………33
12.0 OSI Model………………………………………………………………………..35
13.0 Characteristics of OSI Model……………………………………………36
14.0 Exercises………………………………………………………………………….43
15.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….44
References………………………………………………………………………45

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Earlier computers used to be stand alone. Different computers
were used for information gathering, processing or distribution.
Due to rapid technological progress, the areas of information
gathering, processing and distribution are rapidly converging and
differences between them are quickly disappearing.
In this unit, we will learn the different types of networks,
their applications, networking models and topologies. We will
also examine references, the various layers and functions of each
layer.

2.0 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is a set of two or more computers connected
to each other. Once joined together these computers can share
files together and also share devices like printers which are on the
same network. Moreover, Computer Network is defined as the
interconnection of two or more computers systems or peripheral
devices to enable the computers to communicate and share files
or resources.
Additionally, Network simply mean, data transfer or
communication between two or more devices which are directly
or indirectly connected by some form of communication medium.
Computer network means interconnected set of autonomous
systems that permit distributed sharing or processing of
information. In order to meet the needs of various applications,
networks are available with different interconnection layouts and
plans, method of access, protocols and media.
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3.0 CLASSIFICATIONS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

The classification of computer network can be divided into four
(4) categories which includes the followings:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
1. PERSONAL AREA NETWORK (PAN)
Personal area network is the smallest form of network which
is used for communication among computer devices, these
includes: mobiles phones, laptops and gaming consoles in a
limited area, approximately the size of a room! The reach of
a PAN is generally only a few meters. This network type is
generally wireless. E.g. Bluetooth is an example of this type.
 Organized around an individual person
 Communication capable devices like mobile phone, cell
phone or personal digital assistant.
 Wireless or Cable
 Range up to 10 meters.

Figure 1: Personal Area Network

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2. LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A local area network is a relatively smaller and privately owned
network with maximum span of 10km to provide local
connectivity within a building or small geographical area. LAN
is technically defined a single interface of a router with the
same Network IP address. The LANs are distinguished from
other kinds of networks by three characteristics:

1. Size: Maximum of 10km, within a building, compound or

small campus Network.
2. Transmission technology: Single Interface of a router,
Same IP Network address.
3. Topology: Can be Star, Ring or Bus

Accordingly, there are many LAN standards known as IEEE

area standards 802 x.

Figure 2: Local Area Network

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3. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

Metropolitan Area Network is defined as less than 50km and
provides regional connectivity typically within a campus or small
geographical area. It is designed to extend over an entire city. It
may be a single network, such as cable television network, or it
may be a means of connecting a number of LANs into a large
network, so that resources may be shared LAN–to–LAN as well as
device to device. For example, a company can use a MAN to
connect to the LANs in all of its offices throughout a city.

 it cover the entire city

 It uses similar technology as LAN
 It can be a single network such as cable TV network
 It is a measure of connecting number of LANs on larger a
network so that resources can be share LAN to LAN as well
as device to device.

Figure 3: Metropolitan Area Network

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4. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

Wide Area Network provides no limit of distance. In most
WAN, the subnet consists of two distinct components.
Transmission lines, also called circuits or channels, and
routers. Transmission lines are used for moving bits between
machines, whereas routers are used to connect two or more
transmission lines.
Furthermore, consists of several LANs connected together
over the internet. WANs covers the largest geographical
area of all networks. The internet is an example of a WAN
that covers the entire world. (Woodford, 2016)
 Connections through public networks such as
telephone lines, leased telephone lines and satellite
links etc.
 It’s cheaper and efficient
 WAN networks are used to transfer large block of data
between its users
 INTERNET is the largest WAN network in existence.

Figure 4: Wide Area Network

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4.0 BENEFITS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

The benefits of computer networks are as follows:
 Communication
 Sharing Hardware
 Sharing Software etc.
1. COMMUNICATION
People can communicate with others all over the world at a
very low cost using e-mail, chat, telephone, video telephone,
video conferencing and SMS (Short Message Service and is
also commonly referred to as a "text message") services.

2. SHARING HARDWARE
In a network, resources such as printers, scanners, fax
machines and modems can be shared among the users with
are on the same network.

