The Ultimate Cheat Sheets For Math and Physics Differential Equations

Differential Equations
The Ultimate Cheat Sheets for Math and Physics- Differential Equations
By The WeSolveThem Team
“Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.”

Leonardo da Vinci
Table of Contents
Before Starting DIFF EQ. ................................................................................................................. 15
Studying ......................................................................................................................................... 16
Book notations ............................................................................................................................... 16
General Symbols and Notations..................................................................................................... 17
Types of numbers ....................................................................................................................................................................................18
Properties ....................................................................................................................................................................................................18
Meanings ......................................................................................................................................................................................................18
Complementation of sets .....................................................................................................................................................................18
Set Laws ........................................................................................................................................................................................................18
De Morgan’s Laws....................................................................................................................................................................................19
Number of Elements in a Set..............................................................................................................................................................19
Axioms ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Algebra ........................................................................................................................................... 20
Arithmetic....................................................................................................................................................................................................20
✓Check Point 1 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Exponents ....................................................................................................................................................................................................21
✓Check Point 2 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Radicals .........................................................................................................................................................................................................22
✓Check Point 3 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Complex Numbers ...................................................................................................................................................................................22
Adding and Subtracting Fractions ..................................................................................................................................................22
✓Check Point 4 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 23
Logarithmic.................................................................................................................................................................................................23
*Example 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 24
*Example 2 ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 25
Note: .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
*✓Check Point 5 ................................................................................................................................................................................... 26
*Factoring ....................................................................................................................................................................................................26
*Example 1: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 26
*Example 2: ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 27
✓Check Point 6 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Complete The Square.............................................................................................................................................................................28
Example 1: Solving for x (Formula 1) ........................................................................................................................................ 28
Example 2: Solving for x (Formula 2) ........................................................................................................................................ 29
Example 3: (Real Application) ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
✓Check Point 7 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Other Valuable Information ........................................................................................................... 30
Composition ...............................................................................................................................................................................................30
Example 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 30
Example 2 ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 31
*Example 3 ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
✓Check Point 8 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Distance Formula .....................................................................................................................................................................................32
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Midpoint Formula....................................................................................................................................................................................32
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Quadratic Formula ..................................................................................................................................................................................33
Proof.......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Example 1: Two real solutions ...................................................................................................................................................... 33
Example 2: Repeated solutions ..................................................................................................................................................... 34
2
Example 3: Two complex solutions ............................................................................................................................................. 34
Graphing a Line.........................................................................................................................................................................................34
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Point Slope Form ................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Slope Intercept Form ......................................................................................................................................................................... 35
*Domain Restrictions.............................................................................................................................................................................36
*Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 36
*✓Check Point 9 ................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Inverse Functions ....................................................................................................................................................................................37
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 37
Asymptotes, Holes and Graphs .........................................................................................................................................................38
Hole in a Graph..................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
General Case for Vertical Asymptotes........................................................................................................................................ 39
The Oblique or Slant Asymptote................................................................................................................................................... 40
The Three General Cases for Horizontal Asymptotes ......................................................................................................... 40
Case 1:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Case 2:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Case 3:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Example 1: at y = 0 ........................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Example 2: No HA Asymptote ........................................................................................................................................................ 41
Example 3: HA at y = a/b ............................................................................................................................................................... 42
Basic Graphs ...............................................................................................................................................................................................43
Trigonometry ................................................................................................................................. 44
*Note: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 44
Radian and Degree Conversion..................................................................................................................................................... 44
Basic Graphs ...............................................................................................................................................................................................44
Using Pythagorean’s Theorem ..........................................................................................................................................................46
Trigonometric Formulas and Identities.......................................................................................................................................46
Reciprocal Identities .......................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Pythagorean Identities ..................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Even and Odd Functions................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Double Angle Formulas .................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Half Angle Formulas .......................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Sum and Difference Formulas ....................................................................................................................................................... 50
Product to Sum Formulas................................................................................................................................................................ 50
Sum to Product Formulas................................................................................................................................................................ 51
*✓Check Point 10 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 51
Example 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
Example 2 ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 51
*Check Point 11 .................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Simplifying Trig Operations ...............................................................................................................................................................53
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Hyperbolic Functions...................................................................................................................... 54
Notation ........................................................................................................................................................................................................54
Graphs............................................................................................................................................................................................................54
Identities ......................................................................................................................................................................................................55
Practice Problems .......................................................................................................................... 55
Simplify or Rewrite as Cartesian .................................................................................................................................................. 55
Simplify or Expand.............................................................................................................................................................................. 55
Solve for x ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 56
Find the domain ................................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Typing Math ................................................................................................................................... 57
3
Getting Started in Calculus ............................................................................................................. 58
Limits.............................................................................................................................................. 60
What is a Limit? ........................................................................................................................................................................................60
Lesson ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Notations for Limits ........................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Practice Problems ............................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Graph Examples........................................................................................................................................................................................62
Example 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Example 2 ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 62
Types of Discontinuity ..........................................................................................................................................................................63
Jump........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Removable .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 63
Infinite ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
Limit Laws and Properties..................................................................................................................................................................64
Limit of a Constant ............................................................................................................................................................................. 64
Limit of Single Variable .................................................................................................................................................................... 64
If The Function is Continuous ........................................................................................................................................................ 64
The Constant Multiple Law............................................................................................................................................................. 64
The Sum and Difference Law ......................................................................................................................................................... 64
The Product Law ................................................................................................................................................................................. 64
The Quotient Law ................................................................................................................................................................................ 64
The Power Law ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 64
The Root Law ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 64
Evaluating Limits .....................................................................................................................................................................................64
Examples ......................................................................................................................................................................................................65
Scenario 1: Continuous Function ................................................................................................................................................. 65
Scenario 2: Factoring and Eliminating..................................................................................................................................... 65
Scenario 3: Conjugate ....................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Infinite Limits ............................................................................................................................................................................................66
Case 1:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66
Case 2:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Case 3:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Horizontal Asymptotes .........................................................................................................................................................................67
Case 1: at y = 0 .................................................................................................................................................................................... 67
Case 2: No HA Asymptote................................................................................................................................................................. 68
Case 3: HA at y = a/b........................................................................................................................................................................ 68
The Limit Definition of a Derivative...............................................................................................................................................69
The Slope ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 69
Derivation of “The Difference Quotient”......................................................................................................................................69
The Limit Definition of a Derivative...............................................................................................................................................70
Derivative Notations.......................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Tangent Lines ............................................................................................................................................................................................71
The Slope Notation for Calculus ................................................................................................................................................... 72
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 72
Derivatives ..................................................................................................................................... 73
What is a Derivate? .................................................................................................................................................................................73
The Notation for a Derivative f'(x) .................................................................................................................................................73
Physics Notation.......................................................................................................................................................................................73
Derivative Rules .......................................................................................................................................................................................74
Derivative of a Constant................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Power Rule.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Constant Multiple Rule ..................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Product Rule .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Quotient Rule......................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
4
Chain Rule............................................................................................................................................................................................... 74
Shorthand Notation/Formula ...........................................................................................................................................................75
Product Rule .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Quotient Rule......................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Chain Rule............................................................................................................................................................................................... 76
Other Useful Derivative Examples ............................................................................................................................................... 77
Evaluating Derivatives ..........................................................................................................................................................................78
Example: Inverse Trig Function ................................................................................................................................................... 78
Example: Implicit Differentiation ................................................................................................................................................ 79
Tangent Lines ............................................................................................................................................................................................80
Example ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 80
The Antiderivative ..................................................................................................................................................................................80
EXTREMELY IMPORTANT: How to Solve Problems......................................................................... 81
Calculus Practice Problems ................................................................................................................................................................83
Solutions.......................................................................................................................................................................................................83
Quick References ........................................................................................................................... 84
Basic Graphs ...............................................................................................................................................................................................84
Arithmetic....................................................................................................................................................................................................86
Exponential .................................................................................................................................................................................................86
Radicals .........................................................................................................................................................................................................86
Fractions.......................................................................................................................................................................................................87
Logarithmic.................................................................................................................................................................................................87
Other Formulas/Equations.................................................................................................................................................................87
Areas...............................................................................................................................................................................................................89
Surface Areas .............................................................................................................................................................................................89
Volumes ........................................................................................................................................................................................................89
Domain Restrictions...............................................................................................................................................................................89
Right Triangle ............................................................................................................................................................................................89
Reciprocal Identities .......................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Double Angle Formulas ........................................................................................................................................................................90
Half Angle Formulas .......................................................................................................................................................................... 90
Sum and Difference Formulas ....................................................................................................................................................... 90
Product to Sum Formulas................................................................................................................................................................ 90
Sum to Product Formulas................................................................................................................................................................ 90
Calculus .......................................................................................................................................... 91
Infinite Limits ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Derivative Formulas (operator).......................................................................................................................................................91
Derivative Formulas (prime) ......................................................................................................................................................... 92
Hyperbolic Functions ............................................................................................................................................................................93
Tangent Lines ............................................................................................................................................................................................93
Antiderivatives..........................................................................................................................................................................................93
Fundamental Theorem’s .................................................................................................................................................................. 93
Limits.............................................................................................................................................. 95
Translation- ................................................................................................................................................................................................95
Notations for Limits................................................................................................................................................................................95
The actual limit .................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Left hand limit ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Right hand limit ................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Limit exists.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 95
Limit does not exists (DNE) ............................................................................................................................................................ 95
Continuous function ........................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Left Continuous function.................................................................................................................................................................. 95
Right Continuous function .............................................................................................................................................................. 95
Non-continuous function ................................................................................................................................................................. 95
5
Types of Discontinuity ..........................................................................................................................................................................96
Jump........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Removable .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Infinite ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 96
Limit Laws and Properties..................................................................................................................................................................97
Limit of a Constant ............................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Limit of Single Variable .................................................................................................................................................................... 97
If The Function is Continuous ........................................................................................................................................................ 97
The Constant Multiple Law............................................................................................................................................................. 97
The Sum and Difference Law ......................................................................................................................................................... 97
The Product Law ................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
The Quotient Law ................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
The Power Law ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
The Root Law ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
Exponential Law .................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Infinite Limits ............................................................................................................................................................................................97
Case 1:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Case 2:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Case 3:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 97
Precise Definition of a Limit ε, δ .......................................................................................................................................................98
Limit .......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Left Hand Limit .................................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Right Hand Limit ................................................................................................................................................................................. 98
Derivation of “The Difference Quotient”......................................................................................................................................98
Slope of Secant Line or Difference Quotient ........................................................................................................................... 98
Intermediate Value Theorem......................................................................................................................................................... 98
Common Limits.........................................................................................................................................................................................99
Infinite Limits ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 99
Derivatives ................................................................................................................................... 100
The Limit Definition of a Derivative ........................................................................................................................................ 100
Notations ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 100
Time Derivatives ............................................................................................................................................................................... 100
The Slope Notation for Calculus ................................................................................................................................................ 101
Tangent Line............................................................................................................................................................................................ 101
Physics Notation.................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
Derivative Rules (operator notations) ...................................................................................................................................... 102
Derivative of a Constant................................................................................................................................................................ 102
Sum and Difference ......................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Power Rule........................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Constant Multiple Rule .................................................................................................................................................................. 102
Product Rule ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Quotient Rule...................................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Chain Rule............................................................................................................................................................................................ 102
Derivative Rules (prime notations)............................................................................................................................................. 103
Power Rule........................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Product Rule ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Quotient Rule...................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Chain Rule............................................................................................................................................................................................ 103
Exponential and Logarithmic ......................................................................................................................................................... 103
exp{u}..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Natural Log ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Base Log................................................................................................................................................................................................ 103
Exponential ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 103
Inverse Function Derivative............................................................................................................................................................ 103
6
Trig Derivatives ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Standard ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Inverse ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Common Derivatives........................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Operator ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Prime ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 105
Implicit Differentiation................................................................................................................. 105
Tangent Line............................................................................................................................................................................................ 105
Related Rates .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Hyperbolic Functions.................................................................................................................... 106
Notation ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Graphs......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 107
Identities ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Derivatives ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Standard ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Inverse ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 108
Extrema ........................................................................................................................................ 109
Graphing Process .................................................................................................................................................................................. 109
Critical Numbers............................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Max/Min ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 109
Increasing and decreasing ........................................................................................................................................................... 110
Concavity.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 110
Points of inflection ........................................................................................................................................................................... 110
Theorems .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 110
Rolle’s Theorem ................................................................................................................................................................................. 110
Mean Value Theorem...................................................................................................................................................................... 110
First & Second Derivative Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 110
L’Hospital’s Rule ........................................................................................................................... 111
Indeterminate Forms.......................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Rule .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 111
Process................................................................................................................................................................................................... 111
Optimization ................................................................................................................................ 112
Business Formulas........................................................................................................................ 112
Parametric and Polar Operations ................................................................................................. 113
Notations ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 113
First Derivative.................................................................................................................................................................................. 113
Second Derivative............................................................................................................................................................................. 113
Trigonometric......................................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Circle ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Ellipse..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 113
Polar Derivative ................................................................................................................................................................................ 114
Polar Equations for Ellipse .......................................................................................................................................................... 114
Polar Equations for Hyperbola .................................................................................................................................................. 114
Polar Equations for Parabola..................................................................................................................................................... 114
Antiderivatives & Integration....................................................................................................... 115
Basic Rules................................................................................................................................................................................................ 115
Riemann Sum for Area Approximation ..................................................................................................................................... 115
Area Approximation Rules............................................................................................................................................................... 116
Midpoint Rule..................................................................................................................................................................................... 116
Trapezoid Rule .................................................................................................................................................................................. 116
The Integral Notation ∫ ............................................................................................................... 116
7
Definite Integral Properties ............................................................................................................................................................ 116
Fundamental Theorems .................................................................................................................................................................... 117
Limit Definition of a Definite Integral ........................................................................................................................................ 117
Differential Equation (1st order) ............................................................................................................................................... 117
Common Integrals............................................................................................................................................................................ 118
Definite Integral Rules ....................................................................................................................................................................... 118
Substitution......................................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Integration by Parts ........................................................................................................................................................................ 119
Trig Substitution ................................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Trig Identity............................................................................................................................................................................................. 119
Partial Fractions .................................................................................................................................................................................... 119
Integration Steps .......................................................................................................................... 120
Improper Integration.......................................................................................................................................................................... 120
Infinite Bounds .................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
Undefined Bounds ............................................................................................................................................................................ 120
Areas, Volumes, and Curve Length............................................................................................... 120
Area with respect to an axis ............................................................................................................................................................ 120
Cartesian .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
Area between curves .......................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Polar Area ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 121
Volume about an axis (Disk Method) ......................................................................................................................................... 121
Volume between curves (Washer Method) ............................................................................................................................ 121
Cylindrical Shell Method ................................................................................................................................................................... 121
Arc Length ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 122
Surface Area............................................................................................................................................................................................. 122
Physics Applications ........................................................................................................................................................................... 122
Center of Mass with Constant Density .................................................................................................................................... 122
Sequences vs Series ............................................................................................................................................................................. 122
Sequence Tests....................................................................................................................................................................................... 123
Series Tests .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 123
Taylor series ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 124
Maclaurin Series .................................................................................................................................................................................... 124
Power Series............................................................................................................................................................................................ 124
Radius/Interval of Converges ........................................................................................................................................................ 124
3D Calculus ................................................................................................................................... 125
Magnitude ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 125
Unit Vectors ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 125
Dot/Cross Product ............................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Dot ........................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Properties............................................................................................................................................................................................. 125
Cross ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Properties............................................................................................................................................................................................. 126
Angles Between Vectors.................................................................................................................................................................... 126
Projections ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 126
Areas/Volume ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 126
Triangle ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 126
Parallelogram .................................................................................................................................................................................... 126
Parallelepiped .................................................................................................................................................................................... 126
Line............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 126
Line from tip to tip........................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Equation of a Plane .............................................................................................................................................................................. 127
Vector Functions ................................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Limit ....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Derivative............................................................................................................................................................................................. 127
Definite Integral................................................................................................................................................................................ 127
8
Indefinite Integral ............................................................................................................................................................................ 127
Differentiation Rules ........................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Arc length.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 127
Tangents .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
Unit Tangent Vector........................................................................................................................................................................ 128
Curvature 1 ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
Curvature 2 (vector function) .................................................................................................................................................... 128
Curvature 3 (single variable) .................................................................................................................................................... 128
Curvature 4 (parametric) ............................................................................................................................................................ 128
Normal Vector ................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
Binormal Vector................................................................................................................................................................................ 128
Tangential and Normal Components (acceleration) .......................................................................................................... 129
Physics Notations ................................................................................................................................................................................. 129
Position ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 129
Velocity.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 129
Speed ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Acceleration ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 129
Curvature ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 129
Tangential Component (acceleration) ................................................................................................................................... 129
Normal Component (acceleration) .......................................................................................................................................... 129
Acceleration ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 129
Note:....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Dot Product of Velocity and Acceleration ............................................................................................................................. 129
Tangential Acceleration................................................................................................................................................................ 129
Normal Acceleration....................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Frenet-Serret Formulas ................................................................................................................................................................. 129
Pre-Diff Eq. Review ...................................................................................................................... 130
Arithmetic ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 130
Exponential ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 130
Radicals................................................................................................................................................................................................. 131
Fractions............................................................................................................................................................................................... 131
Logarithmic ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 131
Other Formulas/Equations.......................................................................................................................................................... 131
Areas....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 133
Surface Areas ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 133
Volumes................................................................................................................................................................................................. 133
Domain Restrictions........................................................................................................................................................................ 133
Right Triangle.................................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Reciprocal Identities ....................................................................................................................................................................... 134
Double Angle Formulas ................................................................................................................................................................. 135
Half Angle Formulas ....................................................................................................................................................................... 135
Sum and Difference Formulas .................................................................................................................................................... 135
Product to Sum Formulas............................................................................................................................................................. 135
Sum to Product Formulas............................................................................................................................................................. 135
Unit Circle..................................................................................................................................... 136
Notations for Limits............................................................................................................................................................................. 137
The actual limit ................................................................................................................................................................................. 137
Left hand limit ................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Right hand limit ................................................................................................................................................................................ 137
Limit exists........................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Limit does not exists (DNE) ......................................................................................................................................................... 137
Continuous function ........................................................................................................................................................................ 137
Left Continuous function............................................................................................................................................................... 137
Right Continuous function ........................................................................................................................................................... 137
Non-continuous function .............................................................................................................................................................. 137
9
Limit Laws and Properties............................................................................................................................................................... 137
Limit of a Constant .......................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Limit of Single Variable ................................................................................................................................................................. 137
If The Function is Continuous ..................................................................................................................................................... 137
The Constant Multiple Law.......................................................................................................................................................... 137
The Sum and Difference Law ...................................................................................................................................................... 137
The Product Law .............................................................................................................................................................................. 137
The Quotient Law ............................................................................................................................................................................. 137
The Power Law .................................................................................................................................................................................. 137
The Root Law ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Exponential Law ............................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Infinite Limits ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 137
Case 1:.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Case 2:.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Case 3:.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Common Limits...................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
Infinite Limits ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 138
The Limit Definition of a Derivative ........................................................................................................................................ 138
Notations ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 139
Time Derivatives ............................................................................................................................................................................... 139
Physics Notation.................................................................................................................................................................................... 139
Derivative Rules (operator notations) ...................................................................................................................................... 140
Sum and Difference ......................................................................................................................................................................... 140
Power Rule........................................................................................................................................................................................... 140
Product Rule ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 140
Quotient Rule...................................................................................................................................................................................... 140
Chain Rule............................................................................................................................................................................................ 140
Derivative Rules (prime notations)............................................................................................................................................. 140
Power Rule........................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Product Rule ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Quotient Rule...................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Chain Rule............................................................................................................................................................................................ 141
Exponential and Logarithmic ......................................................................................................................................................... 141
exp{u}..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Natural Log ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Base Log................................................................................................................................................................................................ 141
Exponential ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 141
Inverse Function Derivative............................................................................................................................................................ 141
Trig Derivatives ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Standard ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Inverse ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Common Derivatives........................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Operator ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 142
Prime ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 143
Implicit Differentiation ...................................................................................................................................................................... 143
Tangent Line............................................................................................................................................................................................ 143
Hyperbolic Functions ......................................................................................................................................................................... 144
Identities ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 144
Derivatives ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 144
Standard ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 144
Inverse ................................................................................................................................................................................................... 144
L’Hospital’s Rule.................................................................................................................................................................................... 145
10
Indeterminate Forms...................................................................................................................................................................... 145
Rule ......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 145
Business Formulas ............................................................................................................................................................................... 145
Parametric and Polar Operations................................................................................................................................................. 146
Notations .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 146
First Derivative.................................................................................................................................................................................. 146
Second Derivative............................................................................................................................................................................. 146
Trigonometric......................................................................................................................................................................................... 146
Circle ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 146
Ellipse..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 146
Polar Derivative ................................................................................................................................................................................ 147
Antiderivatives & Integration ........................................................................................................................................................ 147
Basic Rules........................................................................................................................................................................................... 147
Riemann Sum for Area Approximation ..................................................................................................................................... 147
The Integral Notation ∫ .................................................................................................................................................................... 148
Definite Integral Properties ............................................................................................................................................................ 148
Fundamental Theorems .................................................................................................................................................................... 148
Limit Definition of a Definite Integral ........................................................................................................................................ 149
Differential Equation (1st order) ............................................................................................................................................... 149
Common Integrals............................................................................................................................................................................ 149
Definite Integral Rules ....................................................................................................................................................................... 150
Substitution......................................................................................................................................................................................... 150
Integration by Parts ........................................................................................................................................................................ 150
Trig Substitution ................................................................................................................................................................................... 150
Partial Fractions .................................................................................................................................................................................... 150
Integration Steps................................................................................................................................................................................... 150
Improper Integration.......................................................................................................................................................................... 151
Infinite Bounds .................................................................................................................................................................................. 151
Undefined Bounds ............................................................................................................................................................................ 151
Differential Equations .................................................................................................................. 151
Calculus Review ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 151
Intro to the “first-order” differential equation ............................................................................ 152
Homogeneous..................................................................................................................................................................................... 153
Nonhomogeneous............................................................................................................................................................................. 153
Linear..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 153
Non-linear............................................................................................................................................................................................ 153
1st Order Solution Methods.......................................................................................................... 154
Separable Variable ............................................................................................................................................................................... 154
Scenario ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 154
Ex. 1 (Explicit vs. Implicit)............................................................................................................................................................ 154
Ex. 2 (Separable Variable) ........................................................................................................................................................... 155
Ex. 3 *(IVP Problem) ....................................................................................................................................................................... 155
y’+P(x)y=Q(x)................................................................................................................................ 156
Process................................................................................................................................................................................................... 156
Ex. 1......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 156
Ex. 2......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 157
Exact Differential Equation .......................................................................................................... 157
Situation ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 157
Ex. 1......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 157
Integrating Factors ....................................................................................................................... 158
Ex. 1......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 158
Reduction of Order ...................................................................................................................... 159
11
Process................................................................................................................................................................................................... 159
Solution ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 159
Ex. 1......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 159
SECOND ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS .................................................................................. 160
General, Particular and Superposition Solutions ................................................................................................................. 160
General Solution ............................................................................................................................................................................... 160
Particular Solution .......................................................................................................................................................................... 160
Superposition Solution................................................................................................................................................................... 160
Linear Homogenous with Constant Coefficients .................................................................................................................. 161
Scenario ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 161
Auxiliary equation ........................................................................................................................................................................... 161
Solution(s) ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 161
Generally Speaking (second order).......................................................................................................................................... 161
Ex. 1......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 162
Ex. 2......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 162
Ex. 3......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 162
Ex. 4......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 163
Ex. 5 IVP y(0)=1, y’(0)=2, y’’(0)=3, y’’’(0)=4 ......................................................................................................................... 163
Reduction of Order ...................................................................................................................... 164
Process................................................................................................................................................................................................... 164
Solution Formula.............................................................................................................................................................................. 164
Ex. 1......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 164
Substitution.................................................................................................................................. 165
General Situation.............................................................................................................................................................................. 165
Bessel’s Equation of Order v ........................................................................................................ 166
Solution to First Kind Bessel (v = fraction) ......................................................................................................................... 167
Solution to Second Kind Bessel (v = integer) ..................................................................................................................... 167
Solution to Third Kind Bessel (αx = t)................................................................................................................................... 167
Variation of parameters ............................................................................................................... 167
Compute Wronskian ....................................................................................................................................................................... 168
Method of undetermined coefficients ......................................................................................... 168
Second Solution for Reduction of Order ...................................................................................... 169
Rank of matrix and pivots ............................................................................................................ 170
Length of a vector and the unit vector ......................................................................................... 171
Solutions of Augmented Matrices ................................................................................................ 172
Coefficient Matrix ................................................................................................................................................................................. 172
Unique Solution ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 172
Infinite Solution ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 172
No Solution............................................................................................................................................................................................... 173
Solving System of Equations ........................................................................................................ 173
Gauss Jordan Augmented Matrix ................................................................................................. 174
Row Operation Rules and Guidelines for Solve a System of Matrices.......................................... 175
Echelon Forms: EF, REF, RREF ....................................................................................................... 176
Echelon Form .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 176
Reduced Echelon Form ...................................................................................................................................................................... 177
Reduced Row Echelon Form ........................................................................................................................................................... 177
Linear Dependence ...................................................................................................................... 177
12
Linear combination.............................................................................................................................................................................. 177
Ex 1: Set u,v,w Linearly Dependent ............................................................................................................................................. 177
Ex 2: Set u,v,w Linearly Independent ......................................................................................................................................... 178
Ex 3: Vectors Linearly Independent............................................................................................................................................ 178
Ex 4: Vectors Linearly D .................................................................................................................................................................... 179
ependent.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Ex 5: Polynomials.................................................................................................................................................................................. 179
Ex 6: (M_(2x2)) ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 180
Column Space - Row Space - Null Space - Kernel.......................................................................... 180
Identify Row Space .............................................................................................................................................................................. 180
Identify Column Space ....................................................................................................................................................................... 181
Null Space (Kernel) .............................................................................................................................................................................. 181
LUD Decomposition and Elementary Matrices............................................................................. 182
Transpose..................................................................................................................................... 183
Symmetric matrix for A=LDU=LDL^T ............................................................................................ 184
Matrix addition and subtraction .................................................................................................. 184
Multiply the matrices (2x2)(2x3) .................................................................................................. 185
Matrix Multiplication (mxn)(nxp)................................................................................................. 185
Idempotent matrix ....................................................................................................................... 187
Rotation and Translate................................................................................................................. 188
Ex. 1 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 188
Ex. 2 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 189
Rotate about a point c, d .............................................................................................................. 190
Nilpotent matrix (eigenvalues are zero)....................................................................................... 190
Determinant rules ........................................................................................................................ 191
Proofs ........................................................................................................................................... 192
Determinate’s of a (2x2) matrix ................................................................................................... 193
Determinate of a (3x3) and higher matrices ................................................................................ 194
Cofactor Expansion .............................................................................................................................................................................. 194
Vector Space, Subspace and Subset ............................................................................................. 195
Cramer’s rules .............................................................................................................................. 196
Basis coordinate vector ................................................................................................................ 197
Ex.1 ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 197
Ex. 2 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 197
Adjugate of a matrix .................................................................................................................... 198
Compute the Adjugate ........................................................................................................................................................................ 199
Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix ................................................................................................................ 200
Inverse of 3x3 ............................................................................................................................... 201
Trace ............................................................................................................................................ 202
Cholesky Decomposition .............................................................................................................. 203
Eigenvalues .................................................................................................................................. 204
13
Eigenvectors ................................................................................................................................. 204
Diagonlize a Matrix ...................................................................................................................... 205
Singular Value Decomposition ..................................................................................................... 206
System of differential equations .................................................................................................. 207
Linear Programming: Simplex Method ........................................................................................ 208
14
Before Starting DIFF EQ.
• Make sure that 15+ hours of studying can be devoted to calculus/physics per
week. This may sound like a lot of time but it is actually, probably, not enough.
Do not ever take a break from the course even during break!
• The average drop rate or major change in STEM degrees is higher than any other.
From experience, this is due to Calculus and Physics courses. Not because the
courses are really that difficult but because people are not properly prepared
when they start so they fall behind and get discouraged.
• College professors are not teachers that teach they are instructors that provide
lectures. One of the biggest problems with students entering college is that they
rely on lectures to learn. This is highly ineffective!
• Before attending a lecture
v You must teach yourself the material that the lecture is on e.g. if Tuesday’s
lesson is over section 4.1 and 4.2 then the student should have:
ü Read the section(s)
ü Worked all the section examples
ü Solved a few problems
§ This is the most important part of preparing for a STEM

