Speed

SPEED,
POWER &
STRENGTH
A SPECIAL REPORT FROM
PEAK The research newsletter on

stamina, strength and fitness
PERFORMANCE
Training for
SPEED,
POWER &
STRENGTH
A SPECIAL REPORT FROM
PEAK The research newsletter on

stamina, strength and fitness
PERFORMANCE
Training for
SPEED,
POWER &
STRENGTH
Training for
SPEED,
POWER &
STRENGTH
© Peak Performance Publishing 2005
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
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Published by Peak Performance Publishing
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ISBN: 1-905096-08-9
Publisher Jonathan A. Pye

Editor Isabel Walker
Designer The Flying Fish Studios Ltd
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press. Whilst care has been taken to ensure that the information is accurate, the publisher can
accept no responsibility for the consequences of actions based on the advice contained herein.
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system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the permission of the publisher.
OTHER TITLES IN THE
PEAK PERFORMANCE
SPECIAL REPORT SERIES
ACHILLES TENDINITIS –
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
CARBO LOADING –
FOR THAT EXTRA EDGE
COACHING YOUNG ATHLETES
CREATINE –
CUTTING THROUGH THE MYTHS
DYNAMIC STRENGTH TRAINING FOR SWIMMERS
TRAINING FOR MASTER ATHLETES
FEMALE ATHLETES –
TRAINING FOR SUCCESS
SHOULDER INJURIES –
PREVENTION AND TREATMENT
MARATHON TRAINING –
FOR YOUR PERSONAL BEST
NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS –
BOOSTING YOUR PERFORMANCE
SPORTS PSYCHOLOGY –
THE WILL TO WIN
The above reports are available at a cost of £29.99 each from

Peak Performance (S/R), 67-71 Goswell Road, London, EC1V 7EP.
Cheques should be made payable to Peak Performance.
CONTENTS
Page 11 – Strength training: Fish out of water: the land-lubbers’
strength programme for swim competition
Raphael Brandon
Page 19 – Power training: Add power to your punch with plyometric
exercise
John Shepherd
Page 27 – Weight training: For sporting success make your weights
programme specific to your chosen activity
John Shepherd
Page 35 – Power v strength training: Strength or power – which
matters most for peak athletic performance?
Raphael Brandon
Page 45 – Ageing and speed: The bad news is that speed declines
with age; the good news is that you can arrest, even
reverse, this degenerative process
John Shepherd
Page 53 – Rotational power training: All you need to know about
getting in shape to perform zippy turns on the hoof
John Shepherd
Page 61 – Muscle training: Twitch and you’re gone –
all you need to know about developing fast-twitch muscle
fibre for speed, power and strength
John Shepherd
Page 71 – Agility training: Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee –
sport specific drills for boosting agility
John Shepherd
Page 79 – Speed development: Tried and tested ways to fast-
forward your sporting performance
John Shepherd
Page 87 – What the scientists say: Eccentric moves recruit most
fast-twitch fibres
Page 88 – What the scientists say: ATP is no creatine
From the editor
nyone who has ever considered Peak Performance biased towards
A endurance sports and events can bask happily in the almost

entirely explosive emphasis of this special report. It will not help
you to work out/run/swim/cycle for longer (although there are other
reports in the series that do just that) but it will give you the knowledge
and the tools you need to enhance your speed, increase your power and
boost your strength.
Prepared for you by PP’s expert conditioning duo, John Shepherd and
Raphael Brandon, the report covers a wide range of interests, from
strength training for swimmers (gym exercises designed to replicate water
action as closely as possible) to rotational power training (very useful for
all sports involving sudden turns); from speed development (drills to help
you run like the wind) to battling the ageing process (sadly speed declines
much faster than endurance with the passing years); and from weight
training (impossible for any athlete to ignore these days) to agility training
(much more than optimum sports technique).
In all these articles you will find not just a distillation and critique of the
latest scientific research but a variety of carefully selected, highly-targeted
practical drills, techniques and exercises which will help you to enhance
your own abilities, whatever your chosen sport or activity. You will not just
want to read it once but keep it by your side to refer to again and again,
and use it to track your inevitable progress.
Have a great time reading – and living – this special report.
Isabel Walker
Editor
PAGE 9
PEAK PERFORMANCE STRENGTH TRAINING SPECIAL REPORT
PAGE 10
STRENGTH TRAINING
Fish out of water: the

land-lubbers’ strength
programme for swim
competition
To optimise strength and power, competitive swimmers need to
supplement their pool training with land training in the gym. For
best effect, swimmers need to follow a programme of exercises
that replicate their actions in the water as closely as possible.
Strength and conditioning experts around the world all agree
that, for time spent in the gym to have a positive impact on your
sports performance, you must ensure the exercises you perform
– and the way you perform them – are related to your sporting
movements in competition. For example, Barbell Squats
involve ankle, knee and hip extensions in a vertical plane that
are directly related to the mechanics of a vertical jump; thus the
squat is a useful exercise for developing jump performance.
If we perform a basic analysis of the mechanics of the front
crawl stroke, the main actions that produce forward propulsion
through the water are:
the ‘arm pull down’ through the water, which propels the
swimmer forward and
the ‘leg kick’, which alternates hip flexion and extension
of the legs.
In addition, competitive swimming involves:
the ‘dive start and push off turn’, which involves dynamic
ankle, knee and hip extension.
When designing your strength programme, you should focus
mainly on exercises related to these movements. Other
exercises may use the same muscles as those involved in
PAGE 11
swimming, but only exercises that use right muscles in a related

mechanical movement will provide optimum training benefit.
A limitation of land training with weights for swimming is
that the type of resistance you encounter when moving in the
water is different from the resistance occurring when you move
a weight through the air. In the water, the faster you pull or kick
the greater the resistance applied back by the water; on land, a
given weight requires a constant force to move it, regardless of
the speed of movement.
Hydraulic-type resistance equipment that mimics aquatic
resistance is expensive and not widely available. The best
compromise when using regular equipment is to try to mimic
the speed and nature of the swimming stroke. To this end, you
should aim to perform the strength exercises with a smooth and
constant force, and select weights that allow the movement to
be performed at a swimming-related speed. For example, the
leg-kicking motion during front crawl is quite fast, so hip flexion
and extension exercises that can be performed at a good speed
would be best.
The following exercises are related to the mechanics of
the front crawl stroke. For each component, the relevant
exercises are described and their mechanical relationship to
the stroke explained.
Arm pull down exercises

1. Cable rotational front and back pulls
Front pull This is the mechanical equivalent to the pulling-
through-the-water action in front crawl, as the hand comes
diagonally across the body as it pulls down. For this exercise you
need a high pulley machine with a simple handle grip.
Kneel down on one knee to the side of the machine. Take the
hand nearest the pulley and grasp the handle with the hand high
and slightly out to your side. Before you start the exercise make
sure your back is straight, your shoulders are wide and your chin
is tucked in. Pull the handle down and lower your arm across
your body in a rotational movement until your hand is next to
the opposite hip. Smoothly return the bar to the start position
PAGE 12
and continue, performing sets of 5-8 reps for maximum strength

or 12-15 for strength endurance.
Try to keep your posture solid throughout the movement.
Maintain a slight bend in the elbow as you pull, but focus your
effort on the shoulder muscles only.
Rear pull This exercise involves the opposite movement to the

front pull and is useful for promoting a balanced strength about
the shoulder joint. Specifically, the front pull trains the internal
rotator cuff muscles and the rear pull trains the external
muscles. To avoid shoulder injuries, a balanced rotator cuff
strength is important. For this exercise you need a low pulley
machine with the simple handle grip.
‘
combination,
In
the front and

Stand to the side of the machine and grasp the handle with
rear diagonal
the opposite hand. Make sure your back is straight, your
pull train
shoulders wide and your chin tucked in. Start with your hand by
almost every
the inside hip and fix a slight bend in the elbow. Pull the handle
muscle in the
up and away from your body, rotating the arm up and out. Finish
shoulder joint
with the handle high and out to the side, with the palm of the
hand facing forwards. Smoothly return the handle back and
across to the opposite hip, and continue. Again go for sets of 5-
and girdle
’
8 reps for maximum strength or 12-15 for strength endurance.
Keeping your posture solid during this exercise is quite
difficult, as it is tempting to use your trunk muscles to help the
rotation movement. However, you can train your core stability
skills by keeping your navel pulled into your spine and relaxing
your upper body so there are no additional movements apart
from the arm raise and rotation.
In combination, the front and rear diagonal pull train almost
every muscle in the shoulder joint and shoulder girdle. This
makes them very useful exercises for any sport.
2. Medicine ball single arm overhead throw

This exercise develops the power of the latissimus and pectoral
muscles in a functional manner for swimmers, involving a
movement similar to the front crawl stroke. The aim of the
throw is to improve the rate of force development in the
PAGE 13
shoulder by accelerating the arm hard to throw the ball. For this
exercise you need a partner and 2-4kg ball. Small rubber balls
are best as they can be held in one hand.
‘ Closed
kinetic chain
Because the ball is quite heavy for one hand, you will not be
able to throw it far or move the arm very fast. This makes it ideal
movements are
for swimming as the pull stroke is not that fast.The training effect
thought to be
comes from your attempts to accelerate the arm movement as
particularly
fast as you can, thereby improving the power of the pull.
functional
Lie on your back on the floor, with knees bent slightly so your
for sports
lower back is comfortable. Grasp the ball in one hand with your
performance
’ arm up and behind your head, slightly bent at the elbow.
Vigorously pull the arm up and down across your body,
throwing the ball over the opposite knee. Get your partner to
return the ball, and perform sets of 8-12 repetitions with each
arm in turn.
Do not lift your head or pull up from the stomach as you
throw. Focus on producing the power from the shoulder and
pulling across the body as you do in front crawl.
3. Swiss ball body pulls

This is a ‘closed kinetic chain’ movement, where the moving
limbs remain in contact with a fixed object – in this case the
hands with the floor. Such movements are thought to be
particularly functional for sports performance, so offering
greater training benefits.
This exercise is performed in a horizontal prone position,
with the arms pulling down under the body, matching the
position and action of a swimmer in the pool.
Position yourself face down, with your lower legs on the Swiss
ball and your hands on the floor supporting your weight, body
parallel to the floor. This is the equivalent of a press-up position
with your feet up. Slowly roll the ball up your legs while your
arms extend out in front of you until you achieve a stretched
position, with a straight line through your arms, shoulders, back,
hips and legs. At this point your body will make a shallow angle
with the floor and the ball will be positioned on your thighs.
Then, keeping this perfect alignment of your body, push down
PAGE 14
through your hands into the floor and pull yourself back to the
press-up position. The ball should roll back down your legs as
you do this. Perform sets of 8-12 repetitions.
The difficult part of the exercise is the pull back up. At this
point you must use your stomach muscles to support your spine
and focus on using a strong pull of the shoulder muscles to raise
your body back to the parallel position. This exercise is not easy,
but it is very beneficial for many sports, helping to develop core
and shoulder strength.
Leg kick exercises

Hip extension and flexion kick
These exercises mimic the upward and downward phases of the
swimmer’s kick action, where the glutes and hamstrings extend
and the hip flexors flex the leg at the hip. For these exercises you
need a low pulley machine with an ankle strap attachment.
Each leg is worked independently to increase the specificity for
swimming, and the weights used should be relatively light so you
can kick with good speed, as in the pool.
Hip extension Stand facing the low pulley machine, with the
ankle strap attached to one leg. Lift this leg off the floor, taking
up the slack of the cable, and place your balance solidly on the
other leg. Hold onto the machine’s frame with your hands to
stabilise your upper body and check that your back is straight,
with shoulders relaxed.
Pull the cable back dynamically by extending the leg
backwards until you feel you need to lean forwards, then bring
it back in a controlled manner to the start position, retaining
good posture. Continue pulling the leg back, focusing on the
gluteals and hamstrings to kick back powerfully.
Hip flexion Stand with your back to the low pulley machine,
with the ankle strap attached to one leg. Lift this leg off the
floor, taking up the slack of the cable, and place your balance
solidly on the other leg. Use a stick to support yourself, and
check that your back is straight with your shoulders relaxed. Pull
PAGE 15
the cable dynamically by kicking the leg forwards. Pull the

weight, using your hip flexor muscles at the top and front of the
thigh, until your leg reaches an angle of about 30˚ or you start
to lean back. Smoothly return your leg to the start position,
retaining good posture, and continue.
Perform sets of 10 reps at a fast speed and build up to sets of
20 or 30 for power endurance of this movement.
‘Dive start and push-off turn’ exercise

Barbell squat jumps
This exercise involves dynamic extension of the ankle, knee
and hip joints and trains the calf, quadriceps and gluteal
muscles to improve vertical jump performance. The vertical
jump is mechanically related to the dive start and push-off
turns involved in swimming: with the dive or turn, the ankle,
knee and hip extension propels you forwards in the horizontal
plane, while with the jump the leg extension propels you
upwards in the vertical plane. Essentially, it’s the same
movement rotated by 90˚!
The point of using a barbell to add weight to the squat is to
help you to generate peak power. If you perform the jump squat
with body weight only, the jump will be very fast and high. With
the addition of a moderate weight (about 30-40% of the 1
repetition max weight for the squat exercise), the jump will not
be as high or fast, but the muscular power required to leave the
ground will be maximal. This is based on the knowledge that
peak power is achieved when the force used is about one third
of the maximum force for that movement.
Again, your goal is to attempt to achieve the fastest extension
of the legs to maximise power production and training benefit.
If you use 30-40% of 1RM weight, I recommend 3-5 sets of
5 repetitions.
Stand with the barbell across the back of your shoulders.
Squat down, bending at the hips and knee, making sure the
weight goes down through the back half of your foot. When you
reach the half squat position, drive up dynamically, rapidly
extending your legs so that you leave the floor briefly. Absorb
PAGE 16
the landing with soft knees, then go smoothly into the squat
again. Continue for 5 repetitions.
The bottom line