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3. SHARING SOFTWARE
Users on a network can access data stored on other
computers and on the internet. Known as Databases, these
systems are used in companies to hold information such as
customer, product or employee information. Database
information can be stored in-house on a computer server or
in the Cloud. Cloud Services allow companies to store their
data in large online servers using the internet. This makes
this data accessible anywhere once there is an internet
connection.

5.0 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK

5.1 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK
 Resource Sharing
 File Transfer
 Remote access
 Security
 Storage Capacity
 Communication and Collaboration
 Collaboration
 Cost efficiency

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 Resource Sharing: One of the remarkable advantages of

computer networks is the ability to share resources
efficiently on a network computers which includes; printers,
scanners and drives etc.
 File Sharing: is the act of sharing one or more files. A
computer network helps a network user to share files. Files
can be shared over a local network in an office, or at home
or you can share files over the Internet. E.g. Mails
 Security: Enhancing Security is one of the most advantage of
computer network it allows the users to protects their
data/files through the following ways are; Firewalls,
Password and Username, encryption etc.
 Increased storage capacity: The users can access files and
multimedia, like music and pictures, stored remotely on
another computer or network-attached storage.
 Communication and collaboration: Networks enable
communication and collaboration between multiple users,
devices, and locations. This facilitates the sharing of
information and resources, making it easier for individuals to
work together on projects and to exchange information.
 Centralized data management: Networks provide centralized
management of data, providing a single point of control for
backup, storage, and security. This simplifies management
and reduces the risk of data loss or corruption.

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 Reduced costs: Networks reduce costs by sharing resources,

reducing hardware and software requirements, and
simplifying management and maintenance. For example,
networks can enable the use of cloud services, reducing the
need for expensive on-site hardware and software.
5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORK
 Network Setup Costs
 Malware Infection
 Issues with Independent Usage
 Health Issues
 Poor internet Accessibility

 Network Setup Costs: Setting up the network requires

hardware like routers, hubs and switches and cabling
that can cost significantly. The cost further varies based
on the number of systems to be added to the network.
 Malware Infection: Viruses or Malware can propagate
easily between the connected computers in a network.
It is quite likely that malware will spread to the
remaining computers if one of the systems gets
infected. However, this can be prevented by running
regular malware scans.
 Issues with Independent Usage: Because everything is
centralized, the network lacks independence. As a
result, individual users cannot use the computer as
they wish.
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 Health Issues: Since computer networks provide access

to a variety of content such as entertainment, games,
and movies, this leads to an addictive dependence on
the services and overuse. The excessive amount of
screen time can cause weakness, eye strain, and body
pain as well as make you feel tired.
 Poor Internet Accessibility: Despite the fact that most
computers nowadays offer free access, some countries
still have connectivity issues. Connectivity challenges
are particularly severe in countries that are developing.
It is impossible to guarantee a truly global network until
these challenges are overcome.

6.0 COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER NETWORK

The major components of computer network devices are as
follows:
1. Router
2. Switch
3. Hub
4. Server
5. Cable
6. Modem
7. NIC etc.

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1. ROUTER
A router is a networking device that connects a local network
to other local networks. At the Distribution Layer of the
network, routers direct traffic and perform other functions
critical to efficient network operation. Routers, like switches,
are able to decode and read the messages that are sent to
them. Unlike switches, which only decode (unencapsulate)
the frame containing the MAC address information, routers
decode the packet that is encapsulated within the frame.

The packet format contains the IP addresses of the

destination and source hosts, as well as the message data
being sent between them. The router reads the network
portion of the destination IP address and uses it to find
which one of the attached networks is the best way to
forward the message to the destination.

Anytime the network portion of the IP addresses of the

source and destination hosts do not match, a router must be
used to forward the message. If a host located on network
1.1.1.0 needs to send a message to a host on network
5.5.5.0, the host will forward the message to the router. The
router receives the message and unencapsulates it to read
the destination IP address. It then determines where to
forward the message. It re-encapsulates the packet back
into a frame, and forwards the frame on to its destination.

Routers operate on the Network Layer of OSI Model’s. The

Internetwork must use the same Network Layer protocol.

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Routers allow the transportation of the Network Layer PDU

through the Internetwork, even though the Physical and
Data Link Frame size and addressing scheme may change.

2. SWITCH
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices
over the network to transfer the data to another device. A
switch is better than Hub as it does not broadcast the
message over the network, i.e., it sends the message to the
device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that
switch sends the message directly from source to the
destination.

