SCOTT CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF PROFESSIONAL STUDIES

BACHELOR OF ARTS COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ROLE OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT AND

RECYCLING PROGRAMS ON ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION.

A CASE STUDY OF MACHAKOS COUNTY

BY:

MURIGI ALICE NJERI

REG NO: BD/G010/18

APRIL 2023

A RESERCH REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF PROFESSIONAL

STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF A BACHELOR’S DEGREE IN
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT AT SCOTT CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY.
 DECLARATION
I, Murigi Alice Njeri, hereby declare my commitment to implementing a comprehensive Solid
Waste Management and Recycling Program project that aims to create a sustainable future by
effectively managing waste, promoting recycling, and mitigating the environmental impact of
waste disposal. I declare this project as my original work built upon the principles of
sustainability, community engagement, and innovation which seeks to transform waste
management practices and foster a cleaner and greener environment for all.

SIGN ____________________________________

DATE ___________________________________

MURIGI ALICE NJERI (BD/G010/18)

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 APPROVAL

I certify that Murigi Alice Njeri carried out this research study under my supervision. This
research report has been submitted under my approval as a student’s research supervisor.

SIGN_____________________________________

DATE____________________________________

LC LINDA OKEYO (RESEARCH SUPERVISOR)

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 DEDICATION
This paper is dedicated with respect to my mother Mrs. Nancy Kamau and my family for the
consistent support and motivation.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to extend my gratitude to the Almighty God for enabling me complete my research
well and writing report just like a pain-staking exercise demanding sacrifice in term of time and
resources.
I would like to express my gratitude to Scott Christian University and to my primary supervisor,
who guided me throughout this project. I would also like to thank my friends and family who
supported me and offered deep insight into the study.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION...........................................................................................................................ii

APPROVAL..................................................................................................................................iii

DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................v

TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................vi

LIST OF TABLES.........................................................................................................................x

LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................xi

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................xii

CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background of the Study....................................................................................................1

1.2 Statement of the Problem....................................................................................................7
1.3 Purpose of the Study...........................................................................................................9
1.4 Objectives of the Study.......................................................................................................9
1.5 Research Questions.............................................................................................................9
1.6 Research Hypothesis...........................................................................................................9
1.7 Significance of the Study..................................................................................................10
1.8 Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................11
1.9 Delimitation of the Study..................................................................................................11
1.10 Basic Assumptions of the Study.....................................................................................12
1.11 Definitions of Significant Terms....................................................................................12
1.12 Organization of the Study...............................................................................................13
CHAPTER TWO.........................................................................................................................13

LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................................13

2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................13

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 2.2 The Concept of Solid Waste Management.......................................................................14
2.3 Employment Opportunities and Welfare of the Local Community..................................16
2.4 Health Related Issue and Welfare of the Local Community............................................20
2.5 Environmental Pollution and the Welfare of the Local Community................................23
2.6 Conflicts and Welfare of the Local Community...............................................................27
2.7 Theoretical Framework.....................................................................................................31
2.8 Conceptual Framework.....................................................................................................32
2.9 Summary of Literature Review.........................................................................................34
CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................................35

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...............................................................................................35

3.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................35
3.2. Research Design...............................................................................................................35
3.3 Target Population..............................................................................................................35
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure..............................................................................36
3.5 Research Instruments........................................................................................................37
3.6 Data Collection Procedure................................................................................................39
3.7 Data Analysis Techniques.................................................................................................39
3.8 Ethical Considerations......................................................................................................39
CHAPTER FOUR.......................................................................................................................41

DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION............................................................41

4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................41
4.2 Return Rate of the Questionnaires....................................................................................41
4.3 General Information..........................................................................................................41
4.4 Responses in Relation to Employment Opportunities......................................................43
4.5 Health Issues Associated With Solid Waste Management Projects in Machakos County
................................................................................................................................................46
4.6 Social Conflicts Associated with Solid Waste Management Projects Implementation....49

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 4.7 Responses on Items on Environmental Pollution.............................................................51
CHAPTER FIVE.........................................................................................................................58

SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................58

5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................58
5.2 Summary of Findings........................................................................................................58
5.3 Discussion of Findings......................................................................................................60
5.4 Conclusions.......................................................................................................................63
5.5 Recommendations.............................................................................................................64
5.6 Suggestions for Further Research.....................................................................................64
Section Two: Employment opportunities..................................................................................75

Section Three: Health..................................................................................................................76

Section Four: Training Practices...............................................................................................76

Section Five: Environmental Pollution......................................................................................77

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Conceptual framework…………………………………….……………………..33

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Target Population ………………………………………………………………...…. 36
Table 3.2 Sample Population …………………………………………………………………... 37
Table 3.3 Operationalization Table ……………………………………………………………. 40
Table 4.1 Basic Information about Respondents ………………………………………………. 42
Table 4.2 Response on Employment Opportunities ……………………………………...….…
44
Table 4.3 Degree of Rating of Jobs Creation …………………………………………………...
45
Table 4.4 Mean and Standard Deviation Scores for Job Creation ……………………………...
46
Table 4.5 Responses on Health Issues Associated with Solid Waste Movement Projects …......
47
Table.4.6 Rating of Health Issues on a Scale ………………………………………………....
47
Table 4.7 Mean Scores for Issues Associated with SWM Projects….………………………….48
Table 4.8 Responses on the Issues of Social
Conflicts………………………………………….49
Table 4.9 Social Conflict on a Likert Scale………………. ……………………………………50
Table 4.10 Mean Scores for Social Conflicts…………….
……………………………………...51
Table 4.11 Responses on Environmental Pollution …………………………………………… 51
Table 4.12 Rating of the Influence of Technology in WSPs Implementation ………………... 52
Table 4.13 Mean Scores on Pollution and SWM Projects ……………………………………. 53
Table 4.14 Testing of the First Hypothesis …………………………………………………… 53
Table 4.15 Testing of the Second Hypothesis ………………………………………………... 54
Table 4.16 Testing of the Third Hypothesis …………………………………………………... 55
Table 4.17 Testing of the Fourth Hypothesis
…………………………………………………...56

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 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AEZ - Agro-Ecological Zone
CCM - City Council of Machakos
CWPs - Community Water Projects
EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment
EMCA - Environmental Management and Coordination Act
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
GoK - Government of Kenya
ICAD - Institute of Civic Affairs and Development
ICT - Information Communication Technologies
IPO – Independent Private Operator
M&E - Monitoring and Evaluation
MGDs - Millennium Development Goals
MSW- Municipal Solid Waste
NEMA - National Environmental Management Authority
NAWASCO - Nairobi Water and Sewerage Company
NETWAS - Network for Water and Sanitation International
NGOs -Non-Governmental Organizations
SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences
SW – Solid Waste
SWM - Solid Waste Management
UNICEF- United Nations Children’s Fund
UNDP- United Nations Development Program
UNEP - United Nations Environmental Program
WHO -World Health Organization

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 ABSTRACT
Waste management has been important since time immemorial. With the unprecedented increase
in population worldwide, especially in Sub Saharan Africa, waste management has been vital for
good health, good environment and aesthetics of its towns and cities. The research intended to
study the effect of solid waste management projects on the welfare of the local community; a
case of solid waste management projects in Machakos county, Kenya and it focuses on the
following objectives:- to examine how employment opportunities created by waste management
projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, to assess how health
related problems created by waste management projects affects the welfare of the local
communities of Machakos County, to examine how environmental pollution created by waste
management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, and, to
determine how social conflicts created by waste management projects affects the welfare of the
local communities of Machakos County. The study also observes that environmental pollution,
soil degradation, ground water contamination among others has been associated to the
implementation of waste projects in the Machakos County. The study recommends that SW
projects in the county should be formally organized from the low levels/village levels to the
wider county levels since the projects have been proving more than self-employment. The study
also recommends that health hazards associated with SW management projects need to be
controlled since the waste doesn’t only lead to diseases cause but has led to a number of deaths
and strained families’ health care. It also recommends social conflicts associated with such
projects in the county at large must be addressed through various avenues like mutual designed
committees, reconciliation bodies and penalties should be attached to those who break the set
rules. The study also recommends that bodies like NEMA should be contacted in doing an up to
date EIA so as to come up with better strategies of handling and disposing the waste with
minimal pollution to the environs.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Since the early 1990s, numerous governments have displayed significant concern regarding the
enhancement of Solid Waste Management, particularly in urban areas of developing countries.
This focus stems from the rapid economic growth and urbanization experienced in these nations,
leading to a substantial increase in waste production. Consequently, the existing waste disposal
systems in these countries have demonstrated poor performance and resulted in the rapid
depletion of landfills (Ziro, 2013). The Government of Kenya (GOK, 2010a) has acknowledged
this issue, stating that over 90% of developing countries have prioritized waste management
programs or projects. The World Bank (2013) defines waste management as a process
encompassing the handling, packaging, treatment, recycling, reusing, storage, and disposal of
waste in an environmentally sound manner that ensures human health and environmental
protection.

However, the World Bank presents conflicting reports when comparing waste management
practices in developing and developed countries. For instance, its 2010 report highlights that
many developing countries have primarily focused on waste collection and disposal efforts,
neglecting waste recycling. This approach can result in a continuous increase in waste quantities
requiring disposal, with significant implications for public well-being and environmental
preservation (World Bank, 2010; Ziro, 2013).

According to Elias, Trynos, and Tendayi (2013), a noticeable characteristic of developing nations
in recent decades has been the disparity between the provision of sanitation infrastructure and
rapid urban population growth. The challenges posed by inadequate waste management practices
have further exacerbated the degradation of ecosystems in rapidly transforming cities within
these countries. This mismatch, known as 'urbanization without health,' manifests as uncollected
household waste, the absence of basic facilities such as water and sanitation, the proliferation of
illegal settlements, and rampant overcrowding, which are prevalent in numerous urban centers
across Africa, Asia, and South America. As a result, millions of urban poor individuals are living

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in substandard conditions in neighbourhoods that are typically harmful to their everyday health,
and general well-being. Tendayi (2014) in his comparative study between solid waste
management in developing countries and developed ones, he noticed a great difference in the
sense that, in developed countries, solid wastes are recycled for example thus creating new
profitable products like fertilizers that is exported besides the jobs created by the recycling
industries. This is different from the developing countries where the effects are negatives,
starting from health hazards to conflicts.
Kenya, along with developing nations in Asia and South America, have experienced similar
challenges in waste management. India, for instance, has witnessed a significant increase in urban
population, resulting in various environmental issues such as climate change, pollution, and the
generation of substantial amounts of solid and non-solid waste (GoI, 2013). The World Bank
(2013) reports that India has a population of over 1.21 billion, with an increasing urbanization rate
from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011. Due to the high urban population, both private and
government-related firms have been engaged to address the environmental waste problems in
India (IPCC, 2012 as cited in Kim, 2014).

In both India and China, the uncontrolled population growth has necessitated waste management
projects aimed at addressing the severe impacts on communities (UNDP, 2012). In India, an
estimated 115,000 metric tons of solid waste is generated daily, with a yearly increase of 5%.
Waste generation per capita in cities varies depending on the population size, and urban local
bodies spend significant amounts on waste collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal (GoI,
2013). However, these costs are often passed on to citizens, resulting in a high cost of living.
Uncontrolled dumping by waste management companies has led to increased pollution, health
hazards, displacement of individuals, and other negative consequences (GoI, 2013; UN/DESA,
GoJ, and UNCRD, 2010).