In summary:
Strength and power training is essential for élite swimming
performance.
To optimise the benefit of land-based training, you must
select exercises with mechanical relevance to the swimming
action, particularly those movements which propel the swimmer
through the water, such as the arm pull and leg kick.
As the resistance in the water is different from the resistance
provided by weight equipment on land, unless you have special
hydraulic equipment you must also focus on mimicking the
speed and smooth movement of the swimming stroke when
performing land-based exercises.
Various exercises for the arm pull, leg kick, dive and turn
movements are suggested, all with a good functional
relationship to the swimming action. While this is not a
definitive or exhaustive selection of exercises, especially as it
focuses solely on front crawl, it involves highly specific
swimming movements in terms of mechanics, positions and
speed. When you design strength programmes for swimming
performance or any other sport, be sure to think about each
exercise in terms of its relevance to performance.
Raphael Brandon
PAGE 17
PAGE 18
POWER TRAINING
Add power to your punch

with plyometric exercise
Do you ever look in awe at top sprinters when you realise just
how fast they are running? Dwain Chambers would get a
speeding ticket in built-up areas! And what about the slam-
dunk in basketball? How on earth do players like Kobe Bryant
leave planet earth and attain such height? And what of
Matthew Pinsent and James Cracknell? Unbridled, these
rowers would seem to be able to tear their boat apart!
Wherever you look in the world of top-class sport, power
counts; and one of the best ways of developing this most
precious commodity is through plyometric training.
Plyometric exercises are based on the understanding that a
concentric (shortening) muscular contraction is much stronger
if it immediately follows an eccentric (lengthening) contraction
of the same muscle. It’s a bit like stretching out a coiled spring
to its fullest extent and then letting it go: immense levels of
energy are released in a split second as the spring recoils.
Plyometric exercises develop this recoil or, more technically,
the stretch/reflex capacity in a muscle. With regular exposure
to this training stimulus, muscle fibre should be able to store
more elastic energy and transfer more quickly and powerfully
from the eccentric to the concentric phase.
Unlike traditional weight training, plyometric drills can
closely mimic both the movement pattern and the speed of
execution of actual sports performance. While a sprinter’s
foot may be in contact with the ground for just 0.084 seconds,
and even running at a moderate pace can result in a foot
strike time of 0.2 seconds, most standard weight-training
lifts, performed at their quickest, take 0.5-0.7 seconds to
complete. A plyometric drill will match runners’ ground
PAGE 19
contact times, while at the same time generating a significant

amount of force.
One piece of Soviet research showed that under, certain
conditions, athletes could display brief (in the range of 0.037-
0.067 seconds) plyometrically-induced muscular tensions
equivalent to 1,500-3,500kg, although it should be noted that
this example was probably based on eccentric exercises (drop
and hold depth jumps from a great height) rather than the more
familiar types of plyometric drills, of which more later. So you
can see why weight training for sport can be limiting when it
comes to specific training transference, and why plyometrics
are a great way to address power needs.
To get the best out of plyometrics you need adequate pre-
conditioning. Some authorities recommend that an athlete
should be able to half squat at least 1.5 times their body weight
before embarking on a plyometric programme, but this may be
an excessive requirement, particularly if an athlete is planning to
embark on a progressive plyometric-conditioning programme,
beginning with low-intensity drills before progressing to the more
intense exercises (see table opposite). As with all ‘new’ training
experiences, progress should be incremental.
Despite my seemingly dismissive comments about weight
training, it should not be discounted as means of generating
‘ To get the
best out of
specific sports-related power. Weight training still has a vital
role to play in terms of laying the foundations for greater
plyometrics
power and pre-conditioning an athlete for plyometrics.
you need
A larger and stronger muscle (built up by weight training)
adequate pre-
will be able to generate greater force plyometrically, and
conditioning
’ strengthened tendons and muscles will be less prone to strains
and pulls. It is also possible to combine weight training with
plyometrics for a heightened fast twitch muscle fibre response
(see PP114 Feb 1999).
When it comes to selecting the right plyometric moves, the
coach or athlete needs to consider the specifics of their sport,
the athlete’s maturity, his level of pre-conditioning and his
ability to pick up what can be a complex skill. Single leg moves
are often more complex and stressful than double leg moves.
PAGE 20
Plyometric drills ranked by intensity

Type of plyometric move Examples Intensity
Standing-based jumps Tuck-jumps Low

performed on the spot Split-jumps
Squat-jumps
Jumps from standing Standing long jump Low-medium

Standing hop
Standing jump for height
Multiple jumps from standing 5 consecutive bounds Medium

2 x 6 bunny jumps
Double-footed jumps over 4 hurdles
Double-footed jumps up steps
Multiple jumps with run-up 3 x 2 hops and jump into sand pit with High
11 stride approach
2 x 10 bounds with a 7 stride run-up
Depth Jumping 2 x 6 jumps – down and up High

(Recommended drop height 40-100cm Run to hop off low box onto one leg landing Very high
the greater the height the greater strength
component, the lower the height the greater followed by three subsequent hops
the speed. Bounding uphill Very high
Eccentric drop and hold drills Hop and hold 5 times High
Bound/hop/bound/hop and hold over 30m High
(To perform the above two examples the athlete literally stops on
each landing before springing into the next move where required.)
Drop and hold from height above 1m Very high
Compare squat jumps to alternate leg bounding over 20m,

with either a single or double arm shift and a 15m run-on. The
complexity and speed component of the latter is significantly
greater than the former. And it is likely that a beginner – or even
a moderately conditioned individual – would not be able to
perform even the first bound without collapsing, let alone a
series over 20m, whereas he or she would probably be able to
perform five consecutive squat jumps.
Always err on the side of caution when selecting your moves.
The table above ranks various plyometric lower limb drills in
order of intensity. Those new to this type of training should be
sure to start with the low-intensity moves when introducing
plyometrics into their training programme. You should wear
well-cushioned trainers and perform the drills on a yielding
surface, such as a running track or sprung floor.
Eccentric drop and hold jumps

These drills, although utilised in training and research from the
1960s onwards, have not been as prevalent in training
programmes as the other drills referred to in the table. Eccentric
PAGE 21
drills focus on the plant and absorption phase of a dynamic

movement and forsake the concentric phase in the
stretch/reflex sequence. They are advocated because of their
huge force absorption potential, and as a further conditioner
of the stretch/reflex.
Poor interpretation of the work done by Yuri Verhoshansky (the
former Soviet sports scientist, known as the ‘father’ of plyometric
research) sometimes resulted in subjects being asked to perform
depth jumps (ie rebound on landing) from very considerable
heights (eg in excess of 3m) with obvious potential for injury. (I
myself was once asked to perform this form of eccentric training
from a similar height but refused on the grounds of sanity. The
height itself is a major fear factor, let alone the landing!)
However, if implemented sensibly and from lower heights,
or in the form of ‘bound/hop and hold’ drills, eccentric power
training can be an effective way of further developing power.
It’s yet another way to overload muscles and thus avoid
stagnation and maintain training progression in seasoned
athletes. Both coach and athlete need to be aware that eccentric
training is likely to cause muscular soreness even in the well-
conditioned; but, as with other forms of eccentric training, such
as downhill running, one session may be all that is needed to
‘inoculate’ the body against further soreness.
As with weight or endurance training, you can periodise your
plyometric training. Obviously the specific requirements of
your sport and your competitive aims for the forthcoming
season need to be considered, but there are some general
guidelines for progression. The following recommendations
are based on the requirements of a power athlete with a single
main competition period, but occasional reference is made to
the needs of endurance athletes.
Pre-season/early conditioning phase

Plyometric moves such as split squats, jump squats and straight
leg jumps can all be incorporated into a circuit. Normal circuit
training protocols should be used – ie high reps, short recoveries.
At this stage of general conditioning they will develop low-level
PAGE 22
power and general sport specific movement pattern

conditioning, as well as specific endurance. If you are an
endurance athlete you could continue this type of training
beyond your pre-condition phase and integrate it into your non-
track/rowing/cycling sessions. Runners could also incorporate
plyometric drills into fartlek-type workouts.
Main power conditioning phase

Athletes who are sufficiently skilled should use drills from the
medium-intensity categories in the table during this phase of
training. Runners should progress to single leg variants, as these
will have the greatest relevance to their sport. Do not neglect
lower leg drills such as straight leg jumps – where the athlete
literally ‘pogoes’ up and down on the spot. These will improve
specific calf and achilles tendon power, leading to optimum
foot-strike and force return when running.
Middle- and long-distance runners could incorporate
bounding and hopping into the warm-up stages of their track
sessions; they could also carry out hill training to develop
‘ In power
sports the
activity itself
running-specific power as well as maintaining plyometric drills
will act as the
within their circuit training.
prime
conditioner:
Pre-competition phase
nothing beats a
During this period athletes should concentrate on quality
competitive
plyometric drills that replicate the speed and movement
situation for
patterns of their chosen sport. Select drills from the high-
optimum
intensity examples in the table, but ensure quality and do not
power
allow fatigue to impair performance.
Competition phase
expression
’
In power sports the activity itself will act as the prime
conditioner: nothing beats a competitive situation for optimum
power expression. But in training athletes should perform high-
quality plyometric drills in low numbers, well away (7-10 days)
from important competitions. Endurance athletes could
continue with medium/high-quality drills as part of their warm
ups or low-intensity workouts.
PAGE 23
Volume and intensity guidelines

The recommended volume of specific jumps in any one session
will vary with intensity and progression goals. For jumps on the
spot or from standing, measure the volume in terms of foot
contacts. As a guide, a beginner in a single pre-season workout
could perform 60-100 foot contacts of low-intensity exercises.
The intermediate plyometrics exponent might be able to do
100-150 foot contacts of low-intensity exercises in one workout
and 100 of moderate-intensity exercises in another, while an
advanced exerciser might be capable of 150-200 foot contacts
of low-to-moderate intensity exercises in a single session.
Intensity is the key: the more dynamic the move and the
greater the power generated, the fewer foot contacts are
required. As training phases progress, maintaining quality is
crucial and the number of foot contacts should be reduced, as
optimum power and speed need to govern performance.
Bounding and hops are best measured in terms of sets and reps,
distance covered and whether they are performed from a
standing start or with a run-on. Verhoshansky recommended
incorporating a maximum of 5-10 bounds per set into a session,
with no more than 50-75 ground contacts. If a run-on is used,
the number of reps should be reduced.
For optimum sport specific training effect performers should
not allow themselves to become fatigued. Rest between sets
should be in the region of 1-2 minutes; successive depth jumps
or drop jumps should be separated by intervals of at least 15-30
seconds – or even longer if very intense multiple hops and jumps
routines are being performed. Such recovery intervals will allow
the stretch reflex mechanism to return to optimum capability.
In terms of number of sessions, 2-3 per week should suffice
– but they should not be performed on consecutive days or 7-10
days before important competitions. Those new to this form of
training may experience an initial decline in their performance
until they become accustomed to the training method.
John Shepherd
PAGE 24
PAGE 25
PAGE 26
WEIGHT TRAINING
For sporting success make

your weights programme
highly specific to your
chosen activity
These days, hardly any sports performers can afford to neglect
weight training. Get this training right and you could find your
place on the medal rostrum; get it wrong and you could end up
at the back of the field.
Weight training for endurance

It has long been accepted that weight training (and the right
strength training programme) can improve performance for
aerobic athletes. Take swimming: depending on the stroke,
the arms and legs contribute different amounts of power to
propel the swimmer through the water. Freestyle, for
example, requires an upper body contribution of 70% and a
lower body contribution of 30%. By strengthening the muscles
that move the shoulder girdle, upper arm and forearm, hips
and legs, it follows that, everything else being equal,
performance will be improved.
But it’s crucial to select the right exercises, perform them at
the right intensity and place them within a progressive and
carefully structured weights programme. Olympic rowing coach
Terry O’Neill believes that a weight training programme for his
sport should mirror actual race requirements as closely as
possible (a principle that should always be adhered to
regardless of sport). This means that:
1. The exercises selected must be relevant to rowing;
2. They must be performed ultimately at a pace equivalent
to the actual stroke;
PAGE 27
3. They must create conditions that mirror the heart rate

levels sustained during a 2k race and
4. They must reflect the time it takes to complete the race
distance.
In his most specific six-week weight training microcycle,