An Ethernet switch is a device that is used at the Access

Layer. Like a hub, a switch connects multiple hosts to the
network. Unlike a hub, a switch can forward a message to a
specific host. When a host sends a message to another host
on the switch, the switch accepts and decodes the frames to
read the physical (MAC) address portion of the message.

A table on the switch, called a MAC address table, contains

a list of all of the active ports and the host MAC addresses
that are attached to them. When a message is sent between
hosts, the switch checks to see if the destination MAC
address is in the table. If it is, the switch builds a temporary
connection, called a circuit, between the source and
destination ports. This new circuit provides a dedicated
channel over which the two hosts can communicate. Other
hosts attached to the switch do not share bandwidth on this
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channel and do not receive messages that are not addressed

to them.

A new circuit is built for every new conversation between

hosts. These separate circuits allow many conversations to
take place at the same time, without collisions occurring.
When a hub is connected to a switch port, collisions can
occur on the hub. The hub forwards to all ports the damaged
messages resulting from a collision. The switch receives the
garbled message, but, unlike a hub, a switch does not
forward the damaged messages caused by collisions. As a
result, every switch port creates a separate collision domain.
This is a good thing. The fewer hosts contained in a collision
domain, the less likely it is that a collision will occur.

3. MODEM
Modem is a device which is used to convert digital signals
generated by the computer into an analog signal to be
carried by a public access telephone line. It is also the device
that converts the analog signal received over a phone line
into digital signal usable by the computer. A modem derives
its meaning from a modulation, and demodulation is a
composite word that refers to two functional units that
make up a device.

A signal modulator and a signal demodulator. A modulator

converts digital signal into an analog signal. A demodulator
converts analog signal into digital signal. Modem can be
classified into many categories to include the mode of
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transmission and their techniques, as well as by the

application features they contain and the type of lines they
are built to service.

4. HUB
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection
into multiple devices. When computer requests for
information from a computer, it sends the request to the
Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected
computers.

A hub is one type of networking device that is installed at the

Access Layer of an Ethernet network. Hubs contain multiple
ports that are used to connect hosts to the network. Hubs
are simple devices that do not have the necessary
electronics to decode the messages sent between hosts on
the network. Hubs cannot determine which host should get
any particular message. A hub simply accepts electronic
signals from one port and regenerates (or repeats) the same
message out all of the other ports.

Remember that the NIC on a host accepts messages only

addressed to the correct MAC address. Hosts ignore
messages that are not addressed to them. Only the host
specified in the destination address of the message
processes the message and responds to the sender.

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All of the ports on the Ethernet hub connect to the same

channel to send and receive messages. Because all hosts
must share the bandwidth available on that channel, a hub
is referred to as a shared-bandwidth device.

HUB is also considered as a single collision domain. Only one

message can be sent through an Ethernet hub at a time. It is
possible for two or more hosts connected to a hub to
attempt to send a message at the same time. If this happens,
the electronic signals that make up the messages collide
with each other at the hub. A collision causes the messages
to become garbled and unreadable by the hosts. A hub does
not decode the messages; therefore it does not detect that
the message is garbled and repeats it out all the ports. The
area of the network where a host can receive a garbled
message resulting from a collision is known as a collision
domain. Inside a collision domain, when a host receives a
garbled message, it detects that a collision has occurred.
Each sending host waits a short amount of time and then
attempts to send, or retransmit, the message again. As the
number of hosts connected to the hub increases, so does
the chance of collisions. More collisions cause more
retransmissions. Excessive retransmissions can clog up the
network and slow down network traffic. For this reason, it is
necessary to limit the size of a collision domain.

