Power System Stability

Power system stability is defined as the property of a power system

that enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under
normal operating conditions and to regain an acceptable state of
equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance.
Disturbances can be small or large.
1. Small Disturbances
I Incremental changes in load
I Incremental changes in generation
2. Large Disturbances
I Loss of a large generator or load
I Faults on transmission lines
Classification of Power System Stability

1. Rotor Angle Stability

I Ability to maintain synchronism after being subjected to a
disturbance.
I Torque balance of synchronous machines.
2. Voltage Stability
I Ability to maintain steady acceptable voltage at all buses after
being subjected to a disturbance.
I Reactive power balance.

We study Rotor angle stability in this course.

Rotor Angle Stability

Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous

machines of a power system to remain in synchronism after being
subjected to a disturbance.
1. Small disturbance (small signal) stability
I Ability to maintain synchronism under small disturbances.
I Since disturbances are small, nonlinear differential equations
can be linearized.
I It is easy to solve.
2. Large disturbance (Transient) stability
I Ability to maintain synchronism under large disturbances.
I Since disturbances are large, nonlinear differential equations
can not be linearized.
I It has to be solved numerically. It is difficult..
I However, we use a direct approach called Equal Area Criterion
for analyzing the stability of a single machine connected to an
infinite bus.
Power-Angle Relationship:
Consider a single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system:

E δ V∞ = 1∠0◦

X
+
E δ V 0◦
−
Figure: Per phase equivalent circuit

Where X = Xg + XTr + XTL in p.u.

To find the real power output of the machine:

E δ − V 0◦
I =
X
SS = EI ∗
E −δ − V 0◦
 
SS = E δ
−X
E 2 90◦ EV 90◦ + δ
SS = −
X X
EV sin δ
PS =
X
E 2 EV cos δ
QS = −
X X
Since the system is lossless, the real power delivered at the infinite
bus is also the same.
EV sin δ
PR = PS = = Pe
X
 Pe = Pmax sin δ
EV
where Pmax = .
X

Pmax

Pm

δ0 δmax δ
Figure: Power angle curve
For a given mechanical power (Pm ), there are two operating angles.

Pm
δ0 = sin−1 ( )
Pmax

δmax = π − δ0

I δ0 is a stable equilibrium point.

I δmax is an unstable equilibrium point.
Rotor Dynamics - Swing Equation
The equation governing rotor motion of a synchronous machine is
given as
d 2 θm
J = Ta = Tm − Te N-m
dt 2
where
J = the total moment of inertia of the rotor masses in kg-m2
θm = the angular displacement of the rotor with respect to a
stationary axis in mechanical radians (rad)
t = time in seconds (s)
Tm = the mechanical or shaft torque supplied by the prime mover
in N-m
Te = the net electrical or electromagnetic torque in N-m
Ta = the net accelerating torque in N-m
 I Tm and Te are considered positive for the synchronous
generator.
I Tm accelerates the rotor in the positive θm in the direction of
rotation.
I For a motor, Tm and Te are reversed in sign.
I In the steady state, Tm = Te . Hence, Ta = 0.
θm is measured with respect to a stationary reference axis on the
stator. To represent it with respect to the synchronously rotating
frame, let us define
θm = ωsm t + δm
where
ωsm is the synchronous speed of the machine in mechanical radians
per second
δm is the angular displacement of the rotor in mechanical radians
from the synchronously rotating reference axis.
 dθm dδm
= ωsm +
dt dt
dδm
ωm − ωsm =
dt
dθm
where ωm = is the angular velocity of the rotor in mechanical
dt
radians per second.
Differentiating it again,

d 2 θm d 2 δm
=
dt 2 dt 2
Substituting it,

d 2 δm
J = Ta = Tm − Te N-m
dt 2
On multiplying by ωm ,

d 2 δm
Jωm = Pa = Pm − Pe
dt 2
where
Pm = shaft power input in MW
Pe = electrical power output in MW
Pa = accelerating power in MW

Let us define inertia constant H.

stored kinetic energy in megajoules at synchronous speed
H=
Machine rating in MVA
1 2
2 Jωsm
H= MJ/MVA
Smach
Substituting it,

2H d 2 δm Pa Pm − Pe
2
ω m 2
= =
ωsm dt Smach Smach
In practice, ωm does not differ significantly from the synchronous
speed. ωm ≈ ωsm

2H d 2 δm
= Pa = Pm − Pe per unit
ωsm dt 2
It can be written as

2H d 2 δ
= Pa = Pm − Pe per unit
ωs dt 2

δ and ωs have consistent units which can be mechanical or

electrical degrees or radians.
I This equation is called the swing equation of the machine.
I It is a second-order nonlinear differential equation.
I When it is solved, we obtain δ as a function of t. This is
called the swing curve.
It can be written as two first-order differential equations.

2H dω
= Pa = Pm − Pe per unit
ωs dt

dδ
= ω − ωs
dt

I ω, ωs and δ involve electrical radians or electrical degrees.