While challenges persist, waste management projects in India have also brought positive impacts,
including methane recovery, renewable electricity generation, reduction of air pollution caused by
improper waste disposal, employment generation, reduction in water pollution, and control of
contagious diseases (GoI, 2013; UN/DESA, GoJ, and UNCRD, 2010; Department of Water
Affairs & Forestry, 2011).

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In Ethiopia, waste management has posed significant challenges, particularly in terms of poor
shelter, overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, water pollution, and the spread of communicable
diseases (UN-HABITAT, 2011; UNEP, 2011). Improper waste management has led to adverse
impacts on the environment and human health, including respiratory problems, malaria,
contamination of groundwater, and hazards related to biomedical waste (UNEP, 2014).
Furthermore, poor sanitation has resulted in blockages in drainage systems, leading to flooding,
mosquito breeding, and unpleasant odors (UNEP, 2014).

Despite the challenges, waste management projects in Ethiopia have also yielded positive
outcomes, including job creation, revenue generation, improved production through recycling,
reduction in health diseases, and sewage treatment (OECD, 2012; UNEP, 2014).

Tanzania faces waste management issues in both urban and rural areas, with insufficient waste
collection and disposal facilities (UN-HABITAT, 2010; Arnold & Lardinois, 2010; Simon, 2011).
Improper waste management practices, such as dumping waste in open spaces, drains, and water
bodies, have resulted in environmental pollution, threats to marine biodiversity, social conflicts,
and waterborne diseases (Simon, 2011).

Despite efforts by the Tanzanian government and various organizations to control waste,
challenges persist, affecting marine and coastal environments, causing food shortages, social
conflicts, and health issues (UNEP, 2014).

In Kenya, waste management projects have been implemented for over 40 years, initially focusing
on pit latrines and waste pits to control garbage dumping (GoK, 2012a). However, local
authorities in developing countries allocate significant portions of their budgets to waste
collection and disposal, while only managing to collect a fraction of the municipal solid waste
(UNEP & World Resource Institute, 2009). Waste management initiatives in East Africa have had
mixed impacts, with only 30% benefiting local communities, and the remaining projects having
negative consequences due to unqualified contractors and councils lacking expertise (United
Nations, 2013).

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Studies have proposed various waste management projects in Kenya, including public-private
partnerships (PPPs), but the implementation has often fallen short. Residents living near dumping
sites have been exposed to social conflicts and health hazards, with waste management projects
often focusing on collection without adequate disposal or recycling efforts (Nthambi, 2013;
Wambua, 2012). The improper handling of waste in Kenya, including the presence of open
dumps, has resulted in pollution, health risks, and conflicts (Kuria & Dr. Mireri, 2010; UNEP,
2013).

African cities and municipal councils face challenges in managing both solid and non-solid waste
due to limited capacity and resources (Mutuku, 2013). Waste management projects, including
PPPs, have been suggested as a solution, similar to the provision of infrastructure, to address
waste handling problems in counties like Machakos (Mutuku, 2013). In Machakos, projects have
been implemented, involving PPPs and the participation of NGOs, CDAs, and government
agencies, resulting in job creation, livelihoods, and availability of resources. However, challenges
remain, including the spread of diseases, hazards, and greenhouse gas emissions from non-
composted waste (Municipal Council of Machakos, 2010; World Bank, 2013; Nyokabi, 2011;
Kasima, 2014; Wairimu, 2014).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

In Kenya, the production of waste exceeds the capacity for its proper collection and disposal in a
safe and environmentally friendly manner in urban centers, including Machakos City (NEMA,
2012). Waste ranges from minor littering to significant pollution from industries and human
waste, including the garbage problem in cities like Nairobi, Kisumu, Eldoret, Machakos, and the
Busia border town. This issue has not only sparked public outcry but has also attracted
international attention, leading to the implementation of various waste management projects
across the country (GoK, 2012b).

Monyoncho (2013) states that urbanization and population growth have given rise to a more
severe problem alongside littering in many Kenyan urban centers, particularly the issue of plastic
waste, including carrier bags, which has detrimental health and environmental impacts.

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In Kenya, waste collection and transportation primarily rely on informal methods. Open dumping
is the prevalent disposal method, with limited recovery activities. The county government in
Machakos lacks composting plants for commercial waste recovery or recycling facilities. The
informal sector further complicates waste management as recyclables are mixed with other waste
at the household, industrial, and dumpsite levels. The 2014 Machakos county government report
highlights three major issues: water, sanitation, and waste management. In response, initiatives
such as solid waste schemes, public-private partnerships (PPTs), and the introduction of movable
dump trucks have been implemented (Machakos County Development Report, 2014).

Studies reveal that waste management programs in Kenya, particularly in Machakos, have been
inadequate compared to developed countries. Improper waste management poses risks to human
health and the environment, including water contamination, increased rodent and insect
populations, flooding, and safety hazards from explosions or fires. Poor waste management also
contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, leading to climate change and biodiversity loss (World
Bank, 2010).

However, research conducted by NCC-UNEP (2010) demonstrates that waste management

projects in Machakos have brought positive impacts to the local community, such as job creation,
improved livelihoods for waste collectors, and control of environmental diseases through
designated waste deposition sites. Nevertheless, challenges arise from the lack of research on the
implementation issues surrounding waste management programs in Machakos County. Therefore,
this research aims to investigate the effects of solid waste management projects on the welfare of
the local community in Machakos County, Kenya.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study was to establish the effect of solid waste management projects on
the welfare of the local community in Machakos County, Kenya.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

This study sought to achieve the following objectives:

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 i. To examine how employment opportunities created by waste management projects affects
the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.
ii. To assess how health related problems created by waste management projects affects the
welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya. iii. To determine how
social conflicts created by waste management projects affects the welfare of the local
communities of Machakos County, Kenya. iv. To examine how environmental pollution
created by waste management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of
Machakos County, Kenya.

1.5 Research Questions

The study was guided by the following research questions:

i. How do employment opportunities created by waste management projects affect the

welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya?
ii. How do health related problems created by waste management projects affect the welfare
of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya? iii. How do social conflicts
created by waste management projects affect the welfare of the local communities of
Machakos County, Kenya?
iv. How does environmental pollution created by waste management projects affect the
welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

The study was guided by the following alternative research hypothesis:
i. H1: Employment opportunities created by waste management projects have a significant
effect on the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.
ii. H1: Health related problems created by waste management projects have a significant
effect on the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.
iii. H1: Social conflicts created by waste management projects have significant effect on the
welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.
iv. H1: Environmental pollution created by waste management projects has a significant
effect on the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.

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1.7 Significance of the Study
The research is expected to bring significant benefits to various stakeholders. Firstly, it will
benefit society as a whole by implementing waste management projects that address
environmental pollution and reduce the adverse effects of both solid and non-solid waste. The
findings of the study can raise awareness on waste management issues from the community level
to the national level.

Policy makers and Machakos county authorities will also benefit from the study's findings in
terms of planning and formulating policies. The research can help them develop waste
management projects that have minimal negative effects on the local community. It can also shed
light on the importance of contracting qualified waste management handlers and implementing
better waste management options with maximum positive impacts. Ultimately, this can lead to
improved environmental management policies.

Furthermore, community-based organizations (CBOs) and non-governmental organizations

(NGOs) operating in Machakos and beyond can benefit from the study's findings. They can gain a
better understanding of the impact of waste management activities and explore ways to strengthen
positive outcomes through partnerships, while minimizing negative effects. The National
Environmental Management Authority (NEMA) can also utilize the research findings to control
the number of projects that contribute to environmental pollution or any other form of pollution
that negatively affects the lives of Kenyans.

Lastly, researchers themselves will benefit from the study. Academically, the research can
generate new knowledge and provide recommendations for further investigations in areas that
require revisions. The study can also establish baseline data that guides future research on the
impacts of waste management project implementation in Machakos and other urban centers in
Kenya.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

The study encountered several limitations, primarily related to time constraints. Balancing the
researcher's time for classroom work, research, professional responsibilities, family commitments,

7
and maintaining communication with the supervisor proved challenging. The researcher's work at
the central bank, which prohibits daytime communication, further restricted the availability for
research and guidance from the supervisor. Despite this, the researcher managed to take leave and
allocate personal time to coordinate with the supervisor and respondents during the research
period.

Another limitation was the constraint of financial resources, which not only caused delays in the
study's progress but also impacted its overall achievements. However, the researcher received
support from their family and sought additional funding from the bank or other institutions when
needed.

Furthermore, a language barrier and the lack of awareness among the majority of the Mijikenda
community regarding the impacts of waste management projects posed another limitation. This
compromised the study's results. To mitigate this issue, enumerators were employed to assist with
translations and facilitate communication with the community.

1.9 Delimitation of the Study

The study delimited itself by concentrating on the effects of waste management projects to the
welfare of the people of Machakos County. It also narrowed the scope of the study to areas
affected by waste management projects in Machakos County like Kariobangi, Kameu and many
more.

Another way, the study limited itself to the solid management projects that have been handled by
either municipal, town council, solid management companies for the last 5 years so as to get
quality information.

The study finally focused on only four aspects of effects on the community’s welfare; jobs
creation, environmental pollution, social conflicts and health issues.

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1.10 Basic Assumptions of the Study
The research was carried out with the basic assumption that there were a number of waste
management projects that have been implemented in Machakos County for over 5 years and their
records exist in the county offices.

Another assumption was that, the respondents were willing to give information (including the
most sensitive one) without any bias and subjectivity that could compromise the results. Finally,
the research had the assumption that the impacts from waste management in Machakos County
have tied themselves to the four objectives.

1.11 Definitions of Significant Terms

A community- This is the sharing of common values by a social unit of any size. Though
exemplified by face-to-face, the sizes of these communities are commonly small, larger or more
expanded communities such as the national, international, and virtual community are also
deliberated on. Belief, intent, preferences, needs, resources, risks, and a host of more conditions
may be common and in existence thereby affecting the participants’ degree of cohesiveness and
identity.
Education- it is a form of learning where the skills, beliefs, knowledge, habits, and values of a
group of people conveyed through storytelling, discussion, teaching, training, and or research
from generation to generation. Educational experience is that which has an influential effect on
how one acts, thinks, or feels. It might also include informal transmission of such information
from one person to another. Frequently it takes place under the guidance of others, but learners
may also educate themselves (autodidactic learning). Any experience that has a formative effect
on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational.
Employment- it’s a relationship amongst two parties, where one is the employer and the other is
the employee ordinarily centered on a contract where one’s work is paid for.
Environmental pollution- it is the unwanted alteration in chemical, biological, and physical
characteristics of the water, air, and land we inhabit. Due to rapid industrialization,
overpopulation, and other man actions like deforestation, and agriculture etc., the earth has
become overloaded with various pollutants released as by-products.

9
Social conflict- it is the struggle for power or agency in society. Social or group conflict occurs
where there are two or more actors that oppose each other in their social interaction, by
reciprocally applying social power to try and attain scarce or incompatible goals to prevent the
challenger from attaining the same resources.