O’Neill reduces the amount of weight the rowers attempt to
between 15 and 30kg. This is so that they can complete 45
seconds of continuous rhythmic exercise at a similar rate to the
stroke in a race.
At the end of each station, the athlete moves on to the next
exercise without stopping, providing a total of eight minutes of
work, during which time the heart rate will rise to 85-95% of
maximum (see table below for exercises).
O’Neill gets the athletes to rest for two minutes at the end of
each circuit and the aim is for them to complete three of these
circuit workouts per week during the first three weeks, and four
in weeks four, five and six of this microcycle. The specific
exercises utilised are: high pulls, press behind neck, front curl,
bent over rowing, lateral dips (side bends) to right and left,
squat, bench press, clean and press, jack knife crunch, bench
pull and hyper-extensions.
The sport specific transference from this microcycle appears
considerable. By targeting primarily type I muscle fibres and
Exercise Sports applicable Sport specific value (Why?)
Split squat with the Field sports, Elicits a proprioceptive ability; improves
front foot on a wobble jumping events, balance and strength; can reduce injury
board/medicine ball running by preparing legs for ‘unstable’ force
transference
Single arm dumbbell Running, The key here is the role that the core
bench presses/ field sports performs in having to ‘straight-jacket’
shoulder press from power transference
a fit ball
Sprint arm action Running Develops a powerful and technically
with light dumbbells correct arm drive
Lunges/step-up drives Running Although not as specific as the other
moves, it follows that, as running uses
one leg at a time, weight training with
one leg at a time will have a greater
training transference
PAGE 28
the cardiovascular system, an intense physiological response

would be elicited – similar to that achieved during a high-
intensity interval-style rowing workout.
This workout should also avoid the ‘physiological confusion’
that can arise from targeting two different physiological goals
– eg strength and endurance – at the same time. (Note that it
was designed for indoor rowing but was adapted from O’Neill’s
vast knowledge of on-water rowing training.)
Weight training for speed/power: why bigger

is not always best
Lifting progressively heavier weights will not in itself lead to
improved power and speed, but many athletes and coaches still
get caught up with this ‘heavier and bigger is best’ strategy. Too
much bulk is just that: an additional load to transport around
the track or into the air. If increased muscle size on its own
brought the required results, then a body builder would be able
to run as fast as 100m world record holder Tim Montgomery.
It’s how you develop the size and strength, and where you
take it to after and during a gross strength development phase,
that counts. A larger (and stronger) muscle will exert greater
force and ultimately more power, but simply pushing out near
maximum rep lifts, rep after rep, without sport specific
channelling is a waste of time. So how should you weight train
for explosive power?
Charles Van Commenee is UK Athletics’ multi-events and
jumps coach and it was he who coached Denise Lewis to
Sydney Gold. He believes that to develop power you initially
need a good strength base, and advocates the use of exercises
that train the whole body. Intensity is set at 90% of one rep
maximum (1RM) and his athletes perform 5-15 sets, but only
using 1-2 reps and interspersed by long recovery periods of
3-4 minutes.
After a couple of months training this way, the athletes move
on to a power development phase, lifting at 70-85% of 1RM.
The number of sets performed depends on the stage of the
training year, but vary between three and six. At 70% of 1RM,
PAGE 29
five reps are performed, and at 85%, three. As before, a good

recovery is crucial to unimpaired performance.
Van Commenee explains his training methodology in terms
of a specific hormonal response. At a high percentage of 1RM,
testosterone is released, boosting the speed development which
his athletes need; at lower percentages and using multiple reps
(8-10), growth hormone release tends to predominate, which
is good for general muscle building but less advantageous for
power athletes, for whom power-to-weight ratio is crucial.
Again, as with our rowing weight training plan, it is vital to
select exercises that have a real relevance to the sport in
question, particularly during the power development phase.
The direct transference of, for example, a power clean to a high
jump take off is marginal – and much less direct than the
physiological responses elicited by our rowing schedule.
A power clean cannot be performed at the speed of a high
jump take off, nor could the same amount of force be overcome
and nor, of course, could it be performed on one leg after a
curved approach to a bar.
Weight training for speed (and endurance) obviously has
certain limitations. It can only take an athlete so far, and more
specialised exercises like plyometrics, sport specific drills and
the sport itself must be used to channel the strength gained
through weight training directly into improved performance.
Weight training and open sports skills

Swimming, rowing and sprinting are predominately ‘closed
skills’, requiring the same movement pattern to be repeated
over and over again. However, football, rugby, tennis and other
field or court sports require myriad ‘open sports skills’. And it
is in these sports that the direct contribution of weight training
to performance can appear less relevant. A tennis player reacts
to a serve, a goal-keeper to a shot – and weight training is
unlikely to condition a directly transferable movement pattern.
Why? Because speed of movement, balance, proprioception
and, of course, specific sport skill are incredibly specific to the
requirement of the movements.
PAGE 30
So what is the role of weight training for these sports? The

answer is twofold:
1. To strengthen the body and protect it from injury by
strengthening tendons, ligaments and muscles (a further
reason for endurance athletes to weight train);
2. To provide a base for better (stronger/less fatigued/faster)
open skill performance.
Mike Antoniades, a specialist speed, power and weight training

coach, who has worked with many top sportsmen and women
using the Frappier Acceleration system (see article on page 79),
provides a third reason why the open skills performer should
not neglect weight training. He notes that footballers can lose
up to 35% of their strength during a season – and more if they
are unlucky enough to sustain an injury. The open sports skill
performer therefore needs a weight training programme that
maintains specific strength across a season.
Sport specific weight training exercises

The table below includes highly specific weight training
exercises. Some, like the first, even contain an element of
open sports skill performance because the performer has not
just to perform the move but also to balance and be spatially
aware. This is similar to the requirements of a striker having
to take a shot at goal while off-balance. Note that these
are advanced moves and should be attempted only by well-
conditioned athletes with a suitable level of prior-
conditioning.
Six top weight training tips for enhancing

performance
1. Do some ‘muscle re-education’ work after lifting. If you
are a cyclist, for example, you could do three minutes on
a spin cycle after weight training. You will have stressed
the muscles through weight training and the sport specific
task that follows will help to re-coordinate the firing
patterns of your muscles. A runner or games player could
PAGE 31
achieve the same by performing some light strides after a

weights workout.
2. Devise a progressive weight training programme to
accompany the demands of your sport, but never lose sight
of the sport itself. Weight training is largely peripheral
unless it is adequately channelled into performance.
3. Select exercises, particularly during key training phases,
that replicate the movement and have a similar speed
element to the sport in question.
4. Take your level of maturity as well as your sport into
account when devising your programme of weight training.
5. Don’t turn into a gym narcissist, marvelling at your great
new physique: it could turn into a burdensome suit of
armour for you to haul around.
6. The more experienced the performer the more the coach
will have to work at exploring new avenues for enhancing
sports performance. Revisiting a weights programme
could be crucial: look closely at the transition to
competitive season phases and check out whether previous
strength gains really are improving sports performance.
John Shepherd
PAGE 32
PAGE 33
PAGE 34
POWER v STRENGTH TRAINING
Strength or power: which

matters most for peak
athletic performance?
Do you strength train for your chosen sport? And do you
believe it makes you faster as well as stronger? If so, you could
be barking up the wrong tree and might be better advised to
work on your power.
Let me explain why. The figure below represents the
theoretical relationship between concentric muscular force and
muscle contraction velocity, or speed. Maximum force is
generated by a maximal voluntary isometric contraction
(MVIC), which has zero velocity. In theoretical terms, strength
is defined as the maximum force of a certain movement. In
practice, it is defined by the 1 repetition maximum (RM) load
of an exercise in the gym.
The 1RM of a movement will produce slightly less force than
the MVIC, as the 1RM is dynamic rather than static. To
illustrate this by example, an athlete’s maximum squat may be
200kg, this being the weight he can lift, just once, with a
maximum effort. At 201kg, the athlete would not be able to
move the bar; however, if he applied max effort the MVIC force
would be slightly greater than the force produced during the
successful 1RM lift. Nevertheless, for the purposes of most
coaches and athletes, it is fair to assume that 1RM is highly
correlated with maximum isometric force.
In many cases, the aim of a strength programme is simply to
increase maximum strength. Athletes typically train with
weights between 75% and 95% of 1RM, and after a few weeks
their 1RM scores go up, which is great because it means they
are stronger. Or is it so great? Look at the force-velocity curve
again and note that at the high force end of the curve the
PAGE 35
velocity of movement is at its slowest. Now think about how an

athlete lifts very heavy weights – slowly. This is because it takes
time – more than 400msec – to develop maximal force within
the muscle: it cannot be switched on like a light.
Most athletic movements do not involve slow contractions
at near maximum force, but are characterised by mid-to-high
velocity. For example, the contact time of the foot during
sprinting is about 100msec – not long enough to produce half
of maximum force. This leads you to think about the benefits
of strength training in relation to athletic performance a little
more critically. What, you might ask, is the point of being
stronger at slow speeds when most athletic movements involve
high velocities?
Power – how to generate rapid force

A separate quality, quite distinct from strength, which can be
developed with training, is power. In simple terms, power is the
ability to generate force quickly; it is defined mathematically as
force x velocity. If you look at the force-velocity curve once
again, you will see that high levels of power will occur in the
mid-range of either force or velocity. If an athlete develops
greater power, this, in turn, enhances his ability to generate
both force (strength) and velocity (speed). This amalgam of
speed and strength may be more useful for athletic
performance than strength alone.
The above explanations of the force-velocity curve and the
difference between strength and power raise two important
questions:
1. Would an athlete benefit more from developing maximum
strength or power?
2. What are the key differences between max strength training
and power training?
For athletes who are inexperienced in strength training, any

increase in maximum strength will tend to increase force
across the whole velocity range of the force-velocity curve (1).
This means that increases in maximum strength (greater
PAGE 36
1RMs in the gym) will also lead to increases in power and the
ability to generate more force at fast speeds. Indeed, research
shows that maximum strength is strongly correlated with
power, especially in less experienced athletes (2). This endorses
traditional heavy weight training (75-95% of 1RM) as a way
to improve athletic performance.
But research also shows that max strength development
becomes limited beyond a certain point. Once an athlete has
reached a high level of strength, any further increases will lead
to improvement only at the high force/slow velocity end of the
curve. This means no increases in power or force at fast speeds,
‘ Research
shows that
max strength
which, as mentioned, is not necessarily desirable for most
development
athletic movements. In a nutshell, as the athlete becomes more
becomes
advanced and experienced in strength training, the effects of
limited beyond
maximum strength training become increasingly specific to slow
a certain
muscle contractions.
By contrast, power or ‘ballistic’ training has been shown to
increase power and rate of force production and is more highly
point
’
correlated with athletic performance than strength training.
Power training methods can vary in terms of force and velocity
characteristics, since the description embraces a number of
different approaches. Plyometric jumping or throwing exercises
tend to use higher velocity and lower force, whereas Olympic
lifting exercises – eg power cleans – use higher force and lower
velocity. Between these two extremes lie ballistic weight
exercises, such as barbell squat jump and bench press throw,
which employ moderate forces and velocity.
The benefits of each method differ slightly. To summarise
simply:
plyometric exercises promote high movement speed, fast
twitch fibre recruitment and elastic tendon energy
release;
Olympic lifts involve very high power outputs, high rates
of force production and increases in muscular co-
ordination of whole-body movements, such as combined
ankle, knee and hip extension;
ballistic weight exercises are very useful for developing
PAGE 37
high power in specific areas of the body – eg arm extension

power with bench press throws – and will result in high
rates of force production and muscle activity in the specific
muscle groups involved.
There is a good logical argument for training with exercises at

specific loads that produce the maximum amount of power for
that particular movement. Power has been shown by research
to be highly correlated with level of performance, and training
which develops the maximum power output will increase force
levels at the mid-to-high velocity end of the force-velocity curve.
Exercises of this type that I recommend frequently to
athletes include power snatch, power clean, barbell squat jump,
bench press throw and heavy bag rotation throw. These are all
functional movements that involve moving moderately heavy
loads as fast as possible. To generate maximum muscular power,
a reasonable amount of load is required, and so these exercises
involve greater power output than plyometric jumps, which use
no additional load, or medicine ball throws, which are relatively
light. Max power training is a distinct discipline and should be
performed in addition to plyometric training, not instead of it.
Research has shown that the maximum power produced on
a bench press throw or squat jump occurs with loads of around
50-60% of 1RM for the bench press or squat exercises. To
develop max power levels in the legs and upper body, you can
use 1RM test scores to determine the power training loads. For
example, an athlete with 1RM scores of 200kg squat and 120kg
bench press would produce max power on the squat jump
exercise with a 100-120kg barbell and on the bench press throw
with a 60-70kg barbell. Women may produce max power at
slightly lower levels.
The importance of quality training

