Application Guide and Specification for Geotextiles in Roadway

Applications
A
Dissertation
submitted
in partial fulfilment
for the award of the Degree of
Master of Technology
in Department of Civil Engineering Branch Construction Technology
and Management

Supervisor: Submitted By:

Dr. Gaurav Shukla Milind Kumar Prabhat
Assistant professor Enrolment No.: MUIT0122023001

School of Engineering &Technology

Maharishi University of Information Technology, Lucknow

Utter Pradesh, INDIA
Year 2023-2024
 Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the Dissertation, entitled
“Application Guide and Specifications for Geotextile in Roadway Applications” in
partial fulfillment for the award of Degree of “Master of Technology” in Department of
Civil engineering with Specialization in Construction Technology and Management,
and submitted to the School of Engineering &Technology, Maharishi University of
Information Technology, Lucknow is a record of my own investigations carried under the
Guidance of Dr. Gaurav Shukla Assistant professor , Department of Civil Engineering,
Maharishi University of Information Technology, Lucknow.

I have not submitted the matter presented in this Dissertation anywhere for the award of
any other Degree.

Construction Technology and Management

Enrollment Milind Kumar Prabhat
No.: MUIT0122023001
Maharishi Institute of Information Technology
Lucknow, Utter Pradesh, India

Counter Signed by Approved by

Dr. Gaurav Shukla Dean Engineering, SOET
Assistant Professor Department of Civil Engineering,
Maharishi University of Information Technology
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Milind Kumar Prabhat has successfully completed the thesis titled"
Application Guide and Specification for Geotextiles in Roadway Applications" under
the guidance of Dr. Gaurav Shukla for the fulfilment of the requirements for the “Master
of Technology” in Department of Civil engineering (Construction Technology and
Management) at Maharishi University of Information Technology, Lucknow. Throughout
the course of this thesis, Milind Kumar Prabhat has demonstrated exceptional research
skills, analytical thinking, and academic excellence. Their dedication, perseverance, and
commitment to scholarly inquiry have resulted in a comprehensive study that contributes
significantly to the field of Civil Engineering.

We commend Milind Kumar Prabhat (Enrollment No.: MUIT0122023001) For their

diligent effort and commendable achievements in producing this thesis, which reflects
their intellectual curiosity, creativity, and scholarly rigor.

Dr. Gaurav Shukla

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Maharishi University of Information Technology, Lucknow.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I am extremely grateful to my project guide Dr. Gaurav Shukla
Assistant Professor, Department of civil engineering, Maharishi University of
Information Technology, Lucknow for their invaluable advice, continuous support, and
patience during my study their immense Knowledge and plentiful experience have
encouraged me.

I am very respectful and thankful to dean of Department of Civil Engineering Dr. Kalyan
Achariya for his unconditional support and guidance at every stage of my work.

My deepest gratitude goes to my parents and Family members for their support and help.

Milind Kumar Prabhat

M.Tech (Construction Technology and Management)
Enrollment No.: MUIT0122023001
Department of Civil Engineering
Contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………1
CHAPTER-1.....................................................................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................2
1.1 Background...................................................................................................................2
1.2 Problem Statement..............................................................................................................2
1.3 Research objectives.......................................................................................................2
1.4 Scope.............................................................................................................................2
1.5 Raw Materials and Classification of Geotextiles..........................................................4
1.6 Classification of Geotextile.............................................................................................4
1.7 Types of Geotextiles for pavement applications..........................................................5
1.8 Functions of Geotextile.........................................................................................................5
1.8.1 Separation/Filtration.......................................................................................................6
1.8.2 Reinforcement................................................................................................................6
1.8.3 Drainage.........................................................................................................................7
1.8.4 Moisture Barrier.............................................................................................................8
1.8.5 Erosion Control..............................................................................................................8
1.9 Applicability and Benefits of Geotextiles in Roadways.......................................................8
1.9.1 Areas of Application of Geotextiles in Roads and Pavements.......................................9
CHAPTER – 2 Literature review ..............................................................................................10
PROPERTIES AND TEST METHODS FOR DIFFERENT GEOTEXTILE MATERIALS....10
2.1 Typical and Minimum Average Roll Values of the Geotextiles....................................10
2.2 Properties of Geotextile..............................................................................................11
2.2.1 Physical properties.....................................................................................................11
2.2.1.1 Specific gravity.....................................................................................................12
2.2.1.2 Mass per unit area (weight)..................................................................................12
2.2.1.3 Thickness.................................................................................................................12
2.2.2 Mechanical properties................................................................................................12
2.2.2.1 Tensile strength....................................................................................................12
2.2.2.2 Puncture strength.................................................................................................13
2.2.2.3 Sewn seam strength.............................................................................................13
2.2.3 Hydraulic properties..................................................................................................13
2.2.3.1 Apparent opening size (AOS)............................................................................13
 2.2.3.2 Geotextile permittivity..........................................................................................14
2.2.3.3 Determination of clogging potential of geotextile..............................................14
CHAPTER - 3................................................................................................................................15
DESIGN METHODOLOGIES...................................................................................................15
General........................................................................................................................................15
3.1 Design for Reinforcement of Unbound Pavement Layers.............................................15
3.1.1 Basic mechanism...................................................................................................15
3.2 Designing for Separation...............................................................................................16
3.3 Design for Filtration......................................................................................................20
3.4 Design for Drainage Applications..................................................................................22
3.4.1 Design requirements..............................................................................................21
3.5 Geosynthetic Capillary Barrier Drain.............................................................................22
CHAPTER - 4................................................................................................................................23
PROPERTY REQUIREMENTS & SELECTION CRITERIA OF GEOSYNTHETICS...........23
BASED ON FUNCTION............................................................................................................23
4.1 General..................................................................................................................................23
4.2 Construction Survivability.............................................................................................23
4.3 Ultraviolet Stability.........................................................................................................24
4.4 Certificate..............................................................................................................................24
4.5 Separation/Filtration Requirements.......................................................................................24
4.6 Base/Subbase Reinforcement Requirements.........................................................................24
4.7 Subsurface Drainage Requirements...................................................................................26
4.7.1 Geotextile property requirements...........................................................................26
4.7.2 Geocomposite property requirement............................................................................26
4.8 Erosion Control Requirements.......................................................................................27
4.8.1 Geotextile requirement...........................................................................................27
4.8.2 Selection criteria for erosion control.......................................................................29
CHAPTER - 5................................................................................................................................30
CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES FOR USE OF GEOTEXTILES IN ROAD........................31
WORKS.......................................................................................................................................31
5.1 General...........................................................................................................................31
5.2 Construction Guidelines for Subsurface Drainage..............................................................31
5.3 Construction Guidelines for Separation/Filtration/Subgrade/Base/Subbase..................32
Reinforcement Function..............................................................................................................32
5.4 geotextile Overlaps.........................................................................................................34
 5.5 Seams..............................................................................................................................35
5.6 Construction Guidelines for Erosion Control.................................................................37
CHAPTER - 6................................................................................................................................40
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF GEOTEXTILES.................................................................40
6.1 General................................................................................................................................40
6.2 Site Unloading.................................................................................................................40
6.3 SITE STORAGE.................................................................................................................41
ANNEXURE 1............................................................................................................................44
ANNEXURE 2............................................................................................................................46
ANNEXURE 3............................................................................................................................53
ANNEXURE 4 …………………………………………………………………………….…54
Result Conclusion......................................................................................................................60
Future of Geotextile.....................................................................................................................61
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................61
 List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Classification of Geotextiles________________________________________5

Figure 1.2 Geotextiles______________________________________________________6
Figure 2.1 Statistical Distribution of the Geosynthetic Material Properties____________11
Figure 3.1 Mechanism of Reinforcement: (a) Lateral Restrain Effect, (b) Improved
Bearing________________________________________________________________16
Figure 3.2 Separation Function of geotextile___________________________________16

Figure 3.3 GCBD Between Base Course and Subgrade Illustrating how Water Laterally
Drains in Transport Layer__________________________________________________22
Figure 5.1 Various Arrangements for Trench Drains_____________________________33
Figure 5.2 Trench and Toe Interceptor Drain for Cut Slope Seepage_________________30
Figure 5.3 Sequence of Construction Procedure for Drains________________________31
Figure 5.4 Folding of Geotextile ____________________________________________32
Figure 5.5 Conctruction sequence____________________________________________33
Figure 5.6 Overlap requirement of Geotextile __________________________________34
Figure 5.7 typicl seame for Geotextile______________________________________35
Figure 5.8(a) Erosion control using Geotextile__________________________________37
Figure 5.8(b) Anchoring Details of erosion control Mats__________________________38
Figure 5.8(C) Orientitation of Matting on Slopes and Channels____________________39
Figure 6.1 Hydro crane shifting Geotextile roll to the location_____________________41
Figure 6.2 Unrolling of geotextile roll ________________________________________42
Figure 6.3 covering of geotextile rolls before use at site __________________________43
ANNEXURE___________________________________________________________45
Figure 2.1 Test track layout_________________________________________________48
Figure 2.2 Typical cross section of test Area___________________________________48
Figure 2.3 Construction of typical test section__________________________________49
Figure 2.4 Loading vehicle and beam for surface rut measurment during traffic _______50
Figure 2.5 Positioning of lase Distance measuring Device for Profiling______________50
Figure2.6 Typical schematic of Laboratory Test-Box pavement test facility __________51
Figure 2.7 Schematic of unreinforced and Reinforced section______________________53
Figure 4.1 Pavement section with and without Reinforced________________________58
Figure 4.2 Input parameters in IITPAVE for unreinforced section __________________59
Figure 4.3 Virtical and tensile strains incluced in the pavement layer for unreinforced
section ________________________________________________________________59
Figure 4.4 Input parameter in the IITPAVE for Reinforced section__________________60
Figure 4.5 Vertical and tensile strains incluced in the pavement layer for reinforced
section ________________________________________________________________60
`
List of Tables

Table 1-1 Primary Function of Geotextiles..........................................................................8

Table 1.2 Application Areas of Geosynthetics...................................................................9
Table 2.1 Soil/Geotextile Filter System Properties............................................................13
Table 2.2 Geotextile Properties and Testing Methods.......................................................14
Table 4.1 Requirement for ultra violet stability.................................................................23
Table 4.2 Geotextile Requirement for Separation (Subgrades Soaked CBR>3).............24
Table 4.3 Geotextile Requirement for Separation (Subgrades Soaked CBR ≤ 3)...........25
Table 4.4a Minimum geotextile strength property requirements.....................................25
Table 4.4b Required Degree of Survivability...................................................................27
Table 4.5 Geotextile Requirement for subsurface drainage...............................................27
Table 4.6 Geotextile requirement for fin drains...............................................................28
Table 4.7 Properties of Geocomposite..............................................................................28
Table 4.8 geotextile Requirement for Erosion Control.....................................................29
Table 5.1 Overlap Requirement of Geotextile for Different CBR Values (IS 16345)......36
 ABSTRACT

Geotextiles, synthetic materials engineered for various civil engineering applications,

have gained significant traction in India's construction sector. This abstract delves into the
evolution, applications, and impact of geotextiles in India. Initially introduced to address
soil erosion, drainage, and stabilization challenges, geotextiles have evolved into
indispensable components of infrastructure projects. Their versatility in erosion control
blankets, geogrids, and geotextile tubes has revolutionized construction practices,
enhancing durability, cost-effectiveness, and environmental sustainability. Government
support, coupled with increasing awareness among engineers and contractors, has fuelled
their widespread adoption. Geotextiles have proven instrumental in mitigating
environmental degradation, reinforcing slopes, and managing water resources effectively.
This abstract underscore the transformative role of geotextiles in India's construction
landscape, heralding a future of resilient and sustainable infrastructure development. the
integration of geotextiles in road construction represents a promising approach to enhance
infrastructure resilience, optimize lifecycle costs, and promote sustainable development.
By harnessing the capabilities of geotextiles and advancing research and innovation in
this field, stakeholders can pave the way for safer, more efficient, and more durable road
networks for the future.
Keywords: Geotextile, Reinforcement, Road Model, Flexible Payment.

