Journal of Indian History and Culture

JOURNAL OF INDIAN
HISTORY AND CULTURE
December 2021
Twenty Eighth Issue
www.journalcpriir.com
4

A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THE

ANCIENT TRADITIONAL TANK
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN INDIA

Prof. S.S. Sundaram

Professor & Head
Department of Indian History
University of Madras

and

Prof. G. Bhaskaran
Professor & Head i/c
Centre for Water Resource Management (CWRM)
University of Madras

Abstract
This article is primarily concerned with the
traditional system of maintaining reservoirs in south
India. Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
have thousands of old tanks. However, the
mismanagement of the maintenance and reward
mechanisms in place earlier has led to a
corresponding deterioration of these tanks. In
HDUOLHU GD\V WKH WDQNV HUL  ZHUH FRQVLGHUHG DV
a structure built to store seasonal rain water. It
was constructed as infrastructure serving various
needs and depended on different resources that the

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 Journal of Indian History and Culture

ecosystem provided such as water, aquatic organisms,

trees, grass, silt, soil etc. Hence, the proposed
studies focus on various aspects of traditional tank
management systems and usage of reservoirs.

Keywords: WDQNV HUL  LUULJDWLRQ WUDGLWLRQDO

method of water management

Introduction
The monsoons in India provide enough rains with an
average rainfall of 1,215 mm per annum. Eighty percent of
the rainfall is distributed in the four months of southeast
monsoons from June to September. Out of this more than 50%
of the rainfall occurs during the day. The heavy downpour
GXULQJ WKH VKRUW WLPH SHULRG OHDGV WR ÀRRGV GXULQJ WKH UDLQ\
season and water scarcity during summer months. The per
capita availability of water over the years has reduced
drastically. In 1901 it was 9400 cubic meters, in 1941 it went
down to 7000 cubic meters and in 1981 it was further reduced
to 3200 cubic meters. This has affected human consumption
of water. The WHO recommends a minimum requirement of
the availability of 70 litres of water per capita per day whereas
only 10 litres per capita per day is available in reality. This
VLJQL¿HV D VFDUFLW\ RI ZDWHU DQG ZKLFK LQ WXUQ VKRZV WKH QHHG
for rain water harvesting infrastructures.

Need for tank irrigation

Water scarcity and famine were experienced in earlier times
also. There are inscriptions on extreme weather and scarcity
RI ZDWHU 7KH ¿UVW UHFRUG RQ ZDWHU VFDUFLW\ JRHV EDFN WR WKH
Sangam Period (300 B.C.). There are records on the construction

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 Journal of Indian History and Culture

of water harvesting structures. These were constructed to

support irrigation as it needed a lot of water. Tank irrigation
is one of the most important and oldest irrigation systems in
India. Southern parts of India such as Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka, where the average rainfall is around
700 mm account for about 1,27,000 tanks (Narayanamoorthi,
2004).

Tank irrigation is also gaining importance in other states

like Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan. However, over the
years, the area under tank irrigation has been declining and
policy makers and planners are exploring the possibilities to
revive this system.

Tank irrigation is a very good example of water harvesting

technique. This is primarily managed by the local communities
as a common resource for all the people in the locality. The
maintenance of this resource depends on the available budget
and the local community participation to maintain the tanks.
Poor community participation and low budgets result in the
unsustainable performance of the tank. The possible solution
would be to identify the appropriate investment strategies and
give more responsibilities to the local administrative bodies for
the operation and maintenance of such tanks. In order to make
this workable, mobilisation of resources and participation of
the local public is very essential (Vaidyanathan, 2001).

Water harvesting through tank

Tanks and any other kind of storage structures act as
reservoirs of rainwater in the regions where there is less
rainfall. The way in which the water is managed for irrigation

82 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

GHFLGHV WKH HI¿FLHQF\ RI WKH WDQN 7KH PDQDJHPHQW RI WKHVH
structures involves multiple integrated processes that include
diversion, conveyance, measurement, distribution and
application of a rational amount of water at the appropriate time.

South India is the pioneer for tank irrigation which is

centuries old. Karnataka is recorded to have a greater number
of tanks and the management of these tanks was done by
local panchayats and Nirgantis. Both these social institutions
DUH FODVVL¿HG RQ WKH EDVLV RI ZDWHU PDQDJHPHQW RQ DQG RII
WKH ¿HOG 7KH 3DQFKD\DW SOD\V LWV UROH RQ WKH ¿HOG DQG
1LUJDQWLV DUH WKH LQVWLWXWLRQV WKDW DUH RII WKH ¿HOG -DQDNDUDMDQ
1996.).