When performing a max power workout, 3-5 sets of 3-5
repetitions for each exercise would be effective. Power training
must be high quality, as the aim is to recruit fast twitch fibres.
For this reason, it is important to take at least three minutes
PAGE 38
rest between sets and to focus on moving the bar as quickly as

possible. Max power training performed at less than max
power simply does not work; coaches must encourage their
athletes to hit each lift with max effort, while athletes must
learn to focus on high-quality execution of the exercises. Power
training is not like endurance training, where it is enough just
to complete the session: it is how well you train for power that
makes the difference.
‘ Max power
training
performed at
With the Olympic lifts, such as power snatch and power
less than max
clean, I have found that, for most athletes, maximum power
power simply
occurs at slightly less than the maximum load. For example, if
does not
an athlete has a 1RM power clean of 100kg, then maximum
power will be produced around 85kg. This is probably because
most athletes do not have the time to develop the perfect
work
’
technique and timing of elite weightlifters, and tend to produce
a better speed of movement and coordination at less than
maximum load. However, as technique improves the difference
is likely to diminish.
There are great transferable benefits for athletes using loads
for the Olympic lifts that produce maximum power for that lift.
The athletes learn to feel the effort required for max power and
speed of the lift and take this increased power into the sporting
movement. This is my personal experience of the neural and
coordination effects of max power training. Again 2-4 sets of
2-5 reps with long rests are recommended.
Many athletic movements, particularly throwing and kicking,
involve trunk rotation. Rotational movements are not possible
with barbell or weight machines, but standing rotation throws
of a heavy bag (15-30kg depending on the strength of the
athlete) are very effective at producing maximum rotation
power, as they involve greater muscular force than medicine
ball exercises. The same sets, reps and rest as above are
recommended for effective training.
To summarise: the main difference between traditional
heavy weight training and power training lies in the load and
speed of the exercises. Loads of 75-95% of 1RM will result in
increased maximum strength, while loads of 50-60% of 1RM,
PAGE 39
performed ballistically, will result in increased maximum

power. Once an athlete has reached high strength levels,
maximum power training may be more conducive to peak
athletic performance than further increases in max strength.
Elite strength levels

How strong does an athlete need to be before the benefits of
further strength training become limited? This depends on the
individual athlete and his or her chosen event. For example, the
shot put is significantly heavier than the javelin and may require
higher max strength levels for success. As a guideline, elite
levels of strength for a male athlete are 1RM squat of 2.5-3 x
body weight and 1RM bench press of 1.5-2 x bodyweight, while
those for a female are 2 and 1.25 x body weight respectively.
Once these levels have been reached, any athlete would
probably benefit more from maximum power training than
strength training. Having said that, there seems to be
considerable benefit in combining the two methods within a
periodised programme. A phase of maximum strength training
followed by, or combined with, a phase of maximum power
training is an approach supported by the literature.
‘ The quality of
performance
Some researchers support the continued use of maximum
strength training for power development. For example, Ditmar
of the exercise
Schmidtbleicher, a German biochemist who has worked with
is fundamental
Olympic athletes, advocates using high-intensity weight training
to the training
for increased rate of force development, and claims that the
benefit
’ results are transferable across the whole range of the force
velocity curve, as they are for novice athletes (3).
However, the quality of performance of the exercise is
fundamental to the training benefit. When using near maximal
loads for rate of force development training, athletes must
attempt to move the bar as quickly as possible, even though the
actual lift will be quite slow. That’s because it is the voluntary
effort of attempting to ‘hit the bar hard’ with each repetition
that produces the neuromuscular benefit of increased rate of
force development, even at high loads that are normally
associated with slow speeds.
PAGE 40
This argument is supported by recent research suggesting

there is no difference between the sprint performance benefits
derived from strength training slowly with heavy loads or fast
with moderate loads (4).
Further research suggests that for ‘stretch shorten cycle’
movements, where an eccentric contraction precedes a
concentric contraction, maximum strength is highly correlated
with initial rate of force production in the concentric phase. By
contrast, for concentric-only movements maximum strength is
not significantly correlated with initial rate of force production (5).
Given that many sporting movements are stretch shorten cycle
in nature (see PP186, September 2003, p1), it would appear that
maximum strength is important.
The purpose of strength training

In writing this article, my aim has not been to diminish the
importance of maximum strength training for athletic
performance, but to make athletes and coaches think about a
more complete approach to strength and power training in
order to optimise performance. Remember that the purpose of
strength training for athletes is not to increase 1RMs but to run
faster, jump higher or tackle harder.
Improved performance is the ultimate goal, and power is
highly correlated with performance – possibly more so than
strength. It is logical to assume that training with exercises that
produce maximum power outputs must produce improvements
in rate of force production, muscle activation and functional
coordination that are transferable to athletic performance.
Having said that, however, maximum strength is a precursor
to power and needs to be developed to a sufficient level to
maximise power production, particularly in stretch shorten
cycle movements.
Athletes who wish to continue to benefit from training
programmes must vary their training. By incorporating both
max strength and max power training into a training cycle, or
periodisation, athletes can present their neuromuscular systems
with a variety of different stimuli, so enhancing the adaptations.
PAGE 41
The table below sets out an example workout for an elite

jumper, used during the summer competition phase. The split
squats were used to maintain max leg strength levels, while the
cleans and squat jumps were used to develop max power. After
following this programme of developing power and maintaining
maximum strength for 10 weeks, the athlete increased power
output on the power clean by as much as 10% (from 2600W to
2900W at 90 kg).
Finally, the quality of exercise performance has a crucial
benefit on the benefits gained. Athletes must learn to make
maximum efforts, recruiting as many muscle fibres as possible.
It is also important for athletes to ensure sufficient recovery
between workouts and to plan max power training sessions for
times when they are fresh and capable of high-quality lifting.
Table 1: competition-phase workout for an élite jumper
Cleans 4x3 80% of 1RM 3 minutes rest
Squat jumps 4x4 50% of 1RM squat 3 minutes rest
Split squats 4x5 80% of 1RM 2 minutes rest
Raphael Brandon
References
1. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 22(3), 65-76
2. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 15(2) 198-209
3. Schmidtbleicher 1992. Training for Power Events. In ‘Strength and
Power Training for Sports’. Komi et al
4. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(12), 981-990
5. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(10), 1763-1769
PAGE 42
PAGE 43
PAGE 44
AGEING AND SPEED
The bad news is that speed

declines with age; the good
news is that you can arrest,
even reverse, this
degenerative process
Of all the physiological variables, speed seems to get written off
most quickly as we age. Football pundits make jokes about
outfield players being ‘a few yards slower’ and goalkeepers
diving in ‘instalments’ as soon as the former hit 30 and the latter
become David Seaman.
But England’s Rugby World Cup winning pack averaged well
over 30 and, despite being called ‘Dad’s Army’, still fathered a
victory; the likes of Neil Back and Martin Johnson were
certainly very speedy around the field. In track, Carl Lewis,
Frankie Fredericks, Linford Christie and Merlene Ottey are –
or were – still winning titles well into their thirties and, in the
case of Ottey, beyond. But can veteran athletes still put in
speedy sprinting performances in their forties, fifties, sixties –
and beyond?
First, let’s take a look at why we slow with age. One
significant factor is a decline in muscle mass and muscle fibre
(sarcopenia). We will all experience a 10% decline in muscle
mass between the ages of 25 and 50 and a further 45%
shrinkage by our eighth decade – if we do nothing about it. To
illustrate this decline by example, the biceps muscle of a
newborn baby has around 500,000 fibres while that of an 80-
year-old has a mere 300,000. As we age, we also produce less
growth hormone, which leads to reduced levels of protein
synthesis and, again, muscle atrophy. This is not the kind of
PAGE 45
acceleration needed by the veteran athlete in search of speed,

as decreased muscle equates to reduced strength and power
and less ‘oomph’ for sprinting.
Unfortunately, the bad news keeps on coming! Fast-twitch
‘ Speedsters
are not as
muscle fibre, that most precious of commodities for speed and
power, displays a much more marked decline than slow-twitch
blessed as
fibre as we age. Speedsters, it appears, are not as blessed as
endurance
endurance athletes in the ageing-and-performance stakes.
athletes in the
The latter can expect to maintain their slow twitch fibres and
ageing-and-
even increase them – by as much as 20% with the right training
performance
– as they ripen. They can also hold on to nearly all their
stakes
’ aerobic capacity until late into their fifth decade at least. If
only it were so for their sprinting counterparts, whose fast-
twitch fibre can decline by as much as 30% between the ages
of 20 and 80.
To add another blow, creatine phosphate, that premium
ingredient for short-term activity, also declines with age. With
less quick-release energy in our muscles, we’re theoretically less
able to tackle high-intensity sprint-type workouts.
Flexibility, another important physiological variable for
sprinting, also declines with age as our soft tissue hardens and
our joints stiffen.
What are the known effects on performance of these various
reductions in capacity? It gets worse! Numerous studies have
indicated that stride length declines considerably with age.
Korhonen analysed the performances of 70 finalists (males 40-
88, females 35-87) in the 100m event at the European Veterans
Athletics Championships in Jyväskylä, Finland in 2000, using
high-speed cameras with a panning video technique to
measure velocity, stride length, stride rate, ground contact time
and flight time (1).
Unsurprisingly, his research team discovered a general
decline in sprint performance with age, which was particularly
marked for those aged 65-70. Velocity during the different
phases of the run declined, on average, between 5 and 6% per
decade in men and 5-7% in women. Key to this decline was an
accelerating reduction in stride length and an increase in
PAGE 46
contact time, with stride rate remaining largely unaffected until

the oldest age groups in both genders.
Hamilton compared 35-39-year-old runners with 90-year-
olds and found that stride length declined by as much as 40%,
from 4.72 metres per stride (2.36m per step) to 2.84m per stride
(just 1.42m per step). The implication is that the oldest veteran
sprinters may need to take almost twice as many steps in the
100m as their younger counterparts. More positively, though,
this research group also found that stride frequency did not
decline significantly with age (2).
If you take a look at Table 1, below, you’ll find some much
better news. Take note of the phenomenal times recorded by
master 100m sprinters; these indicate that it is possible to
maintain a significant amount of speed with age. So now let’s
take a look at what we have to do to achieve that goal.
Table 1: Masters world age records

Age Time Age when
group (secs) Athlete record set Country
40 10.84 Erik Oostweegel 40 NED
45 10.96 Neville Hodge 45 US
50 10.95 William Collins 50 US
55 11.57 Ron Taylor 57 GB
60 11.70 Ron Taylor 61 GB
65 12.62 Malcom Pirie 65 AUS
70 12.91 Patton Jordan 74 US
85 16.16 Suda Giichi 85 JPN
90 18.08 Kozo Haraguchi 90 JPN
95 24.01 Erwin Jaskulski 96 AUT
100 43.00 Everett Hosak 100 US
Source: World Masters Athletics Association as at 24/09/02
PAGE 47
Hill training for stride length

As we’ve seen, two crucial factors affecting speed decline in the
older sprinter are a reduction in stride length and an increase
in ground contact time. Hill sprinting can reverse these
negatives; the gradient will emphasis dorsiflexion (a greater toe-
up foot position) on foot strike, which will, in turn, generate
more work for the calf muscles on push off, enhancing stride
length and reducing contact time on the level. Lower limb and
ankle strength and power are crucial for sprinters of all ages,
although they can be overlooked by coaches and athletes in
favour of conditioning the quadriceps and glutes.
One of the key factors contributing to the age-related decline
in stride length is the action of the free leg as it leaves the
running surface and the foot travels a curvilinear path beneath
the body to a forward position in preparation for the
subsequent foot strike. An older runner’s ‘return phase’ is much
less dynamic than that of his or her younger counterparts. For
optimising speed transference into the next running stride, the
lower leg needs to ‘fold up’ towards the butt and be pulled
through quickly and powerfully as a short lever. This action
relies on hip, glute and hamstring strength.
Returning to Hamilton’s work, she and her co-workers
discovered that range of motion at the knees during running
decreased by 33% – from 123° to just 95° – between ages 35 and
90. For the oldest runners in the study, this meant that the
lower part of the leg attained a right angle with the thigh at the
point of maximum flexion, dramatically slowing free leg
transition into the next stride.
Hill sprints can play a key role in combating this lower leg
lethargy; by creating a greater leg drive, they can increase the
speed of the free leg through reaction to the ground and
condition a much more effective and speedy biomechanical
sprinting action.
Weights for fast-twitch maintenance

Weight training is crucial for mature sprinters determined to
hang on to as much zip as possible, particularly after 50 when
PAGE 48
muscle mass begins to decline more steeply. Training with

weights set around 75% of one rep maximum will offset fast-
twitch fibre shrinkage quite significantly. Unfortunately, though,
it has no impact on muscle fibre reduction, which is governed by
an age-related decline in motor cells in the spinal cord.
Weight training, by strengthening soft tissue, will also go some
way towards protecting older speed merchants from injury.
Plyometrics for stretch/reflex

Plyometric exercises condition the stretch/reflex in our muscles
and, as well as boosting speed and power, can stimulate the fast-
twitch fibres of older sprinters into further action. As mentioned
above, stride length declines significantly with age, and
plyometrics, like hill training, offers another significant training
option for offsetting this decline. Bounding and hopping are two
very effective exercises for enhancing stride length.
Intense exercise for GH release

Exercise is known to stimulate growth hormone (GH) release,
which is crucial for speed maintenance in later life (3). Growth
hormone helps us hold on to more lean muscle mass, retain
more energy and offset some of the general effects of ageing.
The positive release of GH begins almost immediately after we
‘ Weight
training, by
strengthening
start to exercise, and it seem that the higher the intensity of the
soft tissue, will
exercise, the more GH will be released.
go some way
Stokes and co-workers compared the effects of maximal and
towards
less intense cycle ergometer sprinting in a group of 10 male
protecting
cyclists, who completed 2 x 30s sprints separated by one hour’s
older speed
passive recovery on two occasions (4). The first effort was
merchants
completed against a resistance equal to 7.5% of body mass and
the second to 10% of body mass. Blood samples were taken at
rest, between the two sprints and one hour post exercise.
from injury
’
Analysis of blood samples showed that the first effort elicited a
much more significant serum GH response than the second.
Note that, although both sprints generated the same peak and
mean power outputs, the first allowed the cyclists to generate
higher RPM scores – ie to pedal faster.
PAGE 49
Despite the apparent attenuation of GH release in the

second effort, since speed is maintained and enhanced by
regular anaerobic training silver sprinters should benefit from
regular and above-normal GH release.
Creatine for muscle power