1.12 Organization of the Study

This research proposal is organized into three chapters. Chapter one provides the introduction
that includes the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study,
objectives of the study, research questions, statement of the problem, purpose of the study,
objectives of the study, research questions, research hypothesis, significance of the study,
delimitations of the study, basic assumptions and the definition of significant terms. Chapter two
of the study consists of the literature review with information from other articles which are
relevant to the researcher. The third chapter will include the research design, population and
sample, data collection procedures, data analysis procedures and the test for reliability and
validity. Chapter four will present the analyzed data and a summary of the data thematically
according to the objectives. Chapter five will present the summary of the findings, discussions
conclusions and recommendation.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a comprehensive review and critical analysis of existing literature
concerning the impacts of solid waste management projects on the welfare of society. It examines
relevant literature at the global, regional, and local levels, focusing on various aspects such as the
concept of solid waste management, employment opportunities, health-related issues,
environmental pollution, and social conflicts. The objective is to gain insights into these areas and
understand their relationship to the study's core objectives. Additionally, a theoretical and
conceptual framework is developed to illustrate the interconnections between the variables under
investigation.
2.2 The Concept of Solid Waste Management
Throughout history, waste control and management have always been inevitable. Scholars from
ancient times to modern times, in fields such as environmental management and IT, have delved
into waste management due to the rapid industrialization and population growth. The Regional
Centre for Urban and Environmental Studies (2014) defines Solid Waste Management (SWM) as
the process of collecting, storing, transporting, processing, and disposing of solid waste in
engineered sanitary landfills. This process involves various methods of collection, storage,
transportation equipment, recovery of recyclable materials, waste reduction through approaches
like composting and waste-to-power, and disposal in designated landfills.

Solid waste originates from diverse sources, including households (kitchen and yard waste),
commercial areas (hotels, shops, eateries), industries (packaging, raw materials), institutions
(schools, offices), construction and demolition sites, domesticated and wild animals (manure,

11
carcasses), streets (sand, silt, clay, concrete, residues), and parks (tree leaves, fallen branches)
(IPCC, 2012).

Davidson (2011), in his work on "Waste Management Practices," provides a simple definition of
waste management and highlights the historical evolution of waste management concepts. Waste
management encompasses activities such as waste collection, transportation, treatment, disposal,
monitoring, control, regulation, waste prevention, recycling, and reuse. It encompasses various
types of waste, including those generated during raw material extraction, processing, product
usage, agriculture, sewage, healthcare, and residential, institutional, and commercial activities
(Science Direct, 2013).

The aim of waste management, as stated by the United Nations Environmental Programme
(2013), is to minimize waste's adverse impacts on the environment, aesthetics, and health. It
involves waste generation, removal, minimization, transportation, treatment, reuse, recycling,
storage, collection, landfill disposal, financial and marketing considerations, environmental
concerns, regulation, training, education, implementation, and planning. However, waste
management practices differ among developed and developing nations, urban and rural areas, and
residential and industrial sectors.

In the past, the quantity of waste generated by humans was relatively insignificant due to lower
population density and limited exploitation of natural resources. Waste produced during pre-
modern times mainly consisted of biodegradable waste and ashes, which were released locally,
resulting in minimal environmental impact. Tools made from wood or metal were often reused or
passed down through generations. However, some civilizations exhibited more wasteful behaviors
than others, such as the Maya in Central America, who had regular ritual burnings of rubbish
(National Waste & Recycling Association, 2013).

In England, the advent of industrialization and the growth of urban centers led to a rapid
accumulation of waste, negatively impacting the overall quality of urban life. Streets became
filthy due to a lack of waste clearance regulations. The need for waste removal powers led to the

12
establishment of municipal authorities, with proposals as early as 1751 to manage waste and
convey it away from the city for proper disposal (World Bank, 2010).

Unlike developed countries, waste management responsibilities in most developing countries lie
with urban authorities. Waste management is considered a visible urban service that reflects good
local governance, sound municipal management, and successful urban reforms. It serves as a key
indicator of municipal performance, often influencing political sentiments in Africa (Mutai &
Njoroge, 2012).

Waste management in East African town centers has been centralized for a long time, relying on
imported refuse trucks to collect waste from transfer points and transport it to designated waste
dumps. However, the system has experienced inefficiencies and has undergone changes that
include private sector involvement and decentralization (Napoleon, Momodu & Joan, 2011;
Oyeniyi, 2011).

Storage, collection, transportation, and final treatment/disposal of waste have become major
challenges in urban centers, leading to concerns about health, aesthetics, and the environment. The
composition of waste in East African urban centers mainly consists of decomposable organic
materials resulting from community consumption, particularly kitchen waste and floor sweepings.
Efficient waste collection systems are necessary to address these issues. Additionally, the
increasing use of electrical and electronic goods globally has also resulted in the emergence of e-
waste as a significant environmental and health threat in East African urban centers (ADB 2002
cited in Willy Kipkoech, 2014; Stringer, 2014; NEMA, 2010; UNEP, 2010).
2.3 Employment Opportunities and Welfare of the Local Community
Waste management projects globally have played a significant role in creating employment
opportunities for various segments of society. These projects have generated employment for the
poor in ghetto areas, the middle class working in recycling industries, and the owners of waste
management companies. In densely populated Asian countries like India, Sakai et al. (2011)
highlight the informal sector's crucial role in waste recycling, providing employment for waste
pickers, itinerant waste buyers, dealers, and recycling units. The informal sector, particularly
waste pickers, consists of non-skilled individuals, including street children and vulnerable

13
children, who collect and sell recyclable materials such as waste paper, plastic bottles, and e-
waste. The formal recycling sector in India is relatively minor but shows potential for employing
non-employed individuals, including young and elderly people.

Jakub et al. (2011) discuss the benefits of the informal recycling sector in countries like Pakistan,
Haiti, Lesotho, and elsewhere in the developing world. They note that the sector complements the
formal waste management system and financially subsidizes it. The informal sector generates
employment for a significant portion of the population, including professionals, skilled and non-
skilled workers, as well as marginalized individuals such as street children and drug abusers. It
operates efficiently, produces profits, and at times, integrates with the formal economy in the
recycling chain, contributing to reduced carbon emissions and the preservation of virgin raw
materials.

Xavier et al. (2010) emphasize the usefulness of solid waste management projects, particularly
those involving recyclable plastics, in urban centers of Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. Plastics,
due to their durability and versatility, are widely used and can be collected by both disadvantaged
and advantaged members of society to earn a living. Waste plastics find various applications, such
as carry bags, pet bottles, trash bags, containers, cold drink bottles, plates, cups, IV fluid bottles,
disposable syringes, packaging items, and disposable utensils. These projects have created
opportunities for many citizens through plastic recycling.

The role of waste management projects in creating jobs for locals is highlighted in a report by
GPRB (2010) focusing on Kenya and India. Onsite handling, processing, and storage of waste
provide employment opportunities, with non-skilled employees in companies or households
responsible for waste dumping. Waste handling involves casual laborers in cities like Manila and
Nairobi who load waste into municipal vehicles, waste management company vehicles, and
personal carts. Waste management initiatives in Machakos, for example, have distributed waste
handling trucks and carts to create employment for individuals to empty their waste. Waste
segregation and sorting also generate employment for youth and waste management organizations
in places like Kisumu, Nairobi, and Machakos, where waste is collected from streets, bins, and
deposit sites.

14
Waste collection is another area where jobs are created. Waste collectors employed by structured
organizations collect waste daily from bins and residential areas in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and
Nairobi, Kenya. This employment opportunity has benefited street children, with some forming
organized groups.

Transportation plays a crucial role in waste management, and it also provides employment
opportunities. Vehicles are used to transfer waste from storage places to dumping grounds. This
requires manpower for loading, unloading, driving, and assisting in the transportation process.
Waste transportation in cities like Nairobi and Machakos involves a significant number of
vehicles and movable equipment, creating jobs for drivers, assistants, and loading/offloading
personnel. Additionally, waste recycling companies, particularly those involved in fertilizer and
plastic recycling, have emerged as a result of waste management projects, further contributing to
job creation (Banga, 2011).

2.4 Health Related Issue and Welfare of the Local Community

According to Role (2013), waste management is crucial for public health and environmental
reasons. Waste is a complex mixture of substances, some of which can be hazardous to health.
Babalola et al. (2010) discuss hazardous substances associated with waste management projects,
highlighting that environmental monitoring has provided insights into the types and amounts of
substances produced. Landfill sites, for example, emit gases such as methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulphide, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), along with substances like metals,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), chlorinated
hydrocarbons, pesticides, dioxins, asbestos, pharmaceuticals, and pathogens. Waste incineration
also produces pollutants such as particles, gases, metals, and organic compounds, including
cadmium, mercury, arsenic, chromium, nickel, dioxins, and PAHs (Napoleon, Momodu, & Joan,
2011).

Coffey & Coad (2010) explore the impact of waste management practices on health, particularly
focusing on landfill and incineration. Many substances associated with waste management, such

15
as cadmium, arsenic, chromium, nickel, dioxins, and PAHs, are considered carcinogenic based on
animal studies or high-level exposures. These substances can also produce toxic effects on various
organs and systems. Other pollutants like SO2 and PM10 may have effects on morbidity and
mortality, especially in susceptible groups. Chemicals like dioxins and organochlorines can
accumulate in fat-rich tissues and are associated with reproductive or endocrine-disrupting effects
(UNEP, 2012). Landfill sites have been linked to adverse birth outcomes, including low birth
weight, fetal and infant mortality, spontaneous abortion, and birth defects (World Bank, 2012).
Studies conducted in different countries, including Kenya, Ghana, and Tanzania, have shown
associations between waste sites and increased cancer incidence (Odour, 2012).

Kinyanjui (2014) notes that community health surveys have investigated various health outcomes
related to waste management projects, including respiratory symptoms, skin irritation,
gastrointestinal problems, fatigue, headaches, psychological issues, and allergies. These studies
often rely on self-reporting of symptoms, which can be influenced by factors such as stress, public
perception of risk, odour, nuisance, and recall bias. For instance, residents who expressed
concerns about pollution tend to report more symptoms compared to those who are less worried.
Given the extensive literature available, further exploration of these health issues is warranted.

Overall, waste management projects have the potential to generate health hazards, and their effects
on human health vary depending on the substances involved, exposure levels, and duration.

2.5 Environmental Pollution and the Welfare of the Local Community

Kuria & Mireri (2010) have given a definition of pollution. Pollution is the introduction of
contaminants into the natural environment that causes adverse change. Pollution can take the
form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of
pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

16
Rich literature exists across the globe in relation to the environmental effects as a result of SW
management by various bodies in the world. According to Zhuang, Wang, Wu & Chen (2010)
one major environmental issue associated with the private and municipal SW management
projects in China today is the issue of surface water contamination. They argue that, in the
eastern parts of the country for example, Waste that end up in water bodies negatively change the
chemical composition of the water. Technically, this is called water pollution. This will affect all
ecosystems existing in the water. It can also cause harm to animals and families that drink from
such polluted water. This has been confirmed by Stringer (2014) water pollution is a major
challenge as a result of SW management programmes operating in India, Pakistani, Malaysia,
Ecuador, Ghana, Nigeria, Ethiopia and Kenya today. According to him, unsanitary landfills for
example contaminate surface and ground water resources when the leachate created percolates
through the soil strata into the underneath groundwater or during rains it is washed as runoff.
Leachate is commonly a strong reducing liquid formed under methanogenic (anaerobic)
conditions. The content of various constituents in the dumped waste give the characteristics of
leachate (GoI, 2013).

Studies on Environmental Quality in and around Municipal Solid Waste Dumpsite in Kolkata, by
World Bank (2010) found that areas managed by municipal waste control project initiatives had
moderately high concentrations of heavy metal in groundwater surround the dumpsite. The study
found out that the groundwater quality has been significantly affected by leachate percolation.