1
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction of geotextiles in India marked a significant milestone in the country's
construction and infrastructure sectors. Geotextiles, synthetic materials made from
polymers like polyester or polypropylene, were introduced primarily to address
challenges related to soil erosion, drainage, and stabilization in civil engineering projects.
The initial adoption of geotextiles in India can be traced back to the late 20th century,
primarily driven by the need for innovative solutions to support the nation's burgeoning
infrastructure development. With its diverse geographical terrain, ranging from coastal
regions to mountainous areas, India faced unique challenges in infrastructure
construction, including soil erosion, slope stability issues, and poor drainage.
The introduction of geotextiles offered a breakthrough in addressing these challenges. By
providing solutions such as erosion control blankets, geogrids, geocomposites, and
geotextile tubes, these materials proved effective in stabilizing slopes, reinforcing soil
structures, preventing erosion, and managing drainage efficiently. Over the years, the
adoption of geotextiles gained momentum, supported by government initiatives,
infrastructure projects, and increasing awareness among engineers and contractors about
their benefits. Government policies promoting the use of geotextiles in road construction,
embankment stabilization, riverbank protection, and coastal erosion control further
accelerated their adoption.
Today, geotextiles have become integral components of various infrastructure projects
across India, contributing to enhanced durability, cost-effectiveness, environmental
sustainability, and resilience in construction practices. The introduction and widespread
acceptance of geotextiles signify a paradigm shift towards innovative and sustainable
solutions in India's construction and engineering sectors, paving the way for a greener and
more resilient built environment.
1.1 Background
The geosynthetics sector has experienced rapid growth, leading to an extensive array of
geotextiles tailored specifically for roadway design. This expansion has introduced
numerous innovative design alternatives, enhanced performance and reducing costs in
road construction. Traditionally, geotextiles in pavement applications served five primary
functions: separation, filtration, drainage, reinforcement, and crack propagation
mitigation. However, in recent years, they have also been utilized to establish a capillary
break, acting as a moisture barrier. Depending on the type and placement of geotextile
within the pavement system, it can fulfil multiple functions simultaneously, contributing
to a comprehensive application.
Engineers confronted with the prospect of incorporating geotextiles into roadway design
must carefully select the appropriate application, identify relevant properties and criteria

2
for selecting suitable products, and ensure proper installation and construction techniques
to maintain the integrity of the installed geotextile.

1.2 Problem Statement

Despite advancements in construction materials and techniques, many roads still
experience premature deterioration and require frequent repairs, leading to increased
maintenance costs and traffic disruptions. One potential solution to address these
challenges is the integration of geotextiles into road construction practices. Geotextiles
are synthetic materials engineered to improve soil characteristics, enhance drainage,
reinforce pavements, and reduce maintenance needs.

1.3 Research objectives

Geotextiles project was design to determine the most pertinent properties of geotextiles
when used in soil and base course of payment design in roadway. The engineers a guide
for selection and installation of appropriate geotextiles based on these properties, and
promote this information to design engineers throughout the India.
The major applications of geotextiles in roadway design have been compiled as part of
this study a comprehensive literature review and survey of engineers on India throughout
the project life.

1.4 Scope
This publication contains information on geotextile made from polymeric, materials and
their use in road pavements and other associated work. This document provides detailed
design methodology, specifications, construction guidelines, standard test methods,
handling and storage of all the geotextiles for road pavement applications. The
application addressed in the document include:

 Stabilization and reinforcing of pavement layers

 Separation and filtration
 Subsurface and surface drainage
 Erosion control of road embankments

The document however excludes other possible applications of geotextiles such as

reinforced soil wails & slopes, containment of landslides and geotextiles made from
natural fibres.
These guidelines may require revision from time-to-time based on future development
and experience in the field. Towards this end, it is suggested to all the organization using
the guidelines to keep detailed record of construction, subgrade CBR, soil characteristics
including resilient modulus, pavement composition and specifications, reinforcement

3
details, traffic, pavement performance, type and thickness of overlay performance,
climatic condition, periodical measurement (both before and after strengthening) etc. and
provide feedback to the Indian Roads Congress for further revision.
Chapters in this publication are organized in a way that followed sequence gives a better
understanding of the objective of the publication.

Chapter-1 “Introduction” provides details of different geotextiles materials, their

composition, functions and application in road pavement works.

Chapter-2 “Properties and test methods” covers all tests that must be conducted to
evaluate geotextile functions and applications. The detailed test procedures and
specifications specified in ISO, IRC, BIS, ASTM and BS are provided.

Chapter-3 “Design methodology” explains the mechanism, design methodology using

different geotextiles materials and analysis for different applications.

Chapter-4 “Geotextiles selection criteria” provides guidance and help design engineers
and specification writers with the selection of geotextiles based on the required function,
application, site conditions, and other economical technical feasibilities.

Chapter- 5 “Construction guidelines” bring out the installation aspects and

methodologies to be practiced while executing and installing geotextiles.

Chapter-6 “Handing storage and Installation” gives information on safe handling and
transportation of geotextiles without any damage before installation.

This document also includes the solves numerical example in Annexure Iv for easy
understanding of design methodologies explained in chaper-3.

1.5 Raw Materials and Classification of Geotextiles

RAW MATARIAL
The four main polymer families most widely used as the raw material for geotextiles are:
-

1. Polyester
2. Polyamide
3. Polypropylene
4. Polyethylene

1.6 Classification of Geotextile

Geotextile can be classified in many ways based on manufacturing process, materials

used or function. General classification of geotextile for the applications in pavements is
given n Fig. 1.1. The classification is based on the spatial aspects of the geosynthetic

4
material. For example, one dimensional material will have only one spatial character as
length compared to other dimensions (ropes, straps and cables). Two dimensional
materials will have only two spatial characteristics either length or width or height
(Geogrids, Geotextiles, Geocomposites and Geomembranes), whereas three dimensional
materials will possess the spatial characteristics in all three dimensions i.e. length, width
and height (geocell, geomats, geonets, geospacers and three-dimensional geogrids).

Figure 1.1 Classification of Geotextiles

1.7 Types of Geotextiles for pavement applications
Geotextiles can be defined as any permeable synthetic textile used with foundation, soil,
rock, earth, or any other geotechnical engineering-related material as an integral part of
an infrastructure project, structure, or system. The geotextiles are generally classified by
the manufacturing process and are often separated into two sub-categories, namely,
woven and non-woven. Another type of geotextile includes (i) Knitted geotextiles and (ii)
Composite geotextiles (Fig. 1.2).

Woven geotextiles are manufactured by weaving weft threads through warp threads.
Strength of geotextile in machine direction is usually larger than cross machine direction.

Non-woven geotextiles are produced from randomly distributed continuous filaments

or staple fibres, which are bonded together chemically, thermally or mechanically.

Knitted geotextiles consists of a single strand systematically intertwined with itself

and is manufactured with a knitting machine, instead of a weaving loom.

Composite geotextiles (Multi-layered geotextiles) are manufactured by combining

layers of different types of geotextiles. The components can be combined by needling,
stitching, chemical bonding or heat bonding. (IRC HRB Special Report No. 12, ‘State-of-
the-Art: Application of Geotextiles in Highway Engineering’).

5
 Figure 1.2 Type of Geotextiles
1.8 Functions of Geotextile
In a given application, a Geotextile can perform one or several functions to improve the
mechanical or hydraulic behaviour of the structure in which it is incorporated. The basic
functions performed by a Geotextile are as follows:
1. Separation/Filtration
2. Reinforcement
3. Drainage
4. Moisture Barrier
5. Erosion Control
Each of these functions can be defined in terms of the role they fulfil in the installation.
Definitions and description of each of these functions are explained below.
Properties, testing methods and the selection guidelines for each Geotextile material for
various functions listed above are given in Chapters 2 and 4 respectively.
1.8.1 Separation/Filtration
Geotextiles serve a crucial function in pavement design by preventing the intermixing of
dissimilar material layers throughout the structure's lifespan. Typically, they provide
separation between these layers, inhibiting the intrusion or pumping of soil particles into
the base or sub-base courses. Additionally, geotextiles act as filters, dissipating pore
water pressure and enabling fluid passage while effectively blocking the uncontrolled
movement of soil particles.
1.8.2 Reinforcement

6
The reinforcement function of geotextiles involves leveraging their stress-strain behavior
to enhance the mechanical properties of soil or other construction materials. Various
types of woven geotextiles, distinguished by their high tensile strength, serve as effective
reinforcement materials in pavements. The synergistic use of soil, which excels in
compression but fares poorly in tension, alongside geotextiles, which excel in tension but
struggle in compression, opens up numerous opportunities where they have either
optimized existing designs or pioneered entirely new applications.
1.8.3 Drainage
Drainage involves the collection and transportation of precipitation, groundwater, and/or
other fluids within the plane of a geotextile material. A permeable geotextile material,
appropriately selected, performs a filtration function akin to the various gradations of
granular materials in soil structures.
1.8.4 Moisture Barrier
The barrier function of geotextiles involves preventing or limiting the migration of fluids
across their plane. This geosynthetic function finds extensive application in asphalt
pavement overlays and the encapsulation of swelling soils. Nonwoven geotextiles serve
as effective barriers when saturated with impermeable materials such as bitumen. In this
application, the geotextile is saturated with a bitumen-based material (tack coat), and the
new overlay is directly placed onto it. This geotextile-tack coat combination effectively
impedes the movement of water between the surface of the overlay and the underlying
pavement layers.
1.8.5 Erosion Control
The use of geotextile materials aims to prevent or restrict soil or particle movements on
the surface of a slope caused by water runoff or wind forces. Alongside their primary
function, geotextiles typically fulfil one or more secondary roles. Together, the primary
and secondary functions of geotextiles enhance their overall contribution to a specific
application. Therefore, it is crucial to account for both the primary and secondary
functions in design computations and specifications.
Type of Primary function of Geotextiles
Geosynthetics Separation Reinforce Filtration Drainage Impermea Erosion
ment ble Barrier control
Geotextile     
Geogrid  
Geo  
membrane
Geonet  
Geocell  
Table 1.1 Primary Function of Geotextiles.

7
1.9 Applicability and Benefits of Geotextiles in Roadways
1.9.1 Areas of Application of Geotextiles in Roads and Pavements
The four primary applications for geotextiles in roads are subgrade separation,
stabilization, base or subbase reinforcement, and overlay stabilization. Subgrade
stabilization and base or subbase reinforcement involve integrating suitable geotextile
materials during road construction to enhance the road structure.
The increasing scarcity of conventional construction materials like aggregates, driven by
environmental concerns and legal restrictions on quarrying, has led to a shift towards
utilizing local, recycled, and engineered marginal aggregates in construction. Geotextiles
play a crucial role in improving the properties of such recycled and engineered marginal
aggregates.
Additionally, geotextiles are instrumental in rehabilitating distressed road surfaces. When
damaged pavements require restoration, applying a layer of bituminous concrete, known
as an overlay, is often the solution. Geotextiles can be incorporated as inter-layers either
below or within the overlay. Some geosynthetics alleviate stress, while others reinforce
the overlay, and certain products also act as moisture barriers.
• Subgrade separation and stabilization
• Base or subbase stabilization by reinforcement
• Overlay stress absorption and reinforcement
 In Subsurface Drainage
• Subgrade dewatering
• Base or subbase drainage
 In Erosion and Sediment Control
• Beneath the hard Armor systems, revetments
 In Seepage Control Systems
• Structure water proofing
• Environmental protection
Table 1.2 Application Areas of Geotextiles.
S.NO. Application Description
1 Pavement Pavement stabilization and reinforcement entail fortifying and
Stabilization strengthening various layers of the pavement. This includes
And providing subgrade restraint, stabilizing the base and/or
reinforcement subbase, and reinforcing the bound layers, such as the surface
course. These measures aim to prolong the service life of the

8
 pavement by mitigating fatigue and reflective cracks.
2 Drainage Draining out of water ingresses through the pavement
structure and prevention of capillary action and moisture
control need to be taken care.
3 Moisture It is related to enhance and lengthen pavement performance by
control reducing the influence of moisture on pavement materials.
4 Erosion It refers to the protection of the top surface of the exposed
control slopes, surfaces.

CHAPTER – 2

9
 LITTRATURE REVIEW
Geotextiles, play a crucial role in enhancing roadway construction and maintenance. They
provide benefits such as soil separation, filtration, reinforcement, and drainage.
Geotextiles, typically made from polypropylene or polyester, possess key properties like
tensile strength, permeability, and durability, influencing their suitability for different
applications. Design consideration include soil type, traffic load, and environmental
factors. Proper installation techniques ensure geotextile effectiveness, while quality
assurance measures verify compliance with industry standards. Monitoring geotextile
performance over time is essential for detecting any degradation or damage.
Environmental considerations include material selection and disposal practices. Case
studies demonstrate successful geotextile application in real world roadway projects,
highlighting lessons learned and innovative solution. Compliance with regulatory
requirements is crucial for ensuring geotextile performance and safety in roadway
applications.