I δ is the load angle.
Example 1 : A 50 Hz, 4-pole, turbo-alternator rated 500 MVA, 22
kV has an inertia constant of 7.5 sec. Find
1. the rotor acceleration if the input to the generator is suddenly
raised to 400 MW for an electrical load of 350 MW.
2. the speed of rotor in rpm if the rotor acceleration is constant
for 10 cycles and the change in torque angle δ in elect degrees.
1.
2H d 2 δ
= Pa = Pm − Pe per unit
ωs dt 2
2 × 7.5 d 2 δ 400 − 350
2
=
2 × π × 50 dt 500
d 2δ
= 2.0944 elect. rad/s2
dt 2
d 2δ 180
2
= 2.0944 × = 120 elect. degree/s2
dt π
 For a 4-pole machine,

d 2δ
= 60 mech. degree/s2
dt 2
Since 1 revolution = 360 mech. degree,

d 2δ 60
2
= revolution/s2
dt 360

d 2δ 60 × 60
2
= = 10 rpm/s
dt 360
2. If the acceleration is constant for 10 cycles, the duration of
acceleration will be
1
t = 10 × = 0.2 s
50
N = 1500 + 10 × 0.2 = 1502 rpm
 d 2δ
To find the change in δ, twice integrate .
dt 2

1 d 2δ
δ = δ0 + ( 2 )t 2
2 dt

1
∆δ = × 120 × (0.2)2 = 2.4 elect. degree
2
Synchronizing Power Coefficients
P

Pmax

Pm

δ0 δmax δ

Let us assume that Pm is constant. Consider small incremental

changes in δ,
δ = δ0 + δ∆ Pe = Pe0 + Pe∆
Pe0 + Pe∆ = Pmax sin(δ0 + δ∆ )
= Pmax (sin δ0 cos δ∆ + cos δ0 sin δ∆ )
Since δ∆ is small,

sin δ∆ ≈ δ∆ cos δ∆ ≈ 1

Pe0 + Pe∆ = Pmax sin δ0 + (Pmax cos δ0 )δ∆

At δ0 ,
Pm = Pe0 = Pmax sin δ0
Therefore,

Pm − (Pe0 + Pe∆ ) = −(Pmax cos δ0 )δ∆

Substituting the incremental variables in the swing equation,

2H d 2 (δ0 + δ∆ )
= Pm − (Pe0 + Pe∆ )
ωs dt 2
On simplification, we get

2H d 2 δ∆
+ (Pmax cos δ0 )δ∆ = 0
ωs dt 2
Since δ0 is constant, Pmax cos δ0 is the slope of the curve at δ0 . Let

dP
Sp = = Pmax cos δ0
dδ δ=δ0

where Sp is called the synchronizing power coefficient.

d 2 δ∆ ωs Sp
+ δ∆ = 0
dt 2 2H

I It is a linear second-order differential equation.

I When Sp is positive, the solution δ∆ (t) is an undamped
sinusoid.
I When Sp is negative, the solution δ∆ (t) increases
exponentially without limit.
I Therefore δ0 is a stable equilibrium point and δmax is an
unstable equilibrium point.
Equal Area Criterion
I Since the swing equation is nonlinear, it has to be numerically
integrated to obtain solutions.
I If the disturbances are large, the equation can not be
linearised.
I It is very difficult to obtain solutions.
I However, for a single machine connected to an infinite bus
system, a direct approach without solving it is possible.
I The approach is called the Equal Area Criterion method.
 2H d 2 δ
= Pm − Pe
ωs dt 2
d 2δ ωs
2
= (Pm − Pe )
dt 2H
Let us multiply both sides of the above equation by 2dδ/dt,

dδ d 2 δ ωs (Pm − Pe ) dδ
2 2
=
dt dt H dt
 2
d dδ ωs (Pm − Pe ) dδ
=
dt dt H dt
On integration,
 2
ωs (Pm − Pe )
Z
dδ
= dδ
dt H
 dδ
For a system to be stable, = 0 after a disturbance.
dt
ωs (Pm − Pe )
Z
dδ = 0
H
Z
(Pm − Pe )dδ = 0

Sudden change in Pm
P

Pmax

Pm1
Pm0

δ0 δ1 δm δ
 Z δm
(Pm1 − Pe )dδ = 0
δ0

δ0 is the initial rotor angle. δm is the maximum rotor angle during

oscillation.
Z δ1 Z δm
(Pm1 − Pe )dδ + (Pm1 − Pe )dδ = 0
δ0 δ1

Z δ1 Z δm
(Pm1 − Pe )dδ = (Pe − Pm1 )dδ
δ0 δ1

Therefore for the system to be stable

Area(A1 ) = Area(A2 )

Energy Gained = Energy Lost

If A1 > A2 , the system will be unstable.
 δ
δm
δ1
δ0
t
Figure: Swing Curve

I There is no damping in our model.

I In practice, damper or amortisseur windings produce damping.
Example 2 : A synchronous generator capable of developing 200
MW is operating at an angle of 30◦ . By how much can the input
shaft power be increased suddenly without loss of stability?