Similar studies by UNDP (2011) in Lesotho’s capital city, Kenya’s Nairobi, and Uganda’s capital
city Kampala highlighted on the role of SW management projects implementation and the
associated environmental pollution with a specific bias to ground water pollution. In Nairobi and
Kampala for example, the study touched on Leachate. It showed that Leachate usually contains
organic chemicals formed by heavy metals leached from inorganic wastes and anaerobic
digestion of organic wastes. The heavy metals generally observed in leachate are Cadmium (Cd),
Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb), and Nickel (Ni).

All these heavy metals are characterized as toxic for drinking water. Due to the reducing property
of leachate, during percolation through soil strata, it reacts with Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn)

17
species underground and reduces them into more soluble species, thus increasing their
concentrations in groundwater Nyokabi (2011). Such reactions when they occur, pose a serious
drinking water toxic risk. These predictions are substantiated by studies which found high
concentrations of Cr, Cd and Mn in groundwater due to leachate percolation. Nitrates present in
the environment can also be reduced to nitrites due to leachate. Nitrites consumed through
drinking water can oxidize hemoglobin (Hb) in the blood to methaemoglobin (met Hb), thereby
inhibiting the transportation of oxygen around the body (Habitat International, 2010). The study
clearly establishes that waste landfills in Nairobi, Kampala and elsewhere are potential sources of
heavy metals contamination in groundwater sources adjoining the landfills. It also points out that
there is an urgent need to adopt credible solutions to control water pollution due to indiscriminate
dumping of wastes.

Lilia & Casanova (2010) in their work, Assessing the Range of Options for PPP in Expanding
Waste Management Services in Developing Countries, have touched on an issue caused by the
various projects managing the SW and how they have led to soil contamination in countries like
Ethiopia, Philippines, Kenya, Angola and Nigeria. According to them, hazardous chemicals that
get into the soil (contaminants) can harm plants when they take up the contamination through
their roots. If humans eat plants and animals that have been in contact with such polluted soils,
there can be negative impact on their health.

In relation to the above, UNEP/NEMA (2010) did a comparative study of economic management
of solid waste in the three major cities of Kenya and the 3 major urban centers in central India,
that had a sub-section that highlighted on land degradation and scarcity in 2010. According to
the report, a common waste management practice by the various projects and initiatives that are
put forward to control and manage SW and also it is one of the cheapest methods for organized
waste management firms in many parts of the world is landfilling of municipal solid waste
(MSW. This practice of unsanitary landfilling in addition to occupying precious land resources
near urban areas, it degrades the soil and quality of the land in the site. The occurrence of heavy
metals and plastics in the soils make it unfit for agriculture and results to emissions of methane
and structural instability of the land thus making it unfit for construction activities. It would
therefore, require substantial remediation efforts which are infrastructure intensive, and time

18
consuming to make the land useful. Vast amount of lands near urban areas are occupied by
landfilling.

TERI (The Energy Resources Institute, earlier Tata Energy Research Institute) study in 1998
titled ‘Solid Waste Management in India: options and opportunities’ found that the size of land
that all the waste occupied had been generated until 1997 in India post-Independence. It
compared the land that has been occupied by the waste came to the size of 71,000 number of
football fields of solid waste, which are stacked to the height of 9 meters. The study estimates
that the waste generated occupy 237. 4sq.km or half the size of Mumbai, by 2011 it would have
occupied 379.6 sq.km or more than 218,000 football fields or 90% of the fourth largest Indian
city area-wise, Chennai, by 2021 would need 590.1 sq.km which is greater than the largest Indian
city area-wise, the area of Hyderabad (583 sq.km) based on a business as usual (BAU) scenario
of 91% landfilling (UN-HABITAT, 2010).

The Ministry of Finance in 2009 published the Position Paper on The Solid Waste Management
Sector in Kenya, approximates a requirement of more than 1400 sq.km of land for solid waste
disposal by the end of 2047 if there is no proper handling of MSW. This is equal to the area of
Thika and Nairobi combined. NEMA and Central Pollution Control Board surveyed 17 cities out
of 59 in 2010 have proposed new sites for landfills in all the major municipalities in the country
with specific emphasis on the Nairobi SW management dumpsite being relocated from Dandora.
For example, (23.4 million TPY) 24 municipalities and town councils use 34 landfills for
dumping their waste, this covers an area of 1,900 hectares. Due to this, soils have been
contaminated that could be used for food production and many useful areas and later on in life
could cause for crisis to local population like lack of land for settlement, agriculture and play
(NEMA, 2013).

In another study by County report (2014), Pollution has been cited as a major environmental
issue associated with SW management projects in Kenya. The reports show that, poor waste
management practices can lead to air and land pollution and can result to respiratory problems
and further negative effects on health when contaminants get absorbed from the lungs to other
parts of the body. It adds that when improperly disposed of solid waste can be a hazard to the

19
environment in that the surrounding environments as well as the fish are affected. This unsuitable
damping can lead to death of fish as well as diseases to man e.g. dysentery, cholera and so on.
Some of these wastes can also be very harmful to the atmosphere. These wastes when improperly
dumped into the atmosphere can lead to the destruction of the ozone layer and may cause
diseases such as cancer. As a result, there is problem in global warming. Air pollution can also
lead to formation of acidic rain which is dangerous to crop life since it fastens the removal of soil
fertility from the surface of the ground.

According to Ndumbu (2013); Ministry of Devolution and Planning (2014), the ever
environmental issues of flooding during heavy rains experienced in Machakos, Nairobi and other
parts of the country are due to poor SW management especially the plastics by the SW
management firm/companies. According to him, it affects drainage, whereby, when solid wastes
are dumped in drainage channels and gutters, the block the flow of the sewerage. This may cause
flooding. At the same time, solid wastes also affect soil drainage which hinders the growing of
crops. A similar study by since some of the waste materials are water proof, they can be
dangerous to the aeration system of the soil hence hindering agriculture. It also leads to the
reduction of fertile cultivatable land in form of dumping sites. This in turn affects the country's
local people since Kenya depends on agriculture for exports.

Maloba (2012) did a study of the effects of the SW projects to the environment and the negative
influence of the people of Kameu, Eastleigh, Kariobangi and Mjini and discovered that: Waste
materials like toxic if consumed by animals are very dangerous to life and worse still if these
wastes are dumped in water bodies. They are dangerous to aquatic life; Poor solid waste has also
for long led to the death of animals (especially domestic animals). Death of animals like cattle
leads to poverty and the death of animals like dogs, leads to insecurity in homes; Poor waste
management displays an ugly scenario of the environment. This can affect the tourism industry,
as the tourist may not get attracted to visit the country; Uncontrolled damping of solid waste has
for long led to wastage of land where we find lots of land being used as damping sites for wastes.
These same pieces of land are later on neglected by the inhabitants of the area.

20
2.6 Conflicts and Welfare of the Local Community
A study by Eurostat (2010) focused on Bogota, Colombia in 1994 to 1996 conflict handling
between informal and formal private sectors in contracting Municipal Solid Waste management
services. According to the study, Bogotá, which is Colombia’s capital, has a 7 million population
that includes the metropolitan areas. This city generates on average 6000 metric tons of MSW
daily. Initially, MSW management programs/services such as collection, transport, recycling and
disposal were wholly taken care by the city authority with poor results. The first attempt to
streamline MSW management services in the city was initiated by the Asociacion de
Recicladores de Bogotá (ARB). ARB is an association of recyclers that was formed in 1990. The
Association resulted from the coming together of four recycling cooperatives that wanted to be
recognized for their services. Currently, 24 recycling cooperatives in the city of Bogotá are
members of ARB.

The city authority did not meet the demands of EDIS and went ahead with the privatization
process. Between 1994 and 1996 various private entities provided public waste services in
Bogotá. The services were shared jointly by EDIS (45 per cent), private entities (45 per cent) and
a foundation (Fundacion Social), and provided support to recycling organizations across
Colombia. ARB was contracted to provide 10 per cent of the waste management services of the
city. During this time, EDIS was also in the process of being liquidated. It was completely shut
down in 1996, leading to 100 per cent management of public waste management services
(collection, transport and final disposal) by private entities. During the privatization process, city
authorities were faced with opposition from ARB since the Association was unable to compete in
the tendering process. ARB did not meet the qualifying criteria outlined in the policy for
contracting private entities for residential public services in Colombia, which allowed only stock
holding corporations to compete (Sinha, 2010).

A report published by Yu Dawei (2012) about the Chinese protests shows that, since early 2008,
China has seen a frenzy of investment in controversial garbage-incineration plants. In the words
of Zhang Yi, head of the Shanghai Environmental Sanitation Engineering Design Institute, the
sector has been and is still experiencing an eight-year golden era, set to continue through the

21
12th Five-Year Plan period, which ends in 2015. According to Zhang Yi’s calculations, there
were 10 protests against incinerator projects between June 2007 – when locals objected to a SW
management project at Liulitun in Beijing – and January of 2008. Three of these were in Beijing,
three each in Jiangsu and Guangdong and one in Shanghai.

According to the Ministry of Environment (2010), there were four key reasons for such protests.
First, existing SW projects were of a low standard and poorly run, and as a result created fumes
and foul odours. Second, land and property prices have been and are steadily rising, leading
residents to expect more of their local environment. Third, people are scared of dioxins, harmful
chemical compounds that can be released during uncontrolled waste incineration (although he
believes that this danger has been exaggerated). And fourth, in the past, local governments have
failed in their duties during tendering processes, meaning badly managed companies have ended
up operating plants.

Setting standards for waste-burning plants has also proved challenging. Incineration capacity is
expanding rapidly, but from a very low starting point, said Wang Qi, head of the China Research
Academy of Environmental Sciences’ Institute of Solid Garbage Pollution Control Technology.
There is a wide variety in materials burned – the plants basically use whatever gets delivered,
which presents serious challenges for pollution control, Wang said. Despite the launch of so
many incineration projects, there are still no clear regulations governing how the plants should be
operated and pollution prevented. China’s Ministry of Environmental Protection is drafting new
standards for pollution control, but has already missed a planned publication date of 2011
(Dawei, 2012).

In Uganda, a study by Role (2013) shows that, Waste dump sites receive mixed wastes of various
origins that include domestic, industrial, medical and commercial wastes. The waste dumps pose
real hazard to workers, waste pickers and stray animals that visit the sites. Most of the waste
workers do not wear proper protective gears. Also, the openness of landfill sites provides free
access to waste pickers to sort valuable items for sales. Waste pickers work under no clear
control and do not follow any safety and health regulations. Waste collection workers also pick

22
out wastes of value en route to the landfills and sell them to middlemen. The major wastes picked
are plastics (e.g. jerry cans, bottles, plates, and basins) and paper and cardboard.
Achankeng (2003) cited by United Nations Population Division (2011) argues that as the waste
pickers get more organized through formalization of operation conflicts with formal collectors
ensues especially regarding areas of operation. He reports such conflicts in Cameroon and quotes
Kamel (2001) for such conflicts in Cairo. Such conflicts however could be avoided if urban
councils formalize all waste operation activities and set clear rules of operation whereby zones of
operation and all other requirements are strictly adhered to.

A study by Coffey & Coad (2010) shows that, more often than not, the urban poor have to make
do with living amid waste despite the health risks; child mortality in the slums is 2.5 times higher
than in other areas of Nairobi, according to the UN World Health Organization (WHO). In the
Mathare slums, for example, the sight of children playing among plastic bags full of human
excrement, referred to as "flying toilets", is common. These flying toilets are just polythene bags
whereby the waste is put and thrown at far distances. This has left number of individuals with
conflicts that could range from small quarrels to major wars (WHO, 2012).