PROPERTIES AND TEST METHODS FOR DIFFERENT

GEOTEXTILE MATERIALS
Geotextile Materials shall be Tested and Certified in the following manner:
• The manufacturer shall have ISO or CE certification for manufacturing process and
quality control.
• The manufacturer shall provide manufacturer’s test certificate for every lot supplied
from the factory.
• The supplier shall provide third party test reports from an independent laboratory with
valid accreditation for all the test values in Manufacturer’s test certificate.
Geotextiles shall be tested in accordance with tests prescribed by relevant BIS, ISO,
ASTM, EN or BS shall be conducted.
2.1 Typical and Minimum Average Roll Values of the Geotextiles
2.1.1 The terms "Typical Value" and "Minimum Average Roll Value" pertain to the
inherent variability in geotextile material properties. This variability arises from the
manufacturing process and is akin to that observed in other construction materials like
concrete and steel. Geotextile manufacturers conduct ongoing Quality Control (QC)
testing to monitor the physical properties of their products. Based on the results of these
tests, manufacturers can statistically represent the physical properties using normal
distribution curves as shown in Fig. 2.1.

2.1.2 The term "typical" value denotes the average or mean value, applicable to any
geotextile material. In Fig. 2.1 (a), it illustrates that 50 percent of test results can be
anticipated to exceed this value, while the remaining 50 percent are expected to fall below
it. The "minimum average roll value" (MARV), as per Clause 3.1 of IS 16362 and

10
depicted in Fig. 2.1 (b), stands at 97.7 percent. Statistically, the MARV is derived as the
average value minus two standard deviations.

Figure 2.2 Statistical Distribution of the Geotextile Material Properties.

2.1.3 A specification sheet for a geotextile material should enumerate the necessary
physical properties essential for fulfilling its intended function. The civil engineering
community has embraced standards for validating these physical properties, aligning with
the MARV. A specification based on the MARV dictates that 97.7 percent of the product
must meet or surpass the specified values. Conversely, if a manufacturer certifies only
higher "typical" values, a lower percentage of the product would adhere to the specified
values.

2.1.4 Designers must depend on a statistical basis to ensure that the geotextile materials
delivered to the job conform to the specifications. For any given project, the minimum
average roll value must meet or surpass the designer's specified value for the product to
be deemed acceptable.

2.2 Properties of Geotextile

This section provides an overview of various properties of geotextiles and the preferred
test methods utilized according to existing worldwide standards. This section is
subdivided into the following three main categories:
• Physical properties
• Mechanical properties
• Hydraulic properties

2.2.1 Physical properties: The properties discussed in the subsection pertain to the
fabric in its manufactured or as-received condition. These physical properties are
regarded as index properties of geotextiles.

2.2.1.1 Specific gravity: Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of a material's unit
volume weight (without any voids) to that of distilled, de-aired water at 27°C. The
specific gravity of the Fibers used to manufacture geotextiles corresponds to the specific

11
gravity of the polymer raw material (ISO 1183, ASTM D792, or ASTM D1505). Some
typical values of specific gravity for commonly used polymeric materials transformed
into geotextiles are as follows:

Polypropylene  0.91
Polyester  1.22 to 1.38
Nylon  1.05 to 1.14
Polyethylene  0.90 to 0.96
Polyvinyl chloride  1.69

2.2.1.2 Mass per unit area (weight): The cost of the fabric is primarily determined by
its mass per unit area, with mechanical properties often directly correlated to this factor.
During testing, the mass (weight) should be measured to the nearest 0.01 percent of the
total specimen mass. Length and width measurements should be taken without inducing
tension in the geotextile. Test methods for this procedure are based on ISO 9864, IS
14716, and ASTM D5261 standards. Geotextiles' mass per unit area is typically expressed
in grams per square meter (g/m2), with typical values ranging from 100 to 1000 g/m2.

2.2.1.3 Thickness: Thickness is measured as the distance between the upper and lower
surfaces of the fabric, determined at a specified pressure. ISO 9863-1, IS 13162 (Part 3),
and ASTM D5199 specify that thickness should be measured to an accuracy of at least
0.01 mm under a pressure of 2 kPa. According to ISO, thickness should be measured after
30 seconds of applying full force, whereas per ASTM, the duration is only 5 seconds. The
thickness of commonly used geotextiles typically ranges from 0.25 to 7.5 mm.

2.2.2 Mechanical properties: The mechanical properties discussed here indicate the
resistance of geotextiles to tensile stresses mobilized under applied loads and/or
installation conditions. Index tests such as wide-width tensile strength, grab strength,
puncture strength, and sewn seam strength are employed to determine the mechanical
properties of the geotextiles.

2.2.2.1 Tensile strength: ISO 10319, IS 13325, or ASTM D4595 provide test methods
for determining the tensile properties of geotextiles and related products using a wide-
width strip. This test is applicable to most geotextile families, including woven, non-
woven, geocomposites, knitted fabrics, and felts. Wide-width specimens are necessary
because geotextiles, when tensioned, tend to experience severe necking effects under
increasing stress, causing them to rope up and yield artificially high values. Thus, the
tendency for design-related tests is to utilize wide-width specimens. Grab strength test
will also be applicable for the determination of tensile properties of geotextiles. ISO
13934 or IS 16342 or ASTM D4632 shall be used to evaluate the grab strength of
geotextiles. Narrow Strip Test as per ASTM D751 is another tensile test method.

12
2.2.2.2 Puncture strength: This test is conducted to assess the resistance of geotextiles
to objects such as rocks or pieces of wood under quasi-static conditions and is reported in
N or kN. Such a test, described under ISO 12236, IS:13162 (Part 4), ASTM D6241, and
IS 16078, should be used to evaluate the CBR puncture strength of geotextiles.

2.2.2.3 Sewn seam strength: Seam strength is typically assessed in the laboratory
using ISO 10321 "Geosynthetics - Tensile test for joints/seams by wide-width strip
method," IS 15060, or ASTM D4884, "Test Method for Seam Strength of Sewn or
Thermally Bonded Seams of Geotextiles." This method tests a 200 mm wide specimen,
and the results have been demonstrated to accurately correlate with anticipated field seam
strength.

2.2.3 Hydraulic properties

Filter system flow capacity or flow rate, q is the quantity of water, which will pass
through the system in a given period of time. Flow capacity is usually expressed in cm3
/sec or cm 3 /sec/ m2. Properties of both the soil and geotextile influence the hydraulic
characteristics of the soil/ geotextile system. Two important properties are soil
permeability and geotextile permittivity. Other properties are listed in Table 2.1.

Soil Geotextile
Permeability Permittivity
Grain size distribution Apparent opening size
Plasticity Per sent open area
Dispersity Structure
Compaction and confinement Durability
Table 2.1 Soil/Geotextile Filter System Properties.

2.2.3.1 Apparent opening size (AOS): The Apparent Opening Size (AOS) or the
Equivalent Opening Size (EOS) is a measure of the largest effective opening in a
geotextile. It can be measured using the procedure described below:

Standard Test Methods for Determining Apparent Opening Size of a Geotextile are ISO
12956 (using the wet sieving principle), IS:14294 and ASTM D4751 (using the dry
sieving principle). This test method covers the determination the Apparent Opening Size
(AOS) of a geotextile by sieving glass beads through a geotextile.

Property Test method

Specific gravity ASTM D792 or ASTM D1505
Mass per unit area IS :147196, ISO 9863, ASTM D5199
Thickness IS:13162(Part 3), ISO 9863, ASTM

13
 D5199
Tenile strength IS:13325, ISO 10319, ASTM D4595
I. Grab strength test IS:16342, ISO 13934, ASTM D4632,
II. Narrow strip test ASTM D751
Puncture strength IS:13162 (PART 4), IS:16078(for CBR
puncture strength), ISO 12236, ASTM
D6241
Sewn seam strength ASTM D4884
Apparent Opening Size IS:14294, ISO 12956, ASTM D4751
(AOS)/Characteristic Opening Size
(COS)
Permittivity IS:14324, ISO 11058, ASTM D4491
Clogging potential IS:16389
I. Gradient ratio test ASTM D5101
II. Hydraulic conductivity ratio test ATM D5567

Table 2.2 Geotextile Properties and Testing Methods

2.2.3.2 Geotextile permittivity: Permittivity ψ is laboratory measured characteristic of

the geotextile. Permittivity is measured using the index test method ISO 11058, IS:14324
and ASTM D4491.

2.2.3.3 Determination of clogging potential of geotextile: IS:16389 "Geosynthetics –

Method of Test for Biological Clogging of Geotextile or Soil/Geotextile Filters" is
utilized to determine the clogging potential of geotextiles. There are two test methods
available to evaluate the flow capacity of a soil/geotextile system: the first is ASTM
D5101, known as the "Gradient Ratio" test, and the second is the "Hydraulic Conductivity
Ratio (HCR) Test". In this test, the soil is compacted and placed under a confining
pressure to simulate field conditions. HCR testing of soil/geotextile systems can be
conducted using the ASTM D5567 method.

14
 CHAPTER - 3
DESIGN METHODOLOGIES
General
The efficacy of reinforced road structures heavily relies on the condition of surrounding
materials and traffic loads. Therefore, each design requires specific analysis and
calculations.
Proposed design approaches for different geotextile functions, such as separation,
drainage, and filtration in pavement sections, typically rely on empirical and analytical
considerations. Alternatively, analytical models may be calibrated based on experimental
data. However, a comprehensive analytical design solution that encompasses all
variable’s affecting performance has not yet been developed. Empirical design methods
are limited by the conditions under which the experiments were conducted. Many
methods involve deriving a Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR) or Base Course Reduction (BCR)
from laboratory model tests, which must then be extrapolated to field conditions for
practical application. While numerous methods yield reliable results under specific
conditions, this chapter outlines the commonly used design methodologies available for
various functions described in these guidelines.
3.1 Design for Reinforcement of Unbound Pavement Layers
Pavement reinforcement involves reinforcing different layers of the pavement. Geotextile
are incorporated into base and subbase section for following reasons:
1. To provide subgrade restraint for construction of the road over weak subgrade
conditions.
2. To reinforce the base and/or sub base

3.1.1 Basic mechanism

The primary mechanisms of reinforcement can be identified as (a) lateral restraint, (b)
enhanced bearing capacity, and (c) the tensioned membrane effect.
Lateral restraint (Fig. 3.1(a)) involves confining the aggregate material during loading,
limiting its lateral flow. As many aggregates used in pavement systems are stress-
dependent materials, increased lateral confinement leads to a higher modulus of the base
course material. This, in turn, improves the vertical stress distribution applied to the
subgrade and reduces vertical strain on the subgrade's surface. Enhanced bearing capacity
is achieved by shifting the pavement system's failure envelope from the weaker subgrade
to the stronger base course material (Fig. 3.1(b)).

15
The third fundamental mechanism, termed the "tensioned membrane effect" (Fig. 3.1(c)),
relies on an improved vertical stress distribution resulting from tensile stress in a
deformed membrane.

Figure 3.3 Mechanism of Reinforcement: (a) Lateral Restrain Effect, (b) Improved
Bearing Capacity, (c) Tension Member Effect
3.2 Designing for Separation
Separation is the major function of geotextile. In the pavement applications, the best use
of geotextile as separators illustrates when it is placed between a reasonably firm soil
subgrade (beneath) and a stone base course, or aggregate, or ballast above the geotextile.
Subgrade shall be “reasonably firm” because it is assumed that the subgrade deformation
is not sufficiently large to mobilize uniformly high-tensile stress in the geotextile. Thus,
for a separation function to occur, the geotextile has to be placed on the soil subgrade and
then have aggregate Base/ Subbase course spread over the geotextile and compacted on
top of it (as shown in Fig. 3.2).

Figure 3.2 Separation Function of Geotextile

For separation design, the base and subbase course thickness required to adequately carry
the design traffic loads for the design life of the pavement and this thickness not reduced
due to the use of a geosynthetic. Recall that geotextile separators help prevent pavement
failures due to the intrusion of finer subgrade soil fractions into the granular base layer(s).
Geotextiles separation layers may also be used between dense and open graded base

16
layers. Mostly any geotextile will work in this application as long as it is strong enough to
survive construction. As indicated earlier, filtration is a secondary function in this
application. Therefore, the geotextile should have small enough openings to prevent
contamination of the base and subbase pavement layers from the subgrade materials and
be sufficiently permeable (i.e., more permeable than the subgrade) to prevent the
development of pore water pressure in the subgrade. AASHTO M288, Table 4.2 explains
the degree of survivability of geotextile for different subgrade conditions.
3.3 Design for Filtration
The geotextile must prevent in-situ soil from being washed into the system without
clogging over time. FHWANHI-070-092 Section 2.3 presents the basic principles,
geotextile filter design and selection.
3.4 Design for Drainage Applications
Water in pavement systems is one of the principal causes of pavement distress. It is well
known that improved roadway drainage extends the life of a roadway system. Modern
roadways incorporating good drainage are predicted to have a design life of up to two to
three times over that of undrained pavement sections. This section provides design
guidance for a new alternative drainage method, which incorporates a Geo Composite
drainage layer tied directly and continuously into an edge drain system. This Geo
Composite drainage layer can be used to directly replace drainable aggregate layers in
modern rigid or flexible pavement systems. The layer can also be used to significantly
enhance the drainage of dense graded aggregate layers.
3.4.1 Design requirements
The geocomposite must possess the necessary stiffness to endure compaction and support
traffic without experiencing significant damage or deformation under cyclic loading.
Simultaneously, it should offer sufficient flow capacity to rapidly drain the pavement
section and prevent base saturation. As highlighted in the previous section, optimal
drainage requires the drainage layer's outflow capacity to effectively drain the pavement
section within a few hours of a moisture event. Additionally, the geocomposite should
demonstrate high crush resistance to withstand construction loading and compaction
stresses. The FHWA recommends a factor of safety of 5 between the anticipated load and
geocomposite crush resistance, determined through quick load tests, to counteract creep
in geocomposite drains (Christopher et al., 2001). Given the considerable expense
associated with pavement replacement, it is advisable to prioritize materials with high
modulus and compressive resistance, such as geonet drainage composites.
The design of a geocomposite drainage system is carried out as follows:
Identify/set all the design conditions, including (but not limited to):
• Types of soil complicated (stones, gravel, clay etc.) and their grading curves.