The availability of water and its utilisation during

DGYHUVH GURXJKW FRQGLWLRQV ZLOO GHFLGH WKH HI¿FLHQF\ RI ZDWHU
management in irrigation. Hence, water management primarily
aims at maximum production by utilising available resources.
But the resource availability at that point of the agricultural
season may be scarce. Hence these tanks have undergone
various transformations from time immemorial in terms of
their capacity, extension of the command area, number of
VWDNHKROGHUV WKH VRFLRHFRQRPLF FRQGLWLRQV RI WKH EHQH¿FLDULHV
DQG PRVW LPSRUWDQWO\ WKH UDLQIDOO SDWWHUQ LQ WKDW VSHFL¿F
region.

Technological aspects of tank irrigation

A tank is a smaller storage reservoir, a miniature of a dam,
technically. Water is impounded behind an earthen embankment
to be released through sluices into canals to be further distributed
to irrigated lands. Excess water from a reservoir is allowed to

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 Journal of Indian History and Culture

escape through waste weirs. Tank embankments are usually

semi-circular curved in shape. They could be a few hundred
meters to a few kilometres long depending upon the shape and
size of valleys they are bridging.

The tank irrigation system has three technological aspects,

namely, construction, distribution and lift technology. The
water conserved through tank irrigation is used for two main
SXUSRVHV  ¿UVW IRU FURS PDQDJHPHQW LUULJDWLRQ DQG ODQG
improvement. Water conserved through tanks is also used for
drinking, domestic and religious purposes as well.

As the pumping and lifting technology has gained

momentum, the groundwater crisis has also increased.
Further the yield of the electric pumps is much higher than the
traditional methods. The consequences of such lifting methods
are excessive withdrawal of underground water which is greater
than the recharge rate. This further leads to the decrease in the
water table below the natural depth of water. These are the
reasons for drying up of 30% to 40% of active wells in the dry
areas.

History of tank irrigation

In ancient times there existed a high level of technical
WKLQNLQJ LQ WHUPV RI EXLOGLQJ VWUXFWXUHV 6FLHQWL¿F UDWLRQDOH
technical parameters and user-friendly management techniques
were involved in the water works in the times between 937 A.D
to 1336 A.D. Hence that period was called the ‘Golden Age
of Tanks’. In order to glorify themselves, the Kings in that era
used to erect the Jal Stamba (liquid pillar of victory) instead of
Jaya Stamba (victory pillar).

84 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

%HQH¿WVRIWUDGLWLRQDOPHWKRGRIWDQNV\VWHP
The traditional methods are found to be suitable for the
FXOWLYDWLRQ RI SDGG\ DQG DUH IRXQG WR KDYH QDWXUDO ÀRRG
FRQWURO PHFKDQLVPV )URP YDULRXV UHVHDUFK ¿QGLQJV LW KDV
EHHQ IRXQG WKDW WKHUH DUH LQQXPHUDEOH EHQH¿WV RI WDQN
irrigation and it is essential that this system is rehabilitated and
restored to serve various agricultural activities.

1. Earlier, tank irrigation was promoted by rulers and

administrators as it was known to replenish groundwater.
This is found to be more helpful in drought-prone areas
that are dependent on well irrigation.

2. In some of the places, both well and tank irrigation is used

in conjunction with each other. In such places, there are
 PXWXDO EHQH¿WV LQ PDLQWDLQLQJ WKH K\GURORJLFDO EDODQFH
So, both need to be maintained equally.

 7KH FRQFHSW RI WDQN LUULJDWLRQ KDV EHFRPH EHQH¿FLDO WR
everyone irrespective of their social status and whether
they are rich landowners or poor landless labourers. The
farm activities have become independent of rainfall. They
are no longer dependent on the rains as these storage
structures provide the necessary irrigation. Therefore, the
farm activities are able to continue unabated throughout
the year as the water is available for perennial irrigation
and the production of crops is uninterrupted.

 'XH WR WKH LQFUHDVHG EHQH¿WV RI WDQN LUULJDWLRQ WKH VPDOO
and marginal farmers are motivated to invest in the tanks
due to their sustainability and higher returns from their
investment.