lecture.
15
Studying
When planning a study routine for Calculus, be sure that a minimum of 2-3 hours per
day, 6-days a week is available. The saying goes, for every hour of calculus, 4-hours of
studying per week. So if taking a 4hr course, a minimum of 16-hours per week should
be saved for studying.
CRUCIAL:
Take a practice test at least once per week over the material covered on homework that
week. Treat the test just the same way it would be in class i.e. no calculators, timed and
no distractions. Do this before any quizzes may be scheduled. Students often complain
about not being good test takers. Well, in order to get good at something, one must
practice it. Obviously, if one does not practice taking tests then one will never get good
at it.
• Never cram studying the day before or of the test, and finish all studying 48hrs
prior to the exam. Remember, an athlete wouldn’t go to the gym and workout for
8-hours the day before running a marathon, so don’t do the same with the brain.
• Never move on to the next set of problems until the current set is fully
understood, and take frequent breaks between problems.
• Utilize all resources available to help understand the material. It is ok to have an
answer to a problem available, as it is the solution that is important, not the
answer. Do not spend hours trying to solve something you have no real idea how
to solve.
Everything from the “General Symbols,” “Notations in Calculus,” “Algebra” and

“Trigonometry” must be mastered prior to starting Calculus.
The * symbol means “of the utmost importance.”
Book notations
Note: Some symbols may have different meanings in different courses i.e. never assume.
And ∧
Or ∨
In ∈
Manipulation or row reduction occurred ~
Implies ⇒
Becomes ⇐
If and only if ⇔
Therefore ∴
Because ∵
Equivalent/defined as ≡
∞
Euler’s number 𝑒 1 1 H
𝑒 = D = lim O1 + Q
𝑛! H→∞ 𝑛
HIJ
Any other vector (scalar not bold/hat/vec) 𝑣⃗ ≡ 𝐯
16
General Symbols and Notations
Symbol Meaning Example
= Equal 0=0
≠ Not equal 1≠0
± Plus or Minus 𝑥 = ±𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −𝑎
∓ Minus or Plus 𝑥 = ∓𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 = −𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑖𝑓𝑓, ⇔ If and only if 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞 and 𝑞 ⇒ 𝑝 then 𝑝 ⇔ 𝑞
⇒ Implies 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞
< Less than 𝑥−𝑎 <0 ⇒ 𝑥 <𝑎
≤ Less than equal 𝑥−𝑎 ≤0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤𝑎
≥ Greater than equal 𝑥−𝑎 ≥0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥𝑎
> Greater than 𝑥−𝑎 >0 ⇒ 𝑥 >𝑎
× Times 2×3=6
∗ or ∙ Multiplication 2 ∗ 3 = 6 or 2 ⋅ 3 = 6
(… )(… ) Multiplication (2)(3) = 6
[… ](… ) Multiplication [2](3) = 6
[… ][… ] Multiplication [2][3] = 6
[(… )(… )](… ) (… ) Exponential [(2)(3)]rst (3 − 2) = (6)u (1)
Multiplication =6
∞ Infinity Never ends
𝛥 Displacement or change 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥J
of
r
∑ Summation
D 𝑎H 𝑥 H = 𝑎u 𝑥 u + 𝑎t 𝑥 t + 𝑎r 𝑥 r
HIu
𝜃 Theta – reserved for 𝜋
𝜃= = 45°
angles 4
𝑓 (𝑥 ) Function of 𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 H + ⋯
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) Function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥𝑦)H + ⋯
∈ In or element of 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏) means 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏
∀ For all ∀ƒ (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥)
∴ Therefore 𝑥−𝑎 =0 ⇔ 𝑥 =𝑎 ∴𝑥 =𝑎
∵ Because ∵ 𝑥 − 𝑎 = 0, 𝑥=𝑎
≡ Equivalent (−2, 3) ≡ −2 < 𝑥 < 3
(, ) Open interval (−2, 3) ≡ −2 < 𝑥 < 3
[, ] Closed interval [2, 3] ≡ 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
⊂ Proper Subset 𝐴⊂𝐵⇒𝐵⊄𝐴
⊆ Subset (equal) 𝐴⊆𝐵⇒𝐴=𝐵
[, ) Half open/closed [1, 4) ≡ 1 ≤ 𝑥 < 4
{… , … } Set of numbers {1,3,5,7}
∪ Union 𝐷 = −∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
(
{1,2,3} ∪ {3,4,5} = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
∩ Intersection {1,2,3} ∩ {3,4,5} = {3}
ℝ Real numbers 𝐷 = (−∞, ∞)
𝑃(𝑥J , 𝑦J ) Point ’1, 𝑓(1)“
17
Types of numbers
Integers Rational Irrational Complex

”
{… , −3, −2, −1,0, 1,2,3, … } , 𝑏 ≠ 0 and A number that cannot be 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 where 𝑎
•
𝑎, 𝑏 are expressed as a fraction and 𝑏 are any
integers e.g. 𝜋 number
Properties
Reflexive Symmetric Transitive Substitution

𝑎=𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑏 then 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑏 = 𝑐 then𝑎 = 𝑐 𝑎 = 𝑏 then b can replace 𝑎
Meanings
Both 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the same elements 𝐴=𝐵
Subset: If every element of a set 𝐴 is in 𝐵 𝐴⊆𝐵 ⇒𝐴⊆𝐵∧𝐵 ⊆𝐴⇔𝐴=𝐵
Proper Subset: If every element in A is also in B 𝐴⊂𝐵

but 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵:
Intersection: The elements that are both in 𝐴 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

and in 𝐵
Union: All elements from 𝐴 and 𝐵 are in 𝐴 union 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 }

𝐵
Compliment: If 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑈, and 𝑈 is the universal set 𝐴̅ = 𝐴š = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}
Complementation of sets
a. 𝑈 š = ∅ b. ∅š = 𝑈 c. (𝐴š )š = 𝐴 d. 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴š = 𝑈 e. 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴š = ∅
Set Laws
𝐴∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪𝐴 Commutative law for union
𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴 Commutative law for intersection
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) ∪ 𝐶 Associative law for union
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ∩ 𝐶 Associative law for intersection
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 ) Distributive law for union
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) Distributive law for intersection

18
De Morgan’s Laws
i. (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)š = 𝐴š ∩ 𝐵š ii. (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)š = 𝐴š ∪ 𝐵š
Number of Elements in a Set