17
• Atmosphere (aggressive for landfill bottom, medium for landfill capping,
ordinary for roof gardens etc.).
• Chemical and physical properties of the materials in contact with the
Geocomposite (pH, chemical and biological content, hardness, stiffness etc.) and
of the liquid to be drained (pH, chemical and biological content, density,
viscosity, turbidity etc.).
• Set the boundary environments (that is the type of materials in contact with the
two
Faces of the geocomposite).
• Calculate the maximum applied pressure, the hydraulic gradient and the design
Input flow rate for the geocomposite.
• Select one or more geocomposites and for each of them calculate the available
Flow rate for the design conditions of materials in contact with the two faces,
Maximum applied pressure, and hydraulic gradient.
• Compare the available flow rate with the design input flow rate and consider
only the geocomposites for which the former is larger than the latter.
• Make the final selection of the geocomposite.
• Deliver design specifications and details, in particular the method for fixing the
geocomposites on the supporting surface and the connections/overlaps
between geocomposite rolls and between the geocomposites and other
elements of the drainage system (manholes, perforated pipes etc.).

3.4.2 Calculation of input flow rate

The calculation of the input flow rate is project specific.
The generalized equation for input flow rate in the geocomposite is:
Q D = FSQ • [(QF / L) + QS]
Where:
QF = Total rainfall flow on the catchment zone (m3 /s or l/s)

18
A = Horizontal area of the catchment zone (m2)
L = Running length of the geocomposite drain (m)
QS = Input flow rate due to additional surficial flow (m³/s/m or l/s/m)
FSQ = Factor of Safety on input flow rate
QD = Input flow rate in the geocomposite (m³/s/m or l/s/m)
3.4.3 Calculation of available flow rate
The flow velocity inside a geocomposite is proportional to the hydraulic gradient (i)
which is defined as:
i = δh / L
Where:
δh = Hydraulic head loss along the distance L for the fluid flow in the
geosynthetic (m)
L = Distance between two points along the average direction of flow in the geosynthetic
(m)
Since the design of the drainage system ensures that the available flow rate of the
geocomposite is always larger than the design input flow rate, pressure flow will never
occur and the flow will always occur at atmospheric pressure.
The available flow rate of a geocomposite will depend on the types of material in contact
with its two faces.
It is evident that a very rigid material (concrete slabs in case of rigid pavements etc.) will
compress and deform the geocomposite evenly, imparting a homogeneous decrease in its
thickness, but without pushing the geotextile into the channels of the draining core; rigid
materials produce negligible geotextile intrusion into the core. Conversely, a soft material
(like a soil, gravel, ballast) in contact with the geocomposite will deform the geotextile,
forcing the textile to intrude into the draining core with a resulting reduction in the cross-
sectional area of the draining core and commensurate decrease of the draining capacity.
Therefore, the available flow rate of a

geocomposite with a given structure will be a function of:

• Thickness of the geocomposite (H)
• Distance (L) between the support points of the geotextile filter
• Pressure (P) on the filter

19
• Strength, modulus and tensile creep of the geotextile filter
• Deformability of the material in contact with the geocomposite
• Roughness of the geotextile filter
For all applications, the avail2/able flow rate of the geocomposite shall be obtained by
applying a set of reduction factors which take into account all the phenomena that may
decrease the flow rate over the entire design life compared to the short-term flow rate
measured in the tests according to EN ISO 12958 or ASTM D4716 - 08(2013) standard:

QL
Qa =
RF ¿ . RFcr . RFcc . RF bc

Where:
Qa = available long term flow rate for the geocomposite
QL = short term flow rate obtained from laboratory tests
RF¿ = Reduction Factor for the intrusion of filter geotextiles into the draining core
RF cr = Reduction Factor for the compressive creep of the geocomposite
RF cc = Reduction Factor for chemical clogging of the draining core

RF bc = Reduction Factor for biological clogging of the draining core

Term Description Suggested range for

geocomposites
RFin Reduction Factor for intrusion of the filter 1.0 -1.5
geotextile into the drainage core
RFcr Reduction Factor for thickness change due to 1.2-1.5
compressive creep of core
RFcc Reduction Factor for pore /volume reduction due 1.0-1.3
to chemical clogging*
RFbc Reduction Factor for pore /volume reduction due 1.0-1.3
to biological clogging**
RF Product of all Reduction Factor for the site- 1.20-4.0
Specific condition
values can change according to the type of the core and also according to the type
of filtering geotextile used values are related to the type of the liquid/fluid to be
drained and to its nature (clean water, polluted water, leachate, etc)

Table 3.1 Suggested Range of Values of the Different RFs for Geo Composites.

20
Once the design input flow QD has been calculated, the available input flow Qa shall be
calculated for one or more geocomposite.
The final Factor of Safety of Geocomposite FS G afforded by the design with each
geocomposite is given by:
FSG = Qa / QD
The final selection of the geocomposite shall be done among the geocomposite for which:
FSG ≥ 1.00 taking into consideration also costs and availability

After designing the core to accommodate the necessary flow, the geotextiles flanking the
core must be engineered for separation and filtration in accordance with the specifications
outlined in section 3.2 and 3.3, respectively. The approach to geotextile separation design,
as detailed in section 3.2, shall align with the filter design method described in section
3.3. This drainage methodology is suitable for all road construction types, including both
rigid and flexible pavements, and is recommended wherever economically viable based
on-site conditions.

3.5 Geotextile Capillary Barrier Drain

Water can ascend up to 10 meters vertically in silty soils due to capillary action. Two
forces govern water movement through soils: gravity and capillary action. A capillary
barrier emerges and limits water flow when two porous materials with contrasting
hydraulic conductivities come into contact.

Figure 3.3 GCBD Between Base Course and Subgrade Illustrating how Water
Laterally Drains in Transport Layer
Employing a GCBD for pavement drainage takes explicit consideration of unsaturated
flow, leading to superior drainage efficiency compared to conventional drainage systems.
Through the use of a GCBD, both the base and subgrade will retain less water than a
pavement lacking a GCBD at any given moment. This aspect holds significance as the

21
strength of both the base course and subgrade diminishes with elevated moisture content,
consequently diminishing pavement structural durability. Hence, a GCBD will extend the
pavement's longevity. Anticipated advantages of the GCBD encompass:
• Reduced equilibrium water content in base
• Prevent positive pressures in base
• Prevent wetting of underlying subgrade due to infiltration
• Prevent capillary rise of water from subgrade into base
• Provide complementary separation and stabilization
Design of geocomposite barrier drain is similar to the design of drainage composite that is
outlined in the above section 3.4. IRC:34 and IRC: SP:42 shall be referred for detailed
design procedure and specifications/properties of geocomposite for capillary barrier drain.

22
 CHAPTER - 4
PROPERTY REQUIREMENTS & SELECTION CRITERIA OF
GEOTEXTILE
BASED ON FUNCTION
4.1 General
This section of the document explains the standard for selecting certain types of
geotextile materials and the necessary characteristics, depending on their purpose and use
in road construction projects, depending on various project conditions. Different designs
and site situations often require custom geotextile properties and construction
recommendations to ensure that the selected geotextiles meet the project specifications.
4.2 Construction Survivability
The section focuses on the importance of providing geotextile materials based on the
environment and purpose and choosing appropriate geotextile materials. AASHTO 1990
(according to Task Force 25) specifies the thickness of the cover adapted to different soil
CBR values and ground contact pressures.
4.3 Ultraviolet Stability
4.3.1 Ultraviolet light degradation is a process in which the particular properties of a
geotextile are damaged or reduced by exposure to U-V radiation. The physical properties
of geotextile materials are typically reduced after exposure to sunlight for a certain period
of time. The rate of deterioration varies depending on the product, the environment of
exposure, and exposure time. After installation, the exposure of geotextile material to the
atmosphere must be at least 14 days to minimize damage potential. Table 4.1 contains
specifications for UV degradation.

S.No. Properties of fabric Requirement

(Retained strength)
1 Grab strength UV Stability as Not less than 70%
2 Tear strength per IS 13162 after 500 hours of
3 Puncture strength part2/ASTM exposure
4 Burst strength D4355
Table 4.1 Requirement for ultra violet stability.
4.4 Certificate
4.4.1 The supplier of any geotextile material must provide an engineer a certificate that
details the name, product name, style number, number of rolls, chemical composition of

23
filaments and yarns and other relevant information relating to the properties of each roll,
with a comprehensive description of the specific geotextile material.
4.4.2 Manufacturers are responsible for the establishment and maintenance of robust
quality control programmes to ensure compliance with specifications. On request, a
detailed documentation of this quality control program is required. The manufacturer's
certification must confirm that the geotextile material supplied meets the maximum roll
value (MARV) specifications assessed by the manufacturer's quality control system and
complies with ASTM D4759 standards or equivalent procedures. Certification must be
approved by an authorized person representing the manufacturer. le material.
4.4.3 Any false representation or false labelling of material will constitute sufficient
grounds for rejecting geotextile products.
4.5 Separation/Filtration Requirements
In road and road construction, geotextiles are the most important geosynthetic materials
and effectively perform the roles of separation and filtering. It prevents the mixing of
soils and aggregated cover materials (Base/Subbases) while providing appropriate
filtration. Tables 4.2 and 4.3 detail the properties required for the separation function of
the geotextile.

SI.No. Geotextile Property Requirement

1. Permittivity as per IS 14324/ASTM D 4491 0.02 sec-1(per sec)
2. Maximum Apparent Opening Size as per IS 0.60 mm
14294/ ASTM D 4751

Table 4.2 Geotextile Requirement for Separation (Subgrades Soaked CBR>3)

SI.NO. Geotextile Property Requirement

1. Permittivity as per IS 14324/ASTM D 4491 0.05 sec-1 (per sec)
2. Maximum Apparent Opening Size as per IS 0.43 mm
14294/ ASTM D 4751

Table 4.3 Geotextile Requirement for Separation (Subgrades Soaked CBR ≤ 3)

4.6 Base/Subbase Reinforcement Requirements
Geotextiles have become a cost-effective and improved solution for enhancing subsurface
in challenging locations in various geotechnical engineering projects such as airport and
road paving. In asphalt applications, geotextiles mainly serve this function. Geotextile

24
requirements: In these facilities, geotextiles can play an additional role in strengthening,
as well as separation and filtration. The geotextile must comply with the specific strength
properties listed in Tables 4.4a and 4.4b.

Installatio Type Strength property Requirement (MARV)

n Grab strength in Tear strength in Puncture strength
condition Newton (N) as per Newton (N)as per in Newton(N) as
IS 16342/ ASTM IS 14293/ASTM D per IS 16078/ISO
D4632 4533 12236/ASTM D
6241
Elongation at Failure
<50% 50% <50% 50% <50% 50%
Harsh Type-1 1400 900 500 350 2800 2000
installation
Condition
Moderate Type-2 1100 700 400 250 2250 1400
Installatio
n
Condition
Less Type-3 800 500 300 180 1700 1000
Severe
Installatio
n
condition

Table 4.4a Minimum geotextile strength property requirements.

Note:
(1) All numerical values in the table above represent the minimum average rolling value
(MARV) in the weak main direction. MARV is statistically calculated as an average
value less than two standard deviations.
(2) When geotextiles are linked by field sewing, the seam resistance must be at least 60%
of the material's tensile resistance. All field seams must be sewn with the strongest thread
of the fabric material.
(3) Table 4.4b indicates the minimum survivorship based on the terrain, construction
equipment, and inclination thickness of type 1, 2 and 3, as specified in Table 4.4a.