While doing a research on the doom of poor solid management by various bodies in Kenya
NCC- UNEP (2010) argue that, in Kenya’s towns of Kisumu, Naivasha, Nairobi and Mombasa,
Poor waste management has been a source of under development around the societies
surrounding that particular area. According to them, poor solid waste management by various
firms and poor dumping in areas like Mathare, Dandora, Kondele, Kisauni, Jomvu-Changamwe,
etc. cause harm to tourist industries whereby tourists tend to shy away from dirty/vulnerable
areas. Naturally, extreme poverty incidences have been associated with social crimes like
mugging, prostitution, robbery, unnecessary wars, drugs and substances abuse as witnessed in
areas like Kisauni, Nairobi’s slums like Dandora, Mathare, Kariobangi etc.

In another study by UNEP (2013) shows that, a number of issues like contractual wars and the
assigning of contracts has existed for long now in Kenya in relation to SW management. This has
left a number of contracts landing into private firms that have little manpower and resources to
manage the SW projects due to corrupt deals and nepotistic contract signings. This has been

23
reported in Town like Thika where the contractors themselves incite their employees to rise
against each other-2011, in Kisumu and Mombasa whereby various west pickers who felt that
they initially owned the zones of west collection and many more.

Nyokabi (2011) argues that, in Machakos just like it has been happening in Nairobi’s dumpsite of
Dandora, frequently, there have been reports of enmity, hatred, wars and at times demonstrations
from various groups of waste pickers from the various waste management sites in the towns. In
Dandora for example, wars have been experienced between the various north and south gangs
once one gang collected recyclable waste beyond the boundaries put. This has often led to gang
wars between the groups; incidences that at times involve gun fights. In Machakos though
minimal, a number of wars have been reported due to disagreements between the waste pickers
in the county. However, the literature about the conflicts is limited and this research is towards
enriching the information (Oduor, 2012).

2.7 Theoretical Framework

This sub-section presents the theoretical approach from institutional analysis according to Scott
(2001) cited by Amfo-out et al (2012) and Capacity Building according to Lesley Rushton
(2011). Due to the nature of the setting of the research, the researcher adopted the Principles of
urban ecology theory. Urban ecology, which in German is known as Stadtökologie, embodies the
idea that humans influence the natural environment in their cities.

This theory originates from the “biology notion of the interaction of living things and their
environment” in times were cities were not considered a study field for ecologists, biologists and
environmentalists (Marcotullio et al, 2003cited by Kim, 2014). This belief emerges from the
natural sciences domain in European countries and was put forward by scholars who wanted to
demonstrate that humans living in cities had similar interactions with nature as plants in their
own ecosystems by using the principles of ecology (Tan Yen Joe, 2012).

The idea that cities were indeed ecosystems also provided the possibility to re-examine cities and
to add other components to biotope and ecological interpretations (Sukopp, 1998 cited in Wang,
Yoonhee and Kamata, 2011). Namely, studies regarding human behavior and its impact on the

24
natural environment, and explorations on urban growth and its influence on the transformation of
land can be included as an extended study format under the concept of urban ecology. Sukopp
and Wittig offer two definitions of urban ecology: Biological standpoint, whereby, Urban
ecology is a branch discipline of ecology and deals with biotopes, ecosystems, their organisms,
and the conditions of their habitats, as well as structure, function, and history of urban
ecosystems (1998). Integrated standpoint is another definition of, whereby, Urban ecology in its
broader sense is an integrated field of research of scientists from various fields and of planning
with the goal of improving quality of life and a long lasting ecologically sound urban
development (Dawei, 2012).

These statements are somewhat different from the views of Chicago scholars such as Park and
Burgess who have developed a sociological approach based on the views of space competition
and social characterization. They suggested that cities were environments similar to nature,
influenced by different forces. One of them is the competition of different groups for physical
space and the distribution of individuals in different “colonies”. The authors compare “natural
areas” to “areas of population segregation”. Their definition of human ecology is expressed as “a
study of the spatial and temporal relations of human beings as affected by the selective and
accommodative forces of the environment” (Park, Burgess, Mckenzie, 1925 cited by Banga,
2011).

2.8 Conceptual Framework

This study is guided by the following conceptual framework.

25
Independent Variables

Employment opportunities

• Menial Jobs

• Management Jobs

• Self-Employment Jobs

Health
Dependent Variable
• Water Borne Diseases

• Air Borne Diseases Welfare of the Local

Infant Mortality Community

•

 Better Living
Standards
Social Conflicts  Rampant Poverty

• Quarrels Slums Growth  Increased deaths

• Demonstrations Economic Impact

• Contractual Wars Political

Polarization

Environmental Pollution

• Air Pollution
Intervening Variables
• Water pollution

• Land pollution

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

26
As per the literature review, the conceptual framework has underlined a number of issues
surrounding the SW management projects in relation to the welfare of the society. The dependent
variable in this research is the effect of solid waste management projects on the welfare of the
local community and has the indicators like, increased jobs, rise in health hazards, increased
community conflicts, and increased environmental pollution. The dependent variables are on the
left hand side and include employment opportunities, health issues, social conflicts and finally
environmental pollution. The intervening variables have also been included in the table and
include; slums growth, economic impact and political polarization.

2.9 Summary of Literature Review

The literature has started by giving the concept of SW management projects from the global,
continental, regional and finally from the Kenyan perspective. The literature has given the theory
to be used in the research principles of urban ecology theory. The literature has further focused
of the reviewed work from various scholars in relation to the given objectives under sub-
headings like employment, health issues, environmental pollution and finally the social conflicts.
A conceptual framework has been attached to give a summary of all the work reviewed.

27
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the methodology that was used to conduct the study, focusing on research
design, target population, sampling procedures and sample size, research instruments,
questionnaires, pilot study, reliability, validity, data collection procedure, methods of data
analysis, ethical consideration and operationalization of the variables.

3.2. Research Design

Research design refers to the procedures selected by a researcher for studying a particular set of
questions or hypothesis; this includes the researcher’s choice of quantitative or qualitative
methodology, and how, if at all, causal relationships between variables or phenomena are to be
explored (Kothari, 1990). This study employed the use of a descriptive survey research design.
Kothari (2004) describes a descriptive survey as a means of gathering information about the
characteristics, actions or opinions of a large group of people. Surveys are capable of obtaining
information from large samples of the population over a short period of time thus very suitable
for this study since the scope is large. This design was also suitable as it will bring out
information on attitudes that would be difficult to measure using observational techniques.

3.3 Target Population

According to Mugenda & Mugenda (2003), target population is a set of people or objects the
researcher wants to generalize the results of the research. The study was carried out in Machakos
County which covers three major dumping sites at Kariobangi, Kameu and Mjini area. The target
population was also the stake holders who were: The residents represented by the number of
households directly affected by the SW projects operated next to their residential areas, the
environmental Managers at the Machakos County, The garbage wheel/trucks loaders and the
contracted Garbage collection companies via the PPPs. A report published by the
globalmethane.org in 2015 entitled ‘solid waste situation in Machakos city) indicates that here
are on average 6420 parties (households, garbage collection companies and environmental
managers) from the three regions as shown in Table 3.1.

28
Table 3.1 Target Population
Population Target Percentage
Total Number

Mjini 2444 38.07%

Kariobangi 1466 22.83%

Kameu 2510 39.10%

Total 6420 100%

3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure

According to Gary (2008), a sample size of a survey most typically refers to the number of units
that were chosen from which data were gathered. However, sample size can be defined in various
ways. There is the designated sample size, which is the number of sample units selected for
contact or data collection. Sampling procedure refers to the process through which the researcher
chooses a particular population representative from the larger study population.
3.4.1 Sample Size
Participants to the study included key informants whom the researcher believed would provide
the needed data. The study sample size was calculated using Yamane formula (1967). In this
formula, sample size can be calculated at 3%, 5%, 7% and 10% precision (e) levels. Confidence
level that was used was 95% with degree of variability (p) equivalent to 50% (0.5).

n = Desired sample size when population is less than 10,000.

e= sampling error/precision level
N = Study Population
In this study sample size was at precision level of 10% (e=0.1). Therefore, the desired sample
size was:

29
n= 6420 = 98.46 ͌99 sample respondents.
1 + 6420(0.1)2

3.4.2 Sampling Procedure

A total of 99 respondents were selected using systematic sampling procedure to participate in the
study. In this sampling method, simple random sampling was applied to select the first
respondent and the subsequent ones were selected as per the nth term. In the proposed study the
nth term was 65 that is 6420/99=65, therefore the researcher used skip to select respondents based
on the sample frame. This sampling was strictly done in the people who make the population of
the study in the three regions of Kariobangi, Kameu and Mjini and who fell in the category of
either household directly affected by the SW projects operated next to their residential areas, the
Environmental Managers at the Machakos County, the garbage wheel/trucks loaders and the
contracted garbage collection companies’ key employees under the PPPs. This is shown in the
table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Sample Population

Location Population(N) Sample
(N/6420)x99

Mjini 2444 37

Kariobangi 1466 23

Kameu 2510 39

Total 6420 99

3.5 Research Instruments

The questionnaire was the main instrument of data collection that was used. The questionnaire
helped the researcher to collect data on knowledge, opinions as well as attitudes of respondents
towards the effects of solid waste managements on the welfare of the local communities. The
questionnaire was suited for this study because it is practical and is used to collect data from a

30
large number of people within a short time and in a relatively cost effective manner. The
questionnaires were used to collect data from the households heads directly affected by the SW
projects operated next to their residential areas, the environmental managers at the Machakos
County, the garbage wheel/trucks loaders and the contracted garbage collection companies via
the PPPs. Observation was expected to be used to help gather crucial data that couldn’t be
obtained through questionnaires. The questionnaire was administered by the researcher and
selected enumerators who at one point served as translators. Both open ended and closed ended
questions were used. Open ended questions enabled respondents to provide sufficient details
while close ended questions enabled the researcher to easily quantify results by the use of SPSS.

3.5.1 Validity and Reliability

A measure of how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure is referred to as validity.
This is the degree to which results gotten really represent the occurrence under investigation. The
measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields consistent results after repeated trials
is reliability.

3.5.2 Validity of the Research Instrument

Kothari (2004) states that validity is the quality that a procedure or tool or instrument that is used
in research has, accuracy, correctness, trueness and meaningfulness. Content validity was used in
the research to measure the degree to which the questionnaire collected the represents the
objectives of the study. The instrument was verified by the supervisor, other two senior lecturers
in the University of Nairobi, and, two research experts from NGOs that deal with environmental
issues touching on SW management in Machakos County (NEMA & UNEP).

3.5.3 Reliability of the Research Instrument

Zikmund (2003) states that reliability is concerned with estimations of the degree to which a
research instrument yields stable results after repeated trials. In this study, reliability was
determined by a test-retest administered to 10 subjects not included in the sample. This was
achieved in that, the first set of 10 questionnaires that were administered to 10 respondents, and
later on the same repeated in two weeks. Input from invaluable sources was obtained during the

31
study that was useful in modifying the questionnaire before a final set of questions could be
produced.