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7.0 NETWORK ADDRESS AND CABLING

Network Address
All communication requires a way to identify the source and
destination. The source and destination in human
communication are represented by names.
When a name is called, the person with that name listens to
the message and responds.
On Ethernet networks, a similar method exists for identifying
source and destination hosts. Each host connected to an
Ethernet network is assigned a physical address which
serves to identify the host on the network.
Media Access Control (MAC) Address
Every Ethernet network interface has a physical address
assigned to it when it is manufactured. This address is known
as the Media Access Control (MAC) Address. The MAC
address identifies each source and destination host on the
Ethernet network.
A MAC address, sometimes referred to as a hardware or
physical address, is a unique, 12-character alphanumeric
attribute that is used to identify individual electronic devices
on a network. An example of a MAC address is: 00-B0-D0-
63-C2-26.
The MAC address belongs to the data link layer of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which encapsulates

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the MAC address of the source and destination in the header

of each data frame to ensure node-to-node communication.
A message can only contain one destination MAC address.
So, how is it possible for a host to contact every other host
on the local network without sending out a separate
message to each individual MAC?
To solve this problem, broadcast messages are sent to a
unique MAC address that is recognized by all hosts. The
broadcast MAC address is actually a 48-bit address made up
of all ones. Because of their length, MAC addresses are
usually represented in hexadecimal notation. The broadcast
MAC address in hexadecimal notation is FFFF.FFFF.FFFF.
Each F in the hexadecimal notation represents four ones in
the binary address.
Internet Protocol (IP) address
A person's name usually does not change. A person's
address on the other hand, relates to where they live and
can change. On a host, the MAC address does not change; it
is physically assigned to the host NIC and is known as the
physical address. The physical address remains the same
regardless of where the host is placed on the network.
The IP address is similar to the address of a person. It is
known as a logical address because it is assigned logically
based on where the host is located. The IP address, or
network address, is assigned to each host by a network
administrator based on the local network.
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IP addresses contain two parts. One part identifies the local

network. The network portion of the IP address will be the
same for all hosts connected to the same local network. The
second part of the IP address identifies the individual host.
Within the same local network, the host portion of the IP
address is unique to each host.
Both the physical MAC and logical IP addresses are required
for a computer to communicate on a hierarchical network,
just like both the name and address of a person are required
to send a letter.
A host needs an IP address to participate on the Internet.
The IP address is a logical network address that identifies a
particular host. It must be properly configured and unique in
order to communicate with other devices on the Internet.
Every packet sent across the Internet has a source and
destination IP address. This information is required by
networking devices to insure the information gets to the
destination and any replies are returned to the source.
An IP address is simply a series of 32 binary bits (ones and
zeros). It is very difficult for humans to read a binary IP
address. For this reason, the 32 bits are grouped into four 8-
bit bytes called octets. An IP address in this format is hard
for humans to read, write and remember. To make the IP
address easier to understand, each octet is presented as its
decimal value, separated by a decimal point or period. This
is referred to as dotted-decimal notation.
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When a host is configured with an IP address, it is entered as

a dotted decimal number such as 192.168.1.5. Imagine if you
had to enter the 32-bit binary equivalent of this-
11000000101010000000000100000101. If just one bit was
mistyped, the address would be different and the host may
not be able to communicate on the network.
The 32-bit IP address is defined with IP version 4 (IPv4) and
is currently the most common form of IP address on the
Internet. There are over 4 billion possible IP addresses using
a 32-bit addressing scheme.
When a host receives an IP address, it looks at all 32 bits as
they are received by the NIC. Humans, on the other hand,
need to convert those 32 bits into their four octet decimal
equivalent. Each octet is made up of 8 bits and each bit has
a value. The four groups of 8 bits have the same set of
values. The rightmost bit in an octet has a value of 1 and the
values of the remaining bits, from right to left, are 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64 and 128.
Determine the value of the octet by adding the values of
positions wherever there is a binary 1 present.
If there is a 0 in a position, do not add the value.
If all 8 bits are 0s. 00000000 the value of the octet is 0.
If all 8 bits are 1s, 11111111 the value of the octet is 255
(128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1).

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If the 8 bits are mixed, such as the example 00100111, the