Function Ground Low Ground Medium Ground High Ground

Conditions Pressure Pressure Pressure

25
 Equipment Equipment >25 Equipment
≤25 kPa (3.6 to >50 kPa (>7.3
psi) ≤50 kPa (>3.6 to psi)
≤7.3 psi)
The soil was cleared of all Low Moderate High
obstacles, except grasses, (Type 3) (Type 2) (Type 1)
weeds, leaves and fine wood
waste, and the surface was
smooth, and the level, unlike
shallow humps, did not
exceed 450 mm (18 inches) in
depth or height. All the
largest depressions are filled,
or a smooth working table
can be placed.
The soil has been cleared Moderate High Very High
from obstacles larger than (Type 2) (Type 1) (Type 1 +)
smaller to medium-sized tree
and rock limbs. The trunks
and trunks of the trees must
be removed or covered with a
partial work table. The depth
and height of depressions and
humps should not exceed 450
mm (18 inches). A larger
depression must be filled.
Minimal preparation is High Very High Not
required. The tree can be cut, (Type 1) (Type 1 +) recommended
delimbed and left in place,
and the stem must be cut in a
height of less than 150 mm (6
in.). Geotextiles can be
draped directly on trunks,
trunks, large depressions and
holes, holes, stream channels
and large boulders, and
objects must only be removed
when placing geotextiles and
covering materials over them
to distort the final road
surface.

26
 Table 4.4b Required Degree of Survivability
The first lift thickness is recommended, from 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 inches). The initial
lift thickness is 300–450mm (12–18 inches), but the survival requirement must be
reduced to a single level. The survival requirement for 450 to 600 mm (18 to 24 in.)
thickness should be reduced at two levels. For thicknesses greater than 600 mm (24 in.)
the protection requirement must be reduced to three levels. Special construction
techniques, such as protruding, should increase the requirements for the survival of
geotextiles to one level. Excessive initial cover thickness can lead to failure of soft
subgrade bearing..

4.7 Subsurface Drainage Requirements

4.7.1 The first lift thickness is recommended, from 150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 inches). The
initial lift thickness is 300–450mm (12–18 inches), but the survival requirement must be
reduced to a single level. The survival requirement for 450 to 600 mm (18 to 24 in.)
thickness should be reduced at two levels. For thicknesses greater than 600 mm (24 in.)
the protection requirement must be reduced to three levels. Special construction
techniques, such as protruding, should increase the requirements for the survival of
geotextiles to one level. Excessive initial cover thickness can lead to failure of soft
subgrade bearing.

In-situ Passing Permittivity, per sec, as Maximum Apparent

0.075 mm Sieve (%) per Opening Size, mm IS
IS 14324 /ASTM D 4491 14294/ ASTM D 4751
<15 0.7 0.43
15 to50 0.2 0.25
>50 0.1 0.22

Table 4.5 Geotextile Requirement for subsurface drainage

4.7.2 Geotextile property requirement: The first lift thickness is recommended, from
150 to 300 mm (6 to 12 inches). The initial lift thickness is 300–450mm (12–18 inches),
but the survival requirement must be reduced to a single level. The survival requirement
for 450 to 600 mm (18 to 24 in.) thickness should be reduced at two levels.
For thicknesses greater than 600 mm (24 in.) the protection requirement must be reduced
to three levels.
Special construction techniques, such as protruding, should increase the requirements for
the survival of geotextiles to one level. Excessive initial cover thickness can lead to
failure of soft subgrade bearing.

27
 In-situ Passing Permittivity, per sec, as Maximum Apparent
0.075 mm Sieve (%) per Opening Size, mm IS
IS 14324 /ASTM D 4491 14294/ ASTM D 4751
<15 0.5 0.43
15 to 50 0.2 0.25
>50 0.1 0.22
Table 4.6 Geotextile requirement for fin drains

Property Test Unit Minimum

method Average
Roll
Value
Tensile strength EN ISO kN/m 16
10319
Static puncture test (CBR test) EN ISO kN 3
12236
Mass per unit area EN ISO g/m2 710
9864
Thickness of composite EN ISO Mm 4.5
9863
In -plane Hydraulic Gradient, i=1 at EN ISO l/m/s 0.55
permeability 100 kPa pressure 12958
Hydraulic Gradient, i=1 at 0.45
200 kPa pressure

Table 4.7 Properties of Geocomposite

4.8 Erosion Control Requirements
The geotextile effectively performs erosion control functions in different applications of
roads and sidewalks. The engineers can choose any product based on the requirements
and experience of the project.
4.8.1 Geotextile requirement: This specification refers to the use of geotextiles
between the energy-absorbing Armor systems and the soil in situ to mitigate the loss of
the soil, thereby attenuating excessive erosion and preventing hydraulic lifts that could
undermine the stability of permanent erosion control systems. The main function of the
geotextile in the application of erosion control is filtration. The filtering characteristics of
the geotextile are influenced by the hydraulic conditions of the site, soil gradation, density
and plasticity. Table 4.8 lists the criteria for the geotextiles used in the application
described.

28
 In- situ Soil Passing Permittivity, per sec Maximum Apparent
0.075 mm sieve (%) IS 14324/ASTM D4491 opening Size, mm IS
14294/ASTM D 4751
<15 0.7 0.43
15to50 0.2 0.25
>50 0.1 0.22

Table 4.8 geotextile Requirement for Erosion Control

4.8.2 Selection criteria for erosion control
The main role of geotextiles used to control permanent erosion is to protect soils from
water-induced erosion. The need to use a permanent erosion control geotextile depends
on factors such as the type and intensity of the water flow on the soil that must be
protected, soil erosion, the presence and expansion of vegetative covers.

29
 CHAPTER - 5
CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES FOR USE OF GEOTEXTILES IN
ROAD WORKS

5.1 General
While material qualities are important, using the right construction procedures is just as
important for a successful geotextile installation. Even though the installation techniques
look straightforward, poor construction procedures are the root cause of many geotextile-
related issues with roads. The geosynthetic will not function as intended if it is ripped,
pierced, or otherwise harmed during construction. Similar to this, a geotextile with too
many creases and folds will not have the required tension and won't have the intended
reinforcing effect. The many building tasks related to geological materials are thoroughly
explained in the step-by-step instructions that follow. According to experts, geotextiles
should not be exposed to unfavourable weather conditions like heavy downpours, intense
cold, freezing temperatures, or intense heat. Although these guidelines offer broad
recommendations for installation and construction, but Applying the manufacturer's
installation instructions and maintaining stringent quality control is essential, subject to
project-specific needs and the permission of the competent engineer.
.
5.2 Construction Guidelines for Subsurface Drainage
5.2.1 The gorge's excavation will be completed in compliance with the specifics of the
project designs. Excavation must always be done to keep big holes from forming at the
bottom of the cave as well as on its sides. There should be no traces, depressions, or
blockages on the graded surface.
5.2.2 The geotextile material must be laid without wrinkles or folds, ensuring there are
no gaps between the geosynthetic and the ground surface. Each subsequent sheet of
geosynthetic should overlap the previous one by at least 300 mm, with the upstream sheet
overlapping the downstream sheet.
5.2.3 In trenches equal to or greater than 300 mm in width, after placing the designated
filter material, the geotextile shall be folded over the top of the backfill material to create
a minimum overlap of 300 mm. For trenches less than 300 mm but greater than 100 mm
wide, the overlap shall match the width of the trench. In cases where the trench is less
than 100 mm wide, the geotextile overlap must be sewn or bonded. All seams must
receive approval from the Engineer. If the geotextile sustains damage during installation
or drainage aggregate placement, a geosynthetic patch with a minimum 300 mm overlap
on all sides, or the specified seam overlap, whichever is greater, shall be applied over the
damaged area.

30
5.2.4 According to MoRTH 702.2.3, the placement of design filter material
should follow immediately after the placement of the geotextile material. Before
compaction, the geotextile should be covered with a minimum of 300 mm of loosely
placed aggregate. If a perforated collector pipe is to be installed in the trench, a bedding
layer of drainage aggregate should be placed below the pipe. The remainder of the
aggregate should then be placed to meet the minimum required construction depth.
5.2.5 The aggregate should be compacted to a minimum of 90 per cent of standard
proctor density. Figs. 5.1 to 5.2 illustrate various geosynthetic drainage application
details.

Figure 5.4 Various Arrangements for Trench Drains

Figure 5.5 Trench and Toe Interceptor Drain for Cut Slope Seepage

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 Figure 5.6 Sequence of Construction Procedure for Drains.
5.3 Construction Guidelines for Separation/Filtration/Subgrade/Base/Subbase
Reinforcement Function
There are construction guidelines are related to placing a geotextile material between base
or subbase and subgrade for any of the following applications as:
• Base or Subbase Separation
• Base or Subbase Stabilization
• Base or Subbase Capillary Barrier
• Base or Subbase Reinforcement
5.3.1 The site must undergo clearing, grubbing, and excavation to meet the design
grade, removing all topsoil and any other unsuitable materials. In cases of moderate site
conditions, where the CBR (California Bearing Ratio) is greater than 1, frivolous
profiling operations should be considered to identify inappropriate materials. Any remote
pockets requiring additional excavation should be backfilled therefore.
5.3.2 Throughout the stripping processes, it's crucial to avoid excessive trouble to the
subgrade. This may necessitate the use of lightweight dozers or graders, especially for
low-strength, saturated, non-cohesive, and low-cohesive soils. In such instances, all
vegetation should be cut at ground level. For stumps or roots extending above the ground

32
surface, sawdust or sand can be placed to cushion the geotextile material. Subgrade
preparation must align with the survivability properties of the geotextile.
5.3.3 Once the subgrade along a particular segment of the road alignment has been
prepared, the geotextile must be rolled in line with the settlement of the aggregate. Field
operations can be expedited if the geotextile is pre-sewn to design widths in the workshop
or on firm ground so it can be unrolled on site in one continuous sheet. The geotextile
should not be dragged across the subgrade. The entire roll should be placed and rolled out
as effortlessly as likely. Creases and folds in the fabric should be removed by stretching
and stacking as required as geotextile.
5.3.4 Together rolls of geotextile should be overlapped. Aimed at curves, the geotextile
should be folded or cut and overlapped in the direction of construction. For separation,
drainage and capillary barrier applications, geotextiles shall be sewn or joined as required.
Folds in the geotextile should be stapled or pinned approximately 0.6 m centre-to-centre
as shown in Fig. 5.4 (a) and (b).

Figure 5.4 Folding of geotextiles

5.3.5 Previously covering, an Engineer experienced in the usage of these materials
should inspect the geotextile for damage such as holes, nips, tears, etc. If excessive
defects are detected, the affected section of the geotextile should be repaired by placing a
new layer over the damaged area, ensuring a minimum required overlap for adjacent rolls
extending beyond the defect in all directions. Alternatively, the entire defective section
can be replaced.
5.3.6 The first lift of aggregate should be spread and graded to 300 mm, or to design
thickness if less than 300 mm prior to compaction. At no time should traffic be
permissible on a soft roadway with less than 200 mm of aggregate over the geotextiles.
5.3.7 Any ruts that form during construction should be filled to maintain adequate cover
over the geotextile. In no case should ruts be bladed down, as this would decrease the
amount of aggregate cover over the geotextile.

33
5.3.8 All remaining base aggregates should be placed in lifts not exceeding 250 mm in
loose thickness and compacted to the specified density. Different operation sequences for
construction are shown in Fig. 5.5.

a. PREPARE THE GROUND BY b. UNROLL THE GEOTEXTILE

DIRECTLY OVER THE
REMOVING STUMPS, BOULDER, ETC; GROUND TO BE STABILIZED.IF MORE
THAN ONE ROLLS
FILL IN LOW SPORTS REQUIRED, OVERLAP ROLLS.
INSPECTION GEOTEXTILE

Prepare the ground Unroll the Geotextile

c. BACK DUMP AGGREGATE ON TO d. SPREAD THE AGGREGATE OVER

THE GEOTEXTILE
PREVIOUSLY PLACED AGGREGATE. TO THE DESIGN THICKNESS
DO NOT DRIVE ON THE GEOTEXTILE.
MAINTAIN 150mm TO 300mm COVER
BETWEEN TRUCK TYRES AND
GEOTEXTILE

e. COMPACT THE AGGREGATE USING

DOZER TRUCK OR SMOOTH DRUM

VIBRATORY ROLLER

Figure 5.5 Construction Sequence

5.4 geotextile Overlaps
5.4.1 When geotextile materials are cast-off the overlaps can be used to provide
continuity between head-to-head geotextile rolls through frictional resistance between the
overlaps. Also, a adequate overlap is required to prevent soil from hugging into the
aggregate at the joint. The amount and type of overlap depends primarily on the soil
conditions, type of geotextile their function and application. If the subgrade does not rut
under construction activities, only a minimum overlap is required to provide some pull-
out resistance. As the potential for rutting and squeezing of soil increases, the required

34
overlap increases. Since rutting potential can be related to CBR, it can be used as a
guideline for the minimum overlap required.
Table 5.1 Overlap Requirement of Geotextile for Different CBR Values (IS 16345).