December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue 85

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

5. Apart from being a critical source of water for irrigation

they also cater to the needs of the local residents in
remote villages by catering to their requirements of
drinking water, UHDULQJFDWWOHDQG¿VKFXOWXUH

The tanks that were built in ancient times have created

DQ XQSUHFHGHQWHG LQWHUHVW LQ WKH FRQVWUXFWLRQ RI DUWL¿FLDO
reservoirs of different sizes. There are options for customisation
of the tanks as per the needs of the individual farmer and the
region for storing water for the purposes of irrigation. Today
the trend in tank irrigation is witnessing an unprecedented
LQWHUHVW LQ DUWL¿FLDO UHVHUYRLUV RI YDU\LQJ VL]HV 7KH\ FDQ EH
customised as per the need of the individual farmer and the
region can be used to store rainwater for irrigation.

Ancient traditional water conservation systems

The prevailing water crisis has resulted in the development
RIGLIIHUHQWZDWHUFRQVHUYDWLRQSUDFWLFHV7KHÀXFWXDWLRQVLQWKH
rainfall pattern have forced the administration to look out for
ways and methods for water conservation practices and also
for ways to revive these ancient water storage systems. The
main reasons for adopting these traditional methods are because
of their eco-friendliness and simplicity.

In ancient history, there were instances of drought and

ÀRRGV7KLVLVWKHUHDVRQIRUHYHU\UHJLRQRIWKHFRXQWU\WRKDYH
its own water harvesting techniques with respect to the
geography of the region making it unique for that region. In
all these structures, the main concept was to harvest or conserve
every bit of water that is in the form of rainfall (Palanisami et al,
2001).

86 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

Various archaeological evidences reveal that the practice

of water conservation is deep-rooted in the science of ancient
India. The excavations of the Indus Valley cities show that
they have an excellent system for water harvesting and
drainage. The settlement of Dholavira is an excellent example.
The settlement is found to be laid in-between the slope of two
water channels. Irrigation using water harvesting systems is
mentioned in Chanakya’s Arthashasthra. Most of the ancient
structures use the natural geographical features in harvesting
water. A typical example is Sringaverapura where they had
a sophisticated water harvesting system using the natural slope
WR FROOHFW WKH ÀRRGZDWHUV RI 5LYHU *DQJD ,Q 7DPLO 1DGX WKH
Grand Anaicut is a classic example of architecture used for
water Storage. Grand Anaicut or Kallanai was built across
River Cauvery to divert the water for irrigation which is
functional even today. Whereas in Bhopal, the King Bhoja built
WKH ODUJHVW DUWL¿FLDO ODNH LQ ,QGLD 6R ZH KDYH HQRXJK KLVWRU\
to quote to reveal the knowledge of architecture used in
water conservation techniques.

Downfall of tank irrigation

Tank irrigation was prominent during the period before
British rule. The British rulers renovated these structures
selectively. Over a period of time most of the tanks have gone
out of use due to weed and silt and due to people’s negligence
and ignorance. The growth rate of well irrigation was 21.9%
in 1961 which further increased to 63.06% in 1971. This later
increased to 63.06% in 1971 and then decreased to 49.19%
in 1981. From the above, it can be inferred that the growth of
tank irrigation was 26.23% before the end of the second
¿YH\HDU SODQ DQG UHGXFHG GUDVWLFDOO\ VKRZLQJ D QHJDWLYH
growth rate of about -22.2% in 1981 (Palanisami, 2003).

December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue 87

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

2YHUWKH\HDUVDORWRIFKDQJHVKDSSHQHGGXHWRÀRRGV DQG
other natural calamities. Many bunds were destroyed. Several
residents of villages were displaced due to famine and wars
which in turn broke the rural fabric. The rulers levied high and
oppressive taxes in order to defray the expenditure for their
warfare. Apart from this, the British rulers levied irrigation
cess towards repair work.

7KH¿UVWKDOIRIWKHth century saw a sharp decline in tank

irrigation. This in turn forced the Government of Madras to look
into the revival of these structures. During this process only
the major tanks gained attention leaving the rest of the tanks
neglected. It was then that the Tank Restoration scheme was
adopted in 1883. The main agenda of the scheme was to repair
the tanks and to make arrangements to regain their original
shape and structure.

The main reason behind the decline of tank irrigation

was the colonial government. They had adopted the river-
based irrigation systems. All the private landowners
adopted well-based irrigation. The major notable reasons are
neglect by the colonial government in order to favour the
river-based canal irrigation.