value of the octet is 39 (32+4+2+1).
So the value of each of the four octets can range from 0 to a
maximum of 255.
CABLING
In order for communication to occur a source, destination,
and some sort of channel must be present. A channel, or
medium, provides a path over which the information is sent.
In the networked world, the medium is usually some sort of
physical cable. It may also be electromagnetic radiation, in
the case of wireless networking. The connection between
the source and destination may either be direct or indirect,
and may span multiple media types.
Many different types of cables exist to interconnect the
various devices in a NOC or local network.
There are two kinds of physical cable. Metal cables, usually
copper, have electrical impulses applied to them to convey
information. Fiber optic cables, made of glass or plastic, use
flashes of light to convey information.
Twisted Pair
Modern Ethernet technology generally uses a type of copper
cable known as twisted pair (TP) to interconnect devices.
Because Ethernet is the foundation for most local networks,
TP is the most commonly encountered type of network
cabling.
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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable is usually constructed of either copper or
aluminum, and is used by cable television companies to
provide service. It is also used for connecting the various
components which make up satellite communication
systems.
Fiber Optic
Fiber optic cables are made of glass or plastic. They have a
very high bandwidth, which enables them to carry very large
amounts of data. Fiber is used in backbone networks, large
enterprise environments and large data centers. It is also
used extensively by telephone companies.

There are three types of twisted pair cable: Unshielded

Twisted Pair (UTP), shielded twisted pair, and screened
twisted pair.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most commonly
encountered type of network cable in North America and

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many other areas. Shielded cables (ScTP and F-UTP) are used
almost exclusively in European countries.
Therefore, for this class we only consider UTP.
UTP cable is inexpensive, offers a high bandwidth, and is
easy to install. This type of cable is used to connect
workstations, hosts and network devices. It can come with
many different numbers of pairs inside the jacket, but the
most common number of pairs is four. Each pair is identified
by a specific color code.
All Categories of data grade UTP cable are traditionally
terminated into an RJ-45 connector.
Coaxial Cable (Coax)
Like twisted pair, coaxial cable (or coax) also carries data in
the form of electrical signals. It provides improved shielding
compared to UTP, so has a lower signal-to-noise ratio and
can therefore carry more data. It is often used to connect a
TV set to the signal source, be it a cable TV outlet, satellite
TV, or conventional antenna. It is also used at NOCs to
connect to the cable modem termination system (CMTS)
and to connect to some high-speed interfaces.
Although coax has improved data carrying characteristics,
twisted pair cabling has replaced coax in local area
networking uses. Among the reasons for the replacement is
that - compared to UTP - coax is physically harder to install,
more expensive, and harder to troubleshoot.
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Unlike TP and coax, fiber optic cables transmit data using

pulses of light. Although not normally found in home or
small business environments, fiber optic cabling is widely
used in enterprise environments and large data centers.
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cable is constructed of either glass or plastic,
neither of which conducts electricity. This means that it is
immune to Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) and is
suitable for installation in environments where interference
is a problem.
In addition to its resistance to EMI, fiber optic cables support
a large amount of bandwidth making them ideally suited for
high-speed data backbones. Fiber optic backbones are
found in many corporations and are also used to connect
ISPs on the Internet.
Each fiber optic circuit is actually two fiber cables. One is
used to transmit data; the other is used to receive data.
UTP Cables
Twisted pair cable is most commonly used in network
installations. The TIA/EIA organization defines two different
patterns, or wiring schemes, called T568A and T568B. Each
wiring scheme defines the pinout, or order of wire
connections, on the end of the cable.

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The two schemes are similar except two of the four pairs are
reversed in the termination order. The graphic shows this
color-coding and how the two pairs are reversed.
On a network installation, one of the two wiring schemes
(T568A or T568B) should be chosen and followed. It is
important that the same wiring scheme is used for every
termination in that project. If working on an existing
network, use the wiring scheme already employed.

Using the T568A and T568B wiring schemes, two types of

cables can be created: a straight-through cable and a
crossover cable. These two types of cable are found in data
installations.
Straight-through Cables
A Straight-through cable is the most common cable type. It
maps a wire to the same pins on both ends of the cable. In
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other words, if T568A is on one end of the cable, T568A is

also on the other. If T568B is on one end of the cable, T568B
is on the other. This means that the order of connections
(the pin out) for each color is the exact same on both ends.
It is the type of straight-through cable (T568A or T568B)
used on the network that defines the wiring scheme for the
network.
Crossover Cable
A crossover cable uses both wiring schemes. T568A on one
end of the cable and T568B on the other end of the same
cable. This means that the order of connection on one end
of the cable does not match the order of connections on the
other.
The straight-through and crossover cables each have a
specific use on the network. The type of cable needed to
connect two devices depends on which wire pairs the
devices use to transmit and receive data.
Specific pins on the connector are associated with a transmit
function and a receive function. The transmit pin versus the
receive pin is determined based on the device.
Two devices directly connected and using different pins for
transmit and receive are known as unlike devices. They
require a straight-through cable to exchange data. Devices
that are directly connected and use the same pins for