Soil Strength (CBR) Overlap Unsewn, cm Overlap Sewn, cm

Greater than 3 and 60 -
above
2-3 76 8
1-2 97 20
Less than 1 - 23
All Roll Ends 100 25

5.4.2 The geotextile can be stapled or pinned at the overlaps to maintain their positions
during construction actions. For the separation and filtration applications using
geotextiles the overlap requirements are given in Fig. 5.6. For underwater applications, 5
mm Dia and 450 mm long steel pins should be placed at a maximum of 1.0 m centre-to-
centre.

Figure 5.6 Overlap Requirement of Geotextiles

5.5 Seams
5.5.1 When seams are necessary for separation applications involving geotextiles, they
should possess a minimum of 90 percent of the material’s tensile strength requirements
for survivability (as specified in Table 5.1). All factory or field seams must be sewn using
thread that is as strong and durable as the fabric material itself.
5.5.2 When the field-sewing geotextiles, a number of details must be addressed. They
are following as:
Thread type: The choices are polyester, polypropylene and polyamides. Consideration
should be given to using the same thread type as geotextile fibre.
Thread tension: This is usually adjusted in the field so as to be sufficiently tight without
cutting the geotextiles.

35
Stitch density: Two, three or four stitches per 25 mm are customary.
Stitch type: The choices are prayer, J-type, or butterfly. Fig. 5.9 shows typical seams for
geotextiles. The strongest being the butterfly type.
Number of rows: One, two or three are customary; generally, two are suggested.

Figure 5.7 Typical Seams for Geotextiles

5.6 Construction Guidelines for Erosion Control

5.6.1 The geotextiles need to be placed in close contact with the soil, under slight
tension, ensuring no wrinkles or folds, and anchored on a plane graded surface approved
by the Engineer. They should be placed to prevent excessive stretch when overlaid with

36
materials to avoid tearing. The following anchoring approvals serve as a guide and should
be adjusted based on specific site conditions and manufacturer’s advices:

Entrenching the edges of the erosion control mat in a trench around 150-200 millimetres
deep by 150 millimetres wide stops water from flowing beneath the mat and offers
maximum erosion protection. When installing the mat on a slope, it is sensible to embed
the upstream edge in a trench for better protection from stream flow. The mat should
maintain excellent contact with the soil surface and be secured with an appropriate
number of pins according to the slope's degree. Generally, the mat should be anchored
with pins at intervals of 0.5-1 meter along its length, with pins staggered 400-600
millimetres across the mat. Pins should be driven flush with the soil surface and be
sufficiently long to ensure ample ground penetration to resist pullout. If the slope exceeds
a ratio of 1 vertical unit to 3 horizontal units (1V:3H), it is suggested that the anchor
trench be installed at least 1 meter from the crest of the slope.

Type of Slope Gradient Minimum pins/sq.m

Steep slopes 1:1-1:2 or greater 6 to 8
Moderate slopes 1:1-1:3 4 to 6
Gentle slopes 1:4 or less

Figure 5.8 (a) Erosion Control using Geotextiles

37
 Figure 5.8 (b) Anchoring Details of Erosion Control Mats
5.6.2 The geotextiles should be placed with the machine direction aligned parallel to the
water flow direction, typically parallel to the slope for controlling erosion runoff and
wave action, and parallel to the stream or channel for stream bank and channel protection.
Adjacent geosynthetic sheets must be connected by either sewing or overlapping or
joining. Overlaps at roll ends and adjacent sheets should be a minimum of 300
millimetres, except when submerged, where the minimum overlap should be 1 meter.

Figure 5.8 (c) Orientation of Matting on Slopes and Channels

5.6. In scenarios where wave action or multi-directional flow is expected, all seams
perpendicular to the flow direction must be stitched.
5.6.4 During installation, precautionary measures must be taken to prevent damage to
the geotextiles. If damage does occur during installation, a geosynthetic patch should be
applied over the affected area, extending 1 meter beyond the damaged perimeter.
5.6.5 The installation of the Armor system should commence at the base and progress
upward along the slope. Installation must be conducted in a manner that prevents
stretching and consequent tearing of the geotextiles. Riprap and large stone filling should
not be deposited from a height exceeding 300 millimetres. Stones weighing over 100
kilograms must not be permitted to roll down the slope.

38
5.6.6 Slope protection and smaller sizes of stone filling should not be dropped from a
height exceeding 1 meter, or a field trial should be conducted to confirm that the
placement procedures will not harm the geotextiles. In submerged applications, the
geotextiles and backfill material should be positioned on the same day. All empty areas in
the Armor stone should be filled with smaller stones to guarantee complete coverage.
5.6.7 Follow placement of the Armor stone, grading of the slope shall not be permitted if
the grading results in movement of the stone directly above the geotextiles.
5.6.8 Field monitoring shall be performed to verify that the armour system placement
does not damage the geotextile. Any geotextile damaged during backfill placement shall
be replaced as directed by the Engineer-in-charge.

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 CHAPTER - 6
HANDLING AND STORAGE OF GEOTEXTILES
6.1 General
6.1.1 Geotextiles, being durable products, offer cost-effective solutions to a range of
civil engineering design and construction challenges. As with any construction material,
proper handling and storage of geotextiles are crucial to maintain their specified physical
properties for effective project performance. Damage resulting from mishandling can
significantly impair the geotextiles' ability to fulfil their intended function in various
applications. The goal of handling and storing geotextiles is to transport and store rolls or
panels safely at the project site, minimizing exposure to sunlight (ultraviolet light),
moisture, or other contaminants. It's important to adhere to general recommendations for
working with geotextile materials at the site and to follow handling and storage
procedures according to the product manufacturer’s suggestions and instructions.
6.2 Site Unloading
6.2.1 Geotextiles, known for their durability, offer cost-effective solutions to a variety of
civil engineering challenges. Just like any construction material, proper handling and
storage are crucial to maintain their specified physical properties for effective project
performance. Mishandling can lead to significant damage, impairing their ability to fulfill
their intended function in different applications. The aim of handling and storing
geotextiles is to safely transport and store rolls or panels at the project site, while
minimizing exposure to sunlight (UV light), moisture, or contaminants. Adhering to
general recommendations for working with geotextile materials on-site and following
manufacturer’s instructions for handling and storage are vital.

Figure 6.1 Hydro Crane Shifting the geotextiles Roll to the Location
6.2.2 Geotextile rolls can also be lifted from flatbed trailers using nylon straps or rope
and equipment such as a crane, backhoe, or bulldozer. However, no more than three

40
geotextile rolls should be lifted at a time to avoid damaging the roll core and hindering
deployment. Chains and cables should not be used for lifting geotextile rolls. While the
recommended equipment for unloading may not always be available at construction sites,
alternative local methods or manual labor can be employed. With careful unloading, the
geotextile will remain suitable for easy installation. If a carpet pole is unavailable, a roll
puller, nylon strap, or rope can be utilized to unload geotextile rolls from an enclosed
trailer. Roll pullers, inserted into the roll core and attached to a vehicle, expand against
the inside of the roll core as the vehicle pulls, dragging the roll to the edge of the truck
bed and down to the ground. Alternatively, nylon straps or ropes can be wrapped around
the geotextile roll using a slip knot and then dragged to the edge of the truck and down to
the ground. To protect the ground surface, a tarpaulin, sheet of plastic, or fabric should be
placed where the geosynthetic rolls are to be unloaded.

Figure 6.2 Unrolling of geotextile Roll

6.3 SITE STORAGE
6.3.1 The geotextile rolls must be shielded from exposure to ultraviolet light while
stored at the site. A protective wrapping should remain on the rolls until the geotextiles
are installed. If stored outdoors, the geotextiles should be raised above the ground surface
and adequately covered to shield them from potential damage caused by various factors,
including site construction activities, precipitation, ultraviolet radiation (including
sunlight), strong acids or bases, flames (including welding sparks), temperatures
exceeding 71°C, and any other environmental conditions that may harm the geotextile.
Figure 6.3 demonstrates the proper covering method for geotextiles before use at the site.

41
 Figure 6.3 Covering of geotextiles Rolls before Use at Site

To the extent possible, geotextiles shall be stored with the packaging intact. This is
essential for the following reasons:
a) Easy proof of identity of the material type, batch no. and other details;
b) Defence against any damage during storage;
c) Defence against damage during onward handling
6.3.2 Steps to be taken if geotextiles roll or protective wrapping is damaged
6.3.2.1 In most instances, damage to a roll of geosynthetics is confined to the protective
wrapping. If the wrapping sustains damage, proper storage of the geotextile becomes
especially crucial. The rolls should be lifted off the ground and securely covered with a
tarpaulin or opaque plastic sheet. If the outer layer of the geotextile itself is damaged, it is
necessary to remove the outermost wraps during installation and discard the affected
material. This process, known as removing the outermost wrap of geotextile, is required
when a roll is exposed to sunlight for a duration beyond that specified by the project
requirements. The remaining undamaged material is still suitable for construction use.
6.3.2.2 Revealing geotextile rolls to moisture or water before installation can cause
significant handling issues. Non-woven geotextiles, in particular, can absorb water up to
three times their weight. Furthermore, the cores on which the geotextile rolls are wound
are typically made from laminated paper. When wet, the strength of these cores is
significantly reduced to the extent that they may not support the weight of the geotextile.
Consequently, installing wet rolls of geotextile can be extremely challenging. Moreover,
unrolling wet, frozen geotextile is nearly impossible without first allowing it to thaw.

42
6.3.3 If geotextile rolls become wet, it is acceptable to remove the waterproof cover and
expose them to wind for several days to facilitate drying, ensuring the rolls are elevated
during this process. Alternatively, the protective wrapping can be removed from one end
of the roll while elevating the opposite end, allowing excess water to drain out. While
these methods may not result in complete drying, unrolling the geotextile during
installation will typically lead to rapid drying in sunlight and wind. However, it's
important to note that non-woven geotextile used with asphalt overlays of existing
pavements must be completely dry before installation.
6.3.4 Protection from sunlight (ultraviolet light) degradation
6.3.4.1 Geotextile materials degrade gradually when exposed to ultraviolet light. While
some geotextiles contain ultraviolet stabilizing chemicals to minimize this degradation, it
is recommended to restrict geotextile exposure to sunlight until just prior to installation.
The acceptable limits of exposure to ultraviolet light depend on site environmental
conditions such as temperature, latitude, time of year, wind, etc., as well as the
assumptions made by the Engineer during the design process.
6.3.4.2 The geotextile material must continuously be installed within the period required
by the project specifications. If no time requirements are detailed, it is generally
suggested that geotextile exposure to ultraviolet light be limited to a period of around two
weeks. Excessive cold temperatures normally found at construction sites, even in the
coldest climates, do not pose a risk to geotextile.

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ANNEXURE 1

DETERMINATION OF LAYER COEFFICIENTS

Determining layer coefficients involves establishing empirical relationships between
Structural Number (SN) and layer thicknesses, reflecting the relative effectiveness of a
material as a structural component of the pavement. These coefficients are usually
derived empirically based on material performance. Detailed instructions for determining
layer coefficients can be found in Section 2.3.5 of Part II, AASHTO 1993. The process of
deriving layer coefficients from Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) values shall proceed as follows:
Determination of layer coefficient from FWD data (Layer coefficients for NHDOT
pavement materials, Vincent - C. Janoo - 1994)
Rohde (1994) devised a method for calculating the Structural Number (SN) of a
pavement structure based on Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) measurements. The
SN equation utilized is a modification of the one introduced by TRL in 1975, which is
also employed in the World Bank Highway Design and Maintenance Pavement
Performance Model (HDM-III model). The modified Structural Number (SNC) is defined
as:
n
SNC=∑ ai h + SNSGi
i=1

Where, SNSG is that portion of the structural number contributed by the subgrade. The
following relationship for SNSG in terms of CBR has been used:
SNSG = 3.51 log10 CBR – 0.85 (log10 CBR) 2 – 1.43
Where CBR = in-situ California Bearing Ratio of the subgrade (%)
Based on Irwin’s (1983), “two thirds rule” of stress distribution under pavement structure,
Rohde assumed that the deflection (D1.5 h) measured at a distance on the surface equal to
1.5 times the structural section thickness (h) is due to the subgrade only. He then
developed the Structural Index of the Pavement (SIP). SIP is associated with the
deflection above the subgrade only:
SIP=D0 -D 1.5 h
The hypothesis is that SIP should be strongly correlated with stiffness of the pavement
structure and thus to SN. Based on the regression analysis, Rohde developed a
relationship between SN and SIP:
SN = k1 SIPK2 hK3

44
The succeeding values, 0.1165, -0.3248 and 0.8241 were used for K 1, K2 and K3
(Reclaimed Stabilized Base layers (RSB) at 2%, 3% and 4%) for all the base courses with
the allowance of the asphalt layer. For the asphalt layer, 0.4728, -0.4810 and 0.7581 were
used as recommended by Rohde, respectively. For a two-layer system, the layer
coefficient was calculated using:
SNC + SNSG
a i=
0.0394∗h

He developed another index called Structural Index of Subgrade (SIS):

SIS=D1.5h -Ds
Where Ds is the deflection measured at a distance of 762 mm from the centre plate. The
subgrade modulus is:
Esg = 10k4 SISk5 hk6
The following recommended values of 23138, -1.236 and -1.903 (Rohde 1994) were used
for k4, k5 and k6. The CBR% of the subgrade was back calculated from:
Esg = [1500 × CBR0.73] / 6.9, (kPa)
The subgrade moduli obtained from the modified Business equation were also used in
place of Esg and layer coefficient can be back calculated.