Note: 𝐴 ∧ 𝐵 are finite sets
𝑛 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) = 𝑛(𝐴 ) + 𝑛(𝐵 ) − 𝑛 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 )
𝑛 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) = 𝑛(𝐴 ) + 𝑛(𝐵 ) − 𝑛 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 )
𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
Axioms
Substitution Principle If 𝑎 = 𝑏, then 𝑎 can be substituted for 𝑏
Commutative – Addition 𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎
Commutative – Multiplication 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎
Associativity – Addition 𝑎 + (𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = (𝑎 + 𝑏 ) + 𝑐
Associativity – Multiplication 𝑎(𝑏𝑐 ) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐
Reflexive 𝑎=𝑎
Symmetric If 𝑎 = 𝑏 then 𝑏 = 𝑎
Transitive If 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑏 = 𝑐 then 𝑎 = 𝑐
Distribution Property 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 and (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐
Cancellation Property −(−𝑎) = 𝑎
Identity – Addition 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 and 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎
Additive Inverse 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0 and – 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 0
Identity – Multiplication 𝑎(1) = 𝑎 and (1)𝑎 = 𝑎
Note: The very basic operations and notations may seem tedious and unnecessary, but they
will always come back to haunt you if you do not fully understand them, and how to use them.
Take your time to always fully understand the use of certain symbols and notations in order to
be able to understand what certain questions are truly asking, and to get maximum points on
homework, quizzes and exams.
19
Algebra
Arithmetic
Formula Example
𝑎𝑏 ± 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏 ± 𝑐 ) = (𝑏 ± 𝑐 )𝑎 10 ± 6 = 2 ∙ 5 ± 2 ∙ 3 = 2(5 ± 3) = (5 ± 3)2
𝑎 1 1
Ÿ𝑏 𝑎
= 2 = 2 = 1∙1= 1 = 1
𝑐 𝑏𝑐 3 3 2 3 2∙3 6
1
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 ± 𝑏𝑐 1 3 1∙4±2∙3 4±6
± = ± = =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 2 4 2∙4 8
𝑎−𝑏 𝑏−𝑎 1 − 2 −(−1 + 2) 2 − 1
= = =
𝑐−𝑑 𝑑−𝑐 3 − 4 −(−3 + 4) 4 − 3
𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 12 ± 16 12 16
= 𝑏 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0 = ± =3±4
𝑎 4 4 4
𝑏 𝑎𝑏 16 4 ∙ 4 4
𝑎O Q = = = 4O Q
𝑐 𝑐 5 5 5
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐 2
=Ÿ ∙Ÿ = 2 Ÿ1 2 4 8
𝑏 1 𝑏 𝑏 = = ∙ =
Ÿ𝑐 3 3
Ÿ4 Ÿ4 1 3 3
𝑎±𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 12 ± 16 12 16
= ± = ±
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 5 5 5
𝑎 1
Ÿ𝑏 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑 Ÿ2 1 4 4 2
𝑐 = ∙ = = ∙ = =
Ÿ𝑑 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏𝑐 3 2 3 6 3
Ÿ4
𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ± 𝑏 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 = ∓𝑏 𝑥 ± 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ∓2
✓Check Point 1
Show the following are true using the appropriate formula.
5
3 4 5 5 41 3 Ÿ6 25
+ − = 3 − 4 ÷ 5 + (6) = + =
4 3 4 6 5 6 3 9
Ÿ5
Practice Problems:
10 ± 6 1 1 3
2 ±
2 4
3
1−2 12 ± 16 1
Ÿ2
3−4 4
3
Ÿ4
20
Exponents
Formula Example
𝑎u = 𝑎 2 = 2u
𝑎J = 1 J usu
2u 2
2 =2 = u= =1
2 2
1 1 1
𝑎sH = 2st = t =
𝑎H 2 4
1 1
= 𝑎H = 2t = 4
𝑎sH 2 st
𝑎H 𝑎§ = 𝑎H¨§ 2t 2r = 2t¨r = 2©
𝑎H 2r
= 𝑎Hs§ = 2rst = 2u = 2
𝑎§ 2t
𝑎 H 𝑎H 2 t 2t 4
Ÿ = O Q = ª t« =
𝑏 𝑏H 3 3 9
𝑎 sH 𝑎sH 𝑏H 1 st 1st 2t
Ÿ = sH = H O Q = ª st « = ª « = 4
𝑏 𝑏 𝑎 2 2 1
u H u H u t u t
(𝑎H )§ = 𝑎§ = O𝑎§ Q (2t )r = 2r = O2r Q
(𝑎H )§ = 𝑎H§ = 𝑎§H = (𝑎§ )H (2t )r = 2t∙r = 2(r∙t) = (2r )t
✓Check Point 2
Show the following are true.
𝑎t 𝑏t 𝑐 s© 𝑎t 𝑏© 𝑎¬ 𝑏- 𝑐 ® 𝑐 s¬ 𝑏r 𝑐 ® (𝑎t 𝑏r 𝑐 ¯ )sr 𝑎 °
= t ÷ st = r =Ÿ
(𝑐𝑏)sr 𝑐 𝑐 ¬ 𝑏- 𝑎® 𝑎 𝑏 (𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 )
t r ¯ sr 𝑏
Practice Problems:
u
(7t )r
(9t )r 3 st
O Q
5
2 t 6r 1
O Q 4st
6 2t
2st 2J 7st
ª st «
49
Albert Einstein “Try not to become a man of success, but rather try to become a man of value.”
21
Radicals
Formula Example
²
u ²
u
² ²
√𝑎 = √𝑎 = ³ 𝑎u = 𝑎 t √4 = √4 = ³4u = 4t = 2
u u
¶ µ u u r u u °
´ √𝑎 = ¶µ
√𝑎 = 𝑎 §H
· ²
´ √64 = ’√64“ = r
O(64)t Q
¸
= 64° = √64 = (2° )° = 2° = 2u = 2
µ r
√𝑎H = 𝑎, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 · ·
√27 = ³3r = 3r = 3
µ
√𝑎H = |𝑎|, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 ² ²
³(2)t = ³(−2)t = 2 = |2| = |−2|
§ t u t t
µ
√𝑎§ = 𝑎 H · ·
√64 = ³8t = 8r = O8r Q = Ÿ ³2r
·
= 2t = 4
u u u u u u u
µ𝑎 µ√𝑎 𝑎H 𝑎 H ·8
·
√8 (2r )r 2r r 2r r 2r r 1 r 1
´ =µ = u=Ÿ º =· = = ª « = ª « = ª « = O rQ =
𝑏 √𝑏 𝑏H 𝑏 64 √64 ( r )ru
4 r (2 )
t r 2 ° 2 2
4
✓Check Point 3
Show the following are true.

r rt ur
𝑥 t𝑦 © » 𝑦¬ (𝑥𝑦𝑧) t 𝑥 © ³𝑥𝑦𝑧 𝑥 ²√𝑥 ¬
r ∙ ³𝑥 s¯ = °® ∙ 𝑥 ur
= ª « = 𝑥°
(𝑧𝑥𝑦)u¯ (𝑦𝑧)- ·
√𝑥
𝑦¬ 𝑥t
Practice Problems:
· ²
· 4 √2 ³ (24)t
º ·
√81
64
u u
· ²
´ √169 u r 64°
O(64)t Q
Complex Numbers
Complex numbers are rarely used in undergraduate Calculus as Calculus generally works with
real numbers. Remember: if you have the following occur that it is probably not of any use.
𝑥 = 𝑎 ± 𝑖𝑏 √−𝑎 = 𝑖 √𝑎, 𝑎 > 𝑎 𝑥 t = −4 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√−4 = ±2𝑖
Adding and Subtracting Fractions

𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 ± 𝑏𝑐 1 3 1 3 1 4 2 3 (1)(4) + (2)(3) 10 5
± = + = (1) + (1) = ∙ + ∙ = =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 2 4 2 4 2 4 2 4 (2)(4) 8 4
𝑔(𝑥 ) ℎ(𝑥 ) [𝑔(𝑥 )𝑟(𝑥 )] ± [𝑓 (𝑥 )ℎ(𝑥 )] 𝑥 t + 1 𝑥 r (𝑥 t + 1)(2) − ’𝑥(𝑥 r )“ 2𝑥 t − 𝑥 ¯ + 2

± = − = =
𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑟 (𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑟(𝑥 ) 𝑥 2 2𝑥 2𝑥
22
✓Check Point 4
Use the previous two formulas to show that the equations are true:
1 4
𝑥t 𝑥t 𝑥 t (𝑥 t + 2𝑥 − 2) 1 3 5 89 2 − 5 4123
+ = − + − + =−
𝑥 + 𝑥t − 1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 r − 2𝑥 + 1 2 2 4 12 6 + 8 564
5 9
Logarithmic
Log “Base” Notation
Note:
log 𝑥 = loguJ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 log 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 = log¿ 𝑥
log(x) is the general notation for ln(x) but in some books or calculators log(x) = loguJ (x) and
vice-versa i.e. notations are not always universal.
ln(𝑏) ln 3
= log ” 𝑏 = log© 3
ln(𝑎) ln 5
𝑦 = log • 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑏 À 2 = log © 25 ⇒ 25 = 5t
𝑒 = 2.718281828 … 1 1 1 1
𝑒= + + + +⋯
0! 1! 2! 3!
log ” 𝑎 = 1 ln 5
log © 5 = =1
ln 5
log ” 1 = 0 ln 1 0
log © 1 = = =0
ln 5 5
log ” 𝑎 ƒ = 𝑥 ln 4
log ¯ 4© = 5 log ¯ 4 = 5 =5
ln 4
log ¿ 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 ln 5 ln 5
log ¿ 5 = = = ln 5
ln 𝑒 1
log ” 𝑥 • = 𝑏 log ” 𝑥 log ¬ 27 = log ¬ 3r = 3 log ¬ 3
log ” 𝑥𝑦 = log ” 𝑥 + log” 𝑦 log r 24 = log r 3 ∙ 8 = log r 3 + log r 8
𝑥 8
log ” = log ” 𝑥 − log ” 𝑦 log r = log r 8 − log r 3
𝑦 3
Calculus: The derivative of the logarithmic function:
Operator notation Prime notation

𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑢Ä
log Â ’𝑢(𝑥)“ = ⋅ ln’𝑢(𝑥 )“ = ⋅ 𝑢 (𝑥 ) Ä
[logÂ (𝑢)] = ⋅
𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 𝑢(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑢
23
Log “Natural” Notation
*It is unlikely that the notation involving “log” will be used throughout the course; you may see
it in the beginning of the course, as a review of some sort but that should be about all you’ll see.
The “ln 𝑢” notation will be the standard as it is easier to manipulate.
Formula Example
ln(𝑏) ln 3
log ” 𝑏 = log © 3 =
ln(𝑎) ln 5
𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑒 À 5 = ln 3 ⇒ 3 = 𝑒 ©
𝑦 = 𝑒 ƒ ⇒ 𝑥 = ln 𝑦 3 = 𝑒 © ⇒ 5 = ln 3
Å 1 1 1 1 1
1 𝑒= + + + +⋯
𝑒=D 0! 1! 2! 3! 𝑛!
𝑛!
HIJ
ln 𝑎 = undefined, 𝑎 ≤ 0 ln(−5) = 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

ln 1 = 0 xÂÇÈÉ intercept at (1,0)
ln 𝑒 ƒ = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑒 ËÌ ƒ = 𝑥 ln 𝑒 Í = 𝑢 ln 𝑒 = 𝑢(1) = 𝑢
ln 𝑒 u = 1 ⇒ 𝑒 ËÌ(u) = 1 ln 𝑒 = ln 𝑒 u = (1) ln 𝑒 = (1)(1) = 1
ln 𝑥 • = 𝑏 ln 𝑥 u 1
ln √𝑥 = ln O𝑥 t Q = ln 𝑥
2
ln 𝑥𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 ln 15 = ln[3 ∙ 5] = ln 3 + ln 5
𝑥 15
ln = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 ln 5 = ln Î Ï = ln 15 − ln 3
𝑦 3
*Example 1
Steps
Solve for y 𝑥
ln(𝑥𝑦) = ln + ln[5(𝑦 ƒ )]
𝑦
Expand ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑦 + ln 5 + 𝑥 ln 𝑦
Collect like terms ln 𝑦 + ln 𝑦 − 𝑥 ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 + ln 5
⇒ 2 ln 𝑦 − 𝑥 ln 𝑦 = ln 5
Factor ln 𝑦 (2 − 𝑥 ) = ln 5
Divide ln 5
ln 𝑦 =
(2 − 𝑥 )
ËÌ © u
Use exponent and log rules u
𝑦 = 𝑒 (tsƒ) = ’𝑒 ËÌ © “tsƒ = 5tsƒ
u
∴ (therefore)
𝑦 = 5tsƒ
24
Note: The log operations will work the same with functions
lnÐ𝑓(𝑥 )Ñ(ƒ) Ò = 𝑔(𝑥 ) ln[𝑓 (𝑥 )] ln[𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = ln[𝑓 (𝑥)] + ln[𝑔(𝑥 )]
𝑓 (𝑥 )
ln Ó Ô = ln[𝑓 (𝑥)] − ln[𝑔(𝑥 )]
𝑔 (𝑥 )
*Example 2
Expand the following
etÇ tant 𝑥
ln Ó Ô
(𝑥 t + 2)-ƒ¨t
= ln[𝑒 tƒ tant 𝑥 ] − lnÐ(𝑥 t + 2)(-ƒ¨t) Ò
= ln(𝑒 tƒ ) + ln (tant 𝑥) − (8𝑥 + 2) ln(𝑥 t + 2)
= 2𝑥 + 2 ln (tan 𝑥) − (8𝑥 + 2) ln(𝑥 t + 2)
= 2𝑥 + 2 ln(tan 𝑥 ) − 8𝑥 ln(𝑥 t + 2) − 2 ln(𝑥 t + 2)
There will be a point in calculus where one is asked to take the derivative of a function of this nature, just remember to rewrite in
this fashion.
Note:
In some online homework programs or classes ln(𝑥 )” may be considered to be equal to

𝑎 ln(𝑥), however this is not correct, in general…
∵ (because)
ln(𝑥 ” ) = 𝑎 ln 𝑥 ≠ ln(𝑥 )” = [ln(𝑥 )]” = ln” (𝑥 )
e. g.
ln(4) = ln(2t ) = 2 ln(2)
and
ln(2)t = [ln(𝑥 )]t = lnt (2) = ln(𝑥 ) ∙ ln(𝑥 )
If your teacher assigns something of this nature be sure to ask what he or she would prefer, as the universal standard for notation
may be changed on a class-to-class basis per the instructors discretion.
25
*✓Check Point 5
Prove the following:
log ÉÈÌ ƒ (1 − cos t 𝑥 ) 4

ln sin 𝑥 + ln sec 𝑥 = ln tan 𝑥 =−
log ¿ ² sin 𝑥 − log ¿ ² cos 𝑥 ln[cot 𝑥 ]
*Factoring
*Factoring will be a huge part of Calculus! Make sure you’re a pro before you start the course
but mainly focus on polynomials of degree 4 or less and factoring functions.
Here are some common formulas but they are not very useful unless you memorize them so
you should focus more on applying them.
𝑥 H + 𝑥 § = 𝑥 H (1 + 𝑥 §sH ) = 𝑥 § (𝑥 Hs§ + 1)
𝑥 t − 𝑎t = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑥 t + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎t = (𝑥 + 𝑎)t
𝑥 t + (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑥 + 𝑎𝑏 = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏)
𝑥 r + 3𝑎𝑥 t + 3𝑎t 𝑥 + 𝑎r = (𝑥 + 𝑎)r
𝑥 r − 3𝑎𝑥 t + 3𝑎t 𝑥 − 𝑎r = (𝑥 − 𝑎)r
𝑥 r + 𝑎r = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 t − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎t )
𝑥 r − 𝑎r = (𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑎t + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑥 t )
𝑓(𝑥 )𝑥 § − 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑥 H = 𝑓(𝑥 )(𝑥 § − 𝑥 H )
*Example 1:
*Common mistake students make when solving for x:
𝑥t − 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥t = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥=1
The solution of 𝑥 = 0 was lost, thus:
𝑥t − 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑥 − 1) = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1
26
*Example 2:
*Notice that you should always solve by factoring in order to prevent losing a solution. In other
words, always leave everything on one side of the equation.
1 1
𝑥− =0 ⇒ 𝑥= ⇒ 𝑥t = 1 ⇔ 𝑥 = ±1
𝑥 𝑥
Not that the answer is incorrect but something very important was left out and that was to
identify that 𝑥 ≠ 0. In calculus there is something called a critical number and this critical
number is often what makes the derivative undefined. From now on, solve an equation like the
previous one, in the following fashion.
1 𝑥t − 1
𝑥− =0 ⇒ =0 ∴ 𝑥 = ±1 & 𝑥≠0
𝑥 𝑥
u
The reason for this is because the original question would have been asking for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − ƒ,
find the values that make 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 and or 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑.
✓Check Point 6
Considering 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0, find the values of x that make this true for the following
𝑒 ƒ (𝑥 t + 𝑥 )
𝑎) − 𝑒ƒ = 0 𝑏) log(𝑥 ) 𝑥 r = 𝑥 log 𝑥
𝑥
𝑥t 𝑥 r 𝑥 ¯ 𝑥 © 𝑥 uJJ
𝑐) + √𝑥 = 0 𝑑) ¯ − © + ° − uJu = 0
√𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
For all four problems, the options are “No Solution” or “𝑥 = 1”.
Try to match the correct answers out of the two given. Check your answers using an online
program such as wolframalpha.com.
Practice Problems: Solve for x
1 u
+𝑥 =0 1 1 r
𝑥 º +𝑥 =0 O t + 𝑥Q = 0
𝑥 𝑥
1 u
+ 𝑥 = −𝑥 1 1 r
𝑥 º + 𝑥 = 𝑥t O t + 𝑥Q = 𝑥 r
𝑥 𝑥
27
Complete The Square
t
𝑏
t
𝑏 t
𝑏 t 𝑏 t
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎 O𝑥 + 𝑥Q + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎 ª𝑥 + 𝑥 + O Q − O Q « + 𝑐
𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑏t
𝑏 t 𝑏 t 𝑏 t 𝑏t
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎 ª𝑥 + 𝑥 + O Q « − 𝑎 O Q + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎 O𝑥 + Q − 𝑎 ª t « + 𝑐
𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎
𝑏 t 𝑏t 𝑏 t 𝑏t
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎 O𝑥 + Q − +𝑐 ∴ 𝑦 = 𝑎 O𝑥 + Q + 𝑐 −
2𝑎 4𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎
Example 1: Solving for x (Formula 1)
𝑏 0 𝑏
𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥t + 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 0 = 0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 t 𝑏 t 𝑏 𝑏 t 𝑏 t
⇒ 𝑥 t + 𝑥 + ÓO Q − O Q Ô = 0 ⇒ Ó𝑥 t + 𝑥 + O Q Ô = O Q
𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑏 t 𝑏t 𝑏 𝑏t 𝑏 𝑏
⇒ O𝑥 + Q = t ⇒ 𝑥+ = ±º t ⇒ 𝑥=− ±
2𝑎 4𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑏
∴𝑥=0 or 𝑥=−
𝑎
Solving for x (numerically)
−2𝑥 t + 5𝑥 = 0
You wouldn’t need to complete the square to solve for x for this equation because you
can simply factor x i.e.
𝑥(−2𝑥 + 5) = 0
5
∴𝑥=0 or 5 − 2𝑥 = 0 ⇔ 𝑥=
2
This gives the same result as the previous formula
28
Example 2: Solving for x (Formula 2)
t t
𝑏 𝑐 0 t
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 t 𝑏 t
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥+ = ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥+ +O Q −O Q
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
=0
𝑏 𝑏 t 𝑏t 𝑐 𝑏 t 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐
⇒ Ó𝑥 t + 𝑥+O Q Ô= t t− ⇒ O𝑥 + Q =
𝑎 2𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎t
𝑏 √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐

⇒ 𝑥+ =± ⇒ 𝑥=− ±
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 ± √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐
∴ 𝑥=
2𝑎
Solving for x (numerically)
As should be noticeable, this is in fact, the quadratic formula. See section covering the
quadratic formula for numerical examples.
Example 3: (Real Application)
Transforming a function to find 𝑢 and 𝑎 from the following form:
1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = = , 𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
³𝑔(𝑥 ) ³𝑢t ± 𝑎t √5𝑥 t − 3𝑥 + 4
𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 t − 3𝑥 + 4
3 3 9 9
= 5 O𝑥 t − 𝑥Q + 4 = 5 Ó𝑥 t − 𝑥 + ªO Q−O Q«Ô + 4
5 5 100 100
3 t 9 3 t 9
= 5 O𝑥 − Q − 5O Q+4 = 5 O𝑥 − Q +4−
10 100 10 20
3 t 4 ∙ 20 − 9 3 t 71
= 5 O𝑥 − Q + = 5 O𝑥 − Q +
10 20 10 20
1 1 1 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = = = =
³𝑔(𝑥 ) √5𝑥 t − 3𝑥 + 4
´5 Ÿ𝑥 − 3
t
71 t t
10 + 20 ºÖ√5 Ÿ𝑥 − 3 × + ´71
10 20
3 71
𝑢 = √5 O𝑥 − Q & 𝑎=º
10 20
29
✓Check Point 7
Complete the appropriate square for the following:
𝑦 = 3𝑥 ¯ − 𝑥 t + 3 ℎ(𝑠) = ³−3𝑠 t + 𝑠 − 1
𝑃(𝑦) = 𝑦 - − (𝑦 t + 3) + 6𝑦 t 𝑌(ℎ) = [ln ℎ]t + ln(ℎt ) + ln 𝑒
Hint: (𝑥 H )§ = 𝑥 H§
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Answers
t
t t
1 35 1 11
𝑦 = 3 O𝑥 t − Q + ℎ(𝑠) = ÙÎ𝑖 O𝑥 + QÏ + Ú𝑖 º Û
6 12 6 12
1 t 37
𝑃(𝑦) = O𝑦 ¯ − Q − 𝑌(ℎ) = (ln ℎ + 1)t
2 4
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Other Valuable Information

Composition
[𝑓 ∘ 𝑔](𝑥 ) = 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“
Example 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t + 1 & 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2
𝑦 = [𝑓 ∘ 𝑔](𝑥) = 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“
⇒ 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“ = (𝑥 + 2)t + 1
= 𝑥 t + 4𝑥 + 4 + 1
= 𝑥 t + 4𝑥 + 5
30
Example 2
𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ƒ , ℎ(𝑥 ) = ln 𝑥 , 𝑥=
2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑓 Ÿ𝑔’ℎ(𝑥 )“ = 𝑓 Ý𝑔 ªℎ Ÿ «Þ = 𝑓 ª𝑔 Ÿln «
2 2
ß 𝜋 𝜋
= 𝑓 Ÿ𝑒 ËÌt = 𝑓 Ÿ = sin = 1
2 2
*Example 3
Given:
𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln ³sin(𝑥 t )
Identify each composition i.e. find
𝑔 (𝑥 ), ℎ (𝑥 ), 𝑘 (𝑥 ), 𝑙 (𝑥 ), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑔 Oℎ Ÿ𝑘’𝑙(𝑥 )“ Q
From 𝑓 (𝑥), we can see that the functions ln 𝑥 , √𝑥, sin 𝑥 , 𝑥 t are in the composition, therefore:
𝑙 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t
𝑘(𝑥 ) = 𝑘’𝑙(𝑥 )“ = 𝑘(𝑥 t ) = sin 𝑥 t
ℎ(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑘’𝑙(𝑥)“ = 𝑘(sin 𝑥 t ) = ³sin 𝑥 t
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑔 Oℎ Ÿ𝑘’𝑙(𝑥 )“ Q = 𝑔 Ÿ³sin 𝑥 t = ln ³sin 𝑥 t
*Make sure that composition is fully understood as it arises frequently throughout Calculus
and don’t forget the following properties.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
The remaining three scenarios for addition, multiplication and division:
[𝑓 ± 𝑔](𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 2 ⇒ [𝑓 ± 𝑔](𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2) ± (𝑥 − 2)
[𝑓 ∙ 𝑔](𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 2 ⇒ [𝑓 ∙ 𝑔](𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

= 𝑥t − 4
𝑓 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑓 𝑥t
Î Ï (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t , 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ⇒ Î Ï (𝑥 ) = =𝑥
𝑔 𝑔 (𝑥 ) 𝑔 𝑥
31
✓Check Point 8
Given
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 , ℎ(𝑥 ) = sinsu 𝑥 , 𝑝(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 ) , 𝑘(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 √ƒ
Show that
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ∘ ℎ ∘ 𝑝 ∘ 𝑘)(𝑥 ) = 𝑥
Distance Formula
Given
𝑃(𝑥u , 𝑦u ) & 𝑄(𝑥t , 𝑦t )
Distance Formula
𝑑 (𝑃, 𝑄) = ³(𝑥t − 𝑥u )t + (𝑦t − 𝑦u )t
Example
Find the distance between 𝑃(1,2) and 𝑄 (2,1)
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = ³(2 − 1)t + (1 − 2)t = ³(1)t + (−1)t = √1 + 1 = √2
Midpoint Formula
Given
𝑃(𝑥u , 𝑦u ) & 𝑄(𝑥t , 𝑦t )
Midpoint Formula
𝑥t + 𝑥u 𝑦t + 𝑦u
𝑚(𝑃, 𝑄) = O , Q
2 2
Example
Find the midpoint between 𝑃(1,2) and 𝑄 (2,1)
2+1 1+2 3 3
𝑚(𝑃, 𝑄) = O , Q=O , Q
2 2 2 2
32
Quadratic Formula
−𝑏 ± √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇔ 𝑥=
2𝑎
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑓
𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
t
𝑏 𝑐 0 t
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 t 𝑏 t
⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥+ = ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑥+ +O Q −O Q =0
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 t 𝑏t 𝑐 𝑏 t
⇒ Ó𝑥 t + 𝑥+O Q Ô= t t− ⇒ O𝑥 + Q
𝑎 2𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎 2𝑎
t
𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐
=
4𝑎t
𝑏 √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 𝑏 √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐

⇒ 𝑥+ =± ⇒ 𝑥=− ±
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
−𝑏 ± √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐
∴ 𝑥=
2𝑎
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Discriminant
i) Two real solutions if 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0
ii) Repeated solutions if 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
iii) Two complex solutions 𝑖𝑓𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0
Example 1: Two real solutions
𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, 3𝑥 t − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
−(−4) ± ³(−4)t − 4(3)(1) 4 ± √16 − 12 4 ± √4

𝑥= = =
2(3) 6 6
4±2
=
6
4+2 4−2 2 1
∴ 𝑥= =1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥= = =
6 6 6 3
33
Example 2: Repeated solutions
𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, 𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1 = 0
−2 ± ³(2)t − 4(1)(1) −1 ± √4 − 4 −1 ± 0
𝑥= = =
2(1) 2 2
1
∴ 𝑥=−
2
Example 3: Two complex solutions
𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, Solve: 𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 5 = 0
−1 ± ³(2)t − 4(1)(5) −1 ± √4 − 20 −1 ± √−16

𝑥= = =
2(1) 2 2
−1 ± ³(−1)(16)
=
2
−1 ± √−1√16 −1 ± 𝑖 ∙ 4 1 4 1
= = = − ± 𝑖 = − ± 𝑖2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
∴ 𝑥 = − + 2𝑖 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − − 2𝑖
2 2
Graphing a Line
From the form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 you can easily graph a line by identifying two points and
then connecting them.
š š
The equation will more generally appear as 𝑦 = ±ê 𝑥 + 𝑏 where 𝑚 = ±ê , 𝑐 is the rise and
± 𝑑 is the run (𝑐 always goes up and 𝑑 goes either left or right.)
The first point is 𝑃u (0, 𝑏)
The second point is 𝑃t (±𝑑, 𝑏 + 𝑐)
Plot these two points and connect a line through them.
34
Example
Using the previous method
2 2
𝑦=− 𝑥+3 ⇒ 𝑦= 𝑥+3
3 −3
1st Point 𝑃u (0,3)
2nd Point 𝑃t (−3, 3 + 2) = 𝑃t (−3, 5)
Plot these two points and connect them with

an infinite line.
Note: When something has a zero in the subscript i.e. 𝑥J it is called initial when accompanied with an 𝑥 e.g. "𝑥 and
𝑥 initial” is “𝑥 and 𝑥J” in physics it is generally called naught i.e. 𝑥J is x naught. It is common to see 𝑥t and 𝑥u or 𝑥ì
and 𝑥í there are reasons for each case but it is mostly personal preference.
Point Slope Form
𝑦 − 𝑦J = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥J )
𝛥𝑦
𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
𝛥𝑥
𝛥𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦J 𝑦 − 𝑦J
⇒ 𝑚= = ⇒ 𝑚= ⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥J )𝑚 = (𝑦 − 𝑦J )
𝛥𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥J 𝑥 − 𝑥J
∴ 𝑦 − 𝑦J = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥J )
Slope Intercept Form
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝛥𝑦 𝛥𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦J 𝑦 − 𝑦J
𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = ⇒ 𝑚= = ⇒ 𝑚= ⇒ (𝑥 − 𝑥 J )𝑚
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥J 𝑥 − 𝑥J
= (𝑦 − 𝑦J )
⇒ 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑚𝑥J = 𝑦 − 𝑦J ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 − 𝑚𝑥J + 𝑦J ⇒ 𝑦
= 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑦J − 𝑚𝑥J
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + (𝑦J − 𝑚𝑥J ), setting 𝑏 = (𝑦J − 𝑚𝑥J )
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Note: When asked to find an equation of the tangent line use the point-slope form and then solve for 𝑦 to put it
into the slope-intercept form, this will be the equation of the tangent line at 𝑃(𝑥J , 𝑦J ).
35
*Domain Restrictions
*Understanding the domains of functions is very important when solving Calculus problems.
For the following, 𝒇(𝒙), 𝒈(𝒙), 𝒉(𝒙) are assumed to be continuous for all real numbers.
Polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎J 𝑥 H ± 𝑎u 𝑥 Hsu ± 𝑎t 𝑥 Hst ± ⋯ ± 𝑎H 𝑥 HsH No restrictions
Fraction 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑔 (𝑥 ) ≠ 0
ℎ (𝑥 ) =
𝑔 (𝑥 )
Radical, if n is 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = µ³𝑔(𝑥) 𝑔 (𝑥 ) ≥ 0
even
Radical, if n is µ
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ³𝑔(𝑥) No Restrictions
odd
Fraction with 𝑓 (𝑥 ) If n is even

ℎ (𝑥 ) = µ
Radical in ³𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 ) > 0 if n is odd 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≠ 0
denominator
Natural Log 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ln[𝑔(𝑥 )] 𝑔 (𝑥 ) > 0

Exponential ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑓 (𝑥 )Ñ(ƒ) No Restrictions
*Example
Find the domain of 𝑓 (𝑥 ):
𝑒 ƒ (𝑥 t − 2𝑥 − 3) ƒ
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ln|𝑥| ⇒ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 + ln|𝑥|
𝑥t − 9 (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 3)
Identify all restrictions-
(𝑥 + 1) ∧ 𝑒 ƒ ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ln|𝑥| ⇒ 𝑥 ≠ 0, (𝑥 − 3) ⇒ 𝑥 ≠ 3, (𝑥 + 3) ⇒ 𝑥 ≠ −3
Interval Notation Set Notation
𝐷: (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3,0) ∪ (0,3) ∪ (3, ∞) 𝐷: {𝑥|𝑥 ≠ ±3, 𝑥 ≠ 0}
36
*✓Check Point 9
Show that the domains are 𝐷.
𝑥 t + 2𝑥 − 1
𝑓u (𝑥) = ²su
, 𝐷: (−∞, ∞)
𝑒ƒ + √𝑥 t + 1
𝑥 t + 2𝑥 − 1
𝑓t (𝑥 ) = , 𝐷: ’−∞, −√3“ ∪ ’−√3, √3“ ∪ ’√3, ∞“
𝑥 t − 1 − √𝑥 t + 1
𝑓r (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + ln|𝑥 | , 𝐷: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
These and any previous checkpoints may seem extravagant but this is fairly basic material that
is a bit challenging. I designed the checkpoints to be similar to universities homework
assignments. Calculus is the time to overcome one’s fears in math!
Take challenges head on and never get discouraged! Just keep on working at it until you get it
and you will be greatly rewarded for your efforts.
Inverse Functions
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦 su ) = 𝑓’𝑓 su (𝑥 )“
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) is one-to-one it has an inverse
The domain of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is the range of 𝑓 su (𝑥 )
The range of 𝑓(𝑥 ) is the domain of 𝑓 su (𝑥 )
Example
Find the inverse of 𝑦
𝑥−1 𝑦−1
𝑦= ⇒𝑥= ⇒ 𝑥 (𝑦 + 1) = 𝑦 − 1
𝑥+1 𝑦+1
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥 = 𝑦 − 1 ⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑦 = −𝑥 − 1
−𝑥 − 1
⇒ 𝑦(𝑥 − 1) = −𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 𝑦 =
𝑥−1
−𝑥 − 1
∴ 𝑦 su =
1−𝑥
𝑥−1 −𝑥 − 1
𝑦= ⇔ 𝑦 su =
𝑥+1 𝑥−1
37
Asymptotes, Holes and Graphs
An asymptote occurs where the function is getting infinitely close to a line on the graph but
never touches the line. Horizontal asymptotes may cross the line from time-to-time; it is the end
behavior we are concerned with.
There are three types of asymptotes: Horizontal, Vertical and Oblique.
Oblique asymptotes, will most likely, not be used in your calculus course but vertical and
horizontal will be used frequently in order to graph functions.
Hole in a Graph
A hole in a graph occurs when there is a function that can have a portion that has terms that
cancel out and the solution to that term makes the graph undefined e.g.
𝑥t − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) 0
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⇒ 𝑔 (𝑥 ) = =𝑥+2 ⇒ 𝑥≠2 ∵ 𝑦 (2) =
𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 2) 0
This is called removable discontinuity and at 𝑃(2,4) there is a hole in the graph.
Case for Calculus
𝑦 = ln(𝑥 − 1)
We will save the process for calculus but the
graph is approaching negative infinity as x
goes to zero i.e.
ln(𝑥 ) → −∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥→1
Therefore, there is a vertical asymptote where

𝑥=1
38
General Case for Vertical Asymptotes
In general
𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑦= , 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥=𝑎 ⇔ 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 & 𝑔 (𝑎 ) ∉ 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑔 (𝑥 )
Do not rely on determining vertical asymptotes by this case. This is the general situation that
you see in Precalculus courses. A vertical asymptote occurs at the value of 𝑥 that the graph gets
as close as possible to but never touches i.e. where the graph is undefined and 𝑦 → ∞. Let us
look at the general case first and then the Calculus case.
𝑥−2
𝑦=
𝑥t − 4
𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 2) 1 1
𝑦= = = , 𝐻𝑂𝐿𝐸: 𝑃 O2, Q , 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = −2
𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 2
t 4
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Example
𝑥+2
𝑦=
𝑥 ¯ − 16
𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ¯ − 16 ⇒ 𝑥 ¯ − 16 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±2 ∴ 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = −2 & 𝑥 = 2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ¯ − 16 = (𝑥 t − 4)(𝑥 t + 4) = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 t + 4)
(𝑥 + 2) 1 1
𝑦= = , 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = 2, 𝐻𝑂𝐿𝐸: 𝑃 O−2, − Q
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 t + 4)
t 32
39
The Oblique or Slant Asymptote
An oblique or slant asymptote is an asymptote that is represented by and equation of a line

found from doing long division.
𝑥 r + 𝑥 t − 4𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥 t − 2𝑥 − 1
From
ℎ (𝑥 ) 𝑄 (𝑥 )
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = = 𝑃 (𝑥 ) + ⇒ 𝑂𝐴: 𝑦 = 𝑃 (𝑥 )
𝑔 (𝑥 ) 𝑔 (𝑥 )
𝑥 r + 𝑥 t − 4𝑥 + 1 3𝑥 + 4
t
= (𝑥 + 3) + t , ∴ 𝑂𝐴: 𝑦=𝑥+3
𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2𝑥 − 1
From this graph and the other graphs it can be seen that the graph can cross a horizontal or an
oblique asymptote but never a vertical asymptote.
The Three General Cases for Horizontal Asymptotes
Since there are so many conditions and situations for asymptotes and the methods learned in
algebra are so minimal to what is used in calculus, we will come back to this in the “Crash Course“
section.
Case 1:
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , 𝑛>𝑚 ⇒ 𝐻𝐴: 𝑦=0
𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯
40
Case 2:
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , 𝑛<𝑚 ⇒ 𝐻𝐴: 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯
Case 3:
a𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ 𝑎
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , 𝑛=𝑚 ⇒ 𝐻𝐴: 𝑦=
b𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ 𝑏
Example 1: at 𝑦 = 0
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = r , ∴ 𝐻𝐴: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = −2
𝑥 + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
Example 2: No HA Asymptote
𝑥r + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , ∴ 𝑁𝑜 𝐻𝐴, 𝑂𝐴: 𝑦=𝑥
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
41
Example 3: HA at 𝑦 = 𝑎/𝑏
3𝑥 r + 𝑥 3 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , ∴ 𝐻𝐴: 𝑦= , 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 =−·
2𝑥 r + 1 2 √2
There are more asymptotes than just horizontal, vertical and oblique e.g.
1 𝑥r − 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t −
=
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 ) is asymptotic to 𝑦 = 𝑥 t , this is found the same way you find the oblique asymptote i.e.
long division. Vertical is 𝑥 = 0. Blue curve is 𝑓.
42
Basic Graphs
Since graphing is a huge part of calculus, we will not focus on techniques until we get to the
Calculus portion. The techniques in Calculus are superior and once learned, most techniques
from Algebra will be disregarded. The following basic graphs are good to memorize but you
will use them so often in Calculus that they will become instinctive.
𝑦 = 𝑥t 𝑦 = 𝑥r
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑦=
𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = 𝑒ƒ 𝑦 = ln 𝑥
43
Trigonometry
*Note:
1 1
cos su 𝜃 = arccos 𝜃 ≠ , [cos 𝜃 ]su = = sec 𝜃 ≠ cossu 𝜃
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
This is a common reason why arccos θ (pronounced arc cosine)

is used in place of cossu θ (pronounced cosine inverse)
This is true for all functions and operators i.e. 𝑓 su (𝑥 ) is the inverse of 𝑓 where [𝑓(𝑥 )]su is the
u
reciprocal of 𝑓 i.e. [𝑓(𝑥 )]su = ì(ƒ)
Radian and Degree Conversion
180° 𝜋
𝜃ûüýþüü = 𝜃þÂûÈÂÌ ª « 𝜃þÂûÈÂÌ = 𝜃ûüýþüü Ÿ
𝜋 180°
i. e.
𝜋 45 1 𝜋
𝜃ûüýþüü = 45° ⇒ 𝜃þÂûÈÂÌ = 45° Ÿ °
=O Q (1°s° )𝜋 = (1J )𝜋 =
180 180 4 4
Notice that the degree cancels out just like a variable and that the absence of the degree
symbols implies radians.
𝜋 𝜋 180° 180 ° 𝜋
𝜃þÂûÈÂÌ = ⇒ 𝜃ûüýþüü = ª «=O Q Ÿ = 45° (1) = 45°
4 4 𝜋 4 𝜋
Note: Make sure to fully understand how to work with angles on a graph in order to be
prepared for applying free body diagrams in solving physics problems. The biggest problem
most students have with solving physics problems is choosing the correct angles.
Basic Graphs
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
44
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = csc 𝑥 𝑦 = sec 𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 𝑦 = cot 𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥 = sinsu 𝑥 𝑦 = arccos 𝑥 = cossu 𝑥
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = arctan 𝑥 = tansu 𝑥
45
Using Pythagorean’s Theorem
𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 𝑟t ⇔ 𝑟 = ³𝑥 t + 𝑦 t
𝑥 𝑦
cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛽 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑥
tan 𝛼 = tan 𝛽 =
𝑥 𝑦
𝑦 𝑥
sin 𝛼 = sin 𝛽 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝛼 𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝛽
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝛽
𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
𝛼 = arctan Ÿ = tansu Ÿ 𝛽 = arctan O Q = tansu O Q
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦
*IMPORTANT: Make sure everything about evaluating right triangles, the unit circle and
trigonometric identities is fully understood as this will be used in detail throughout Calculus
and Physics.
Trigonometric Formulas and Identities