Intense speed and power training can also combat the normal
age-related decline in creatine phosphate. Research has shown
that anaerobic (and aerobic) training increases the production
of creatine phosphate. Research by Moller and co-workers
showed that six weeks of cycle ergometer training increased the
creatine phosphate levels of 61-80 year olds to levels similar to
those of younger adults (5). The regular anaerobic workouts of
sprint training will maintain and increase the ability of our
muscles to replenish high-energy phosphates, regardless of age.
But since there’s nothing wrong with giving Mother Nature
a legal helping hand, the older sprinter should take
supplementary creatine. Numerous studies have shown that
creatine supplementation can increase muscle power and
power maintenance over a series of anaerobic repetitions and
will contribute to the maintenance of lean muscle mass.
One interesting piece of research that specifically addressed
sprinting threw up some encouraging – and other slightly less
encouraging – information for veteran sprinters supplementing
with creatine. Schedel et al looked at whether the improvement
in maximal sprinting speed after creatine supplementation
could be attributed
to an increase in stride frequency, stride length, or both(6).
Seven sprinters completed four consecutive sprints after one
week of placebo or creatine supplementation. By comparison
with the placebo condition, creatine-fed sprinters increased
their running speed (+1.4%) and stride frequency (+1.5%),
but not their stride length.
This research also substantiated the use of creatine for
sustaining power output, as decline in performance of
subsequent sprints was partially prevented after supplem-
entation with creatine. The researchers concluded that their
PAGE 50
findings could be related to the recent discovery that creatine

supplementation can produce a shortening in muscular
relaxation time, thus promoting increased sprint times.
Train smart for all-round benefits

Finally, the older sprinter needs to make use of the wiser head
on his or her shoulders. Training needs to be intense to
minimise the age-related decline in sprint speed, but it also
needs to take account of the fact that older bodies may be less
able to sustain daily, flat-out power-oriented work. Rest,
proper nutrition, supplementation and a commonsense
approach that involves ‘listening to the body’ need to be key
features of the training routine of any veteran sprinter intent
on maintaining speed.
John Shepherd
References
1. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003; 35(8):1419-28
2. Journal of Applied Biomechanics, vol 9, 15-26, 1993
3. Sports Medicine 2003;33(8): 599-613
4. Journal of Applied Physiology 92:60-608 2002

5. Clinical Psychology 2 (4): 307-314, 1982
6. J Physiology. 2000 Apr;50(2):273-276.
PAGE 51
PAGE 52
ROTATIONAL POWER TRAINING
All you need to know about

getting in shape to perform
zippy turns on the hoof
Such was the ferocity of Pete Sampras’ serves that they were in
danger of singeing the net; Irish and British Lions rugby centre
Brian O’Driscoll swerves around opponents flat out, like a
Formula One racing car taking a bend; discus and hammer
throwers, and some shot putters, spin with the grace of ballet
dancers before releasing their implements with the power of a
nuclear strike.
Developing these explosive rotational sports skills relies not
just on innate ability and technique, but also on specialist
conditioning drills and methods. In this article, I will consider
such skills as turning, turning to sprint, turning and throwing,
and turning to hit/kick a ball or opponent, from both stationary
and moving positions.
Although all-over body power is needed to perform these
activities, the core (abdominal and back muscles) is fundamental
for their optimum performance. This area must be strong
enough to maximise the transference of power through the limbs
into a sports skill, such as a golf drive or a tennis forehand; it
must be able to withstand – and reduce the risk of – injury in
training and competition; finally (and crucially), it must be able
to generate specific sports power itself. Agility is also
fundamental to zippy turns (see article on page 71).
It is often assumed that athletes who are fast when travelling
in a straight line will be fast in any direction. However, research
suggests that this assumption may be erroneous. Young and
associates researched the impact of straight-line speed training
on rotational/change of direction speed, and vice versa (1).
PAGE 53
Thirty-six males were tested on a 30m straight sprint and were

given six change of direction tests, the latter involving 2-5
tangent runs at various angles. These tests took place before
and after a six-week training period, in which one group focused
on 20-40m straight-line sprints and the other on 20-40m, 100°
angle change-of-direction sprints.
What did the researchers discover about the impact of this
training on performance? Not surprisingly, the straight-line
sprinting training improved straight-line sprinting performance.
However, this increased zip did not translate into speedier
turns. In fact, the researchers discovered that the more complex
the change of direction/turning task, the less transference there
was from straight-line speed training. Similarly, the
turning/change-of-direction training gave a major boost to
turning/change of direction performance, but had no impact on
straight-line speed.
These findings have important implications for athletes and
coaches in sports like football and tennis, where players have
to constantly rotate in order to make up the ground to perform
their various sport specific skills. It seems that the ability to
rotate the body at speed is a highly specific skill, requiring
specialist conditioning, and that being fast in a straight line is
just not enough. Some of the exercises at the end of this article
can be used to condition such players’ ‘rotational muscles’. They
will also benefit from specific agility training.
Rotational sport specific strength

Developing greater strength through resistance training is a
fundamental aspect of all performers’ conditioning routines.
Coaches and athletes alike hope that the strength developed
thereby will translate into improved sports performance.
However, this can be a very challenging conditioning
requirement for those in search of rotational power and speed.
Let’s begin by considering weight training: most popular
sports conditioning weights exercises, like the squat, power
clean and snatch, are performed in a linear fashion and do not
reflect the way power is generated in a rotational sports
PAGE 54
movement, like the discus throw. Although these exercises are

relevant in terms of establishing a power base, athletes and
coaches need to develop a repertoire of more specialist weights
exercises, such as the Russian twist and the wood-chop (see
below), which are better suited to channelling strength and
power into rotational sports skills.
However, the direct relevance of even specialist weights
moves to sports performance is open to question. Welch and
associates looked at the forces generated in a baseball hit and
‘ The direct
relevance of
even specialist
found that the batter’s hip segment rotates to a maximum speed
weights moves
of 714° per second, followed by a shoulder segment rotation of
to sports
up to 937° per second (2). The product of this kinetic link is a
performance
maximum linear bat velocity of 31m/sec. The golf swing, to give
is open to
another example, can be completed in a mere 250 milliseconds.
Developing the ‘wind-up-and-rotate’ velocity for these sports
through weight training alone would be virtually impossible.
question
’
This poses fundamental conditioning questions, such as: how
can weights (and other resistance training methods) be best
employed to enhance specific sports performance skill? And
how important is speed of performance? Cronin et al went in
search of the answers and reached the following conclusions (3):
Developing qualities like strength, power and rate of force
would appear of greater importance than training at the
actual movement velocity of a task. It may be that
(irrespective of load and limb velocity) the repeated intent
to overcome a resistance as rapidly as possible is an
important stimulus for functional high velocity adaptation;
Workouts should ideally combine sport specific training
with a heavy or varied training load in order to develop
the muscular and neuromuscular coordination that will
improve functional performance;
The ability of the nervous system to activate and
coordinate all the muscles involved in performing a
movement is essential.
Former world javelin record holder Tom Petranoff advocates

under-speed training when recommending medicine ball
PAGE 55
exercises – a great training tool for rotational power

development. ‘The key to any training is to train smart, to train
slow and get the technique correct before you add more weight
or resistance,’ he advises (4).
This echoes the principle – often enshrined in former eastern
bloc coaching methodology – of ensuring that a technique is
properly mastered before more power is bolted on. This is
particularly important in sports involving rotational
movements, where controlled, smooth application of power is
crucial as, indeed, is timing. A golfer could not swing his club
speedily at the ball without these attributes, nor could a
‘ In sports
involving
hammer thrower spin as fast as he was able: too much speed
would result in loss of balance and control, with consequent
rotational
underperformance.
movements,
Petranoff expands on this issue by emphasising the need for
controlled
those performing rotational sports movements to develop an
smooth
awareness of where their centre of gravity is – a requirement
application
that could be compromised by constantly training at or beyond
of power is
maximum performance velocities.
crucial as,
Throws athletes and their coaches are well aware of this
indeed, is
requirement and spend hours performing various rotations,
’
timing
with or without resistance/throwing implements, in the pursuit
of better spatial awareness, body positioning and footwork.
Below are some examples of dynamic conditioning drills in
keeping with the theme of this article, some of them quite
unusual. Although they are performed at various velocities, all
develop the muscles used in rotational movements in a highly
sport specific way.
Weights exercises
Russian twist
This exercise mimics the shoulder rotation movement employed
in numerous hitting and throwing sports. Sit on the floor with
your knees bent to about 90° and get a training partner to hold
you down by the ankles. Holding a weights disc with both hands,
lower your trunk to a 120° angle, then rotate left and right,
stopping the weight at 10-15cm from the floor. If specialist
PAGE 56
equipment that supports the body off the ground is available to

perform this exercise, you will be able to rotate even further.
Reverse trunk twist

Lie on a weights bench face down, having positioned a barbell
across the back of your shoulders. Again you’ll need a training
partner to hold your ankles down. Rotate your torso left and
right, while keeping your hips in contact with the bench.
Again, some gyms may have specialist equipment designed
for this exercise.
Cable chop
This exercise uses a high pulley machine and a triangular
attachment to develop rotational power in the shoulders and
trunk. Stand facing forward with feet slightly more than
shoulder width apart. Hold the attachment with both hands
over your right shoulder. Pull the cable across your body to just
beyond your left hip. Complete your designated number of
repetitions and repeat on the left side. This exercise can also be
performed from a kneeling position.
Resistance/plyometric drills
Plyometric drills are a crucial weapon in the rotational sports
power conditioning armoury. They lead to explosive power
development, utilising the stretch/reflex mechanism in muscles
to develop and release greater energy. A concentric
(shortening) muscular contraction is much more powerful
when it immediately follows an eccentric (lengthening)
contraction of the same muscle, and this is the basis of
plyometric training. During a plyometric drill, muscles operate
a bit like elastic bands; if you stretch the band before releasing
it, a great deal more energy is generated as it contracts, but
when there is no pre-stretch the energy output is more ‘flop’
than ‘pop’.
There are a number of plyometric exercises that can be used
to boost the power capacity of the trunk (and other parts), some
of them requiring specialist items of kit.
PAGE 57
Throwing and catching/passing a medicine ball will develop

plyometric power in the torso, legs and arms. Paul Chek one of
the world’s foremost authorities on sports conditioning, for golf
in particular, recommends the following two exercises for
developing rotational power (5):
The twister
Place a small medicine ball between your legs. Holding your
arms out straight at shoulder height, take small hops and rotate
your knees to each side so that you land at an angle, first to the
right and then to the left. The greater the degree of rotation,
the greater the amount of work the obliques (the muscles of the
outer abdominal area) will have to perform. These muscles play
a key role in dynamic rotational sports skill performance.
The medicine ball toss

This is a more familiar plyometric trunk move, in which the
performer stands side-on to a training partner (or a wall). The
move develops the plyometric stretch/reflex in the obliques
when the performer catches the ball with two hands and rotates
first away from and then towards the partner/wall before
throwing the ball back.
Tornado ball wall chop