Determination of layer coefficients using CBR results

Field CBR data were found from the Clegg hammer and in-situ CBR testing. Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer (DCP) information also can be converted to CBR. The DCP data are
converted to penetration per blow rate. The Corps of Engineers use the following
relationship to convert the DCP rate to CBR:
292
CBR (%)= 1.12
DCP
where DCP = millimetres/blow
The World Bank Highway Design and Maintenance (HDM-111) pavement performance
model, provided a correlation between CBR and a i as given below
a i = (29.14 × CBR – 0.1977 CBR2 + 0.00045 CBR3) 10-4

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ANNEXURE 2

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAYER COEFFICIENT RATIO &

MODULUS
IMPROVEMENT FACTOR
1. Layer Coefficient Ratio
General
The Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR) reflects the impact of a particular geogrid on the layer
coefficient of the layer in which the geogrid is installed. This approach restricts and
applies the benefits of geotextile reinforcement trials specifically to the layer improved by
the inclusion of reinforcement, typically granular layers. By employing the LCR
approach, a designer can quantify the advantages of geogrid reinforcement, which may
manifest as increased pavement lifespan, reduced layer thickness, or a combination of
both factors. The typical procedure for determining LCR involves conducting full-scale
traffic tests and laboratory experiments on both geogrid-reinforced and unreinforced
flexible pavements.
1.1 Full Scale Traffic Tests
1.1.1 Test section layout and design
The full-scale traffic tests shall be performed outdoors and subject to local ecological
conditions just as any other road or pavement with the following features:
• Full scale highway construction equipment and practices
• Extended exposure to weather over multiple seasons
• Incorporation of local subgrade soils, aggregate and paving material
• A driven traffic vehicle capable of applying 80 kN standard axle loads to
eliminate the steering axle effect; “super-single” tires
• Channelized traffic with minimal wander
• Laser profiling of the rutting pattern
The test tracks are usually placed out as an oval as shown in Fig. II-1, to offer a one-
directional wheel loading pattern during constant traffic. Conventional sections cast-off
for testing should be sufficiently long to accommodate multiple full lane width test
sections. A typical test cross section cooperative two-wheel paths is shown in Fig. II-2

46
 Figure 2-1 Test Track Layout

Figure 2-2 Typical Cross Section of Test Area

Test sections will be constructed in groups having rehabilitated target subgrade CBR
values indicating changed subgrade strength. All test sections shall be designed to scope
at least 25 mm of permanent centreline deflection before reaching goal traffic load in
terms of Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESALs). All sections shall be subjected to
identical compactive effort on all the surface, base and subbase layers. Fig. II-3 illustrates
construction of a typical set of test sections.

47
 Figure 2-3 Construction of Typical Test Sections
To ensure realistic conditions, pavement sections should be constructed using standard
local pavement materials such as BC, DBM, WMM, GSB, and subgrade soils. The
construction process must adhere to high-quality control standards, and a rigorous quality
assurance regimen should be implemented. It is essential to record measured as-
constructed section properties for multiple tests.
1.1.2 Traffic
A commercial truck can undergo modifications for use as the loading vehicle for test
sections. These modifications involve carefully distributing weight to ensure that each
axle applies a load of 80 kN. Additionally, all tires with a tire pressure of 0.56 MPa
should be used during testing. The tires should be aligned from front to rear so that each
travel in the same path when the vehicle is moving straight ahead. These modifications
ensure that each pass of the loading vehicle applies two identical loads to the test sections,
eliminating the complicating effects of a steering/load axle combination often
encountered in full-scale testing.
The loading vehicle, as used for traffic, is depicted in Figure II-4. The truck should travel
along the test sections for a predetermined number of passes before stopping for surface
rut depth measurements. Wheel path centreline and transverse profile rut data should be
collected at the midpoint of each test section using a stiff beam placed on the
measurement posts, as shown in Figure II-4. A laser distance measuring device, accurate
to one mm, should be positioned at predetermined points along the measurement beam to
collect these measurements, as illustrated in Figures II-4 and II-5. A complete transverse
surface profile should be obtained on each test section before traffic is allowed and at
various intervals during traffic. Centreline deflection data should be collected more
frequently to assess ongoing deformation.
The Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) technique can be employed to assess the layer
moduli of pavement test sections. This FWD deflection data from both unreinforced and

48
reinforced pavement sections should be used to analyse critical strains in the pavement,
which serve as indicators of pavement performance in terms of rutting and fatigue
cracking. Differences in modulus values obtained from FWD test data can be utilized to
determine the improvement achieved by using geogrid in pavement layers.

Figure 2-4 Loading Vehicle and Beam for Surface Rut Measurements during Traffic

Figure 2-5 Positioning of Laser Distance Measuring Device for Profiling

Traffic is applied to the test sections until each individual paved section reaches 25 mm of
permanent centreline deflection or reaches the target traffic load in terms of Equivalent
Single Axle Loads (ESALs). Test sections that fail prematurely are repaired to maintain
the vehicle's traffic ability and to minimize carryover damage to adjacent test sections.
Repairs involve adding extra base course aggregate to the rutted areas and smoothing the
surface with a lightweight skid steer loader. Standard axle passages required for each test
section to reach predetermined levels of permanent deformation are determined, followed
by the application of a normalization procedure to the data. This normalization procedure
is essential for eliminating section-to-section variability in full-scale, realistic test
sections. All values are interpolated using a best-fit line of data near the 25 mm threshold.
1.2 Laboratory Tests
A large-scale experimental program in the laboratory can be conducted to assess and
comprehend the structural contribution of geogrid to flexible pavement systems under
simulated traffic conditions. Geogrid is placed in one half of the box section, while the

49
other half remains unreinforced to serve as a control section for comparison. The geogrid
is positioned in a flat prepared bed as per requirements and then folded at a 90° angle at
the box sides, simulating the anchorage effect in a typical wide road base. Load is applied
in the form of sinusoidal cycles through a circular loading plate with a diameter of 300
mm. The loading ranges from 0 to 40 kN with an equivalent applied pressure of 560 kPa.
Vertical settlements (ruts) are recorded as a function of the number of cycles, along with
the permanent deformation in the road section. Test sections can be constructed and
loaded in either a test-box facility or a facility allowing for the construction of a test-
track. Minimum dimensions for the geometry of a test box are provided in Figure II-6.

Figure 2-6 Typical Schematic of Laboratory Test-Box Pavement Test Facility/Set

up Showing Minimum Box Dimensions, Plate Load and Plate Dimensions
(GMA White Paper-II)
Settlements and elastic rebounds of the asphalt layers should be measured during the
tests, under the loading plate, at intervals such as every 100 cycles, but not limited to; the
interval may be chosen based on specific requirements. The distribution of permanent
deformation on the aggregate during the tests is determined by measuring displacements
of the asphalt surface at various locations, as well as at the bitumen aggregate and
aggregate/subgrade interfaces at the conclusion of each test. A series of tests should be
conducted with various subgrade shear strengths corresponding to different California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) values for different densities. Rut geometry for reinforced and
unreinforced sections will be analysed to identify differences in depth and shape of the
deformed sections.
The Layer Coefficient Ratio (LCR) can be determined using the equation below, based on
results obtained from tests on flexible pavement systems with and without reinforcement.

50
 a r (SN r −a1∗d 1)d u
=
au (SN u−a1∗d 1 )d r

Where:
αr/ αu = layer coefficient ratio LCR
SNr and SNu are the structural numbers for reinforced and unreinforced
pavement systems.
2 Modulus Improvement Factor for Geotextile
Modulus of the system with or without geotextile material is essentially the slope of the
stress versus strain curve. The Modulus Improvement Factor (MIF) is the ratio of
improvement of the modulus of a system where geotextile materials are incorporated, as
compared to the system without geotextile materials. This factor is evaluated by
conducting plate load tests on soil subgrade and evaluating the respective moduli without
and with geotextile materials and comparing the two moduli to estimate the MIF.
Determination of MIF for Geotextile
Two sections, namely the unreinforced section and the geotextile reinforced section, are
analysed. Schematics of both sections are depicted in Figure II-7 below. Strain gauges are
strategically positioned to monitor deformations, while earth pressure cells are placed
beneath the geotextile materials to monitor pressures, as illustrated in the section view in
Figure II-7.

Figure 2-7 Schematic of Unreinforced and Reinforced Section

MIF is defined as:

51
 MODULUS OF REINFORCED SECTION AT A GIVIN SETTLEMENT
MIF =
MODULUS OF UNREINFORCED SECTION FOR A GIVIN SETTLEMENT

Research has begun to focus on the enhancement of the design procedure for the future,
particularly on incorporating Mechanistic-Empirical (ME) design procedures, including
the AASHTO Mechanical-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG) procedures
(AASHTO 2008). Discrete element modelling of geogrid and aggregate, mechanistic
response modelling with finite element method analyses, full-scale testing, and laboratory
testing are being utilized to develop and refine an ME design procedure.

52
CALCULATIONS PAVEMENT DESIGN AND GEOTEXTILE USED
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN

ANNEXURE 3
PAVEMENT DESIGN CBR DESIGN METHOD
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) method, recognized in 1928 by the California Division of
Highways, is an empirical design approach mainly reliant on soil type, mostly its strength
characteristics. Despite its simplicity in test process and the consistency of total thickness above
the Subgrade (S.G.), it has faced criticism for not factoring in the specific materials used in each
layer and design the pavement design.

DESIGN THE PAVEMENT BY CBR METHOD:

Given:

Number of lanes = 2 (assumed)

Percentage of total traffic = 50%

Initial traffic = 2000*2*2 = 8000 C.V/day

CBR of S.G = 3%

CBR of sub base = 22% CBR of road base = 70%

Thickness of pavement by using the CBR of S.G = 700mm (from fig: 7.10 curve F)

Thickness of road base and surfacing by using the CBR of sub base = 220mm (curve F)

Thickness of surfacing by using the CBR of road base = 100mm (curve F)

Thickness of road base = 220-100 = 120mm

Thickness of sub base = 700-220 = 480mm

SURFACING 100mm
ROAD BASE / CBR = 70% 120mm
SUB BASE / CBR = 22% 480mm

S.G / CBR = 3%

Checking the design:

1. Frost susceptibility pavement thickness ≥ 450mm

2. Since the water table rise > 600mm we need to lower the water table

53
 ANN
EXURE 4
WORKED-OUT EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE DESIGN
METHODS
Design the Pavement for Construction of a New Flexible Pavement with the
following Data:
GIVEN:
Design traffic: 50 msa
Subgrade CBR = 6%
Solution:
i. Design resilient modulus of the compacted subgrade
Mr (MPa) = 10 × CBR ; for CBR 5
= 17.6 × (CBR)0.64 ; for CBR > 5
Where Mr = Resilient modulus of subgrade soil
Mr subgrade =17.6 × 60.64= 55.4 MPa
ii. Thickness of unreinforced granular layers: For design traffic of 50 msa and
obtained CBR of 6 per cent, the thickness values are taken as below with reference to
design plates (Assume Plate 4) from IRC:37.
Thickness of granular base (D2) = 250 mm,
Thickness of granular sub-base (D3) = 260 mm
MRG =0.2×h0.45×MR_subgrade
Where h= thickness of granular base and sub-base layers, mm
Therefore, resilient modulus of granular layer = 0.2 × (510)0.45 × 55.4= 183.20 MPa.
Thickness of proposed bituminous layer with VG 40 bitumen with bottom DBM layer
having air void of 3 per cent (0.5 per cent to 0.6 per cent additional bitumen over OBC)
over WMM and GSB mm at reliability of 90 per cent.
(A) Design calculations of bitumen pavement with geotextile reinforced granular
base and subbase layers using LCR of geotextile Reducing thickness of pavement
section