Reciprocal Identities
1 1 1 1
sin 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 =
csc 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cot 𝜃 sec 𝜃
1 1 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
sin 𝜃 1 1
tan 𝜃 = = sin 𝜃 O Q ⇒ sin 𝜃 O Q = sin 𝜃 sec 𝜃
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
1 1 sec 𝜃
⇒ sin 𝜃 sec 𝜃 = O Q sec 𝜃 ⇒ O Q sec 𝜃 =
csc 𝜃 csc 𝜃 csc 𝜃
sec 𝜃 sec 𝜃 t sec t 𝜃 tant 𝜃 + 1

tan 𝜃 = ⇒ [tan 𝜃 ]t =Î Ï ⇒ tant 𝜃 = =
csc 𝜃 csc 𝜃 csc t 𝜃 1 + cot t 𝜃
46
Pythagorean Identities
Often students cannot remember all the identities but with sint 𝜃 + cos t 𝜃 = 1 and a few
simple concepts, all the identities can easily be found.
Derivation sint 𝜃 + cos t 𝜃 = 1:
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 , 𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 𝑟t
𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = (𝑟 cos 𝜃)t + (𝑟 sin 𝜃)t = 𝑟 t cost 𝜃 + 𝑟 t sint 𝜃
= 𝑟 t (cos t 𝜃 + sint 𝜃 ) = 𝑟 t (1) = 𝑟 t
∴ 𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 𝑟t
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Derivation for tant 𝜃 + 1 = sec t 𝜃:
1 sint 𝜃 cost 𝜃 1 sin 𝜃 t 1 t

[sint 𝜃 + cost 𝜃 = 1] ⇒ + = ⇒ O Q +1=O Q
cost 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cost 𝜃
t t cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
∴ tant 𝜃 + 1 = sec t 𝜃
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Derivation for 1 + cot t 𝜃 = csc t 𝜃:
1 sint 𝜃 cost 𝜃 1 cos 𝜃 t 1 t

[sint 𝜃 + cos t 𝜃 = 1] ⇒ + = ⇒ 1+O Q =O Q
sint 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sint 𝜃
t t sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
∴ 1 + cot t 𝜃 = csc t 𝜃
Even and Odd Functions
Even ⇔ 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 )
Odd ⇔ 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥 )
Odd sin(−𝜃) = − sin(𝜃)
Even cos(−𝜃) = cos(𝜃)
Odd tan(−𝜃) = − tan(𝜃)
Odd csc(−𝜃) = − csc(𝜃)
Even sec(−𝜃) = sec(𝜃)
Odd cot(𝜃) = − cot(𝜃)
47
Example
There may be a time in Calculus i.e. Integral Calculus or towards the end of the first semester of
Calculus or during the second semester, depending… You will need to be able to easily identify
an odd function. Here is an example when this may be necessary:
t
sin(𝑥 ) cos(𝑥 )
$ t ƒ
𝑑𝑥
st ln |𝑥| − sin 𝑒
This is called a ‘Definite Integral,’ try not be scared of it, it is actually quite simple to evaluate in
”
this case because ∫s” 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 if 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is an odd function. We must now show 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is an odd
function.
sin(𝑥 ) cos(𝑥 ) sin(−𝑥 ) cos(−𝑥 )

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⇒ 𝑓(−𝑥 ) = ²
ln|𝑥| − sint 𝑒 ƒ ln|−𝑥| − sint 𝑒 (sƒ)
sin(−𝑥 ) = − sin(𝑥 ) 𝑜𝑑𝑑
cos(−𝑥 ) = cos(𝑥 ) 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
ln|−𝑥| = ln|𝑥| 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛

² ²
sint 𝑒 (sƒ) = sint 𝑒 ƒ 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Plug everything back in
sin(𝑥 ) cos(𝑥 )
∴ 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = − = −𝑓(𝑥 )
ln|𝑥| − sint 𝑒 ƒ
In other words, in order to show a function is odd, simply plug a negative sign in with every x
and then evaluate each individual function and see if you have an even or odd number of
negative signs.
Double Angle Formulas
*Important
The half angle and double angle formulas along with the Pythagorean identities are used frequently throughout
calculus. It is a must that you memorize the understanding and derivations is fully comprehended.
For a detailed list of all identities, see the reference sheets in the back of the book.
Derivation for sin(2𝜃) = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃:
sin(2𝜃) = sin(𝜃 + 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Derivation for cos(2𝜃) = 1 − 2 sint 𝜃:
cos(2𝜃) = cost 𝜃 − sint 𝜃 = 2 cost 𝜃 − 1 = 1 − 2 sint 𝜃

48
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
As one can see, these formulas are all derived from the Pythagorean identities and there are many ways to find them. If this can be understood
properly then memorizing them is not entirely necessary.
Other Derivations:
cos 2𝜃 = cos(𝜃 + 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = cost 𝜃 − sint 𝜃
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
cos 2𝜃 = cos(𝜃 + 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = cos t 𝜃 − sint 𝜃 = cost 𝜃 − (1 − cost 𝜃)
= cos t −1 + cos t 𝜃 = 2 cos t 𝜃 − 1
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
cos 2𝜃 = cos(𝜃 + 𝜃) = cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = cost 𝜃 − sint 𝜃
= (1 − sint 𝜃 ) − sint 𝜃 = 1 − 2 sint 𝜃
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
tan 𝜃 + tan 𝜃 2 tan 𝜃

tan 2𝜃 = tan(𝜃 + 𝜃) = =
1 − tan 𝜃 tan 𝜃 1 − tant 𝜃
Half Angle Formulas
1
sint 𝜃 = [1 − cos(2𝜃)]
2
Derivation:
1
sint 𝜃 = 1 − cos t 𝜃 = 1 − cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = 1 − [cos(𝜃 − 𝜃) + cos(𝜃 + 𝜃)]
2
1 1 1 1
= 1 − [cos(0) + cos(2𝜃)] = 1 − [(1) + cos 2𝜃] = 1 − − cos 2𝜃
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
= − cos 2𝜃 = [1 − cos(2𝜃)]
2 2 2
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
49
1
cost 𝜃 = [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃)]
2
Derivation:
1
cost 𝜃 = 1 − sint 𝜃 = 1 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = 1 − [cos(𝜃 − 𝜃 ) − cos(𝜃 + 𝜃)]
2
1 1 1 1
= 1 − [cos 0 − cos 2𝜃] = 1 − [(1) − cos 2𝜃 ] = 1 − + cos 2𝜃
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
= + cos 2𝜃 = [1 + cos(2𝜃)]
2 2 2
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1 − cos(2𝜃)
tant 𝜃 =
1 + cos(2𝜃)
Derivation:
t t
1 t 1 1
tan 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 − 1 = O Q −1 = −1= −1
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 1
[cos(𝜃 − 𝜃) + cos(𝜃 + 𝜃)]
2
2 2 1 + cos 2𝜃 [2 − (1 + cos 2𝜃)]

= −1 = − =
1 + cos 2𝜃 1 + cos 2𝜃 1 + cos 2𝜃 1 + cos 2𝜃
1 − cos 2𝜃
=
1 + cos 2𝜃
Sum and Difference Formulas
sin(𝛼 ± 𝛽 ) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 ± cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 cos(𝛼 ± 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 ∓ sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽
tan 𝛼 ± tan 𝛽
tan(𝛼 ± 𝛽 ) =
1 ∓ tan 𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
The derivations of the sum & difference, product to sum and sum to product formulas are a bit
more complicated. Try to show they are true without referencing anything. This will prove to
be an excellent practice. Remember, getting it correct is not always the point of practice. One
must sometimes go in the wrong direction to learn that they are not on the right path.
Product to Sum Formulas
1 1
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽 ) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)] sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽 )]
2 2
1 1
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽 ) + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)] cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽 )]
2 2
50
Sum to Product Formulas
𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽 𝛼+𝛽 𝛼−𝛽

sin 𝛼 + sin 𝛽 = 2 sin Î Ï cos Î Ï sin 𝛼 − sin 𝛽 = 2 cos Î Ï sin Î Ï
2 2 2 2

cos 𝛼 + cos 𝛽 = 2 cos Î Ï cos Î Ï cos 𝛼 − cos 𝛽 = −2 sin Î Ï sin Î Ï
2 2 2 2
*✓Check Point 10
Show these equalities are true
1 1
sin(2𝑥) ∙ cos(2𝑥 ) = sin(4𝑥 ) sin(3𝑥 ) tan(6𝑥 ) = [cos(3𝑥 ) − cos(9𝑥 )] sec(6𝑥 )
4 2
1
sin(𝑥 ) ∙ sin(2𝑥) ∙ sin(3𝑥 ) ∙ sin(4𝑥 ) = [1 − cos(6𝑥 ) − cos(8𝑥 ) + cos(10𝑥 )]
8
Example 1
Solve for x
sin(𝑥 ) − cos(𝑥 ) = 0
sin 𝑥
sin(𝑥 ) − cos(𝑥) = 0 ⇒ sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 ⇒ =1 ⇒ tan 𝑥 = 1 ⇔ 𝑥 = tansu 1
cos 𝑥
√2
√2 ± 2 𝜋
su su
∴ 𝑥 = arctan(1) = tan ª « = tan % & = ± 𝜋𝑛
√2 √2 4
± 2
Example 2
𝜋 𝜋
Solve for x on Ö− , ×
2 2
t
t
1 cos(2𝑥 )
3(1 − cos 𝑥 ) = 1 − Ó − Ô
2 2
t
1 cos(2𝑥 )
3(1 − cost 𝑥 ) = 1 − Ó − Ô ⇒ 3 cos t 𝑥 = 1 − [sint 𝑥 ]t
2 2
⇒ 3 cos t 𝑥 − 1 + sin¯ 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ sin¯ 𝑥 + 3 sint 𝑥 − 1 = 0
set 𝑢 = sint 𝑥
51
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑢 = sint 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑢t + 3𝑢 − 1 = 0
−3 ± √13 3 √13
∵ ³𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 = ³9 − 4(−1)(1) = √13 ∴ 𝑢= =− ±
2(1) 2 2
9 √13 9 √13
∴ sint 𝑥 = − − 𝑜𝑟 sint 𝑥 = − +
2 2 2 2
which then gives
1 1
sin 𝑥 = ±º− ’3 + √13“ 𝑜𝑟 sin 𝑥 = ±º ’√13 − 3“
2 2
which then gives
1 𝜋 𝜋 1
𝑥 = arcsin Ú±𝑖º ’3 + √13“Û ∉ Ö− , × 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = arcsin Ú±º ’√13 − 3“Û
2 2 2 2
Lets first recognize that two of the solutions lie in the complex plain, which are not in our
interval, so they are not solutions. This leaves us with
1
𝑥 = arcsin Úº ’√13 − 3“Û ≈ 0.58
2
1
𝑥 = arcsin Ú−º ’√13 − 3“Û ≈ −0.58
2
Recognize that this graph has infinite solutions for 𝑦 = 0, which is why I bounded it on the
interval. This problem would be best solved with a graphing calculator.
52
*Check Point 11
Solve for x by any means and use a software program such as wolframalpha.com to verify your
results.
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 1 − tan 𝑥 = 0 sec t 𝑥 + 1 = 0
Simplifying Trig Operations
Commonly used in calculus are simplification techniques in order to rewrite the expression
without any trigonometric operations in it.
Example
Rewrite as Cartesian aka simplify

𝑥
sin Öcossu Ÿ ×
5
Draw a right triangle and identify each length and angle corresponding to the original
statement
Notice
𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
sin 𝜃 = & cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = arccos
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
Thus
𝑥 𝑥
𝜃 = arccos ⇒ cos 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝑎=𝑥 & 𝑐=5
5 5
From Pythagorean’s Theorem
𝑏 √25 − 𝑥 t
𝑎t + 𝑏t = 𝑐 t ⇒ 𝑏 = ³𝑐 t − 𝑎t = ³25 − 𝑥 t ⇔ sin 𝜃 = =
𝑐 5
𝑥 √25 − 𝑥 t
∴ sin Ÿarccos Ÿ =
5 5
53
Hyperbolic Functions
I rarely see hyperbolic functions in the average calculus course but every once in awhile the
topic pops up and it seems like the teacher is obsessed with them when it does. It is good to
know how to use them. Not too different from working with trigonometric operations, just a
little more involved.
Notation
𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ
sinh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 = ƒ
2 2 𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ
2 2 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
csch 𝑥 = ƒ sech 𝑥 = ƒ coth 𝑥 = ƒ
𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 − 𝑒 sƒ
Graphs
𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ 2
sinh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 =
2 𝑒ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ 2
cosh 𝑥 = sech 𝑥 =
2 𝑒ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
tanh 𝑥 = ƒ coth 𝑥 = ƒ
𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 − 𝑒 sƒ
54
Identities
sinh(−𝑥 ) = − sinh 𝑥 cosh(−𝑥 ) = cosh 𝑥
cosht 𝑥 − sinht 𝑥 = 1 1 − tanht 𝑥 = secht 𝑥
sinh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sinh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + cosh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
cosh(𝑥 + 𝑦) = cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑦 + sinh 𝑥 sinh 𝑦
sinhsu 𝑥 = ln Ö𝑥 + ³𝑥 t + 1× , −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞
coshsu 𝑥 = ln Ö𝑥 + ³𝑥 t − 1× , 𝑥≥1
1 1+𝑥
tanhsu 𝑥 = ln Î Ï, −1 < 𝑥 < 1
2 1−𝑥
Practice Problems
Simplify or Rewrite as Cartesian
5 5
(1) cos Oarcsin O QQ (2) sin Oarcsin O − 2𝑥 + 3QQ
𝑥 𝑥t
1 1
(3) tan % & (4) arccot ( )
𝑥t 𝑥t
arccot O13Q tan 13
𝜃 (6) sin(arccos(cos arcsin(13𝑥 + 𝑒 ƒ ))))

(5) cot Ocsc su O QQ
2
Simplify or Expand
(1) ln sin 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 − 9) − ln(𝑥 + 9) (2) log° 36 − log 25 + ln 25

sint 𝑥 [1 − cost 𝑥 ]su (4) [ln(sin 𝑥 ) − ln cos(𝑥 )] + ln(cot(𝑥 ))
(3)
ln(𝑥 t − 9t ) − ln(𝑥 t − 3t ) − ln[(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3)]
1 1 u (6) ln(cost (𝑥 ) + sint (𝑥 ))
(5) ln(𝑥 − 81) + ln(𝑥 + 81) − log ƒsr (𝑥 t − 9)t
2 2 − ln(cos t (𝑥 ) − sint (𝑥 ))
1 1 u ² ƒ“
(7) *
ln(𝑥 t − 16) − ln(𝑥 ¯ − 64) + ln √𝑥 − 2 (8) ln 𝑒 ƒ − 𝑥𝑒 t ËÌ’+,É
𝑒 𝑒
*
+ ln √𝑥 + 2
-
* (10) log - ln(𝑠𝑖𝑛t (𝑥 )
(9) ln Ó³(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 4)¿ Ô ¿ · ./’0² 1²0“
+ [𝑐𝑜𝑠 t (𝑥 )]su )
55
Solve for x
(1) 𝑥 t − 2𝑥 + 1 = 0 (2) cost 𝑥 + sint 𝑥 ≥ 0 (3) sec t 𝑥 − tant 𝑥 = 0