This piece of kit – a polyurethane ball on a length of sailing rope
– was specifically developed for generating rotational power.
The ‘wall chop’ can be performed kneeling, sitting or standing,
and with varying angles of ‘chop’. For the standing version,
position yourself about one metre away from a wall, with your
back to it. Hold the tornado ball with two hands, then rotate and
swing it, either to your left or right, so that it hits the wall. It will,
of course, spring back towards you with great force. You need to
be braced and ready to control this reaction so that you can swing
back into another chop immediately. It is this rapid transference
of power that evokes the plyometric response.
John Shepherd
PAGE 58
References
1. Sports Med 1997 Sep;24(3),147-156
2. J Orthop Sports Phys Therapy 1995 Nov;22(5),193-201
3. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2002 Sep;42(8),267-273
4. Petranoff – Everything Track and Field
www.everythingtrackandfield.com
5. Chek – Tornado Training part II www.paulchekseminars.com
PAGE 59
PAGE 60
MUSCLE TRAINING
Twitch and you’re gone –

all you need to know about
developing fast-twitch
muscle fibre for speed,
power and strength
Let’s get out of the blocks straight away, with our fast-twitch
fibres blazing; on the ‘B’ of the bang, as Colin Jackson once
put it!
There are more than 250 million muscle fibres in our bodies
and more than 430 muscles that we can control voluntarily.
Fibres are, in fact, bundles of cells held together by collagen
(connective tissue). Each fibre consists of a membrane,
numerous nuclei and thousands of myofibrils (inner strands)
that run the length of the fibre.
In order to perform a sport skill numerous muscles and
muscle fibres have to interact. The process is controlled by the
brain, which sends out electrochemical messages to the muscles
via the spinal cord. These signals are received in the muscles by
‘anterior motoneurons’, whose role is to stimulate muscular
contraction. Muscular force is generated through the
interaction of two protein filaments that constitute the
myofibril: actin and myosin.
Anterior motoneurons and motor units can be likened to a
car’s starter motor, while the brain is like the key; the former
kicks the muscle fibres into action (or rather ‘contraction’) after
the latter has been turned.
Some muscles have large numbers of motor units and
relatively few fibres, which enables them to execute highly
PAGE 61
precise movements. One such muscle is the eye, which has one
motor unit for every 10 muscle fibres. By contrast, the
gastrocnemius (calf muscle), which performs larger, more
‘ Fast-twitch
fibres contract
powerful movements, has 580 motor units to 1.3 million fibres.
The interaction that occurs at muscular (and tendon and
2-3 times faster
joint) level is two-way, since there are built-in feedback and
than their
control mechanisms to prevent muscles from damaging
slow-twitch
themselves by over-contracting. Proprioceptive (feedback
counterparts
’ mechanism) components of motor units, joints and ligaments
continually monitor muscular stretch and swing into action if,
for example, a limb is moved beyond its normal range. This is
achieved by muscle spindles ‘pulling back’ on muscle fibres to
reduce the stretch. This ‘stretch/reflex’ is a vital component of
our body’s muscular safety mechanism, but it can also play a
significant role in developing greater fast-twitch muscle power
(see table 2, below).
Fast-twitch fibres, also known as ‘white’ or ‘type II’ fibres,
contract 2- 3 times faster than their slow-twitch counterparts,
producing 30-70 twitches per second, compared with 10-30 for
slow-twitch.
There are two basic types of fast-twitch fibre:
Type IIa, aka ‘intermediate’ fast-twitch fibres or ‘fast
oxidative glycotic’ (FOG) fibres because of their ability to
display, when exposed to the relevant training stimuli, a
relatively high capacity to contract under conditions of aerobic
or anaerobic energy production;
Type IIb fibres, the ‘turbo-chargers’ in our muscles, which
swing into action for a high-performance boost when needed.
These are also known as ‘fast glycogenolytic’ (FG) fibres, since
they rely almost exclusively on the short-term alactic/glycotic
energy system to fire them up.
Slow-twitch fibres, aka type I, red or slow oxidative fibres,
are designed to sustain slow but long-lived muscular contractions
and are able to function for long periods on aerobic energy.
Most coaches and athletes will be familiar with type IIa and
type IIb fast-twitch fibres, but it should be noted that other types
have been identified. Former national athletics coach Frank
PAGE 62
Dick has described a further seven sub-divisions, although the

differences between these are not considered significant
enough for them have a crucial effect on sports conditioning (1).
Fast-twitch fibres are thicker than slow ones and it is the
former that grow in size (hypertrophy) when activated by the
‘right’ training.
Activating fast-twitch motor units is the key to improved
strength, speed and power. Unlike slow-twitch motor units,
which are responsible for most of our day-to-day muscular
activity, fast-twitch units are quite lazy and tend to slumber until
called to action.
While typing this article, the slow-twitch motor units of my
fingers and wrists were getting a good workout. As indicated,
they are designed for repeated submaximal, often finite,
contractions. It was only when I picked up the computer, the
desk it sat on and the 30 reference books I was using to help me
write this piece, and hurled the whole lot out of the window in
abject frustration at my writing ability, that my larger fast-twitch
motor units contributed anything!
The role of mental energy

To recruit these units takes powerful movements, possibly
fuelled by an excited hormonal response associated with
increased adrenaline and neural stimulation (as with my desk
throwing). In terms of producing more power, this works
because the increased mental energy boosts the flow of
electrical impulses to the muscle, generating increased
muscular tension.
It should be pointed out that extreme levels of this ‘neuronal
stimulation’ can lead to impaired sports performance. For
example, a golfer relies on the synchronous firing of fast-twitch
motor units during the ‘swing’; but if he becomes overly
aggressive and ‘tries too hard’ a poor stroke usually results, even
though his fast-twitch motor units could be capable of expressing
more power because of their increased state of tension.
Fast-twitch muscle fibre is recruited synchronously – ie all at
the same time – within its motor unit. This is, in part, a
PAGE 63
physiological manifestation of a neural activity – sports skill

learning. Let’s use sprinting to explain this. Carl Lewis had a
wonderful silky sprint action. His finely-honed technique
allowed his fast-twitch motor units to fire synchronously and
apply power. The end result was championship and world
record-breaking form. In short, Lewis’s neural mastery of
sprinting form allowed his fast-twitch motor units to fire off
smoothly, operating like cogs in a well-oiled machine. It also
allowed him to recruit the largest, and therefore most efficient,
power-producing units. This latter ability is a further key
element in developing optimum fast-twitch motor unit power.
By contrast, slow-twitch muscle motor units are recruited
asynchronously, with some resting and others firing when
carrying out endurance activity.
Fast-twitch motor units are recruited according to the ‘size
principle’, in that the more power, speed or strength an activity
requires, the larger the units called in to supply the effort. It
would, however, take a flat-out sprint or a near PB power clean
to fully activate them. This means that power athletes have to
be in the right frame of mind to get the most out of their fast-
twitch motor units. There is no such thing as an easy flat-out
sprinting session or power-lifting workout.
By contrast, the endurance runner could go for a 60-
‘ There is no
such thing as
minute easy ‘tick-over’ effort and drift mentally away from
the task while still giving his or her slow-twitch motor units a
an easy flat-
decent workout.
out sprinting
It is often assumed that those blessed with great speed or
session or
strength are born with a higher percentage of fast-twitch muscle
power-lifting
fibres, and that no amount of speed work (or neuronal
workout
’ stimulation) will turn a cart-horse into a race horse. But, in fact,
fast-twitch fibres are fairly evenly distributed between the
muscles of sedentary people, with most possessing 45-55% of
both fast- and slow-twitch varieties.
Thus few of us are inherently destined for any particular type
of activity, and how we develop will depend mostly on two factors:
The way our sporting experiences are shaped at a relatively
early age;
PAGE 64
How we train our muscle fibres throughout our sporting

careers.
The table below compares fast-twitch muscle percentages in

selected sports activities with those of sedentary individuals –
and a very speedy animal. Note the extremes of muscle fibre
distribution. The right training will positively develop more of
the fibres needed for either dynamic or endurance activity,
although the cheetah may not be aware of this!
Table 1: Fast-twitch muscle percentages compared
Subject Fast-twitch muscle fibre (%)
Sedentary 45-55
Distance runner 25
Middle distance runner 35
Sprinter 84
Cheetah 83% of the total fibres examined in the rear outer
portion of the thigh (vastus lateralis) and nearly
61% of the gastrocnemius were fast-twitch
Adapted from Dick page 109(1) and Williams (97)(2)
Ross et al studied motor unit changes in sprinters and

concluded that positive adaptations of muscle to sprint training
could be divided into:
Morphological adaptations, including changes in muscle
fibre type and cross-sectional area – ie the ability of fast-
twitch muscle fibres to exert more power by increasing in
number and/or size;
Metabolic adaptations to energy systems to create more
speed – eg a greater ability to complete short repeated
maximal efforts, acquired through an improvement in the
short-term alactic/glycotic energy system which is, in turn,
gained from the creation and replenishment of high-
energy phosphates (3)
Similar finding were made by Abernethy and his team, who

compared sprint training methods with those used by
endurance athletes (4) .
PAGE 65
Table 2, opposite, summarises the best methods for

enhancing fast-twitch motor units. Conversely, the wrong
training – and even what might in some cases seem to be the
‘right’ training – can compromise their development.
Let’s return to the sprint training research of Ross and his
team (3). They believed that volume and/or frequency of sprint
training beyond what is optimal for an individual can induce a
shift towards slower muscle contractile characteristics.
Basically, this means that if a sprinter were to perform too many
under-speed track reps, his top speed would be impaired.
What’s best for power athletes

For 100% power athletes (such as 100m sprinters) and even
those involved in sports where occasional maximal or near
maximal quick flashes of power are required, such as golf,
baseball (pitching and batting) and football (goalkeeping), it
may well be that high-intensity training sessions, interspersed
with long periods of rest, are best for the optimum development
of fast-twitch motor units, particularly in-season.
This can make the conditioning process very difficult. In the
England cricket team, for example, batsmen are often
encouraged to develop their aerobic fitness by running during
down times in matches, and during pre-season. Although a
general level of aerobic fitness is useful, it is possible that too
much steady state work, particularly in-season, could blunt the
batsmen’s sharpness and dull their fast-twitch motor units.
In-season it may be far better for them to condition
themselves using sprints, medicine ball work and autogenic
training (a form of mental conditioning). Think of the cheetah
in our muscle fibre distribution table. What does this fastest
land animal do? It lies around all day, exploding into action
every now and again: fast-twitch fibre development heaven –
but hell for its prey!
In support of this point, Ross’s team noted that detraining
appeared to shift the contractile characteristics of fast-twitch
motor units towards type IIb, thus providing them with more
potential ‘oomph’. This effect can often be seen in power
PAGE 66
athletes who sustain minor injuries after a good period of

training and are then obliged to train lightly for 2-3 weeks.
Table 2: The best training methods for motor units

Method Comments
Lifting weights in The heavier the weight, the greater the number and size
excess of 60% 1RM of fast-twitch motor units recruited. A weight in excess of
75% 1RM is required to recruit the largest units
Performing a physical Good recoveries are needed to maximise effort. The short-
activity flat-out – eg term anaerobic energy system will positively adapt. The
sprinting, swimming, minimum speed needed to contribute towards absolute
rowing or cycling speed development is 75% of maximum
as fast as possible
Training your muscles Research indicates that this form of training increases fast
eccentrically twitch motor unit recruitment.(6) An eccentric muscular
contraction generates force when muscle fibres lengthen
(see plyometric training, below)
Plyometric training These exercises utilise the stretch-reflex mechanism,
allowing for much greater-than-normal force to be
generated by pre-stretching a muscle (the eccentric
contraction) before it contracts. A hop, bound or depth
jump is an example of a plyometric conditioning drill; a
long jump take-off is an example of a plyometric sport skill.
Complex training This can induce greater recruitment of fast-twitch motor
units by lulling the protective mechanisms of a muscle
into reduced activity, allowing it to generate greater force.
Complex training involves combining weights exercises with
plyometric ones in a systematic fashion (see PP 114, Feb
1999). A good example is: 1 set of 10 squats at 75%
1RM followed, after a 2-minute recovery, by 10 jump
squats, repeated 3 times
Over-speed training This will have a transferable neural effect only if the athlete
consciously moves his own limbs at the increased pace.
It includes downhill sprinting and hitting or throwing sports
using lighter implements
Good recovery 24-48 hours’ recovery should be taken between very
intense plyometric/complex training and speed work
sessions. A further 24-36 hours’ recovery will result in an
over-compensatory peak ie opportunity for a peak
performance
Sport specific This will reduce the risk of injury, increase the receptivity
warm-up of the neuromuscular system to the ensuing work and
reduce the potentially contradictory effects of non-specific
preparation on fast-twitch motor units
Mental preparation Maximum fast-twitch motor unit recruitment can result
from specific mental preparation before and during
competition
PAGE 67
Afterwards, to their complete surprise, they often produce a PB

because the enforced rest has facilitated the fibre shift and
upped their fast-twitch potential. Other research has indicated
that a decrease in weight training after a prolonged period of
training can have a similar effect (5).
Note, though, that too long a lay-off can produce less positive
effects, due to muscle shrinkage (atrophy) in sports where
muscle size is also important, eg for shot putters and American
football line-men.
John Shepherd
References
1. Dick F Sports Training Principles (4th edition) A&C Black 2002
2. J Comp Physiol [B] 1997 Nov;167(8):527-35
3. Sports Med 2001;31(15):1063-82
4. Sports Med 1990 Dec;10(6):365-89
5. Acta Physiologica Scandanavica, 151, 135-142
6. J of Strength and Conditioning Research vol 16 (1), 9-13
PAGE 68
PAGE 69
PAGE 70
AGILITY TRAINING
Float like a butterfly, sting

like a bee: sport specific
drills for boosting agility
Muhammad Ali was the greatest – period. The champ had a
superb athletic physique, awesome punching power and one of
the fastest pairs of feet and hands ever to grace any athlete, let
alone a boxer. He was so quick, he boasted, that he could flick
off the light switch and then get into bed before the light went
out! Maybe he was exaggerating his abilities here, but the
champ was incredibly agile. So what can you do to develop
equally ferocious agility?
In sport, agility is characterised by fast feet, body coordination
during change of direction and sports skill performance, and
reaction time/ability. It is an amalgam of balance, speed,
strength, flexibility and coordination. Although a performer’s
agility relies heavily on the acquisition of optimum sports
technique, it can also be enhanced by specific conditioning.
A variety of performance-enhancing agility drills, systems
and items of equipment are available to the sportsmen of today
and their coaches. The ‘science’ of agility (and speed and
power) training has made rapid strides recently, especially in
terms of its accessibility to the mainstream sporting world.
Dissecting a sports skill