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transmit and receive, are known as like devices. They require

the use of a crossover cable to exchange data.
Unlike Devices
The pins on the RJ-45 data connector of a PC have pins 1 and
2 as transmit and pins 3 and 6 as receive. The pins on the
data connector of a switch have pins 1 and 2 as receive and
pins 3 and 6 as transmit. The pins used for transmit on the
PC correspond to those used for receive on the switch.
Therefore, a straight-through cable is necessary.
The wire connected to pin 1 (transmit pin) on the PC on one
end of the cable, is connected to pin 1 (receive pin) on the
switch on the other end of the cable.
Other examples of unlike devices that require a straight-
through cable include:
Switch port to router port
Hub port to PC
Switch to PC
Like Devices
If a PC is directly connected to another PC, pins 1 and 2 on
both devices are transmit pins and pins 3 and 6 are receive
pins.
A crossover cable would ensure that the green wire
connected to pins 1 and 2 (transmit pins) on one PC connect
to pins 3 and 6 (receive pins) on the other PC.
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If a straight-through cable were used, the wire connected to

pin 1, the transmit pin, on PC1 would be connected to pin 1,
the transmit pin, on PC2. It is not possible to receive data on
a transmit pin.
Other examples of like devices that require a crossover cable
include:
Switch port to switch port
Switch port to hub port
Hub port to hub port
Router port to router port
PC to router port
PC to PC
If the incorrect cable type is used, the connection between
network devices will not function.
Some devices can automatically sense which pins are used
for transmit and receive and will adjust their internal
connections accordingly.

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8.0 CLASSIFICATION OF IP ADDRESSES AND SUBNET MASK

1. Class A Network
This IP address class is used when there are a large number of
hosts. In a Class A type of network, the first 8 bits (also called
the first octet) identify the network, and the remaining have
24 bits for the host into that network. The range of the IP
address are; 0 to 127.

An example of a Class A address is 127.16.1.1

2. Class B Network
In a B class IP address, the binary addresses start with 10. In
this IP address, the class decimal number that can be between
128 to191. The number 127 is reserved for loopback, which is
used for internal testing on the local machine. The first 16 bits
(known as two octets) help you identify the network. The
other remaining 16 bits indicate the host within the network.

An example of Class B IP address is 128.16.1.1 where *128 and

16* identifies the network and *1 and 1* helps you identify
the network host.
3. Class C Network
Class C is a type of IP address that is used for the small
network. In this class, three octets are used to indent the
network. This IP ranges between 192 to 223.

In this type of network addressing method, the first two bits

are set to be 1, and the third bit is set to 0, which makes the
first 24 bits of the address them and the remaining bit as the
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host address. Mostly local area network used Class C IP

address to connect with the network.

Example for a Class C IP address: 192.168.1.1

Subnet Mask
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number used in IPv4 (or 128-bit for
IPv6) that divides your IP address into network and host
portions. The network portion ensures that data packets reach
the right network, while the host portion identifies a specific
device on that network.

Example of class C subnet mask is: 255.255.255.0 means

that the device can connect with any other device on the
network with an IP address containing identical values in the
first three octets. 255 means that the value of that octet must
be identical. 0 means that the value can be anything.

9.0 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

The Network topology are divided into four (4) Categories
which includes;
 Star
 Ring
 Bus
 Mesh

 Star Patterns: Each node has a dedicated set of wires

connecting it to a central network hub. Many home and
office networks use the star topology. Example of star
topology
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 Ring Patterns - All messages/data packets travel through a

ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counter
clockwise") from one network device to the next and
features a closed loop. Ring patterns can be found in some
office or on school networks. Example of Ring topology.

 Bus Patterns: Each node attaches directly to a common

single cable. The backbone functions as a shared
communication medium that devices attach or tap into with
an interface connector. Example of Bus topology.

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 Mesh topology: is a network configuration where devices are

interconnected in a decentralized manner. Instead of relying
on a central hub or switch, each device connects directly to
multiple other devices, forming a mesh-like structure.

10.0 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

11.0 SWITCHING TECHNIQUE
In large network there are multiple paths linking the sender
and receiver. Selecting a path data must take out of the
available options is switching.