Pmax = 200 MW
Pm1

Pm0

30◦ δ1 δm = δmax δ
Pm can be increased suddenly without losing stability such that δm
is equal to δmax .
Z δ1 Z δmax
(Pm1 − Pe )dδ = (Pe − Pm1 )dδ
δ0 δ1

where Pe = Pmax sin δ , Pm1 = Pmax sin δ1 and δmax = π − δ1 .

Integrating and simplifying, we get
√
200 cos δ1 −π×200 sin δ1 +δ1 ×200 sin δ1 +(π/6)×200 sin δ1 +100 3 = 0

Solving this numerically,

δ1 = 1.0545 rad = 60.4174 degree

Pm1 = Pmax sin δ1 = 173.93 MW

The shaft power can be increased from 100 MW to 173.93 MW
suddenly without losing stability.
Short Circuit Faults

E δ V∞ = 1∠0◦

At point F , a three phase fault occurs. To analyze this, we need to

understand the physical conditions before, during and after the
fault.
1. Before Fault :

XTL
Xd0 XTr
XTL
+ +
E δ − − 1∠0◦

XTL
X1 = Xd0 + XTr +
2
Pe1 = Pmax1 sin δ
where
EV
Pmax1 =
X1
2. During Fault :

XTL
Xd0 XTr
XTL XTL
2 2
+ +
E δ − − 1∠0◦

I The total reactance X between two nodes can be found using

Y − ∆ conversion.
I X2 during fault will be higher than before fault X1 .
Hence,
Pe2 = Pmax2 sin δ
where
EV
Pmax2 =
X2
3. After Fault :

XTL
Xd0 XTr

+ +
E δ − − 1∠0◦

X3 = Xd0 + XTr + XTL

Pe3 = Pmax3 sin δ

where
EV
Pmax3 =
X3
 P

Pmax1

Pmax3
A2
Pm
A1
Pmax2

δ0 δcr δmax δ

δmax = π − sin−1 ( PPmax3

m
).
For the system to be stable, A1 = A2 . There is a critical clearing
angle δcr before which the fault has to be cleared.
Z δcr Z δmax
(Pm − Pmax2 sin δ)dδ = (Pmax3 sin δ − Pm )dδ
δ0 δcr
Integrating and simplifying the above equation, we get

Pm (δmax − δ0 ) + Pmax3 cos δmax − Pmax2 cos δ0

cos δcr =
(Pmax3 − Pmax2 )

δ
δm
δcr

δ0
tcr t
Figure: Swing Curve

tcr is the critical clearing time in seconds.

It will settle at δnew = sin−1 ( PPmax3
m
) if damping is present.
Example 3: A three phase generator delivers 1.0 p.u. power to an
infinite bus through a transmission network when a fault occurs.
The maximum power which can be transferred during pre-fault,
fault and post-fault conditions are 1.75 p.u, 0.4 p.u. and 1.25
p.u.respectively. Find the critical clearing angle.

Pm = 1 Pmax1 = 1.75 Pmax2 = 0.4 Pmax3 = 1.25

Pm 1
δ0 = sin−1 ( ) = sin−1 ( ) = 0.61 rad
Pmax1 1.75
Pm 1
δmax = π − sin−1 ( ) = π − sin−1 ( ) = 2.2143 rad
Pmax3 1.25
Substituting,
δcr = 0.903 rad = 51.73 degree
Short Circuit Faults at the end of Transmission
Lines (Near the bus)

E δ V∞ = 1∠0◦

1. Before Fault :

XTL
X1 = Xd0 + XTr +
2
Pe1 = Pmax1 sin δ
where
EV
Pmax1 =
X1
2. During Fault :
I Since the fault is near the bus, the bus voltage is zero.
I The power transfer during fault is zero.
Hence,
Pe2 = 0
3. After Fault :

X3 = Xd0 + XTr + XTL

Pe3 = Pmax3 sin δ

where
EV
Pmax3 =
X3
 P

Pmax1

Pmax3
A2
Pm
A1

δ0 δcr δmax δ

δmax = π − sin−1 ( PPmax3

m
).
For the system to be stable, A1 = A2 .
Z δcr Z δmax
Pm dδ = (Pmax3 sin δ − Pm )dδ
δ0 δcr
Integrating and simplifying the above equation, we get

Pm (δmax − δ0 ) + Pmax3 cos δmax

cos δcr =
Pmax3

We can find the critical clearing time for this case as follows:

d 2δ ωs
2
= (Pm − Pe )
dt 2H
Since Pe = 0 during fault,

d 2δ ωs
2
= Pm
dt 2H
Integrating this,
Z t
dδ ωs ωs
= Pm = Pm t
dt 0 2H 2H
On further integration,
ωs
δ= Pm t 2 + δ0
4H
If δ = δcr ,
ωs 2
δcr = Pm tcr + δ0
4H
s
4H(δcr − δ0 )
tcr =
ωs P m
Factors Influencing Transient Stability

1. How heavily the generator is loaded.

2. The generator output during the fault. This depends on the
fault location and type.
3. The fault-clearing time.
4. The post fault transmission system reactance.
5. The generator inertia. The higher the inertia, the slower the
rate of change in angle. This reduces A1 .
6. The generator internal voltage magnitude E . This depends on
the field excitation.