Timeline For Emergence & Decline of Tank Irrigation

Origin of Water Harvesting to Irrigation Structures
Mentioned two lakes Panchapsarotataka &
Ramayan
Pamasaras
Earliest evidence of water reservoirs in the
1500 B.C.
Deccan plateau
300 B.C. Water scarcity was felt during Sangam Period
Shatavahanas kingdom- existence of lakes &
230 B.C.
tanks

88 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

Kadamba ruler Mayura Varma constructed a

350 A.D.
tank at Chandravelli near Chitradurga

Kakusthavarma constructed Talagunda tank in

430-450 A.D.
Shimoga district in front of Pranaveswar temple

Kadamba king Ravi Varma excavated a big tank

485-519 A.D.
called Guddatataka in Uttara Kannada district

Pallavas in the fifth century promoted some

600-639 A.D.
tanks and wells
Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya granted rice land
670 A.D.
below a tank to subjects
Paramesvaravarman I excavated Paramesvara
tanks for irrigation purposes
670-700 A.D.
Paramesvaravarman II constructed famous Ten-
neri Tank near Kanchipuram
Vidyaditya constructed tanks surrounding
707 A.D.
villages
Golden Age of Tanks (937-1336 A.D.)
Kalyana Chalukya took up vigorous tank
973-1184 A.D. bunding activities benefiting Dharwar, Bellary,
Chitradurga & Shimoga district
Someswara I constructed several tanks in Dhar-
1068-76 A.D.
war, Bijapur & Bellary district
Vikramaditya constructed a number of tanks &
1080 A.D.
repaired a breach tank of Tambasamudra
Hoysala kings Vishnuvardhana, Visa Ballala II
1108-52 A.D. promoted construction of tanks practically all
over Karnataka
1204 A.D. Two tanks were constructed in Belgaum
Hosakere of Dharwar & Beenihilla of
1242 A.D.
Hubli were built
13 th Century Yadavas built many tanks

December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue 89

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

Post Golden Age of Tank Irrigation

Biggest milestone of Vijaynagar Empire
1336-1565
was Kaveri delta project and Suekere
A.D.
tank
Devaraya I built a dam on Harihara
1410 A.D.
river benefiting five villages
Several tanks, reservoirs and canals
14 th Century
were constructed
Renovation & maintenance of tank
15 th Century through co-operation & contribution of
people
Period of prosperity & great boom of
16-18 th Century
activities in water works
Hyder Ali &Tipu Sultan fought several
1638-1799
wars and destroyed the time earned
A.D.
system of water harvesting
Pre-
Decline of tanks was set in permanently
Independence
during the British period
Era
The government emphasised initially
Pre- on construction of dams, promoted
Independence tubewells and more or less ignored
Era traditional water harvesting structure as
tank irrigation.

6RXUFH7UDGLWLRQDOZDWHUPDQDJHPHQWV\VWHPRI,QGLD

Some of the traditional water conservation techniques used

in ancient times are discussed below.

Panam Keni
The tribes of Wayand (Kuruma) use a wooden cylinder
made from a palm tree that is soaked in water for a long time.
They are soaked till the core of the palm rots away and the

90 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

hard outer layer will remain.

These are 4 feet in diameter
and depth. They are immersed
in the groundwater springs
ORFDWHG LQ WKH ¿HOGV DQG
forests. This will help them
with the resource even during
the hot summer months.

Jackwells
These are found in the
Nicobar Islands. The shompen
tribe live in a region with
rugged topography. They have
their own means of harvesting
water where they build
jack wells in which pits encircled
by bunds are made from logs of hardwood in the low-lying
regions of the island. The water is led to the jackwell with a
full-length bamboo cut longitudinally. These are placed under
the trees to collect the runoff water from leaves. All the
jackwells are interconnected with each other to collect the
H[FHVVRYHUÀRZIURPRQHWRDQRWKHU

Eri
Eri or the tank system is
one of the ancient water
management systems in India.
$Q HUL DFWV DV D ÀRRG FRQWURO
system, preventing soil erosion
and wastage of runoff during
heavy rains. Tanks are an

December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue 91

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

effective groundwater recharge system. Eris can be either

fed by channels from rivers or simply fed by rain water.
All these tanks are interconnected which enables access to
distant villages and helps maintain water level balance
LQ FDVH RI H[FHVV LQÀRZ 7KLV (UL V\VWHP KDV EHHQ WKH
lifeline of Tamil Nadu where people are completely
dependent on irrigation, without which the cultivation of
paddy would be impossible.