3.6 Data Collection Procedure

A questionnaire was used since it was the best tool for this study. The questionnaire was prepared
on the basis of a review of literature on SW management projects in Kenya and the rest of the
world. Data collection tools were piloted and suggestions made before finalizing the
questionnaire. The study utilized a self-administered questionnaire and equally referred to the
existing secondary data. The researcher got a permit from the graduate school and county
minister of environment and natural resources. The researcher visited the sample, used
enumerators to access some other people in far areas, and e-mailed a questionnaire to some
respondent who could be committed for one on one filling. Appointments to the sampled groups
of respondents, especially those in formal employment, were arranged prior to the visits to avoid
any inconveniences to the respondents. The researcher emphasized that the information given
was specifically to be used for the study and it would be private and confidential and that names
couldn’t be necessary.

3.7 Data Analysis Techniques

The questionnaires were received and sorted out to separate those fully filled and thus valid for
the study from those that did not meet the researcher’s expectations. Quantitative data obtained
from the open ended questions was coded to facilitate quantitative analysis. The coded data was
analyzed by use of descriptive statistics comprising of frequency tables. The hypothesis was
tested by use of Chi Square. Data analysis was done by use of SPSS 20.0

3.8 Ethical Considerations

All government and county authorities were informed prior to the study to avoid suspicions and
resistance from the community members. Consent was sought from the respondents whose
participation in this study was voluntary. The information they provided was treated with utmost
confidentiality. Privacy and dignity of the respondents was considered during the research.
Names of the respondents were not exposed and codes were used instead.

32
3.11 Operationalization of the variables Table 3.3 Operationalization Table
Objective Variable Indicators
Measurement Types of
scale analysis

To examine how employment Employment Menial Jobs Ordinal Descriptive

opportunities created by waste opportunities Scale
management projects affects Management Jobs
the welfare of the local
communities of Machakos Self-Employment
County, Kenya
Jobs

To assess how health related Health Ordinal Descriptive

problems created by waste Water Borne Scale
management projects affects
the welfare of the local Diseases
communities of Machakos Air Borne
County, Kenya.
Diseases
Infant Mortality
To examine how environmental Environment Air Pollution Descriptive
pollution created by waste al Pollution Ordinal
management projects affects the Water pollution
Scale
welfare of the local
Land pollution
communities of Machakos
County, Kenya.

To determine how social Social Quarrels Ordinal Descriptive

conflicts created by waste Conflicts Demonstrations Scale
management projects affects
the welfare of the local Contractual Wars
communities of Machakos
County, Kenya.

33
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction
The data collected was sorted, keyed and analyzed by simple descriptive analysis using Statistical
Package for Social Scientists (SPSS). The data was then presented through frequency tables and
narrative analysis. The questions were tested of their significance by use of the mean weighed
against each score in the Likert scale.

4.2 Return Rate of the Questionnaires

Out of the 99 questionnaires issued to the respondents, 90 were returned and were useful for the
study. Therefore, the return rate was 90.9% positive while negative response was 9.1%.

4.3 General Information

General basic information of the respondents was sought for and the summary given in the table
below:

34
Table 4.1 Basic Information about the Respondents Response Frequency
Percentage Total

Gender F (30) 33.3 %

M (60) 66.7 % 90

Age Bracket 18-30 (9) 10%

31-40 (36) 40%
41-50 (27) 30%
51-60 (9) 10%
>61 (9) 10% 90

Academic qualifications Primary (27) 30 %

Secondary (18) 20%
Diploma (27) 30%
Bachelor’s degree (18) 20 %
Other (specify) (0) 00% 90

Respondents position Project Manager (36) 40%

Employee (27) 30%
Affected resident (9) 10%
Loader (9) 10%
County government worker (9) 10% 90

Average total 100% 90

35
From the responses gotten in the field, 33.3 % of the respondents represented women who were
30 while the remaining 60 who represented 66.7% were men. This is in line with the fact that
men are the most employees in the waste management points in the county just like it is
elsewhere in the world.

In relation to age bracket of the respondents, from the table ages between 18-30 years had 9 who
made 10% of the total respondents, 31-40 years attracted 36 respondents who made 40%, 41-50
years had 27 respondents who made 30%, 51-60 years attracted 10% while the remaining 9 with
10% were over 60 years.

Responses on academic qualifications were as follows: Primary certificate attracted 27

respondents who represented 30%, 18 attracted secondary certificate with a percentage of 20%,
diploma attracted 27 respondents who made 30%, bachelors attracted 18 respondents who made
20%, and postgraduate degree attracted 0 respondents.

Finally, responses on academic qualifications showed that, 36 of the respondents were project
manager who made 40%, respondents who were employees were 27 who made 30%, affected
resident were 9 who made 10%, loaders were 9 who made 10%, while, county government
workers were 9 who made 10%.

4.4 Responses in Relation to Employment Opportunities

The research sought to explore from the respondents whether the solid waste management
projects in Machakos County had an impact in employment patterns in the region and a number
of responses were as follows:

36
Table.4.2 Response on Employment Opportunities

Respondents were asked with relevant examples supporting their answers whether they thought
that solid waste management projects in Machakos County have led to jobs creation and
responses were as follows:
Response Frequency Percentage
No 9 10%
Yes 72 80%
Not sure 9 10%

Total 90 100%

From the field information, 10% of the respondents argued that the solid waste management
projects in Machakos County have never created any visible job to the locals as this is attributed
to the fact that people in the projects could be companies from elsewhere that employs people
who are not affiliated to local settings. In relation to the yes response, 80% of the respondents
felt that the projects associated with solid waste management projects in Machakos County have
helped in creating a number of jobs more specifically to the youths who work in waste collection
points, recycling and disposal. Those who were not sure with the question had a representation of
10%.

Examples given to support the answers included: workers in the spots where waste is collected,
county lorry drivers and loaders, the waste boards’ managers and many more.

37
Table 4.3 Degree of Rating of Jobs Creation

On a scale of rating, respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed or
disagreed with the following statements. (Scale of 1-5 where 1= strongly disagree; 2 =
disagree; 3 =neutral; 4 =agree; 5 = strongly agree).

Statement 1 2 3 4 5

SW management projects have led to Menial Jobs creation

at all phases. 7 9 4 40 30

SW management projects have led to Management Jobs creation

5 9 10 38 28
all phases.

SW management projects have led to Self-Employment Jobs creation

all phases. 2 5 15 30 38

From the responses, in relation to the first statement that read, SW management projects have led
to Menial Jobs creation at all phases, responses were as follows: 7 respondents strongly
disagreed with the statement, 9 disagreed, 4 were neutral, 40 agreed, while the remaining 30
strongly agreed with the idea that menial jobs have been created. When a mean was calculated in
regard to the statement, a mean value of 3.85 was found that corresponded to agree.

In relation to the second statement that that read, SW management projects have led to
Management Jobs creation all phases, there were 5 of the respondents who strongly disagreed, 9
respondents disagreed, neutral were 10, those in agreement were 38, while 28 strongly agreed
who formed the remaining proportion. When an average was calculated in relation to the
statement, a mean value of 3.83 was arrived at which corresponded to agree.

Finally, the statement that said, SW management projects have led to self-employment jobs
creation all phases attracted different responses whereby, 2 respondents strongly disagreed, 5

38
disagreed, 15 were neutral, 30 agreed, while the remaining 38 strongly agreed. When a mean was
calculated, a value of 4.07 was arrived at that was equivalent to agree response.

Table 4.4 Mean and Standard Deviation Scores for Job Creation

On average, the researcher calculated the mean scores and the standard deviation to show the
relationship between the variables as shown below:
Statement Mean Std.
Dev.

SW management projects have led to Menial Jobs creation

at all phases. 3.87 1.12

SW management projects have led to Management Jobs creation

all phases. 3.8 1.16

SW management projects have led to Self-Employment Jobs creation

all phases.
4.41 0.589

On average, over 78% of the respondents agreed with the idea that there are jobs that have been
created by the solid waste management projects in Machakos County. Self-employment job had
the strongest score with a mean of 4.41 that missed only 0.09 to score a strongly agree statement.

4.5 Health Issues Associated with Solid Waste Management Projects in Machakos County

Respondents were asked to indicate whether there are health issues that have been associated or
influence by the Solid Waste Management Projects in Machakos County and a number of
responses were given as indicated in the tables below:

39
Table 4.5 Responses on Health Issues Associated with Solid Waste Management Projects

Respondents were asked whether they thought that there are health issues that have affected the
people and animals due to the implementation the Waste Management Projects in Machakos
County and the responses in the table below were arrived at:

Response Frequency Percentage

No 18 20%
Yes 72 80%

Total 90 100%

From the responses, 80% of the respondents supported the idea that there is a number of health
issues associated with the implementation of the Waste Management Projects in Machakos
County while the no response attracted 20%. The health issues in all cases cut across the animals
and the people in the region.

When giving relevant examples, those 80% of the respondents who went for the yes answer gave
examples like respiratory diseases that have been diagnosed in the individuals surrounding the
area, outbreak of diseases like cholera and other water borne diseases, sudden deaths of abnormal
people and drunkards who have for a long time fallen in the dumpsites for example and many
more. Those who went for no gave examples of the projects being an opportunity for a living.

Table 4.6 Rating of Health Issues on a Scale

Respondents were asked the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the following
statements in relation to health and Solid Waste Management Projects using a scale of 1-5 where
1= strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 =neutral; 4 =Agree; 5 = strongly agree and results as below
arrived at.

40
Statement 1 2 3 4 5

Solid waste management projects have led to Water Borne Diseases. 6 7 9 28 40

Solid waste management projects have led to Air Borne Diseases. 8 9 9 35 28

Solid waste management projects have led to Infant Mortality. 7 9 12 30 32

From the responses gotten in the field, 6 respondents strongly disagreed with the idea that Solid
waste management projects have led to water borne diseases in the area, 7 disagreed, 9 were
neutral, 28 agreed and the rest who were 40 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.98 was
calculated that correspondent to agree response.

In relation to the second statement that that read, solid waste management projects have led to air
borne diseases in the area, 8 of the respondents strongly disagreed, 9 of the respondents
disagreed, there were 9 who were neutral, 35 agreed, while 28 of those remaining strongly agreed
with the statement. On average, a value of 3.63 was calculated that correspondent to 3.63
response.

Finally, the idea that Solid waste management projects have led to Infant Mortality attracted 7
respondents who strongly disagreed, 9 who disagreed, 12 were neutral, 30 who agreed, while the
remaining 32 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.79 was calculated that correspondent to
agree response.

Table 4.7 Mean Scores for Issues associated with SWM projects

The researcher weighed the responses on the issues surround health and solid waste management
projects and the scores were as follows:

41
Statement Mean Std Dev.

Solid waste management projects have led to Water Borne Diseases. 3.988 1.001

Solid waste management projects have led to Air Borne Diseases. 3.7 1.03

Solid waste management projects have led to Infant Mortality. 3.788 1.21

On average, over 76% of the respondents agreed with the idea that SWM projects have led to
health issues that include water borne diseases, air borne diseases and infant mortality rates.

4.6 Social Conflicts Associated with Solid Waste Management Projects Implementation

Respondents were asked a number of questions in relation to social conflicts associated with
solid waste management projects implementation in Machakos County and the results in the
tables below were arrived at.