Essentially, agility training dissects a sports skill: a skill like the
fast-stepping ability required of a rugby player is broken down
into its constituent parts, which are then specifically trained. It’s
all about patterning and conditioning a heightened physical,
neural, sport specific response.
Let’s consider in more detail the process involved in
PAGE 71
developing fast feet. One of the major tools available for this
‘ Speed
through a floor
purpose is the floor-based rope ladder. This piece of kit is a key
element of the Sports, Agility and Quickness system; (SAQ
ladder can
International is the world’s leading company for packaging and
indicate much
marketing sports-specific training and has been used by
about a player’s
England’s Rugby World Cup winning squad).
quickness
’ A wide variety of running, hopping and jumping drills can be
carried out in all directions, using the rungs of this ladder, which
is laid flat on the ground. Such drills enhance foot speed and
upper body agility, just like any other aspect of sports
performance, by progressive overload. England rugby wing Ben
Cohen has been specifically singled out as a player whose feet
have been rendered especially fleet by means of extensive use
of the rope ladder and other agility training methods.
Speed through a floor ladder can indicate much about a
player’s quickness (1). A time of less than 2.8 seconds (male) and
3.4 seconds (female) for running the length of a 20-rung ladder,
one foot in each rung at a time, is regarded as ‘excellent’ for
college athletes.
Agility training also utilises numerous other drills and items
of specialist kit; these include balance drills, slaloming in and
out of cones, and stepping over and around small hurdles. To
make the transference of the agility skill even more sport
specific, an actual sports skill can also be introduced. This could
take the form of dribbling a football in and out of cones, or
receiving a rugby pass while stepping through a foot-ladder.
More of this below.
SAQ in female footballers

Obviously, companies like SAQ International claim their
systems get results and improve players’ agility. But is their
confidence justified? Polman and associates looked at the
effects of SAQ techniques on female footballers over a
12-week period (2). The players were divided into three
groups, two performing SAQ training, while the third carried
on with their normal conditioning programmes. The results
were as follows:
PAGE 72
All three interventions reduced the participants’ body

mass index (-3.7%) and fat percentage (-1.7%), and
increased flexibility (+14.7%) and VO2max (+ 18.4%);
However, the SAQ groups exhibited significantly greater
benefits from their training programme than the other
group on a sprint-to-fatigue test, a 25m sprint, and left
and right side agility tests.
Working to improve the agility of a dynamic sports
performer (like a footballer or rugby player) by means of SAQ
and similar techniques seems highly appropriate, relevant and
valuable. But will the same principles apply to endurance
athletes? After all, quick-as-a-flash agility is not a pre-requisite
for triathlon or marathon running.
Alricsson and associates carried out a study to evaluate
whether dance training had any effect on the joint mobility and
muscle flexibility of the spine, hip and ankle and on the speed
and agility of young cross-country skiers (3). Cross-country skiing
is a not a sport renowned for quick dynamic movement, but
shaving seconds off on every turn and jump could add up to
significant time savings. Dance training was selected for this task
because of its potential contribution to agility and flexibility.
The study involved 20 elite cross-country skiers, aged 12-15,
with half of them (five girls and five boys) receiving weekly
dance training and the rest serving as non-dancing controls for
a period of eight months. Joint mobility and muscle flexibility
of the spine, hip and ankle were measured before the study
period and at three and eight months. Two sport-related
functional tests – a slalom test and a hurdle test – were carried
out at the same times.
The researchers found that the dance group had increased
their speed by a total of 0.3 seconds over the slalom test after
eight months. They also improved their speed and agility on the
hurdle test by 0.8 seconds after three months and by a further
0.6 seconds after eight months. Furthermore, they increased
flexion-extension of the thoracic (upper) spine by 7.5° after
three months and by a further 1.5° after eight months, while
lateral flexion improved by 0.04mm and a further 0.03mm over
PAGE 73
the same periods. Meanwhile, the non-dancing controls did not

show any improvements in any of the studied variables.
Effects of dance training

Alricsson concluded: ‘Dance training has a positive effect on
speed and agility and on joint mobility and muscle flexibility in
flexion-extension and lateral flexion of the spine in young cross-
country skiers’. Had his subjects made use of more sport specific
agility training, the chances are that their gains would have been
even greater.
Marathon runners do not have to dart sideways, backwards
and forwards with lightning speed over the course of their 26-
mile effort, so could they have anything to gain from agility
training? To answer this question, we need to consider the
interplay between agility and power training.
Research indicates that, despite prolonged running training,
runners’ leg muscles may not actually be that efficient at
returning energy to the running surface. In fact, at certain
speeds these muscles may be working at only 50% efficiency
because of the ‘natural’ energy return effectiveness of the foot
arch and Achilles tendon (4).
It’s a bit like having an engine turbocharger that works in
reverse. Your Achilles and foot arch are the turbo: they cut in
automatically when your foot strikes the ground, producing a
burst of power but leave the running muscles (quads,
hamstrings and calf muscles – the engine) working at less than
their full potential. Unless you target these running muscles
with specific power conditioning drills, your ability to drive up
running speed can be compromised.
Such exercises as hopping on and off of a low box and spring
jogging (virtually straight leg movements, where the performer
propels himself forwards primarily by means of feet and ankles)
not only develop ‘harder’, and therefore more effective, running
muscles through their plyometric effect, but also improve agility.
Plyometric exercises enable muscles to generate huge
amounts of force in a split second, when a concentric
(shortening) muscular contraction immediately follows an
PAGE 74
eccentric (lengthening) contraction of the same muscle. These

agility and power moves can ‘sharpen’ foot/ground contact and
result in a more economical and powerful running stride,
regardless of running distance.
Backwards and sideways running can also ‘pre-habilitate’
against injury, providing a further reason why endurance
runners (and those involved in running-based sports) should
perform agility training.
‘ Backwards
and sideways
running can
As mentioned above, conditioning exercises, such as a
pre-habilitate
plyometric drills, can develop both agility and power. However,
against injury,
these drills may not exactly match what is required in a playing
providing a
situation. To ensure they do, it is essential for coaches to analyse
further reason
in real detail the agility and movement patterns required for
why endurance
their sport and to use this information to construct the most
runners should
relevant conditioning programme. In this respect foot
perform agility
positioning can be crucial.
Kovacs and associates looked at the relevance of foot
positioning, particularly foot-landing positions, in athletes
training
’
performing plyometric depth jumps drills involving stepping
off a box then immediately springing upwards, sideways or
forwards (5). Specifically, the researchers were interested in
comparing the force generated by flat-footed and forefoot
ground contacts.
Ten male university students performed two types of depth
jump from a 0.4m high box placed 1m from the centre of a force
plate. They were instructed to land either on the balls of their
feet, without the heels touching the ground, or on their heels.
The researchers discovered that the two different jumping
styles generated force in very different ways. Using specific
measuring equipment, Kovacs’ team demonstrated that a
forefoot landing depth jump produced significantly more power
at impact and at the transition into the jump than a flat-footed
landing depth jump.
Depth jumps and power

Kovacs’ findings have crucial implications for optimum agility
and power conditioning. Even though a flat-footed-landing
PAGE 75
depth jump will develop power, this may not channel optimally
into enhancing the agility and power of a player in a specific
sport. For example, a sprinter would probably benefit more
from forefoot-landing jumps, as the sprint action is performed
from a similar foot-strike position, whereas a basketball or
volleyball player is likely to develop greater vertical spring – a
key requirement of the games – by using flat-footed landings.
Muscle firing patterns are very specific, and conditioning drills
must mirror sports skills for optimum results.
Finally here’s an example of an even more specific
agility/power conditioning drill, designed for a tennis player.
The player should perform a depth jump with a forefoot – but
non-aligned – landing position, which will enable him or her to
rotate and sprint, in 3-5 strides, to a designated target to the
left or right.
This drill mimics and conditions the typical agility (power
and speed) required in a game situation – eg to reach a drop
shot. And it can be made even more specific if the player holds
a racket and ‘ghosts’ a shot on reaching the designated target.
In summary, if you or those you coach want to become
faster, more elusive, more efficient and more dynamic in their
movements, it is advisable to incorporate specific drills into
regular training routines.
John Shepherd
References
1 www.brianmac. demon.co.uk/ qikfeet.htm
2 Journal of Sport Science 2004 Feb; 22 (2), 191-203
3 J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2002 Sep; 42 (3), 282-8
4 PP167, July 2002
5 Med Sci Sports Exerc, 1999 May; 31 (5), 708-16
PAGE 76
PAGE 77
PAGE 78
SPEED DEVELOPMENT
Tried and tested ways to

fast-forward your sporting
performance
Billy the Whiz, the Flying Scotsman and the Kansas Cannonball
all have something in common apart from great nicknames:
they all have – or had – great speed. In their human
incarnations, ‘the Whiz’ is Jason Robinson, the staccato-footed
speed merchant who plays either wing or full back for England’s
rugby union side; Allan Wells is the Flying Scotsman, fast
enough over 100m to win Olympic gold in just over 10 seconds
back in 1980; and Maurice Greene (the Kansas Cannonball) is,
of course, the former World 100m record-holder.
These athletes move, quite literally, in the blink of an eye.
Like many of us in search of that most precious sporting
commodity, speed, all have made use of a variety of techniques
and equipment aids to sharpen them up. This article
investigates some of these to help you gain some insight into
how to fast-forward your sporting performance.
SAQ drills
SAQ (an acronym for ‘speed, agility and quickness’) is the title
of a system patented by a company called ‘SAQ International’,
which works in the UK with top football teams like West Ham
United and the Rugby Football Union, and internationally with
the likes of the Miami Dolphins American Football team and
the New South Wales Waratahs rugby team in Australia.
Jason (‘the Whiz’) Robinson has two of the fleetest feet seen
on a rugby player and, although blessed with innate ability to
dance rings around his opponents, he has also honed his agility
through the use of such SAQ drills as the ‘foot ladder’. This type
PAGE 79
of rope ladder, a key component of SAQ training, is placed flat

on the playing surface in order to develop foot speed and
improved foot-ground contact.
There are numerous permutations of ways for athletes to step
and run through the ladder, which can challenge the fast twitch
fibres of even the fleetest athletes. ‘One foot in, one foot out’ (left,
right, left into each rung) is not too difficult; ‘two in, two out’ (two
feet one after the other into each gap) is more challenging; but
backwards and sideways combinations definitely need to engage
the brain as well as the feet. It’s a bit like learning to waltz against
the high-speed rhythm of Garage music!
These drills, like many of the speed-enhancing techniques
mentioned in this article, are designed to optimise
neuromuscular patterning and condition. Like any other physical
attribute, speed can be trained and improved through repetition
and overload. SAQ techniques never lose sight of this overall goal
and the playing requirements of various sports. Depending on
their emphasis, the drills are designed either to develop absolute
speed and agility or to develop these attributes under the
conditions of fatigue that players experience during a match.
Drills with a sport specific emphasis often shape up looking
like an obstacle course, involving short swerves through cones,
hopscotch, zig-zag runs, long swerves, two- footed jumps over
low hurdles, backwards running and turns through 360 degrees.
Players are often required to perform even more sport-specific
tasks during the course of these workouts; for example, a rugby
player might have to receive and pass the ball while running
through the foot ladder.
For more information about SAQ International, go to
www.saqinternational.com
The Frappier acceleration programme

The Frappier system is a more mechanised version of SAQ
– think Terminator rather than Tarzan – which was described in
detail in a recent issue of Peak Performance (PP169 August
2002). It relies on high-tech kit like the ‘Plyo-Press’, the ‘Multi-
Hip’, the ‘Upper Body Implosion Unit’ and the ‘Super
PAGE 80
Treadmill’. The system is the brain-child of American John

Frappier, who began developing it in the 1980s. After gaining
an MSc in sports science, Frappier spent a considerable time in
‘The Frappier
system applies
the principles
Russia with the US junior gymnastics team and gained valuable
of controlled
insights into how the former Soviets trained for speed and
overload
power (a great deal of contemporary speed and power training
to speed
theory is owed to the boffins behind the former Iron Curtain).
Back in the States, Frappier began working with top NFL
(American Football) players and opened his first Acceleration
development
’
Training Centre in 1986. Today there are more than 100 such
centres, mostly in the United States.
The Frappier system applies the principles of controlled
overload to speed development. All athletes, whatever their
sport, are put through a six-week ‘level one’ programme, which
identifies their individual strengths and weaknesses and
introduces them to the programme’s protocols, and particularly
the use of the ‘Super Treadmill’. Those in search of scintillating
speed are progressed through a 12-level programme, while
those seeking sustained speed endurance work through six
levels. Both programmes use eight-week training cycles, with
3-4 sessions a week. Speed workouts use the treadmill, while
conditioning routines involve other items of specialist kit as well
as more ‘everyday’ sports and speed conditioning drills.
After the six-week introductory course, the Frappier system
claims that you can expect, on average, a two-tenths-of-a-
second improvement in 40 yards time and a 2-4 inch
improvement in vertical jump ability.
The 28mph Super Treadmill is the key to the Frappier
system, since it allows for the performance of flat and inclined
running (up to 40%) under controlled conditions. The
acceleration coach is able to stand alongside the athlete,
offering verbal and uniquely physical support. A carefully-
placed hand to the lower back can ‘spot’ or support the sprinting
athlete, leading to the maintenance and development of
biomechanically correct form.
The Plyo-Press is perhaps the most interesting of the other
specialist pieces of speed-enhancing equipment employed by
PAGE 81
the Frappier system. It combines weight-based resistance

training with plyometric training in one hit, allowing athletes to
strengthen their muscles in a highly speed-specific way. You
select the appropriate weight from the weights stack in the same
way that you would on a piece of standard fixed weight
equipment, then lie on your back with the machine’s pads
behind your shoulders within a sort of track. From this position,
you are able to generate the power to push yourself towards a
footplate that you then ‘react’ against through your lower and
upper legs to launch yourself back up the track.
Conditioning this ‘stretch/reflex’ is perhaps the key to
developing the power to move over a playing surface like a
racehorse rather than a donkey. In sprinting, there are three
stretch/reflex reactions, occurring at the ankle, knee and hip. If
you can succeed in minimising the ‘amortisation phase’ (the gap
between impact/stretch and power expression/contraction) you
will be a faster, more powerful athlete. The Frappier system is
designed to help you achieve this (1).
For further information on the Frappier system, go to
www.sportdimensions.com
Uphill sprinting
The Frappier system, being true to its high-tech principles,
tends to eschew nature’s hills for mechanised ones. But uphill
sprinting, wherever it takes place, is a great way to develop
speed. For best results you need a 30% gradient, which will
optimally overload the ankle dorsiflexors and plantarflexors,
the knee flexors (during the swing phase), the knee extensors
and the hip extensors and flexors (2). This degree of incline also
results in greater range of motion at the hip and ankle, faster
joint motions during push-off and 2-3 times greater
neuromuscular activity in the hip and knee extensors.
Downhill sprinting, elastic cord sprinting and

the concept of ‘over-speed’
If uphill sprinting provides such a great speed-enhancing
opportunity, what about turning round and sprinting downhill?
PAGE 82
This activity will result in what is known as ‘over-speed’ running.