54
In this case the result of reinforcement is shown as the reduction in the pavement section
thickness.
i. Design Traffic = 50 msa
ii. Subgrade CBR = 6 per cent
iii. Reliability = 90 per cent
iv. Resilient Modulus of Subgrade (MR):
MR (MPa) = 17.6×60.64= 55.40 MPa
Resilient modulus of Subbase and Base layers:
Granular sub-base thickness (M R_GSB ) = 260 mm
MR_GSB = 0.2×h0.45×MR_subgrade
Where h= thickness of granular sub-base layer, mm
MR of unreinforced subbase layer = 0.2 × (260)0.45 × 55.4 = 136 MPa = 19724.624 Psi
Granular Base thickness = 250 mm
MR_GB = 0.2×h0.45 × MR_GSB
Where h = thickness of granular base layer, mm
MR of unreinforced base layer = 0.2 × (250)0.45 × 136 = 327MPa = 47426.118Psi
Resilient modulus of Bituminous Mixes = 3000 MPa=435102 Psi
v. Structural layer coefficient of each layer:
Layer coefficient for bituminous layer (a1) = 0.171 x (LN (MR))-1.784
= 0.171 x (LN (435102))-1.784=0.436
a) Structural Layer coefficient for base layer shall be taken from the equations
given in AASTHO 1993.
Structural layer coefficient for base layer
a2 = 0.249 × (log10 M R_BC) – 0.977 = 0.249 × (log10 47426.118) – 0.977
=0.188
b) Structural layer coefficient for subbase layer
a3 = 0.227 (log10 M R_SB) – 0.839 = 0.227 × (log10 19724.624) – 0.839
= 0.136

55
Therefore,
Layer coefficient for base layer (a2) = 0.188
Layer coefficient for sub base layer (a3) = 0.136
vi. Layer Coefficient Ratio: Layer coefficient for geogrid is taken on the basis on the
laboratory tests/filed tests; or it can be provided by the manufacturer.
(LCR base) for geogrid used in base layer = 1.4
(LCR Subbase) for geogrid used in sub base layer = 1.61
(B) Modified layer thickness values for reinforced sections by IITPAVE
Thickness of sub base layer = 180 mm
Thickness of base layer = 160 mm
Resilient modulus of reinforced Subbase and Base layers
Granular sub-base thickness = 180 mm
MR_GSB = 0.2×h0.45 × MR_subgrade
Where h= thickness of granular sub-base layer, mm
MR of reinforced subbase layer = 0.2 × (180)0.45 × 55.40 = 115 MPa
=16678.91Psi
Granular Base thickness = 160 mm
MR_GB = 0.2 × h0.45 × MR_GSB
Where h = thickness of granular base layer, mm
MR of reinforced base layer = 0.2 × (160)0.45 × 115 = 225 MPa
= 32632.65 Psi
Layer coefficient for bituminous layer (a1) = 0.436
c) Structural Layer coefficient for base layer shall be taken from b equations
given in AASTHO 1993.
Structural layer coefficient for base layer
a 2 = 0.249 × (log10 MR_GB) – 0.977 = 0.249 × (log10 32632.65) – 0.977
= 0.147
d) Structural layer coefficient for subbase layer

56
a3 = 0.227 (log10 MR_GSB) – 0.839 = 0.227 × (log10 16678.91) – 0.839
= 0.120
Therefore,
Modified Layer coefficient for base layer (a2) = 0.147
Modified Layer coefficient for sub base layer (a3) = 0.120
Modified layer coefficient for base layer (a 2’) = LCRbase × a2
= 1.4*0.147= 0.2058
Modified layer coefficient for sub-base layer (a 3’) = LCRSubbase × a3
= 1.61*0.120= 0.1932
With the improved layer coefficients, improved elastic modulus of respective layers shall
be back calculated using below equations.
a21 = 0.249× (log10 MR_GB) – 0.977
MR_GB1 = 393 MPa
a31 = 0.227 (log10 MR_GSB) – 0.839
MR_GSB1 = 244 MPa
Using above improved elastic modulus corresponding improved layer coefficients,
reinforced layer thickness shall be determined.
Reinforced base layer thickness = 160 mm
Reinforced subbase layer thickness = 180 mm
Surface layer (BC+DBM) =150 mm

Geotextile layers

57
(a) Conventional Unreinforced Pavement Section (b) Geogrid Reinforced Pavement
Section
Figure 4-1 Pavement Sections with and without Reinforcement
This reinforced pavement section shall be designed as per IRC:37 i.e. section shall be
checked for fatigue and rutting failure criterion by inputting this improved elastic
modulus into IITPAVE. Fig. IV-4, shows the input parameters in IITPAVE, in which
improved E values are used. Fig. IV-5 represents the vertical and tensile strains induced
in the pavement layers. Obtained vertical strain at subgrade level is 360.4×10-6 which is
less than the permissible vertical strain 372×10- 6 obtained as per Eq 6.5 in IRC:37 and
obtained tensile strain at bottom of bitumen layer is 146.7×10-6 is less than permissible
155×10-6 tensile strain obtained as per Eq 6.2 of IRC:37.
Hence the reduced section with geogrid reinforcement in base and subbase layers is
acceptable for design traffic 50 msa.

Figure 4-2 Input Parameters in IITPAVE for Unreinforced Section

58
Figure 4-3 Vertical and Tensile Strains Induced in the Pavement Layers for
unreinforced section

Figure 4-4 Input Parameters in IITPAVE for Reinforced Section

Figure 4-5 Vertical and Tensile Strains Induced in the Pavement Layers for
Reinforced section

59
 RESULT
As a result of incorporating geotextiles in flexible pavement design, you can expect
several improvements over a traditional CBR-based design:

Design calculation Surfacing Road base Sub base

Design The 150 mm (BC + 250 mm 480 mm
Pavement by CBR DBM)
Method
New Flexible 150 mm (BC + 160 mm 180 mm
Pavement with the DBM)
Geotextiles

The use of geotextiles in India has yielded several positive results:

i. Improved Infrastructure: Geotextiles have enhanced the performance and
longevity of infrastructure projects such as roads, railways, and embankments by
providing effective soil stabilization, erosion control, and drainage solutions.
ii. Environmental Protection: Geotextiles have helped mitigate soil erosion, reduce
sedimentation in water bodies, and improve water quality, thus contributing to
environmental conservation and sustainable development goals.
iii. Cost Savings: By reducing the need for traditional construction materials,
minimizing maintenance requirements, and extending the lifespan of
infrastructure, geotextiles have led to significant cost savings for projects across
the country.
iv. Enhanced Resilience: Geotextiles have improved the resilience of infrastructure
to natural disasters such as floods and landslides by reinforcing slopes, stabilizing
embankments, and providing effective drainage systems.
v. Promotion of Innovation: The adoption of geotextiles has stimulated innovation
in the construction industry, encouraging the development of new materials,
technologies, and construction techniques tailored to India's unique geographical
and climatic conditions.
Overall, the use of geotextiles in India has been instrumental in promoting sustainable
infrastructure development, protecting the environment, reducing costs, enhancing
resilience, and fostering innovation in the construction sector.

Conclusion
Geotextiles in India are poised to revolutionize infrastructure development, offering
sustainable solutions for soil stabilization, erosion control, and drainage management.
With strong government support, cost-effectiveness, and technological advancements,

60
geotextiles are set to play a pivotal role in addressing environmental challenges while
meeting the nation's growing infrastructure needs. Their versatile applications across
various sectors signify a promising future, heralding a greener and more resilient built
environment for India.

FUTURE OF GEOTEXTILE
Geotextiles in India Key to sustainable infrastructure. Supported by government
initiatives, they offer cost-effective solutions for soil stabilization and erosion control,
aligning with environmental goals. Technological advancements drive their versatile
applications across sectors, promoting a greener future.

REFERENCES
INDIAN CODES
1. IRC:34 “Recommendations for Road Construction in Areas Affected by Water
Logging Flooding and/or Salts Infestation”.
2. IRC:37 “Guidelines for Design of Flexible Pavements”.
3. IRC:115 “Guidelines for Structural Evaluation and Strengthening of Flexible
Road
Pavements Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) Technique”.
4. IRC HRB Special Report No. 12, “State-of-the-Art: Application of Geotextiles in
Highway Engineering”.
5. IS:2720: Part-7 “Methods of Test for Soils-Determination of Water Content-Dry
Density Relation using Light Compaction”.
6. IS:13162 (Part 2) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Resistance to
Exposure of Ultraviolet light and Water (Xenon Arc Type Apparatus)”.
7. IS:13162 (Part 3) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Thickness at
Specified Pressures”.
8. IS:13162 (Part 4) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Puncture
Resistance by Falling Cone Method”.
9. IS:13162 (Part 5) “Geotextiles-Methods of Test-Determination of Tensile
Properties Using a Wide Width Strip”.

61
10. IS:13325 “Determination of Tensile Properties of Extruded Polymer Geogrids
Using the Wide Strip-Test Method”.
11. IS:13360 (Part 3)-1 “Plastics-Methods of Testing-Physical and Dimensional
Properties-Determination of Density and Relative Density of Non-Cellular
Plastics”.
12. IS:16342 “Geosynthetics - Method of Test for Grab Breaking Load and
Elongation of Geotextiles”.
13. IS:14293 “Geotextiles - Method of test for trapezoid tearing strength”.
14. IS:16078 “Geosynthetics - Static Puncture Test (CBR Test)”.
15. IS:14294 “Geotextiles - Method for Determination of Apparent Opening Size by
Dry Sieving Technique”.
16. IS:14324 “Geotextiles-Methods for Test for Determination of Water Permeability
Permittivity”.
17. IS:14716 “Geotextiles-Determination of Mass per Unit Area”.
18 . IS:16389 “Geosynthetics - Method of Test for Biological Clogging of Geotextile
or Soil/Geotextile Filters”.
19. IS:16362 “Geosynthetics – Geotextiles used in Sub-Grade Stabilization in
Pavement Structures”.
20. IS:16078 “Geosynthetics - Static Puncture Test (CBR Test)”.
21. IS:16391 “Geosynthetics – Geotextiles used in Sub-Grade Separation in
Pavement Structures – Specification”.
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Grade Separation in Pavement Structures”.
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Fabric”.
INTERNATIONAL CODES
1. AASHTO M288 “Standard Specification for Geotextiles Specification for
Highway
Applications”.
2. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 1993,
“AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Structures”, Washington, DC, USA.
3. ASTM D413-98 (2013) “Standard Test Methods for Rubber Property—Adhesion
to Flexible Substrate”.

62
4. ASTM D521-92 (2009) “Standard Test Method for Measuring Mass per Unit
Area of Geotextiles”.
5. ASTM D638 “Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics”.
6. ASTM D751-06 (2011) “Standard Test Methods for Coated Fabrics”.
7. ASTM D792 “Standard Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity (Relative
Density) of Plastics by Displacement”.
8. ASTM D882 “Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic
Sheeting”.
9. ASTM D1004 “Standard Test Method for Tear Resistance (Graves Tear) of
Plastic Film and Sheeting”.
10. ASTM D1204 “Standard Test Method for Linear Dimensional Changes of
Nonrigid
Thermoplastic Sheeting or Film at Elevated Temperature”.
11. ASTM D1238 “Standard Test Method for Melt Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by
Extrusion Plastometer”.
12. ASTM D1505 “Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-
Gradient Technique”.
13. ASTM D1603 “Standard Test Method for Carbon Black Content in Olefin
Plastics”.
14. ASTM D1693 “Standard Test Method for Environmental Stress-Cracking of
Ethylene Plastics”.
15. ASTM D3776 “Standard Test Methods for Mass per Unit Area (Weight) of
Fabric”.
16. ASTM D3895 “Standard Test Method for Oxidative-Induction Time of
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17 . ASTM D4218 “Standard Test Method for Determination of Carbon Black
Content in Polyethylene Compounds by the Muffle-Furnace Technique”.
18. ASTM D4355 “Standard Test Method for Deterioration of Geotextiles by
Exposure to Light, Moisture and Heat in a Xenon Arc Type Apparatus”.
19. ASTM D4437 “Standard Practice for Non-destructive Testing (NDT) for
Determining the Integrity of Seams Used in Joining Flexible Polymeric Sheet
Geomembranes”.
20. ASTM D4491 “Standard Test Methods for Water Permeability of Geotextiles by
Permittivity”.
21. ASTM D4595 “Standard Test Method for Tensile properties of Geotextiles by the

63
 Wide-Width Strip Method”
22. ASTM D4632 “Standard Test Method for Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of
Geotextiles”. IRC: SP:59-201997
23. ISO 13438 “Geotextile-Geotextile Related Products-Screening Test Method for
Determining the Resistance to Oxidation”.
24. ISO 13934-1 “Textiles-Tensile properties of Fabrics-Determination of Maximum
Force and Elongation at Maximum Force Using the Strip Method”.
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