Table 4.8 Responses on the Issues of Social Conflicts

Respondents were asked whether they thought that the implementation of the solid waste
management projects is associated with any conflicts in the society and this be attached to
relevant examples if any. The table below shows the responses:

Response Frequency Percentage

No 7 7.8%
Yes 72 80%
Not sure 11 12.2%

Total 90 100%

From the responses, 7.8% of the respondents who were made of 7 respondents said that there
have not been any social conflicts associated with the implementation of the solid waste
management projects in Machakos County, 72 who represented 80% said that there have been

42
conflicts that are associated with the implementation of the solid waste management projects and
finally 12.2% of the respondents were not sure.
When asked to support their answers with relevant examples, on average, over 80% of the
respondents gave issues like increased social unrests, quarrels, strife and sometimes violent wars
that have been witnessed between various groups collecting the garbage or regular wars from
organized gangs that want to control the dumpsites due to the recyclable valuables. Also, wars
have been experienced on ways in which contracts and tenders of garbage collection are
allocated to various companies in the county.

Table 4.9 Rating of Social conflicts on a Likert scale

Respondents were asked to indicate how they agreed or disagreed with the following statements
in relation to social conflicts associated with the implementation of the solid waste management
projects; where 1= strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 =not sure; 4 =agree; 5 = strongly agree.
Statement 1 2 3 4 5

Solid waste management projects have accelerated Quarrels in

Machakos County 8 9 4 34 35
Solid waste management projects have accelerated Demonstrations
in Machakos county 7 8 8 45 22
Solid waste management projects have led to Contractual Wars. 12 10 9 29 30

From the responses given in the field, 8 respondents strongly disagreed with the idea that, Solid
waste management projects have accelerated Quarrels in Machakos County, 9 disagreed, 4 were
neutral, 45 agreed while the remaining 22 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.88 was
calculated that correspondent to agree response.

In relation to the second statement that read, Solid waste management projects have accelerated
Demonstrations in Machakos County, had 7 respondents who strongly disagreed, 8 disagreed, 8
were neutral, 45 agreed, while the remaining 22 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.74 was
calculated that correspondent to agree response.

Finally, the statement that said, Solid waste management projects have led to Contractual Wars
attracted different responses whereby, 12 respondents strongly disagreed, 10 disagreed, 9 were

43
not sure, 29 agreed, while the remaining 30 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.61 was
calculated that correspondent to agree response.
4.10 Mean Scores for Social Conflicts
Statement Mean Std. Dev.

Solid waste management projects have accelerated Quarrels in

Machakos County 3.877 1.122

Solid waste management projects have accelerated Demonstrations

in Machakos county 3.7 1.252

Solid waste management projects have led to Contractual Wars.

3.61 1.038

On average, over 73% of the respondents supported the idea that SWM projects have led to
social conflicts that include quarrels, demonstrations, and at times wars.

4.7 Responses on Items on Environmental Pollution

Respondents were asked to give their views in relation to Environmental Pollution and results in
the tables below were given:

Table 4.11 Responses on Environmental Pollution

Respondents were asked to give their yes or no answer in relation to the question that Solid waste
management projects in Machakos County have led to environmental pollution and with were
coupled with relevant examples. The responses in the table below were arrived at:

Response Frequency Percentage

No 18 20%

Yes 54 60%

Not sure 18 20%

44
Total 90 100%

From the responses, 54 respondents argued that the Solid waste management projects in
Machakos County have led to environmental pollution in the area, 20% of the respondents went
for no and not sure in the same proportions. When asked to support their reasons, on average,
60% of the respondents gave reasons like air pollution due to dumping has been experienced,
soil/land pollution due to non-biodegradable materials disposal, water pollution in areas around
Mjini dumping site where the waste is directed into water and many more.

Table 4.12 Rating of Responses on Environmental Pollution

Respondents were asked to rate the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the following
statements. Scale of use: 1-5, where, 1= strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 =neutral; 4 =agree;
5 = strongly agree.

Statement 1 2 3 4 5

Air Pollution has been an issue due to solid waste management projects. 8 9 12 34 27

Water pollution has been on the rise due to solid waste management
projects
8 8 16 30 28
Land pollution is a key issue in SW management projects.

9 9 15 29 28

From the responses, in relation to the first statement that said, Air Pollution has been an issue due
to solid waste management projects, 8 respondents strongly disagreed, 9 disagreed, 12 were
neutral, 34 agreed, while the remaining 27 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.7 was
calculated that correspondent to agree response. In relation to the statement that read, Water
pollution has been on the rise due to solid waste management projects in the area attracted 8
respondents who strongly disagreed, 8 disagreed, 16 were not sure, 30 agreed, while the
remaining 28 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.69 was calculated that correspondent to
agree response. In relation to the final statement that focused on land pollution is a key issue in

45
 SW management projects, those that strongly disagreed were 9, those that disagreed were 9,
those who were neutral were 15, 29 did agree, while the remaining 28 strongly agreed. On
average, a value of 3.64 was calculated that correspondent to agree response.

Table 4.13 Mean Scores on Pollution and SWM Projects

Statement Mean Std dev.

Air Pollution has been an issue due to solid waste management projects. 3.7 1.03

Water pollution has been on the rise due to solid waste management
projects
4.022 0.9
Land pollution is a key issue in SW management projects.

3.64 1.035

On average, over 75.74% of the respondents agreed that there is a relationship between
environmental pollution and the implementation of SWM projects in Machakos County.

4.8 Hypothesis Testing

The research sought to establish the relationship between the independent variables and the
dependent by conducting the Chi-Square tests.

Table 4.14 Testing of the First Hypothesis

H1: Employment opportunities created by waste management projects have a significant effect on
the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.

f e (f-e)=d (d)2 (d)2/f

46
7 18 -11 121 6.7

9 18 -9 81 4.5

4 18 -14 196 10.8

40 18 22 484 26.8
30 18 12 144 8

∑ (d) 2/f = 56.8

χ2C= 56.8 > χ2 = 9.488 at 4 degrees of freedom and 5% level of

confidence.

0.05

Since the calculated chi-square value of 56.8 is greater than the critical chi-square value at 5%
level of confidence, we accept the alternative hypothesis. Thus, employment opportunities
created by waste management projects have a significant effect on the welfare of the local
communities of Machakos County, Kenya.

Table 4.15 Testing of the Second Hypothesis

Health related problems created by waste management projects have a significant effect on the
welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.

f e (f-e)=d (d)2 (d)2/f

47
6 18 -12 144 8

7 18 -11 121 6.7

9 18 -9 81 4.5

28 18 10 100 5.5
40 18 22 484 26.8

∑ (d) 2/f = 51.5

χ2C= 51.5 > χ2 = 9.488 at 4 degrees of freedom and 5% level of

confidence.

0.05

Since the calculated chi-square value of 51.5 is greater than the critical chi-square value at 5%
level of confidence, we accept the alternative hypothesis. Thus, Health related problems created
by waste management projects have a significant effect on the welfare of the local communities
of Machakos County, Kenya.

Table 4.16 Testing of the Third Hypothesis

Social conflicts created by waste management projects have significant effect on the welfare of
the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.

f e (f-e)=d (d)2 (d)2/f

8 18 -10 100 5.5

7 18 -11 121 6.7

4 18 -14 196 9.4

34 18 14 196 10.8

35 18 17 289 16.1

48
 ∑ (d) 2/f = 48.5

χ2C= 48.5 > χ2 = 9.488 at 4 degrees of freedom and 5% level of

confidence.

0.05

Since the calculated chi-square value of 48.5 is greater than the critical chi-square value at 5%
level of confidence, we accept the alternative hypothesis. Thus, Social conflicts created by waste
management projects have significant effect on the welfare of the local communities of
Machakos County, Kenya.

Table 4.17 Testing of the Fourth Hypothesis

Environmental pollution created by waste management projects has a significant effect on the
welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, Kenya.

f e (f-e)=d (d)2 (d)2/f

9 18 -9 81 4.5

9 18 -9 81 4.5

15 18 -3 9 0.5

29 18 11 121 6.7
28 18 10 100 5.5

∑ (d) 2/f = 21.7

χ2C=21.7> χ2 = 9.488 at 4 degrees of freedom and 5% level of confidence.

0.05

49
Since the calculated chi-square value of 21.7 is greater than the critical chi-square value at 5%
level of confidence, we accept the alternative hypothesis. Thus, Environmental pollution created
by waste management projects has a significant effect on the welfare of the local communities of
Machakos County, Kenya.

50
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the summary of the study findings, discussions, conclusions and
recommendation of the research. The chapter also contains suggestions of related studies that
may be carried out in the future.

5.2 Summary of Findings

Questionnaires were the main data collection tools that were used and they were allocated to a
population sample of 99 respondents of whom 90 returned well filled questionnaires that were
valid for the study. Findings from the field show that, in relation to the first objective that sought
to examine how employment opportunities created by waste management projects affects the
welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, 80% of the respondents supported the
argument, 10% said no while the remaining 10 were not sure. Examples given to support the
answers included: workers in the spots where waste is collected, county lorry drivers and loaders,
the waste boards’ managers and many more. On a rating scale, in relation to the first statement
that read, SW management projects have led to Menial Jobs creation at all phases, responses
were as follows: 7 respondents strongly disagreed with the statement, 9 disagreed, 4 were
neutral, 40 agreed, while the remaining 30 strongly agreed with the idea that menial jobs have
been created. This was the case in the second statement that read, SW management projects have
led to Management Jobs creation all phases whereby there were 5 of the respondents who
strongly disagreed, 9 respondents disagreed, neutral were 10, those in agreement were 38, while
28 strongly agreed who formed the remaining proportion. When averages were calculated, all the
statements accepted values that were agreeing i.e. 3.85, 3.83 and 4.07 respectively.

In relation to the second objective which sought to assess how health related problems created by
waste management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County,
80% of the respondents supported the idea that there is a number of health issues associated with
the implementation of the Waste Management Projects in Machakos County while the no
response attracted 20%. The health issues in all cases cut across the animals and the people in the
region. When giving relevant examples, 80% of the respondents who went for the yes answer

51
gave examples like respiratory diseases that have been diagnosed in the individuals surrounding
the area, outbreak of diseases like cholera and other water borne diseases and many more. On a
rating scale of statements, 6 respondents strongly disagreed with the idea that Solid waste
management projects have led to water borne diseases in the area, 7 disagreed, 9 were neutral, 28
agreed and the rest who were 40 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.98 was calculated that
correspondent to agree response. In relation to the second statement that that read, solid waste
management projects have led to air borne diseases in the area, those who strongly disagreed
were 8, 9 of the respondents disagreed, the neutral respondents were 9, and those who agree were
35, while the remaining 28 strongly agreed with the statement. On average, a value of 3.63 was
calculated that correspondent to 3.63 response. The results were also similar with the idea that
associated infants’ mortality rates to SWM projects.