Greene is aptly nicknamed the Kansas Cannonball, and during
his training it’s more than likely that he will have used over-
speed downhill running and other over-speed methods to reach
speeds he would not normally be able to attain.
Other over-speed devices include towing methods, running
‘with the wind’ and elasticised harnesses. These devices are
essentially giant rubber bands that are attached around the
waist. Tension is built up by pulling them out (you need a
coach or another athlete to do this); when the harness is
released, the athlete is pulled down the track beyond his or
her normal sprint speed.
All over-speed methods push or pull athletes to speeds they
would not be able to achieve using their bodies alone. Whatever
method is employed, it is crucial for athletes to ‘fire’ their
muscles in order to achieve the super-fast sprinting speed rather
‘ All over-
speed methods
push or pull
than being dragged to fast speeds. It’s the same difference as
athletes to
falling or running down a hill. If you fall down, you may get to
speeds they
the bottom more quickly, but you’ll probably not remember
would not be
how you did it. If you run down, on the other hand, you’ll be
able to achieve
conscious of all your steps. For all over-speed work you need to
using their
be conscious of your sprinting movements in order to maximise
neuromuscular patterning.
Having tried most over-speed methods myself, I have found
bodies alone
’
that downhill running using a slight decline (10% or less)
seemed to offer the greatest transference to my sprinting
capability. Elasticised harnesses (read catapults), although
great fun, were rather like roller-coaster rides: very exhilarating
and scary at the time but easily forgotten, with only marginal
consequent improvement to my sprinting speeds. Downhill
sprinting, however, enabled me to fire my own muscles, and
because of this there was greater transferability to my on-the-
flat sprinting.
The old Eastern Bloc countries were quick to realise the
benefits of sprinting on various gradients. A trip to their former
training facilities – such as Potsdam in East Germany, where
they had constructed incline/decline sprint tracks – makes this
PAGE 83
perfectly clear. To achieve optimum speed transference,

Eastern Bloc trainers would get their athletes to sprint uphill
one week, on the flat the next and downhill the next.
Specific speed conditioners

1. The Powerbag
This is a relatively new item of speed and power-enhancing
kit, which is used by the England rugby team, among other elite
performers, and has only very recently been launched to the
wider fitness market. Powerbags are tubular padded sacks
made from a rip-stop vinyl, with webbing handles at shoulder
width, which enable them to be easily carried, lifted and thrown.
Powerbags, which come in various weights, specifically
address core stability, balance and the recruitment of the body’s
stabilising muscles – all key elements of speed and sport specific
conditioning. In terms of speed development, they come into
their own when conditioning explosive upper body power.
No matter how powerfully you might perform a traditional
upper body resistance exercise, like the shoulder press, it is very
likely that you will ‘hold back’ as you come to the end point of
the press, simply because you won’t be able to follow through
as you would when throwing or pushing an object. With a
Powerbag, you can safely condition this explosive, speedy
response because you can throw it. The bag can even be caught
by a partner and thrown back to develop upper body plyometric
power in another way.
For further information on the Powerbag, e-mail
mail@performt.com or go to www.performt.com
2. Speedballs
Allan Wells was a great advocate of the ‘boxer’s’ speedball,
believing that it enhanced his upper body speed and power.
There is no doubt that it would have conditioned such a
response (Wells being no slouch) but the drawback was that the
firing pattern of the muscles of the upper arms and chest were
developed in an opposite direction to that required for the
sprinting action. However, the speedball does have its merits
PAGE 84
as a pre-conditioner and neuromuscular ‘sharpener’ – and it’s

great to work out with to the theme from Rocky!
Speedballs can be obtained from specific fitness retailers.
3. Foot-flexor devices
Foot-Flexor devices aim to secure the foot in a dorsiflexed
position during sprint training and are attached around the
sprint shoe to the ankle. The theory behind this form of sports
bondage is that it encourages sprinters to run with their toes up
rather than down, which contradicts the older coaching wisdom
that sprinters should run high on their toes.
Proponents of dorsiflexed sprinting believe that it maximises
force return from the running surface, thus enhancing forward
locomotion. A toe-down position is seen to ‘break’ the sprinting
motion because the lower limbs will yield as the feet strike the
ground, no matter how strong the athlete’s calf muscles.
The devices themselves may be somewhat overrated, but the
dorsiflexed foot position is not; you really do get a feeling of
greater power return from the track while running toes up, and
the foot has to be ‘coming back toward you’ to optimise push
off. However, concentrated toes-up sprinting needs to be
gradually introduced into an athlete’s training programme to
avoid injury.
Foot-Flexor devices are available through SportDimensions
(see above).
If speed is your goal why not try out some of the above-
mentioned training methods and systems. You could even come
to deserve your own great speed related nickname!
John Shepherd
References
1. Ferley D, Getting up to Speed with Acceleration, unpublished
paper on Frappier system, 1998
2. Swanson SC (1998) Master’s Thesis: muscular coordination
during decline sprint training, University of Massachusettes, USA
PAGE 85
PAGE 86
WHAT THE SCIENTISTS SAY

Reports on recent conditioning-related studies by
Isabel Walker and Raphael Brandon
Eccentric moves recruit most fast

twitch fibres
A new piece of research has investigated the differences in activation
patterns between concentric and eccentric quadriceps contractions.
In particular, the researchers were concerned with measuring the
amount of muscle activity as revealed by electromyography (EMG) and
the mean frequency of the EMG signal.
As a rule, the larger the EMG signal recorded the more muscle fibres
are being recruited, while the frequency of the signal is an indication
of how fast they are being recruited. Research has shown that higher
frequency EMG is consistent with greater fast twitch fibre recruitment.
Concentric contraction involves force created when the muscle
fibres shorten, while eccentric contraction involves force created when
they lengthen. For example, when you land on two feet from a jump
and bend your knees, the quadriceps are lengthening but also creating
a force to control the landing. As you spring back from the landing,
extending your knees and jumping back up in the air, the quadriceps
are shortening as they create force to push you off.
In this experiment, the subjects performed maximal concentric and
eccentric contractions of the quadriceps, while the researchers
measured the EMG activity and frequency of signals. They found that
the total EMG signal was greater during the concentric phase –
suggesting more muscle fibres are active at this time – while the mean
frequency of the EMG signal was greater during the eccentric phase –
suggesting more fast twitch fibres are being recruited at this time.
They concluded that during a maximal eccentric contraction there
is less total muscle fibre recruitment, with fast twitch fibres recruited
in preference to slow twitch ones, whereas during a maximal concentric
contraction all the muscles fibres are used.
PAGE 87
This finding is significant for power athletes: if you want to train your
fast twitch fibres it would seem that eccentric contraction movements
are more useful than concentric ones.
Plyometric exercises, which involve high-force eccentric movements,
would be particularly useful for this purpose. A good example is the
depth jump, which involves jumping off a box, bending at the knee and
hip to control the landing softly, then jumping back up. The landing
phase is the eccentric contraction – and the bigger the depth jump,
the greater the eccentric forces.
Power athletes may also want to consider performing strength
exercises using the eccentric phase only. By this means you may be
able to target just the fast twitch fibres and perform less total work,
potentially making the training more efficient. You will need a training
partner or coach to assist you with each concentric phase, leaving you
to complete the effort on each eccentric phase alone.
Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(2), p83-91
Raphael Brandon
ATP is no creatine
The search for the ‘new creatine’ continues – but ATP seems unlikely
to fit the bill if the results of a new US study are anything to go by. ATP
(adenosine 5-triphosphate), found in every human cell, is the body’s
universal energy donor. It also plays a key role in a number of other
biological processes, including neurotransmission, muscle contraction,
cardiac and circulatory function and liver glycogen metabolism.
So it is not too far-fetched to assume that supplementary ATP might
offer some useful ergogenic benefits for athletes, particularly enhanced
anaerobic capacity and muscular strength.
That was the theory these researchers set out to test with a study
of 27 healthy men, randomly split into three equal groups receiving
one of the following oral supplements for 14 days:
Low-dose ATP (150mg);
High-dose ATP (225mg);
Placebo.
Because supplementary ATP is not easily absorbed by the body, the
PAGE 88
supplements were coated in a methylcellulose ‘shell’ designed to

protect the molecule during its passage through the gut.
Anaerobic power (via the Wingate cycle ergometer test), muscle
strength (via the bench press) and total blood ATP concentrations were
measured under three conditions:
1. Baseline (before the supplementation regime began);
2. Acutely (seven days later, before and 75 minutes after ingestion of
the first dose);
3. Post (after 14 days of daily ingestion).
Statistical analysis of all the data showed no significant effects of

supplementation on blood ATP concentrations or anaerobic power
either between or within groups. However, some improvements in
measures of muscle strength were observed after treatment in the
high-dose ATP group, although the researchers acknowledge that these
effects were small and quite possibly spurious.
Interestingly, people in the high-dose group (who were, of course,
blinded to which supplement they were receiving) reported feeling
better during treatment. This improvement in sensation is
physiologically plausible, the researchers point out, as ‘ATP and
associate nucleotides have been shown to affect brain levels and
release of noradrenaline, glutamine and serotonin and hence modulate
mood and other responses…’
Nevertheless, they question the practical usefulness of the small
improvements they observed and conclude that further research is
needed before ATP supplementation can be recommended as an
ergogenic aid.
Med Sci Sports Exerc, vol 36, no 6, pp 983-990
Isabel Walker
PAGE 89
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SPEED,

PEAK The research newsletter on

PEAK The research newsletter on

Publisher Jonathan A. Pye

The above reports are available at a cost of £29.99 each from

A endurance sports and events can bask happily in the almost

Fish out of water: the

swimming, but only exercises that use right muscles in a related

Arm pull down exercises

and continue, performing sets of 5-8 reps for maximum strength

Rear pull This exercise involves the opposite movement to the

the front and

2. Medicine ball single arm overhead throw

3. Swiss ball body pulls

Leg kick exercises

the cable dynamically by kicking the leg forwards. Pull the

‘Dive start and push-off turn’ exercise

The bottom line

Add power to your punch

contact times, while at the same time generating a significant

Plyometric drills ranked by intensity

Standing-based jumps Tuck-jumps Low

Jumps from standing Standing long jump Low-medium

Multiple jumps from standing 5 consecutive bounds Medium

Depth Jumping 2 x 6 jumps – down and up High

Compare squat jumps to alternate leg bounding over 20m,

Eccentric drop and hold jumps

drills focus on the plant and absorption phase of a dynamic

Pre-season/early conditioning phase

power and general sport specific movement pattern

Main power conditioning phase

Volume and intensity guidelines

For sporting success make

Weight training for endurance

3. They must create conditions that mirror the heart rate

In his most specific six-week weight training microcycle,

the cardiovascular system, an intense physiological response

Weight training for speed/power: why bigger

five reps are performed, and at 85%, three. As before, a good

Weight training and open sports skills

So what is the role of weight training for these sports? The

Mike Antoniades, a specialist speed, power and weight training

Sport specific weight training exercises

Six top weight training tips for enhancing

achieve the same by performing some light strides after a

Strength or power: which

velocity of movement is at its slowest. Now think about how an

Power – how to generate rapid force

For athletes who are inexperienced in strength training, any

high power in specific areas of the body – eg arm extension

There is a good logical argument for training with exercises at

The importance of quality training

rest between sets and to focus on moving the bar as quickly as

performed ballistically, will result in increased maximum

Elite strength levels

This argument is supported by recent research suggesting

The purpose of strength training

The table below sets out an example workout for an elite

Table 1: competition-phase workout for an élite jumper

Cleans 4x3 80% of 1RM 3 minutes rest