(4) 𝑥 ¯ − 𝑥 t + 𝑥 = 0 (5) 16𝑥 ¯ − 𝑥 t + 2 = 0 (6) 𝑥 © − 𝑥 r − 𝑥 = 0
(7) 𝑥 t − 𝑥 ≥ 13𝑥 (8) ³𝑥 t − 13𝑥 < 2 (9) (𝑥 − 4)ur = (2 − 𝑥 t )u©
(10) 𝑒 tƒ − 𝑒 ƒ = 0 ²
(11) 𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 ƒ
²
(12) 5Ç − 15ƒ + 12 = 0
²
(13) ln’𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 (tƒ) + 1“ = 0
²
(14) ln(𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 tƒ + 1) = 0 ²“ 1
(15) 7ËÌ’ƒ =
2
𝑥t − 4 𝑥 r − 27 (17) (𝑥 © − 𝑥 ¯ ) ≤ 𝑥 s¯ √𝑥 u° − 16t
(16) < (18) = 5!
𝑥 ¯ − 16 𝑥t − 9 ur
𝑥¬
Find the domain
(1) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t − 2𝑥 + 1 (2) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = cos t 𝑥 + sint 𝑥 (3) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = sec t 𝑥 − tant 𝑥
(4) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 ¯ − 𝑥 t + 𝑥 (5) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 16𝑥 ¯ − 𝑥 t + 2 (6) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 © − 𝑥 r − 𝑥
(7) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t − 𝑥 − 13𝑥 (8)𝑓(𝑥 ) = ³𝑥 t − 13𝑥 − 2 (9) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 − 4)ur
− (2 − 𝑥 t )u©
(10) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 tƒ − 𝑒 ƒ ²
(11) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 ƒ
²
(12) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 5Ç − 15ƒ + 12
²
(13) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln’𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 (tƒ)
²
(14) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ln(𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 tƒ ² 1
(15) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 7ËÌ’ƒ “ −
+ 1) 2
+ 1“
𝑥t − 4 (17) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 © − 𝑥 ¯ ) √𝑥 u° − 16t
(16) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (18) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = − 5!
𝑥 ¯ − 16 − 𝑥 s¯
ur
𝑥¬
𝑥 r − 27
−
𝑥t − 9
You can use an online program such as WolframAlpha.com to verify your answers.
56
Typing Math
This section is meant to show you how to show your work is correct using programs such as
WolframAlpha. You should use this information to verify your solutions for any practice
problems in this book.
·
Lets say you want to solve for x for a function 𝑥 + √𝑥 − √𝑥 t = 0
Input: solve for x, x+sqrt(x)-x^(2/3)=0
Be attentive to parenthesis
It is pretty simple to do. You pretty much just have to ask the program in English what to do.
Lets look at a tangent line.
y
xy + ln(y) = , 𝑥=𝑒
xt + yt
Input: tangent line, xy+ln(y)=y/(x^2+y^2), x=e
Output: 𝑦 ≈ 0.591467 − 0.0788435𝑥
This would be very difficult to perform by hand and most problems in reality are the same so
we depend on computers greatly. Learning when to recognize the difference between a
problem done by hand and a problem that you should use a calculator with is a good skill!
Domains
𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥 r − 3𝑥 t + 2𝑥
Input: domain, (x^2+2x+1)/(x^3-3x^2+2x)
Output: (−∞, 0) ∪ (0,1) ∪ (1,2) ∪ (2, ∞)
I have a lot of videos on various problems being inputted into wolfram if you ever need further
assistance. The point here is to understand the symbol relations.
^ used for powers
( ), [ ] used as parenthesis (best practice)
/ used for division
* used for multiplication
If you have a symbol, you can usually just spell it out e.g. 𝛥 is Delta and 𝛿 is delta or 𝛩 is Theta
and 𝜃 is theta.
Some programs require a backslash \ prior to inputting i.e. for instance “MyMathLab” and
“Microsoft Word” would require for, say 𝛱 to be written as \Pi and 𝜋 to be written as \pi.
57
Getting Started in Calculus
“If your arm doesn’t hurt, you’re not studying mathematics correctly.” Jonathan Tullis
This portion of the book is not so much about learning calculus; it is about the importance of
proper notation, precision and an introduction of the first month’s material.
The following is an example of why the information prior to this section is essential to solving
calculus problems. Do not pay close attention to the actual problem, as you may not understand it
until a month into calculus, rather, look at the algebra and trig that occurs.
²
𝑑 𝑒 ƒ sin 𝑥 𝜋
Find 𝑦5 if 𝑦 = ln t , 𝑎=
𝑑𝑥 ” (𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1) t 4
ê
êƒ
is an operator that says to take the derivative of whatever follows and having the bar to the
right with a number or in this case the constant a, which represents an unknown number,
ê
means to evaluate the result at 𝑎. In other words if one sees 𝑦6 this is the same as 𝑓 Ä (𝑎)
êƒ ”
êÀ
because êƒ = 𝑓′(𝑥) and 𝑥 = 𝑎.
(after completing the crash course come back to this problem)
Now there is a general formula for taking the derivative of the natural log function which is 𝑦 =
êÀ ì9 (ƒ)
ln 𝑓(𝑥) ⇒ êƒ = ì(ƒ)
, this would be unnecessarily complicated for this problem.
Using logarithmic rules to simplify it first would be the best route.
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )
𝑦 = ln[𝑓(𝑥 )] ⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 )
²
𝑒 ƒ sin 𝑥
∴ 𝑦 = ln Ó t Ô
(𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1)t
²
= ln 𝑒 ƒ sin 𝑥 − ln(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1)t
²
= ln 𝑒 ƒ + ln sin 𝑥 − 2 ln(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥 t + ln sin 𝑥 − 2 ln(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1)
𝑑 𝑑 t
⇒ 𝑦= [𝑥 + ln sin 𝑥 − 2 ln(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 t 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝑥 + ln sin 𝑥 − 2 ln(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 t
sin 𝑥 (𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1)
= 2𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥
cos 𝑥 𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1
58
cos 𝑥 2𝑥 + 2
= 2𝑥 + −2 t
sin 𝑥 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1
4𝑥 + 4
= 2𝑥 + cot 𝑥 −
𝑥t + 2𝑥 + 1
4(𝑥 + 1)
= 2𝑥 + cot 𝑥 −
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)
4
= 2𝑥 + cot 𝑥 −
𝑥+1
𝑥+1 4
= (2𝑥 + cot 𝑥 ) −
𝑥+1 𝑥+1
(2𝑥 + cot 𝑥 )(𝑥 + 1) − 4

=
𝑥+1
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 Ÿ2 Ÿ4 + cot 4 Ÿ4 + 1 − 4
Ä
∴ 𝑓 Ÿ = 𝜋
4
4+1
𝜋 𝜋 4 𝜋 2 𝜋+4
Ÿ2 + 1 Ÿ4 + 4 − 4 Ÿ2 + 2 Ÿ 4 −4
= =
𝜋 4 𝜋+4
Ÿ4 + 4 Ÿ 4
𝜋+2 𝜋+4 (𝜋 + 2)(𝜋 + 4) 32

Ÿ 2 Ÿ 4 −4 − 8
= = 8
𝜋+4 𝜋+4
Ÿ 4 Ÿ 4
𝜋 t + 6𝜋 + 8 − 32
= 8
𝜋+4
Ÿ 4
𝜋 t + 6𝜋 + 8 − 32 4
= ∙
8 𝜋+4
𝜋 t + 6𝜋 − 24
= ≈ 0.3304
2(𝜋 + 4)
This problem may seem ridiculous at this point but this is pretty much a standard level of
difficulty for any calculus class for a STEM major. The reason I wanted to show you this first is
to make it clear that the information from the checkpoints and examples should be 100%
understood and mastered prior to moving on. There are more examples at jonathantullis.com if
you want to practice more problems.
59
Limits
Limits could be looked at as the foundation of Calculus; it would be wise to fully master limits
and derivatives before starting the course as almost everything in Calculus has a limit in its
definition.
What is a Limit?
In first year Calculus, one will focus on limits in a Cartesian coordinate system, in general a
𝑥 vs 𝑦 graph.
The basic idea is that one has a function 𝑓(𝑥) and this function can be graphed as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 )
then one takes a value of 𝑥 and goes to that 𝑥 on the graph and then goes to the corresponding
𝑦-value on 𝑓(𝑥 ) and states the value of 𝑓(𝑥 ). This is a general concept, not a formal definition.
This book is a “crash course” designed to get an strong idea in order to make learning a simpler
process.
There are various possibilities that may occur. The limit will exist, not exist or be infinite. This
is very easy to see when looking at a graph but proving it using mathematics is not as simple.
Translation:
the limit as x goes to a of 𝑓 of x
is written as, lim 𝑓(𝑥)

ƒ→”
Lesson
lim 𝑥 t = 1
ƒ→u
As it is seen on the graph, go to the x-coordinate and then move to the y-coordinate to find the
limit. This is a very simple example.
This limit operation outputs a 𝑦-value. When looking at the graph go to the left or right based
on the 𝑥-value and then go up or down to find the limit, which is a 𝑦-value.
60
Notations for Limits
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 The actual limit lim 𝑥 t = (5)t = 25

ƒ→” Occurs when the left and right hand limits are ƒ→©
equal.
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿s Left hand limit 1
ƒ→” 1 Approaching from the left side of the graph. lim1 = −∞
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿¨ Right hand limit 1
ƒ→” : Approaching from the right side of the graph. lim: =∞
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = Exists lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim: 𝑓(𝑥) 1 1
ƒ→” ƒ→” 1 ƒ→” lim1 5 5 = ∞ = lim: 5 5
The positive or negative sign in the superscript ƒ→r 𝑥 − 3 ƒ→r 𝑥 − 3
is simply stating that the limit is to be
evaluated at either the left or right - there is no
arithmetic significance to it. 1
∴ lim 5 5=∞
ƒ→r 𝑥 − 3
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = DNE lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≠ lim: 𝑓(𝑥 ) 1
Ç→Â ƒ→” 1 ƒ→” lim1 = −∞
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
1
≠ lim: =∞
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
1
∴ lim = 𝐷𝑁𝐸
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝐿 = 𝐿± 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is continuous 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t , 𝑎=5
The limit exists, and the lim 𝑥 t = (5)t = 25 = 𝑓(5)

ƒ→©
function is defined.
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 ≠ 𝐿 𝑓 (𝑥 ) is discontinuous. 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , 𝑎=0
𝑥t
The limit exists/DNE, and 𝑓(𝑥)
is undefined. 1
lim =∞
ƒ→J 𝑥 t
𝑓(0) = 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
u
Note: This function is discontinuous when there is a break in the graph e.g. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ƒs© is
discontinuous at 5 because the graph is undefined. The same thing occurs on many other
functions. It is wise to understand domain restrictions in order to help simplify the process.
Practice Problems
Find the following limits, and determine if the function is continuous at the limit
𝑥 t − 4𝑥 √𝑥 r − 27 𝑥 r − 27
lim lim lim
ƒ→¯ 𝑥 − 4 ƒ→r 𝑥 t − 9 ƒ→r 𝑥 t − 9
u u 1
lim 𝑒 ƒ lim 5ƒ lim ln
ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ 𝑥
Hint: Factor or use a calculus by plugging values really close to 𝑎
61
Graph Examples
Example 1
∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = e,
ƒ→Â
The limit exists and is continuous
∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = g,
ƒ→<
The limit exists but is discontinuous
∙ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = DNE,
ƒ→+
The limit DNE and is discontinuous
∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = f,
ƒ→+1
The limit exists but is discontinuous
∙ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = d,
ƒ→+:
The limit exists and is continuous
From this graph the limit can be evaluated at 𝑥 = 𝑎, 𝑏 & 𝑐 and stated whether it is exists, DNE,
exists from the left/right and or if the function is continuous.
Example 2
Evaluate
1
lim:
ƒ→© 𝑥−5
1
lim1
ƒ→© 𝑥−5
1
lim
ƒ→© 𝑥 − 5
and f(5).
From here there are three different limits and the evaluation of the function itself. There is a
vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 5 and a horizontal asymptote at 𝑦 = 0. As stated in the algebra
section, the asymptote formulas are not necessary for calculus as calculus is where those
formulas came from. The limit itself will explain the horizontal asymptote locations and the
vertical is obvious as it is where the denominator is undefined.
62
Types of Discontinuity
In Calculus and other courses discontinuous functions will be worked with frequently. Make
sure to understand when, where and why a function may or may not be discontinuous by
utilizing domains.
Jump
Occurs with piecewise functions i.e.
−𝑥, 𝑥<1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = =
𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≥ 1
Removable
Occurs at holes in the graph

𝑥t − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ⇒ 𝑔 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 2)
0
=𝑥+2 ⇒ 𝑥≠2 ∵ 𝑦 (2) =
0
Infinite
Occurs at asymptotes
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥r + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝐻𝐴: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = −2
63
Limit Laws and Properties
Limit of a Constant lim 𝑐 = 𝑐 lim 4 = 4

ƒ→” ƒ→t
Limit of Single Variable lim 𝑥 = 𝑎 lim 𝑥 = 2

ƒ→” ƒ→t
If The Function is Continuous lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) lim 𝑥 t = (2)t = 4

ƒ→” ƒ→t
The Constant Multiple Law lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 2𝑥 t = 2 lim 𝑥 t = 2(2)t
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→t ƒ→t
=8
The Sum and Difference Law lim [𝑓 ± 𝑔] (𝑥 ) lim(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 )
ƒ→” ƒ→t
= lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 t + 2 lim 𝑥

ƒ→” ƒ→t ƒ→t
± lim 𝑔(𝑥) =4+4=8

ƒ→”
The Product Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] lim 𝑥𝑒 ƒ = lim 𝑥 ∙ lim 𝑒 ƒ = 2𝑒 t

ƒ→” ƒ→t ƒ→t ƒ→t
= lim 𝑓(𝑥)
ƒ→”
∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
ƒ→”
The Quotient Law 𝑓 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑒 ƒ 𝑒 t

𝑒 ƒ ƒ→t
lim Ó Ô = ƒ→” , lim = =
ƒ→” 𝑔 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑔(𝑥) ƒ→t 𝑥 lim 𝑥 2
ƒ→” ƒ→t
lim 𝑔 ≠ 0
ƒ→”
H t
The Power Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 )]H = Ölim 𝑓(𝑥 )×
ƒ→” ƒ→”
lim 𝑥 t = Ölim 𝑥× = (2)t = 4
ƒ→t ƒ→t
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
The Root Law µ
lim ³𝑓(𝑥 ) = µ´ lim 𝑓(𝑥)
²
lim ²√𝑥 = ²´ lim 𝑥 = √4 = 2
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→¯ ƒ→¯
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟
Evaluating Limits
There is a general question that arises when dealing with limits i.e. “Does the limit exist and if
so, is the limit continuous?”
u
From the previous sections graph, the graph of 𝑦 = ƒs© that is, one can see that the left-hand
limit is −∞ and the right-hand limit is ∞ and since these two limits do not equal each other the
actual limit does not exist which also says that the function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 5.
64
Examples
There are essentially three scenarios that occur when evaluating non-trig or non-log functions
at a constant.
Note: When coming across an unknown symbol or concept do not procrastinate, look it up and understand it ASAP
and ever move to the next topic until the current topic is fully understood, especially when in a rush to get to the
next topic. There is no point in starting the next topic if the first is not completely mastered.
Scenario 1: Continuous Function
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 → 10
lim (𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1) = lim 𝑥 t + 2 lim 𝑥 + lim 1 = (10)t + 2(10) + 1

ƒ→uJ ƒ→uJ ƒ→uJ ƒ→uJ
= 100 + 20 + 1 = 121
∵ 𝑓(10) = 121 = 𝐿 ∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ) is continuous at 𝑥 = 10
Scenario 2: Factoring and Eliminating
𝑥 ¯ − 16
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , 𝑥→2
𝑥t − 4
𝑥 ¯ − 16 0
lim =
ƒ→t 𝑥 t − 4 0
J
As can be seen, if 2 were to be plugged in, the limit would be J, this is referred to as
“indeterminate form”
J ±∞
Indeterminate Forms: J , ±∞
, 0 ∙ ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0J , 1∞ , ∞J
When the function is in indeterminate form, this means that the limit may exist but it must be
manipulated in order to find the limit.
𝑥 ¯ − 16 [(𝑥 t )t − 4t ]
lim = lim
ƒ→t 𝑥 t − 4 ƒ→t 𝑥t − 4
(𝑥 t − 4)(𝑥 t + 4)
= lim = lim(𝑥 t + 4) = lim 𝑥 t + lim 4 = (2)t + 4
ƒ→t (𝑥 t − 4) ƒ→t ƒ→t ƒ→t
=4+4=8
∵ 𝑓 (2) = Undefined ≠ L ∴ 𝑓(𝑥) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 2
65
Scenario 3: Conjugate
√𝑥 t − 8 − 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = , 𝑥→3
3−𝑥
√𝑥 t − 8 − 1 0
lim =
ƒ→r 3−𝑥 0
√𝑥 t − 8 − 1 √𝑥 t − 8 − 1
lim = lim ∙1
ƒ→r 3−𝑥 ƒ→r 3−𝑥
Very often in calculus a function is manipulated by multiplying by the number 1. This is done
u ” ì(ƒ)
by rewriting 1 as u then ” or ì(ƒ) and since these are all equal to one and multiplying anything
by the number 1 outputs the same result one can rewrite the equation.
Therefore, rewrite as
√𝑥 t − 8 − 1 √𝑥 t − 8 + 1 (𝑥 t − 8) − 1
lim ∙ = lim
ƒ→r 3−𝑥 √𝑥 t − 8 + 1 ƒ→r (3 − 𝑥)(√𝑥 t − 8 + 1)
It is wise to only foil out the conjugate i.e.
𝑥t − 9 (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3)
= lim = lim
ƒ→r (3 − 𝑥)(√𝑥 t − 8 + 1) ƒ→r (3 − 𝑥)(√𝑥 t − 8 + 1)
𝑥+3 lim 𝑥 + lim 3

ƒ→r ƒ→r
= lim =
ƒ→r √𝑥 t −8+1 lim 𝑥 t − lim 8 +lim 1
´ƒ→r ƒ→r ƒ→r
(3) + 3 6
= = =3
³(3t ) − 8 + 1 2
∵ 𝑓 (3) = Undefined ≠ L ∴ 𝑓(𝑥 ) is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 3
Infinite Limits
There are three basic cases for evaluating non-trig/log functions at infinity i.e. ratio of
polynomials, but this technique has similar success with non-polynomials. This is where the
horizontal asymptote formulas arise that was used in Algebra.
Case 1:
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ 𝑛>𝑚
lim =0 𝑥 sH
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 sH
Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
66
Case 2:
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ 𝑛<𝑚
lim =∞ 𝑥 sH
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 sH
Case 3:
a𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ a 𝑛=𝑚
lim = 𝑥 sH
ƒ→∞ b𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ b 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 sH
Rule of thumb, always multiply by the quotient of the inverse of the variable of highest degree
from the denominator.
Horizontal Asymptotes
From the previous limits we will use them to find horizontal asymptotes.
Case 1: at 𝑦 = 0
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = r
𝑥 + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 1
lim r t
= lim r t
∙O Q
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 ƒ→∞ 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 1
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 sr
= lim r ∙ ª sr «
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 + 𝑥 t + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥
𝑥 t ∙ 𝑥 sr + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 sr + 1 ∙ 𝑥 sr
= lim r sr
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 + 𝑥 t ∙ 𝑥 sr + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 sr + 1 ∙ 𝑥 sr
𝑥 tsr + 𝑥 usr + 𝑥 sr 𝑥 su + 𝑥 st + 𝑥 sr
= lim rsr = lim
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 + 𝑥 tsr + 𝑥 usr + 𝑥 sr ƒ→∞ 𝑥 J + 𝑥 su + 𝑥 st + 𝑥 sr
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ t+ r lim + lim t + lim r
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
= lim =
ƒ→∞ 1 1 1 1 1 1
1+𝑥+ t+ r lim 1 + lim 𝑥 + lim t + lim r
𝑥 𝑥 ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
0+0+0 0
= = = 0, ∴ 𝐻𝐴 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 0
1+0+0+0 1
67
Case 2: No HA Asymptote
𝑥r + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑥r + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥r + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 1
lim = lim ∙O Q
ƒ→∞ 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 ƒ→∞ 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 1
𝑥 r + 𝑥 t + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 st
= lim ∙ ª st «
ƒ→∞ 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1 𝑥
𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 st + 𝑥 t ∙ 𝑥 st + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 st + 1 ∙ 𝑥 st
r
= lim
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 t ∙ 𝑥 st + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 st + 1 ∙ 𝑥 st
𝑥 rst + 𝑥 tst + 𝑥 ust + 𝑥 st 𝑥 u + 𝑥 J + 𝑥 su + 𝑥 st

lim = lim
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 tst + 𝑥 ust + 𝑥 st ƒ→∞ 𝑥 J + 𝑥 su + 𝑥 st
1 1 1 1
𝑥+1+𝑥+ t lim 𝑥 + lim 1 + lim 𝑥 + lim t
𝑥 ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ 𝑥
= lim =
ƒ→∞ 1 1 1 1
1+𝑥+ t lim 1 + lim 𝑥 + lim t
𝑥 ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ 𝑥
∞+1+0+0
= = ∞, ∴ 𝑁𝑜 𝐻𝐴
1+0+0
Case 3: HA at 𝑦 = 𝑎/𝑏
3𝑥 r + 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
2𝑥 r + 1
3𝑥 r + 𝑥 3𝑥 r + 𝑥 1
lim = lim ∙O Q
ƒ→∞ 2𝑥 r + 1 ƒ→∞ 2𝑥 r + 1 1
3𝑥 r + 𝑥 𝑥 sr 3𝑥 r ∙ 𝑥 sr + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑥 sr 3𝑥 rsr + 𝑥 usr
= lim ∙ ª « = lim = lim
ƒ→∞ 2𝑥 r + 1 𝑥 sr ƒ→∞ 2𝑥 r ∙ 𝑥 sr + 1 ∙ 𝑥 sr ƒ→∞ 2𝑥 rsr + 𝑥 sr
1 1
3𝑥 J + 𝑥 st 3+ t lim 3 + lim t 3 + 0 3
𝑥 = ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ 𝑥
= lim J = lim = =
ƒ→∞ 2𝑥 + 𝑥 sr 1 1
lim 2 + lim r 2 + 0 2
ƒs∞
2+ r
𝑥 ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ 𝑥
3
∴ 𝐻𝐴 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 =
2
68
The Limit Definition of a Derivative
A derivative is the slope or rate of change of a function and when evaluated it becomes the
instantaneous rate of change.
Finding the slope of a linear equation 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 is quite simple because it is a straight line
which means the slope is constant, it gets more complicated when looking at a non-linear
equation such as 𝑦 = 𝑥 t as the slope is constantly changing.
When asked to find the slope of a curve one cannot simple extract “𝑚” from the equation by
AÀ
rearranging it. Though, one can take 𝑚 to be equal to Aƒ and then do some transformations to
the function to find a slope of a function in terms of two unknowns and then take the limit to
find the slope at 𝑥 = 𝑎.
The Slope
Derivation of “The Difference Quotient”