As per the third objective that sought to determine how social conflicts created by waste
management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, 7.8% of
the respondents who were made of 7 respondents said that there have not been any social
conflicts associated with the implementation of the solid waste management projects in
Machakos County, 72 who represented 80% said that there have been conflicts that are
associated with the implementation of the solid waste management projects and finally 12.2% of
the respondents were not sure. On average, over 80% of the respondents gave issues like
increased social unrests, quarrels, strife and sometimes violent wars that have been witnessed
between various groups collecting the garbage or regular wars from organized gangs that want to
control the dumpsites due to the recyclable valuables. Also, wars have been experienced on ways
in which contracts and tenders of garbage collection are allocated to various companies in the
county. On a rating scale, the statement that said, Solid waste management projects have led to
Contractual Wars attracted different responses whereby, 12 respondents strongly disagreed, 10
disagreed, 9 were not sure, 29 agreed, while the remaining 30 strongly agreed, as it was in the
case with other statements. On average, a value of over 3.61 was calculated that correspondent to
agree response.
In relation to the final objective that sought to examine how environmental pollution created by
waste management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, 54
respondents argued that the Solid waste management projects in Machakos County have led to

52
environmental pollution in the area, 20% of the respondents went for no and not sure in the same
proportions. When asked to support their reasons, on average, 60% of the respondents gave
reasons like air pollution due to dumping has been experienced, soil/land pollution due to
nonbiodegradable materials disposal, water pollution in areas around Mjini dumping site where
the waste is directed into water and many more. On a rating scale, from the responses, in relation
to the first statement that said, Air Pollution has been an issue due to solid waste management
projects, 8 respondents strongly disagreed, 9 disagreed, 12 were neutral, 34 agreed, while the
remaining 27 strongly agreed. On average, a value of 3.7 was calculated that correspondent to
agree response. Equally, in relation to the statement that read, Water pollution has been on the
rise due to solid waste management projects in the area attracted 8 respondents who strongly
disagreed, 8 disagreed, 16 were not sure, 30 agreed, while the remaining 28 strongly agreed. On
average, a value of 3.69 was calculated that correspondent to agree response.
This was the same with the response land pollution.

5.3 Discussion of Findings

Results from the above have shown that a number of responses and views from the field are tied
with the finding in the review of the secondary information in chapter two. For example, in
relation to the first objective that in relation to the first objective that sought to examine how
employment opportunities created by waste management projects affects the welfare of the local
communities of Machakos County, 80% of the respondents supported the argument, 10% said no
while the remaining 10 were not sure. Examples given to support the answers included: workers
in the spots where waste is collected, county lorry drivers and loaders, the waste boards’
managers and many more. This is shown by a number of scholars in the literature review. For
example, in Asian countries, Sakai et al (2011) observe that MSW in countries like India the
recycling of resources is mostly done by the informal sector as a means of employment.

This is well articulated by Nyaga (2014) who notes that in Machakos just as the situation is in
other parts of the country, a number of projects have been initiated by the county government
that has distributed waste handling trucks at various points where individuals are to empty their
waste into. He further argues that in cases where the trucks are far from the residents, the MCAs
have partnered with village administrators and distributed Carts (mikokoteni) that are under a

53
group of 10 jobless youth per cart so that they can earn a living from it. This actually is true with
the findings that had a mean score of above average in which respondents agreed to the point that
SWMP in the county have led to both menial, technical and self-employment opportunities for
both the locals and other residents.

In relation to the second objective which sought to assess how health related problems created by
waste management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County,
80% of the respondents supported the idea that there is a number of health issues associated with
the implementation of the Waste Management Projects in Machakos County while the no
response attracted 20%. The health issues in all cases cut across the animals and the people in the
region. According to World Bank (2012), Landfill sites due to SW management projects initiated
by various governments in both the developed countries and the under developed countries have
brought about Birth defects and reproductive disorders. Reproductive effects associated with
landfill sites have been extensively researched and include low birth weight (less than 2500 g),
fetal and infant mortality, spontaneous abortion, and the occurrence of birth defects.

When giving relevant examples from the responses, results showed that, 80% of the respondents
who went for the yes answer gave examples like respiratory diseases that have been diagnosed in
the individuals surrounding the area, outbreak of diseases like cholera and other water borne
diseases and many more. This is supported by Ng’era (2014) who argues that many of the studies
investigating health outcomes other than birth defects and reproductive orders and cancers have
been community health surveys and have relied on the self-reporting of symptoms through
interviews or questionnaires in Machakos in relation to health issues to the communities as a
result of SW management programs. The health problems investigated include respiratory
symptoms, irritation of the skin, nose and eyes, gastrointestinal problems, fatigue, headaches,
psychological problems and allergies. It has been suggested that evaluation of a relationship
between these symptoms is complicated by confounding by stress, public perception of risk,
odours and nuisance related to the site, and recall bias, but on overall, SWMP have led to a
number of respiratory related complications in areas like Kameu, Kariobangi, Mjini and many
more.

54
As per the third objective that sought to determine how social conflicts created by waste
management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, 7.8% of
the respondents who were made of 7 respondents said that there have not been any social
conflicts associated with the implementation of the solid waste management projects in
Machakos County, while 72 who represented 80% said that there have been conflicts that are
associated with the implementation of the solid waste management projects. On average, over
80% of the respondents gave issues like increased social unrests, quarrels, strife and sometimes
violent wars that have been witnessed between various groups collecting the garbage or regular
wars from organized gangs that want to control the dumpsites due to the recyclable valuables.
Also, wars have been experienced on ways in which contracts and tenders of garbage collection
are allocated to various companies in the county. This has been affirmed to by a number of
scholars from the literature review.

For example, according to UNEP (2013) a number of issues like contractual wars and the
assigning of contracts have existed for long now in Kenya in relation to SW management. This
has left a number of contracts landing into private firms that have little manpower and resources
to manage the SW projects due to corrupt deals and nepotistic contract signings. This has been
reported in Town like Thika where the contractors themselves incite their employees to rise
against each other-2011, in Kisumu and Machakos whereby various west pickers who felt that
they initially owned the zones of west collection and many more. Also, Nyokabi (2011) argues
that, in Machakos just like it has been happening in Nairobi’s dumpsite of Dandora, frequently,
there have been reports of enmity, hatred, wars and at times demonstrations from various groups
of waste pickers from the various waste management sites in the towns. In Dandora for example,
wars have been experienced between the various north and south gangs, once one gang collected
recyclable waste beyond the boundaries put. This has often led to gang wars between the groups;
incidences that at times involve gun fights. In Machakos though minimal, a number of wars have
been reported due to disagreements between the waste pickers in the county.

In relation to the final objective that sought to examine how environmental pollution created by
waste management projects affects the welfare of the local communities of Machakos County, 54
respondents argued that the Solid waste management projects in Machakos County have led to
environmental pollution in the area, 20% of the respondents went for no and not sure in the same

55
proportions. When asked to support their reasons, on average, 60% of the respondents gave
reasons like air pollution due to dumping has been experienced, soil/land pollution due to non-
biodegradable materials disposal, water pollution in areas around Mjini dumping site where the
waste is directed into water and many more. Concurring to this is Zhuang, Wang, Wu & Chen
(2010) who argue that one major environmental issue associated with the private and municipal
SW management projects in China today is the issue of surface water contamination. According
to them, in the eastern parts of the country for example, Waste that ends up in water bodies
negatively change the chemical composition of the water. Technically, this is called water
pollution. This will affect all ecosystems existing in the water. It can also cause harm to animals
and families that drink from such polluted water.

Also, Lilia & Casanova (2010) in their work ‘Assessing the Range of Options for PPP in
Expanding Waste Management Services in Developing Countries’ have touched on an issue
caused by the various projects managing the SW and how they have led to Soil contamination in
countries like Ethiopia, Philippines, Kenya, Angola and Nigeria. According to them, hazardous
chemicals that get into the soil (contaminants) can harm plants when they take up the
contamination through their roots. If humans eat plants and animals that have been in contact
with such polluted soils, there can be negative impact on their health.

5.4 Conclusions

From a series of issues that have come into bow starting from the literature review, the
information gathered in the field and the summary of the findings, the research concluded that
the SW projects in Machakos County just like any other in the rest of the world have led to jobs
creation in the area and other surrounding environs.

The researcher also concludes that health hazards and issues have been surrounding the
implementation of the SW projects in the area just like any SW projects across the world in
countries like China, India, Uganda, and many more.

Also, the researcher concludes that social conflicts, wars, misunderstandings and societal clashes
have been linked to SW projects implementation in the Machakos County.

56
Finally, the researcher concludes that environmental pollution, soil degradation, ground water
contamination among others has been associated to the implementation of waste projects in the
Machakos County. This has gone beyond to include the ugly looks of the lands enclosed in the
dumpsite areas that have made it difficult for tourists for example to visit.

5.5 Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study the researcher makes the following recommendations:

First, the researcher recommends that the SW projects in the county should be formally
organized from the low levels/village levels to the wider county levels since the projects have
been proving more than self-employment.

Secondly, the researcher recommend that health hazards associated with SW management
projects need to be controlled (through recycling and wastes toxics check) since the waste
doesn’t only lead to diseases cause but has led to a number of deaths and strained families’ health
care.

Thirdly, the researcher recommends that social conflicts associated with such projects in the
county and country at large must be addressed through various avenues like mutual designed
committees, reconciliation bodies and penalties should be attached to those who break the set
rules.

Finally, the researcher recommends that bodies like NEMA should be contacted in doing an up to
date EIA so as to come up with better strategies of handling and disposing the waste with
minimal pollution to the environs if any.

5.6 Suggestions for Further Research

i. The researcher suggests for a research to be done on determinants of community
participation in SW management projects implementation in Machakos County.
ii. Another study can also be done to investigate the sustainability of the ongoing reforms in
the SW management in Machakos County under the county governance.

57
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 APPENDICES

Appendix B: Questionnaire Serial

No……..

The questionnaire is subdivided into subsections according to basic information and the
objectives.

SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

1. Gender of the respondent?

i) Male ii) Female

2. Respondents position:
Project Manager

Employee

Affected resident

Loader

County government worker

3. How long, in years, have you been working on this project?

67
______________________________________________________________Years
4. What is your highest level of education?
Primary

Secondary

Tertiary College

Undergraduate

Postgraduate

Other (specify)

Section Two: Employment opportunities

1. In your own opinion, do you think that solid waste management projects have led to jobs
creation in the Machakos County? Yes ( ) No ( ).
2. Give reasons for your answer in 1 above
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. To what extent do you agree that the following have been caused by solid waste management
projects implementation?

68
1-strongly disagree 2-Disagree 3-Neutral 4-Agree 5-Strongly Agree
Statement 1 2 3 4 5

SW management projects have led to Menial Jobs creation at all

phases

SW management projects have led to Management Jobs creation all

phases

SW management projects have led to Self-Employment Jobs

creation all phases

Section Three: Health

4. Do you think that solid waste management has health effects to both animals and human
being in the county?
5. With relevant examples, give some reasons as per your support of the above from any project
you know
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. To what extent do you agree that the following statements relate to the life of the people of
Machakos County in relation to solid waste management?
1-strongly disagree 2-Disagree 3- Neutral 4-Agree 5-Strongly Agree
Statement 1 2 3 4 5

Solid waste management projects have led to Water Borne Diseases

Solid waste management projects have led to Air Borne Diseases

Solid waste management projects have led to Infant Mortality

69
Section Four: Training Practices
7. Do support the idea that Social Conflicts have been brought into your area due to solid waste
management projects implementation? Yes ( ) No ( ).
8. Support your answer from relevant projects.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. To what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements?
1-strongly disagree 2-Disagree 3- Neutral 4-Agree 5-Strongly Agree

Statement 1 2 3 4 5

Solid waste management projects have accelerated Quarrels in Machakos

county

Solid waste management projects have accelerated Demonstrations in

Machakos county

Solid waste management projects have led to Contractual Wars

Section Five: Environmental Pollution

10. In your own opinion, do you think that Environmental Pollution has been due to solid waste
management projects in Machakos County? Yes ( ) No( )
11. What are the possible reasons for your answer above? -----------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12. To what extent do you agree that the following statements?

1-strongly disagree 2-Disagree 3- Neutral 4-Agree 5-Strongly Agree
Statement 1 2 3 4 5

Air Pollution has been an issue due to solid waste management projects

Water pollution has been on the rise due to solid waste management projects

70
Land pollution is a key issue in SW management projects

71