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 CIRCUIT SWITCHING: is a type of network configuration in

which a physical path is obtained and dedicated to a single
connection between two endpoints in the network for the
duration of a dedicated connection. Eg. Telephone line uses
circuit switching.

 MESSAGE SWITCHING: is a switching technique in which a

message is transferred as a complete unit and routed
through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded. In Message Switching technique, there is no
establishment of a dedicated path between the sender and
receiver. E.g. email is an example of message switching.

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 PACKET SWITCHING: In packet switching, users divide their

data into smaller packets before sending them. Each packet
has a packet header that contains the following: the packet
type, source address, destination address, and sequence
number of the packet within the message. The Internet is an
example of a packet-switched network.

12.0 OSI REFERENCE MODELS

 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference
model that describes how information from
a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another
computer.
 OSI consists of 7 seven layers, and each layer performs a
particular network function.
 OSI model was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is
now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
 OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
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 Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each

layer can be performed independently.

13.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF OSI MODEL

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions.
A list of seven layers are given below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1. PHYSICAL LAYER:
The physical layer is a layer that manages physical hardware
and network components such as cables, switches, or
routers that transmit data.
In the context of data, layer 1 transmits data in the form
of ones and zeros. Technically, this layer picks up bits from
the sender end, encodes them into a signal, sends the signal
over the network, and decodes the signal at the receiver
end. Thus, without layer 1, communicating data bits across
network devices through physical media is not possible.

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Key Functions
o Synchronizes data bits
o Enables modulation (conversion of a signal from one form
to another for data transmission)
o Defines data transmission rate (bits/sec)
o Outlines the arrangement of network devices across
different network topologies such as bus, tree, star, or
mesh topology
o Defines transmission modes such as simple or half-duplex
mode
o In summary, layer 1 is responsible for transmitting data bits
of 0s and 1s between network systems via electrical,
mechanical, or procedural interfaces.

2. DATA LINK LAYER

The data link layer transmits data between two nodes that
are directly connected or are operating over the same
network architecture. Typically, this layer takes data packets
from layer 3 and breaks them down into frames before
sending them to the destination.
Layer 2 is divided into two sub-layers: media access
control (MAC) and logical link control (LLC). The MAC layer
encapsulates data frames transmitted through the network
connecting media such as wires or cables. In situations
where such data transmission fails, LLC helps manage packet
retransmission. The well-known data link layer protocol
includes the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) that
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translates IP addresses to MAC addresses to establish

communication between systems whose addresses vary in
bit length (32 bits vs. 48 bits).
Key Functions
 Detects damaged or lost frames and retransmits them
 Performs framing where data received from layer 3 is
further subdivided into smaller units called frames
 Updates headers of created frames by adding the MAC
address of the sending device and receiving device
o In summary, layer 2 is responsible for setting up and
terminating physical connections between
participating network nodes.

3. NETWORK LAYER
The network layer enables the communication between
multiple networks. It receives data segments from the
layer above, further broken down into smaller packets at
the sender side. On the receiver side, this layer
reassembles the data together.
The network layer also handles routing functionality,
wherein the data transmission is accomplished by
choosing the best possible route or path that connects
different networks and ensures efficient data transfer.
This network layer uses internet protocol (IP) for data
delivery.
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Key Functions
 Handles routing to recognize suitable routes from sender to
receiver
 Performs logical addressing that assigns unique names to
each device operating over the network
o In summary, layer 3 is responsible for dividing
segmented data into network packets, reassembling
them at the recipient’s side, and identifying the
shortest yet most suitable and secure path for
transmitting data packets.
4. TRANSPORT LAYER
The transport layer allows safe message transfer between
the sender and the receiver. It divides the data received
from the layer above into smaller segments. It also
reassembles the data at the receiver side to allow the
session layer to read it.
Layer 4 performs two critical functions: flow control and
error control. Flow control implies regulating data transfer
speeds. It ensures that the communicating device with a
good network connection does not send data at higher
rates, which is difficult for devices with slower connections
to handle. Error control refers to the error-checking
functionality to ensure the completeness of data. In
incomplete data cases, this layer requests the system to
resend the incomplete data.
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 E.g. transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram

protocol (UDP).