𝛥𝑦 𝛥𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦J
𝑚= ⇒ = , 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥J
𝑦 − 𝑦J 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥J )
⇒ =
𝑥 − 𝑥J 𝑥 − 𝑥J
𝛥𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥J ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝛥𝑥 + 𝑥J
𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) 𝑓(𝛥𝑥 + 𝑥J ) − 𝑓(𝑥J )

⇒ =
𝑥 − 𝑥J 𝛥𝑥
Since 𝛥𝑥 and 𝑥J have unknown values and if we concern ourselves with one 𝛥𝑥, meaning one
length, it is common to see them written as 𝛥𝑥 = ℎ and 𝑥J = 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑎
Substituting back in, we get the difference quotient
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
ℎ
This is the slope of the secant line of a curve
Looking at ℎ, if this length is shrunk infinitely close to zero we will arrive at a point (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 ))
and if the limit of the secant line as ℎ goes to zero is taken, it will output the slope at that point.
69
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = lim
B→J ℎ
The apostrophe in 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) or 𝑦′ denotes derivative.
Derivative Notations
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = , 1st derivative
𝑑𝑥
𝑑t𝑦
𝑦 ÄÄ = 𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑥 ) = , 2nd derivative
𝑑𝑦 t
ÄÄÄ ÄÄÄ (
𝑑r𝑦
𝑦 =𝑓 𝑥) = r , 3rd derivative
𝑑𝑦
Any derivative after the 3rd is written as 𝑓 (H) (𝑥 ) or 𝑦 (H) not to be confused
with a power
𝑦 (¯) = 4th derivative ≠ 𝑦 ¯ = 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦
𝑦 (H) = 𝑓 (H) (𝑥) = nth derivative
ê
ê[… ]
is called “The Derivative Operator” it simply means to take the
derivative of whatever follows with respect to whatever is in […].
There are other forms of derivative notation i.e.
𝑑
𝑌 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
= 𝑦(𝑥 ), the derivative of a capital letter is the lower case of that letter
𝑑
𝑦 = 𝑦 Ä (𝑡) = 𝑦̇ , 1ÉD derivative with respect to time
𝑑𝑡
𝑑t
𝑥 = 𝑥 ÄÄ (𝑡) = 𝑥̈ , 2Ìû derivative with respect to time
𝑑𝑡 t
70
Example
if 𝑦 = 𝑥 t , find 𝑦′
Solution: Using “The Limit Definition of a Derivative”
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = lim
B→J ℎ
(𝑥 + ℎ )t − 𝑥 t
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑥 t ⇒ 𝑦′ = lim
B→J ℎ
(𝑥 t + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎt ) − 𝑥 t 2𝑥ℎ + ℎt
= lim = lim
B→J ℎ B→J ℎ
= lim(2𝑥 + ℎ) = lim 2𝑥 + lim ℎ = 2𝑥 + 0 = 2𝑥

B→J B→J B→J
IMPORTANT: Notice how there were no steps skipped in the solution. This is extremely
important; the answer “2𝑥” is the least important part of the solution. Anyone can put
something in a calculator and get the answer. The student takes Calculus to learn how to
provide the solution.
Tangent Lines
In Calculus, you will solve for the equation of a tangent line in many different ways using the
same general concept.
The equation of a tangent line or secant line is derived from the classic point slope equation
𝑦 − 𝑦J = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥J )
Then solving for 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
These are the same two equations that will be used, though a new look at notation must be
considered to be more precise and effective.
71
The Slope Notation for Calculus
When looking for the tangent using 𝑦 − 𝑦J = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥J ),
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚 = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = lim
B→J ℎ
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑦J = 𝑓(𝑥J )
∴ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑥J )
Usually a question is stated as “find the equation of the tangent line of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎” for the
sake of this question, lets rewrite
𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑥J ) 𝑎𝑠 𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓′(𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎)
Another way the question might be asked is ‘find the equation of the tangent line of
𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑡 𝑃J (𝑎, 𝑏)’ in this situation 𝑃J (𝑎, 𝑏) is the same as saying 𝑃 (𝑥J , 𝑦J ) so 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) =
𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑥J ) would be used or
𝑦 − 𝑏 = 𝑓 Ä (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎), 𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑎)
From here solve for 𝑦 and then the equation of the tangent line has been found.
Example
Find the equation of the tangent line of 𝑦 = 𝑥 t at 𝑥 = 3
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥J ) = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥J )(𝑥 − 𝑥J ), 𝑥J = 3, 𝑓 (𝑥 J ) = 𝑓 (3) = (3)t = 9
𝑓(𝑥J + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) (3 + ℎ )t − (3)t 9 + 6ℎ + ℎt − 9

𝑓 Ä (𝑥J ) = lim ⇒ 𝑓(3) = lim = lim
B→J ℎ B→J ℎ B→J ℎ
6ℎ + ℎt
= lim = lim(6 + ℎ) = lim 6 + imB→J ℎ = 6 + 0 = 6
B→J ℎ B→J B→J
Now plug everything in to 𝑦 − 𝑦J = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥J )

𝑦 − 9 = 6(𝑥 − 3), ∴ 𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 9
Graphing to verify the answer is correct is
always good practice.
72
Derivatives
Now that limits are understood the derivative rules can be used in place of the limit definition,
it is a much simpler way to evaluate the derivative.
The derivative is used in almost every single question in Calculus. Spending an extra amount of
time on the derivative section would be wise. Derivatives must become instinctive in order to
be fully effective through the course.
What is a Derivate?
A derivative is nothing more than the slope of a function or the rate-of-change of that function.
When one evaluates a derivative for a certain value the answer is the instantaneous rate-of-
change of the function. In physics the first derivative is velocity and the second derivative is
acceleration.
The Notation for a Derivative 𝒇′(𝒙)
𝑑 𝑑
𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = 𝑦= 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
is an operator that says take the derivative of whatever follows by using derivative rules.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = [𝑓(𝑥 )] ⇒ 𝑦Ä =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 Ä 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑥) = [𝑓 (𝑥 )] = Î 𝑓 (𝑥 )Ï = O Q O Q 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑t 𝑑t 𝑑t𝑦
ÄÄ
= 𝑓 (𝑥) = t [𝑓 (𝑥 )] ⇒ 𝑦 = t
(𝑑𝑥 )t 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Physics Notation
𝑠 = 𝑠 (𝑡 ), Distance
𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑣 (𝑡 ) = 𝑠 Ä = 𝑠 Ä (𝑡 ) = = 𝑠̇ , 1ÉD Derivative Velocity
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑t𝑠
𝑎 = 𝑎 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝑣̇ = t = 𝑠 ÄÄ (𝑡) = 𝑠 ÄÄ = 𝑠̈ , 2nd Derivative Acceleration
Ä( ) Ä
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
73
Derivative Rules
Derivative of a Constant
𝑑 𝑑
𝑐=0 5=0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Power Rule
𝑑 H 𝑑
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 Hsu 𝑥 = (1)𝑥usu = 𝑥 J = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Constant Multiple Rule
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑐𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 5𝑥 r = 5 𝑥 r = 5[3𝑥 rsu ] = 15𝑥 t
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Product Rule
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑 𝑑 ƒ 𝑑
𝑥𝑒 ƒ = 𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒ƒ 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 ƒ (1) = 𝑒 ƒ (𝑥 + 1)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Quotient Rule
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥 )
Ó Ô=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥 ) [𝑔(𝑥 )]t
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ƒ 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 ) − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 ƒ 𝑒 ƒ (1) − 𝑥𝑒 ƒ 𝑒 ƒ (1 − 𝑥 )
Ö ƒ× = = = = 𝑒 ƒstƒ (1 − 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 sƒ (𝑥 − 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑒 [ 𝑒 ƒ ] t 𝑒 tƒ 𝑒 tƒ
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Chain Rule
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓 ∘ 𝑔](𝑥) = Ð𝑓’𝑔(𝑥)“Ò = 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓′’𝑔(𝑥 )“ ∙ 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 t
ℎ(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 t + 2𝑥 )ur ⇒ ℎ Ä (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 2𝑥 )ur = 13(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 )ut (2𝑥 + 2)
𝑑𝑥
74
Detailed Example:
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ur ⇒ 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = 13𝑥ut , 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t + 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑔Ä (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 + 2
𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = 13(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 )ut (2𝑥 + 2)
The chain rule is what students struggle with the most. There are many different notations and approaches, the example above is one method
but using the d/dx operator throughout the whole problem is highly recommended as it will be very important down the road e.g.
𝑑 t
𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥 t + 2𝑥 )ur ⇒ 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = (𝑥 + 2𝑥 )ur
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 t
= 13(𝑥 t + 2𝑥 )ursu ∙ (𝑥 + 2𝑥 ) = 13(𝑥 t + 2𝑥)ut (2𝑥 + 2)
𝑑𝑥
Remember: perform the power rule, leave the inside alone, and multiple by the derivative of the
inside
There are more simplified formulas for derivatives and they will be listed next.
IMPORTANT: It would be wise to master the method above and not use the shorthand
notations to follow as they will not work down the road.
Shorthand Notation/Formula
Shorthand notation consists of writing a function i.e. 𝑓 (𝑥) as a single symbol representing a
function e.g. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥 ) = 𝑢, it is less tedious to write 𝑢 than 𝑓 (𝑥 ) as you will see going
forward.
Product Rule
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣 ⇒ [𝑢𝑣]Ä = 𝑢𝑣 Ä + 𝑣𝑢′
Example
𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 ƒ ⇒ 𝑢=𝑥 & 𝑢Ä = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑒ƒ & 𝑣Ä = 𝑒 ƒ
Just plug them into the formula 𝑢𝑣 Ä + 𝑣𝑢′
𝑦′ = (𝑥 )(𝑒 ƒ ) + (𝑒 ƒ )(1)
75
Quotient Rule
𝑢 𝑢 Ä 𝑣𝑢Ä − 𝑢𝑣′
𝑦= ⇒ Ö × =
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣t
Example
𝑥
𝑦= ⇒ 𝑢=𝑥 & 𝑢Ä = , 1𝑣 = 𝑒 ƒ & 𝑣Ä = 𝑒 ƒ
𝑒ƒ
𝑣𝑢Ä − 𝑢𝑣′
Just plug them into the formula
𝑣t
(𝑒 ƒ )(1) − (𝑥 )(𝑒 ƒ )
𝑦′ =
(𝑒 ƒ )t
Chain Rule
𝑦 = 𝑢 (𝑣 ) ⇒ [𝑢(𝑣)]′ = 𝑢Ä (𝑣) ∙ 𝑣′
Example
𝑦 = (𝑥 t + 2𝑥 )ur
𝑢 = 𝑥 ur ⇒ 𝑢Ä = 13𝑥ut
𝑣 = 𝑥 t + 2𝑥 ⇒ 𝑣 Ä = 2𝑥 + 2
Just plug them into the formula 𝑢Ä (𝑣) ∙ 𝑣 Ä
𝑦 Ä = 13(𝑥 t + 2𝑥)ut ∙ (2𝑥 + 2)
This method is definitely easier for the beginner but conditions for a bad habit. Avoiding this
method and mastering the previous method is recommended.
76
Other Useful Derivative Examples
𝑑 ì(ƒ)
𝑒 = 𝑒 ì(ƒ) ∙ 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 utƒ ²¨tƒü ² 𝑑 ²
𝑒 = 𝑒 utƒ ¨tƒü (12𝑥 t + 2𝑥 + 1) = 𝑒 utƒ ¨tƒü (24𝑥 + 2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑑 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )
ln[𝑓(𝑥 )] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑 t
𝑑 (𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1) 2𝑥 + 2
t
ln[𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1] = 𝑑𝑥 = t
𝑑𝑥 t
𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 1
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑑 ƒ
𝑎 = 𝑎 ƒ ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑦Ä
𝑦 = 𝑎ƒ ⇒ ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎 ⇒ (ln 𝑦 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎) ⇒ = ln 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = 𝑦 ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
= 𝑎 ƒ ln 𝑎
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑑 ì(ƒ)
𝑎 = 𝑎 ì(ƒ) 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑦 = 𝑎 ì(ƒ) ⇒ ln 𝑦 = lnÐ𝑎 ì(ƒ) Ò ⇒ ln 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ln 𝑎 ⇒ (ln 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ln 𝑎)
𝑑𝑥
𝑦Ä
⇒ = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ln 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = 𝑦𝑓 Ä (𝑥) ln 𝑎 = 𝑎 ì(ƒ) 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ln 𝑎
𝑦
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑢 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
(sin 𝑢)Ä = cos 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (cos 𝑢)Ä = cos 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (tan 𝑢)Ä = sec t 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä
(csc 𝑢)Ä = − csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (sec 𝑢)Ä = sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (cot 𝑢)Ä = − csc t 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢′
For more derivative formulas go to the reference sheets at the end of the book.
77
Evaluating Derivatives
From the previous section it becomes obvious that one must use predefined rules in order to
evaluate a derivate but what if the derivative is not in the same form the rules are?
At the beginning, taking a derivative will be pretty straightforward. The real problems are
rarely as straightforward as the predefined rules. The next examples will cover a few of the
more complicated situations.
FYI: There are many formula sheets for inverse trig derivatives. Try to learn how to solve the
problem, as it is the same process for all the situations that occur. One concept understood, or
18+ formulas memorized… The following problem explains the approach.
Example: Inverse Trig Function
𝑑
(𝑐𝑠𝑐 su 𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
What happens often in Calculus is one learns all the previous derivative rules and a few other
things then is asked to perform a derivative such as the indicated inverse trig function. Some
are able to grasp quickly and others are not.
𝑦 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 su 𝑥 ⇔ csc 𝑦 = 𝑥
Since one cannot simply take the derivate of an arc trig function it must be rearranged.
𝑑 𝑑
csc 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ csc 𝑦 = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
There is a problem here, the function is being differentiated with respect to 𝑥 not 𝑦 so the
ê ê
êƒ
csc 𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 is not the same as êƒ
csc 𝑦.
ê ê
Chain Rule: êƒ csc 𝑦 = − csc 𝑦 cot 𝑦 (êƒ 𝑦)
(This is called implicit differentiation.)
Perform the derivate as normal but apply the chain rule and multiple by the derivative of 𝑦 i.e.
ê êÀ
êƒ
𝑦 = êƒ = 𝑦′
(This is called implicit differentiation.)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
− csc 𝑦 cot 𝑦 =1 ⇒ =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 csc 𝑦 cot 𝑦
êÀ
This is êƒ but it is not in terms of 𝑥. Substitutions must be made to put it in terms of x.
The next step is to construct a right triangle from csc 𝑦 = 𝑥

ƒ u
Remember that csc 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ csc 𝑦 = u ⇔ sin 𝑦 = ƒ
78
From this triangle cot 𝑦 & csc 𝑦 must be determined. Do not simply use csc 𝑦 = 𝑥 as that is from
the original function not the derivative.
1 1 1
sin 𝑦 = = =
´(1)t + ’√𝑥 t − 1“
t √1 + 𝑥 t − 1 √𝑥 t
1 1
∵ ³𝑥 t = |𝑥 |, sin 𝑦 = = , csc 𝑦 = |𝑥|
√𝑥 t |𝑥|
√𝑥 t − 1
cot 𝑦 = = ³𝑥 t − 1
1
Putting everything back together
1 𝑑 −1
𝑦Ä = − , ∴ csc su 𝑥 =
| 𝑥 | √𝑥 t − 1 𝑑𝑥 | 𝑥 | √𝑥 t − 1
Example: Implicit Differentiation
êÀ
Given 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 t − 𝑥 find êƒ
ê
Simply take êƒ of the whole equation
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 t 𝑑
[𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 t − 𝑥 ] ⇒ (𝑥𝑦) + 𝑦= 𝑦 − 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
⇒ Î𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 𝑥Ï + = 2𝑦 Î 𝑦Ï − 1 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑦 (1) + = 2𝑦 −1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
êÀ
Feel free to substitute 𝑦 Ä for êƒ
if it is too messy
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 Ä + 𝑦 + 𝑦 Ä = 2𝑦𝑦 Ä − 1 ⇒ 𝑥𝑦 Ä + 𝑦 Ä − 2𝑦𝑦 Ä = −1 − 𝑦
−(1 + 𝑦) 1+𝑦
⇒ 𝑦 Ä (𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑦) = −(1 + 𝑦) ⇒ 𝑦Ä = =
(𝑥 + 1 − 2𝑦) 2𝑦 − 1 − 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑦+1
∴ =
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 − 1 − 𝑥
79
Tangent Lines
Just as in the limit section, the process is identical but instead of the limit definition of a
derivative use the derivative rules.
Example
Find the equation of the tangent line at 𝑥 = 3 for 𝑦 = 𝑥 t
Identify
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 Ä (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎), 𝑎 = 3, 𝑓 (𝑎 ) = 𝑓 (3) = (3)t = 9
𝑑 t
𝑓 Ä (𝑎 ) = 𝑥 = 2𝑥, 𝑓 Ä (3) = 6
𝑑𝑥
Go back and take a look at the difference from the limit definition process and the power rule process.
Now plug everything into 𝑦 − 𝑦J = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥J )

𝑦 − 9 = 6(𝑥 − 3)
∴ 𝑦 = 6𝑥 − 9
Graphing is always good practice
The Antiderivative
Generally you will not be introduced to the antiderivative until the end of the course or the
beginning of Calculus II. I always thought it would be good to put them back-to-back because
students have a hard time going backwards when they have spent 4-months going forwards. It
is kind of like trying to learn to write left-handed when you’re right handed, but if you trained
yourself simultaneously, you would be fluent in both hands.
80
EXTREMELY IMPORTANT: How to Solve
Problems
Here we will look at how solving a problem correctly is done. There are three things to keep in
mind whenever solving a problem.
1. Treat Calculus like a language.