Johads
These are the oldest systems
found in the states of Karnataka
and Odisha but called by different
names. They are called madakas
in Karnataka and pemghara
in Odisha. These are small
earthen check dams constructed
in an area with high elevation on three sides and a storage pit
on the fourth side. In some places these are interconnected by
deep channels with a single outlet opening to the river or
stream.

Talabs
Water storage structures called Talabs were built for
domestic purposes of local people. These are natural or
DUWL¿FLDO VWUXFWXUHV EXLOW E\ WKH UHVLGHQWV RI D YLOODJH IRU
their own needs. Pokhariyan ponds of Tikhmargh are a
classic example of natural Talabs, whereas the lakes
of Udaipur are man made structures. They are named
differently based on their size. Storage structures less than

92 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

5 acres are called Talai

whereas a medium sized
structure is called a bandi
and a bigger lake is called a
sagar or samand.

Ahar Pynes
$KDU 3\QHV DUH DUWL¿FLDO
harvesting systems in South
Bihar are storage structures
with embankments on three
sides. They are usually built
at the end of the diversion
channels like pynes.
$UWL¿FLDO ULYXOHWV DUH OHG RII
from the rivers in order to collect water in the ahars for
irrigation in the dry months. Most of the paddy cultivation
is dependent on this system.

Jhalara
These wells are found near an upstream reservoir or
a lake. These are typically rectangular shaped step wells
on four sides. These Jhalaras are found in Jodhpur. They
were used to ensure easy and regular supply of water for
religious rites, royal ceremonies and also for the use of
local community people. There are 8 Jhalaras around
Jodhpur city. Mahamandhir Jahalara is the oldest one built
in 1660 AD (Sakurai et al, 2001).

December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue 93

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

There are other local versions of storage structures

available all over India like keres in Karnataka, cheruvus in
Andhra and dongs in Assam which are the traditional systems
of irrigation in our country. These traditional systems are
ecologically viable and cost-effective and can be the best
alternative to rejuvenate the depleted resources. The traditional
methods could be combined with modern techniques like
percolation tanks, injection wells and subsurface barriers
ZKLFK ZLOO HQDEOH XV WR ¿QG D VROXWLRQ WR ,QGLD¶V SHUHQQLDO
water woes (Wade, 1988).

Problems faced by tank irrigation

Our country is entirely dependent on monsoons. With
uncertainties around rainfall, the performance of the tanks
may decline over a period of time. The structures may be
poorly maintained above the outlet. Both the command and
the catchment areas are mismanaged and if the forest land or
other vegetation covers are present adjacent to the catchment
area, it is likely that they are encroached by the settlements.
Lot of siltation has happened in the beds that has reduced
the storage capacity. If the channels are not maintained, they
may break resulting in an enormous wastage of water
(Gomathinayagam, 2005).

In the late 1970-s, under a scheme funded by the European

Economic Community (EEC), the PWD initiated a programme
for Tank Modernisation. The work of modernisation was
carried out by two departments of the government, the PWD
and the Agricultural Engineering Department. Over the years,
the share of tank irrigated area compared to the net irrigated
area has reduced. The poor maintenance of the tanks has
resulted in reduction of the storage capacity thereby the

94 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

dependability of the farmers on these tanks has reduced. To

compensate for the supply, the farmers have resorted to well
irrigation (Raj, 2005).

Most of the tanks are found to be functional only during

years when there is normal or excess rainfall and not otherwise.
In many places, tank agriculture is found to be abandoned by
most of the villagers due to the uncertainties in supplies and
also due to the excessive growth of prosopis trees. The
maintenance costs involved in maintaining the structures are
found to be high. That is another major reason for abandoning
tank irrigation.

The Watershed Development program initiated by the

Government has been intensive. Hence various small check
dams and percolation ponds have been developed upstream of
WKH WDQNV LQ VHYHUDO ORFDWLRQV WKHUHE\ DIIHFWLQJ WKH LQÀRZ RI
the tanks. There has to be a clear-cut demarcation of the
watershed and tank improvement programs. In many places,
the supply channels are obstructed due to housing construction
and village development activities like roads, buildings that
are built in common areas which act as the main source of
LQÀRZLQWRWKHWDQNV(YHQLIWKHUDLQIDOOZHUHQRUPDOWKHLQÀRZ
LQWR WKH WDQNV LV REVWUXFWHG OHDGLQJ WR LQVXI¿FLHQW UHFKDUJH RI
water.