Key Functions
 Ensures completeness of each message exchanged between
source and destination
 Maintains proper data transmission through flow control
and error control
 Performs data segmentation and reassembling of data
o In summary, layer 4 is responsible for transmitting an
entire message from a sender application to a receiver
application.

5. SESSION LAYER
The session layer establishes a communication session
between communicating entities. The session is maintained
at a sufficient time interval to ensure efficient data
transmission and avoid wasting computing resources.
This OSI layer is also responsible for data synchronization to
maintain smooth data flow. This implies that in situations
where large volumes of data are sent at once, layer 5 can
break down the data into smaller chunks by adding
checkpoints.

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Key Functions
 Opens maintains, and closes communication sessions
 Enables data synchronization by adding checkpoints to
data streams
 In summary, layer 5 establishes, maintains, synchronizes,
and terminates sessions between end-user applications.

6. PRESENTATION LAYER
The presentation layer is often referred to as a syntax or
translation layer as it translates the application data into a
network format. This layer also encrypts and decrypts data
before transmitting it over the network.

For instance, layer 6 encrypts data from the application and

decrypts it at the recipient’s end, ensuring secure data
transmission. Moreover, this layer is known to compress
data received from layer 7 to reduce the overall size of the
data transferred.

Key Functions
 Performs data translation based on the application’s data
semantics
 Encrypts and decrypts sensitive data transferred over
communication channels
 Performs data compression to reduce the number of bits in
exchanged data

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o In summary, layer 6 ensures that the communicated

information is in the desired format as required by the
receiving application.

7. APPLICATION LAYER
The application layer is the topmost layer in the OSI model.
The layer establishes communication between the
application on the network and the end user using it by
defining the protocols for successful user interaction. An
excellent example of this layer is that of web browsers.
Application layer protocols allow the software to direct data
flow and present it to the user. Some of the known protocols
include Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
Key functions:
 The application layer provides user interfaces (UI) that are
key to user interaction
 Supports a variety of applications such as e-mail and
remote file transfer
In summary, layer 7 ensures effective communication between
applications on different computing systems and networks.

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14.0 Exercises
1. Define computer network.
2. List 4 and explain 2 classifications of computer network with
the help of diagram.
3. List 5 and explain 3 advantage and disadvantage of
computer network
4. List 7 and explain 3 functions of computer network devices.
5. Computer network help us in so many ways list 3 and explain
how.
6. Convert the following 4 octets IP address from Decimal to
binary
a. 192.168.1.1
b. 140.179.220.X (Let X be your last 2 digit of your
registration number)
7. Convert the following binary to 4 octets decimal IP address
a. 11000000.10101000.00000001.01101010
b. 11111111.11111111.10000000.00000000
8. List and explain 2 the computer network topologies, with the
help of diagram and example of each topology.
9. What are the 3 switching techniques?
10. List and explain 7 OSI Reference Models with example of
each layer.
11. Which layer does the Router operates?
a. Transport layer
b. Network layer
c. Application layer
d. Session layer.

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15.0 CONCLUSION
In this course the students learned how to define computer
network, and its classifications.
However, the students learned the benefits of computer
network, advantages and disadvantages of computer network
and the components of computers network. Then, the students
learned the classification of IP Address and subnet mask.
Therefore, the students learned the four types of network
topology, network architecture and the three types of switching
technique, OSI Model and characteristics of the OSI Model.

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References
Hayward, D. (2016, April 17). How to secure your home network from hackers. Retrieved from
Trusted Reviews: http://www.trustedreviews.com/how-tos/how-to-secure-your-home-
network-from-hackers

Network Topologies. (2016, November 15). Retrieved from Edraw Visualization Solutions:
https://www.edrawsoft.com/Network-Topologies.php

Sanchez, M. (2010, December 9). The 10 most common security threats explained. Retrieved
from
Blogs.cisco.com/: http://blogs.cisco.com/smallbusiness/the-10-most-common-security-
threats-explained

Understanding the differences between client/server and peer-to-peer networks. (2016,

November
15). Retrieved from IT-ASEAN: http://it-asean.blogspot.ie/2014/10/understanding-
differences-between.html

Woodford, C. (2016, March 18). Computer Networks. Retrieved from Explain that stuff!:
http://www.explainthatstuff.com/howcomputernetworkswork.html

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