The major challenges faced by tank irrigation are as follows:

(Sakthivadivel, 2005)

1. Lack of community co-operation and participation in the

maintenance and management of the structures.

December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue 95

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

2. Uncertainties in the water supply to the tank.

3. Non-availability of the local institutions for the management
of the structures.
4. Uncontrolled growth of weeds, thereby leading to the loss of
grazing land in the tank bed.
5. Sprawl of the population that led to the encroachment of
the tank bed and the catchment area.
6. Silting of the tank water spreads to the catchment areas.
7. Shutters of the sluices getting lost.
8. Weeds that choke the sluices and damage the weirs.
9. Inappropriate allocation of resources for the maintenance of
the tank systems.
10. Development of the groundwater resources in an
 XQVXVWDLQDEOH ZD\ WKHUHE\ UHGXFLQJ WKH JUDYLW\ ÀRZ LQ WKH
tank-fed irrigated area.

Conclusion
The tank system is found to be prevalent from time
immemorial. Over time, it has faced a lot of challenges in
terms of maintenance and monitoring of the tank system.
Those ancient structures that could be revived should be
LGHQWL¿HG IRU UHVWRUDWLRQ 7KH ERXQGDULHV RI WKH WDQN V\VWHP
have to be resurveyed and demarcated. The encroachments,
if any, have to be cleared well ahead of restoration activities.
Local communities should be involved in such activities and
they should be motivated to plan and undertake the
implementation of the tank restoration program. Even the
SHGs (Self Help Groups) could be involved in undertaking
the repair and maintenance works. The cascade approach has
to be followed in the restoration of tanks. Small and large
tanks irrespective of the size of the command area have to be
renovated by restoring the link canals between them. Desilting

96 December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

activities have to be carried out to enhance the storage and

recharge of the existing systems. Tanks close to the cities
should be protected from environmental pollution and further
be improved as groundwater recharge structures for domestic
purposes. Strict regulations and penalty mechanisms should
be imposed on the encroachers in the catchment area, supply
canal and also the foreshore areas.

Reference
1. Gomathinayagam, P., Two Decades of Tank Rehabilitation
in India: Evaluating Sustainability of Rehabilitation.
Fourth IWMI-Tata Annual Partners Meet. Anand. 2005.
2. Janakarajan, S., Note on Irrigation Experience of Tamil
Nadu. Proceedings of the Seminar on Conservation and
Development of Tank Irrigation for Livelihood Promotion.
Madurai: Conservation and Development Forum. July.
1996
3. Kalyan Kumar (etd), Gyani Lai Badam (etd) Traditional
Water Mangament System of India Hardcover – Import, 8
January 2007.
4. Narayanamoorthi, A., Status of Tank Irrigation in India:
Analysis across States, 1950-1998. Unpublished. 2004.
5. Palanisami, K., Tank Irrigation - Revival for Prosperity,
Asian Publication Services. New Delhi, 2003.
6. Palanisami, K., P. Paramasivam, D. Karthikeyan and A.
Rajagopal Sustainability of Tank Irrigation Systems in
South India, Coimbatore: Tamil Agricultural University
Press. 2001.
7. Raj, A.B.S. and Sundaresan D. Declining Trend in Tank-
irrigated Area: Is There a Way to Arrest? Fourth IWMI-Tata
Annual Partners Meet. Anand, February. 2005.

December 2021, Twenty Eighth Issue 97

 Journal of Indian History and Culture

8. Sakurai, T. and Palanisami K. Tank Irrigation Management

as a Local Common Property: the Case of Tamil Nadu,
India, Agricultural Economics, 25: 273-283. 2001.
9. Wade, R. Village Republics: Economic Conditions for
Collective Action in South India, Oakland: ICS Press .1988.
10. Sakthivadivel, R. Two Decades of Tank Rehabilitation in
India: Investment, Institutional, and Policy Issues. Fourth
IWMI-Tata Annual Partners Meet. Anand, February. 2005.
11. Vaidyanathan, A (ed.) Tanks of South India. New Delhi:
Centre for Science and Environment. 2001.

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