2. 90% of the score comes from the solution.
3. 10% of the score comes from the answer.
Here is an example, do not worry about understanding it yet. It is important to see the separate
breakdowns of the problems.
One of the first problems in Calculus is learning limits. Usually students are able to get the
answers fairly easily but writing out the solution is either misunderstood or unpleasant and
avoided. Look at the first example and then the second example.
Example 1: The incorrect way

𝑥t − 4
Evaluate lim
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
At this point students have a general idea and would continue the problem in the following
fashion, getting the answer correct but losing half the credit on a test for not providing the
correct solution.
𝑥t − 4
𝑥−2
[(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)]
𝑥−2
𝑥+2
4
If this were a 12-point problem, the student would most likely receive 6-points. That is a failing
grade!
Example 2: The correct way
𝑥t − 4
Evaluate lim
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
Solution:
𝑥t − 4 𝑥 t − 2t
lim = lim
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2 ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
= lim
ƒ→t 𝑥−2
81
= lim(𝑥 + 2)
ƒ→t
= (2) + 2
=4
Answer:
Therefore
𝑥t − 4
lim =4
ƒ→t 𝑥 − 2
So the solution is worth the most out of the problem and must be respected. Not writing out
the “𝑙𝑖𝑚” notation can cause a loss of points on each line.
êÀ
A question is generally stated as “𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ), find êƒ ” but this trains the student to try and just
get the answer and be done with it when in reality the question is saying, or should be saying
êÀ
“show 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ⇒ êƒ = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )” what has been done here is that instead of asking for the
answer the question is asking to show the solution.
e. g.
This is how questions will be asked in calculus on online homework and in books. Students will
simply provide the answer as shown.
Question:
𝑑𝑦
if 𝑦 = 𝑥 t , find
𝑑𝑥
Answer:
𝑑𝑦
= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Depending on where one is at in the semester, if this was a 10-point question, the student would receive 2-points.
This is the way the problem should be approached in order to get maximum credit.
Question:
if 𝑦 = 𝑥 t , find 𝑦′
Solution: Using “The Limit Definition of a Derivative”
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = lim
B→J ℎ
t
(𝑥 + ℎ )t − 𝑥 t
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦′ = lim
B→J ℎ
(𝑥 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ ) − 𝑥 t
t t
= lim
B→J ℎ
2𝑥ℎ + ℎt
= lim
B→J ℎ
82
= lim(2𝑥 + ℎ)
B→J
= lim 2𝑥 + lim ℎ
B→J B→J
= 2𝑥 + 0
= 2𝑥
Solution: Using “The Power Rule”
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 t
𝑦 = 𝑥t ⇒ 𝑦Ä = = (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 2𝑥 tsu
= 2𝑥
This is one of the simplest problems in calculus, the point is to show that the solution is what is important, not the answer. There will be more
examples in the tangent line section of how to solve correctly.
Answer:
𝑦 Ä = 2𝑥
Proper notation is very important. The class is more about writing, not the answer.
Calculus Practice Problems
If you can show the following are true, you will be overly prepared for calculus! Do not use
L’Hôpital’s rule but anything else is fair game.
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin(5𝑥 ) sin(6𝑥 )

1) lim =1 2) lim =0 3) lim =5 4) lim =1
ƒ→J 𝑥 ƒ→ß 𝑥 ƒ→J 𝑥 ƒ→J 6𝑥
𝑑 2 𝑑 𝑑 urƒ ·
5) ln(10𝑥 t ) = 6) sin 5𝑥 t = 10𝑥 ∙ cos 5𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 ·
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 7) = 3𝑥 t ∙ 𝑒 urƒ
13
Find the equation of the tangent line for the following at x=1, if possible. You can plug these
into wolframalpha.com to get the answer.
𝑦 = 𝑥t 𝑥 = 𝑦t
ln(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑒 ƒÀ 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
Solutions
All of these problems can be solved via a computer program or calculator. I encourage you to
use apps on your phone such as “Quick Graph” or “Wolfram Alpha” or the same apps are
available on your computer from various sources for free. The point is that you do not need a
solution manual anymore, you can verify everything on your own and that is a very important
part of a college degree i.e. learning how to verify and be confident with your work. Remember,
in the field, you’ll be asked to solve unsolved problems so you must learn how to verify your
work.
83
Quick References
Basic Graphs
𝑦 = 𝑥t 𝑦 = 𝑥r
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
1
𝑦 = √𝑥 𝑦=
𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = 𝑒ƒ 𝑦 = ln 𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = sin 𝑥 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
84
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = csc 𝑥 𝑦 = sec 𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 𝑦 = cot 𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥 = sinsu 𝑥 𝑦 = arccos 𝑥 = cossu 𝑥
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
85
𝑦 = arctan 𝑥 = tansu 𝑥
Arithmetic
𝑎
Ÿ𝑏 𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 ± 𝑏𝑐
𝑎𝑏 ± 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏 ± 𝑐 ) = (𝑏 ± 𝑐 )𝑎 = ± =
𝑐 𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑎−𝑏 𝑏−𝑎 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
= = 𝑏 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑎O Q =
𝑐−𝑑 𝑑−𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑐
𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐 𝑎±𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 Ÿ𝑏 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
=Ÿ ∙Ÿ = = ± 𝑐 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐
𝑏 1 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 Ÿ𝑑
Ÿ𝑐
Exponential
1 1
𝑎u = 𝑎 𝑎J = 1 𝑎sH = = 𝑎H 𝑎H 𝑎§ = 𝑎H¨§
𝑎H 𝑎sH
𝑎H 𝑎 H 𝑎H 𝑎 sH 𝑏H u u H
= 𝑎Hs§ Ÿ = Ÿ = (𝑎 H )§ = O𝑎 § Q (𝑎 H )§ = (𝑎 § )H
𝑎§ 𝑏 𝑏H 𝑏 𝑎H
Radicals
¶ µ u
µ µ
´ √𝑎 = ¶µ
√𝑎 = 𝑎 §H √𝑎H = 𝑎, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 √𝑎H = |𝑎|, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
u u
² ²
u
µ
§ µ𝑎 µ√𝑎 𝑎 H 𝑎 H
√𝑎 = √𝑎 = ³ 𝑎u = 𝑎t √𝑎 § = 𝑎H ´ =µ = u=Ÿ
𝑏 √𝑏 𝑏 H 𝑏
86
Fractions
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 ± 𝑏𝑐 𝑔(𝑥 ) ℎ(𝑥 ) [𝑔(𝑥 )𝑟(𝑥 )] ± [𝑓(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥 )]

± = ± =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑟 (𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑟(𝑥 )
Logarithmic
ln(𝑏)
= log ” 𝑏 𝑦 = log • 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑏 À 𝑒 ≈ 2.72 log” 𝑎 = 1
ln(𝑎)
log ” 1 = 0 log ” 𝑎Í = 𝑢 log ¿ 𝑢 = ln 𝑢 log” 𝑢• = 𝑏 log” 𝑢
𝑢 ln(𝑏)
log ” 𝑢𝑣 = log” 𝑢 + log ” 𝑣 log” = log ” 𝑢 − log” 𝑣 log ” 𝑏 =
𝑣 ln(𝑎)
Å
1
𝑣 = ln 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑒 I 𝑣 = 𝑒 Í ⇒ 𝑢 = ln 𝑣 𝑒=D
𝑛!
HIJ
ln 𝑎 = undefined, 𝑎 ≤ 0 ln 1 = 0 ln 𝑒 Í = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑒 ËÌ Í = 𝑢
𝑢
ln 𝑒 u = 1 ⇒ 𝑒 ËÌ(u) = 1 ln 𝑢• = 𝑏 ln 𝑢 ln 𝑢𝑣 = ln 𝑢 + ln 𝑣 ln = ln 𝑢 − ln 𝑣
𝑣
Other Formulas/Equations
Quadratic Formula
−𝑏 ± √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥=
2𝑎
Discriminant
Two Real Solutions 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0
Repeated Solution 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
Complex Solution (𝑥 = 𝛼 ± 𝛽𝑖 ) if 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0
87
Complete the Square
t
𝑏 t 𝑏t
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎 O𝑥 + Q + 𝑐 −
2𝑎 4𝑎
Other Formulas
Distance Formula Midpoint Formula
𝐷 = ³(𝑥 − 𝑥J )t + (𝑦 − 𝑦J )t 𝑥 + 𝑥J 𝑦 + 𝑦J
𝑀=O , Q
2 2
Equation of a Line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦t − 𝑦u (𝑦t − 𝑦u ) = 𝑚(𝑥t − 𝑥u )
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 =
𝑥t − 𝑥u
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶
Equation of Parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Vertex: (ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑦 = 𝑎 (𝑥 − ℎ )t + 𝑘
Equation of Circle (𝑥 − ℎ )t + (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t = 𝑟 t
Center: (ℎ, 𝑘)
Radius: 𝑟
Equation of Ellipse (𝑥 − ℎ )t (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t
+ =1
𝑎t 𝑏t
Right Point: (ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘)
Left Point: (ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘)
Top Point: (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏)
Bottom Point: (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏)
Equation of Hyperbola (𝑥 − ℎ )t (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t
− =1
𝑎t 𝑏t
Center: (ℎ, 𝑘)
•
Slope: ±”
•
Asymptotes: 𝑦 = ± ” (𝑥 − ℎ) + 𝑘
Vertices: (ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘), (ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘)
Equation of Hyperbola (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t (𝑥 − ℎ )t
− =1
𝑎t 𝑏t
Center: (ℎ, 𝑘)
•
Slope: ±”
•
Vertices: (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏), (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏)
88
Areas
Square: 𝐴 = 𝐿t = 𝑊 t Rectangle: 𝐴=𝐿∙𝑊 Circle: 𝐴 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟t
u u
Ellipse: 𝐴 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑎𝑏 Triangle: 𝐴 = t 𝑏 ∙ ℎ Trapezoid: 𝐴 = t (𝑎 + 𝑏 ) ∙ ℎ
KL
Parallelogram: 𝑏∙ℎ Rhombus: 𝐴 = t
, 𝑝 and 𝑞 are the diagonals
Surface Areas
Cube: 𝐴M = 6𝐿t = 6𝑊 t Box: 𝐴M = 2(𝐿𝑊 + 𝑊𝐻 + 𝐻𝐿) Sphere: 𝐴M = 4𝜋𝑟 t
Cone: 𝐴M = 𝜋𝑟’𝑟 + √ℎt + 𝑟 t “ Cylinder: 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 t
Volumes
¯
Cube: 𝑉 = 𝐿r = 𝑊 r Box: 𝑉 =𝐿∙𝑊∙𝐻 Sphere: 𝑉 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟r
r
u ¯
Cone: 𝑉 = r 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟tℎ Ellipsoid: 𝑉 = r 𝜋 ∙ 𝑎𝑏𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are the radii
Domain Restrictions
𝑢
𝑦= , 𝑣≠0 𝑦 = √𝑢 , 𝑢≥0 𝑦 = ln 𝑢 , 𝑢>0
𝑣
𝑦 = 𝑎Í , none 𝑦 = µ√𝑢 none if 𝑛 is odd, 𝑢 ≥ 0 if 𝑛 is even
Right Triangle
𝑥 𝑦
𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 𝑟t ⇔ 𝑟 = ³𝑥 t + 𝑦 t cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛽 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑥
𝑥 𝑦
𝑦 𝑥
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑥
𝛼 = arctan Ÿ 𝛽 = arctan O Q
𝑥 𝑦
89
1 1 1 1
sin 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
csc 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cot 𝜃 tan 𝜃
1 1 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
csc 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
sec 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
sin(2𝜃) = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos(2𝜃) = 1 − 2 sint 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 = cost 𝜃 − sint 𝜃
cos 2𝜃 = 2 cos t 𝜃 − 1 cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2 sint 𝜃 2 tan 𝜃

tan 2𝜃 =
1 − tant 𝜃
Half Angle Formulas
1 1 1 − cos(2𝜃)
sint 𝜃 = [1 − cos(2𝜃)] cost 𝜃 = [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃)] tant 𝜃 =
2 2 1 + cos(2𝜃)
sin(𝛼 ± 𝛽 ) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 ± cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 cos(𝛼 ± 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 ∓ sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
tan(𝛼 ± 𝛽 ) =
1 1
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽 ) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)] cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽 ) + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2 2
1 1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽 )] cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽 )]
2 2

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
90
Calculus
Infinite Limits
lim 𝑥 H = ∞, 𝑛 > 0 lim 𝑥 sH = 0 , 𝑛 > 0 lim 𝑥 H = 0, 𝑛 < 0

ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
lim 𝑥 sH = ∞, 𝑛 < 0 lim 𝑒 ƒ = ∞ lim 𝑒 sƒ = 0

ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
lim 𝑒 sƒ = 0 lim 𝑒 ƒ = ∞ lim ln 𝑥 = ∞

ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
lim [ln 𝑥 ]su = 0 lim ln[𝑥 su ] = −∞ lim (ln[𝑥 su ])su = 0

ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
𝑎𝑥 § + 𝑎u 𝑥 §su + ⋯ + 𝑎§
lim = 0, 𝑛>𝑚
ƒ→∞ 𝑏𝑥 H + 𝑏u 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ + 𝑎H
𝑎𝑥 § + 𝑎u 𝑥 §su + ⋯ + 𝑎§
lim = ∞, 𝑛<𝑚
ƒ→∞ 𝑏𝑥 H + 𝑏u 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ + 𝑏H
𝑎𝑥 § + 𝑎u 𝑥 §su + ⋯ + 𝑎§ 𝑎
lim = , 𝑛=𝑚
ƒ→∞ 𝑏𝑥 H + 𝑏u 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ + 𝑏H 𝑏
lim sin 𝑥 = −1 to 1, 𝐷𝑁𝐸 lim tan 𝑥 = −∞ to ∞, 𝐷𝑁𝐸

ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
1 1
lim sin O Q = 0 lim cos O Q = 1
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
lim cos 𝑥 = −1 to 1 lim csc 𝑥 = −∞ to − 1& 1 to ∞, DNE
ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
1 1
lim tan O Q = 0 lim csc O Q = ∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
lim sec 𝑥 = −∞ to − 1& 1 to ∞, DNE 1
ƒ→∞ lim sec O Q = 1
ƒ→∞ 𝑥
lim cot 𝑥 = −∞ to ∞ 1
ƒ→∞ lim cot = ∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥
Derivative Formulas (operator)

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: [𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑑 𝑑
d 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥 )
𝑄𝑢𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: Ó Ô=
dx 𝑔(𝑥 ) [𝑔(𝑥 )]t
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔 𝑑
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒: [𝑓 ∘ 𝑔](𝑥) = 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“ = = 𝑓 Ä ’𝑔(𝑥)“ 𝑔(𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
91
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 H 𝑑 H 𝑑𝑦
𝑦= 𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 Hsu 𝑦 = 𝑛𝑦 Hsu
𝑑 ƒ 𝑑 ì(ƒ) 𝑑 1
𝑒 = 𝑒ƒ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ì(ƒ) 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ln 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 𝑑 ƒ 𝑑 ì(ƒ)
ln 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑎 = 𝑎 ƒ ln 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑎 ì(ƒ) 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(sin 𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥 (csc 𝑥 ) = −csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 (cos 𝑥 ) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
(sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 (tan 𝑥 ) = sec t 𝑥 (cot 𝑥 ) = − csc t 𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1 𝑑 −1
sinsu 𝑥 = csc su 𝑥 = cossu 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 t − 1 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 t
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
sec su 𝑥 = tansu 𝑥 = cot su 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 t − 1 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥t 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥t
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
sinh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 csch 𝑥 = − csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥 cosh 𝑥 = sinh 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
sech 𝑥 = − sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 tanh 𝑥 = secht 𝑥 coth 𝑥 = − cscht 𝑥
𝑑 su
1 𝑑 su ]Ä
𝑢Ä
𝑢 ≡ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) : sec 𝑓(𝑥) = ∙ ( ) [
𝑓 𝑥 ∧ sec 𝑢 =
𝑑𝑥 |𝑓(𝑥)|³[𝑓(𝑥 )]t − 1 𝑑𝑥 |𝑢|³[𝑢]t − 1
Derivative Formulas (prime)
These formulas are a little easier to remember but less effective down the road of math
𝑢 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ), 𝑣 = 𝑔 (𝑥 ) ⇔ 𝑢 Ä = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ), 𝑣 Ä = 𝑔 Ä (𝑥 )
Product Rule Quotient Rule Chain Rule
[𝑢𝑣]Ä = 𝑢𝑣 Ä + 𝑣𝑢Ä 𝑢 Ä 𝑣𝑢Ä − 𝑢𝑣 Ä [𝑢(𝑣)]Ä = 𝑢Ä (𝑣)𝑣′

Ö × =
𝑣 𝑣t
[𝑒 Í ]Ä = 𝑢Ä 𝑒 Í 𝑢Ä [𝑎Í ]Ä = 𝑢Ä 𝑎Í ln 𝑢
[ln 𝑢]Ä =
𝑢
[sin 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä cos 𝑢 [cos 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä sin 𝑢 [tan 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä sec t 𝑢
[csc 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csc 𝑢 sec 𝑢 [sec 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 [cot 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csc t 𝑢
𝑢Ä −𝑢Ä 𝑢Ä
[arcsin 𝑢]Ä = [arccos 𝑢]Ä = [arctan 𝑢]Ä =
√1 − 𝑢t √1 − 𝑢t 1 + 𝑢t
−𝑢Ä 𝑢Ä −𝑢Ä
[arccsc 𝑢 =]Ä [arcsec 𝑢 = ]Ä [arccot 𝑢 =]Ä
|𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 |𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 1 + 𝑢t
92
Tangent Lines
There are many ways to write the notations. The following are essentially the same for the
question: Find the equation of the tangent line for 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) when 𝑥u = 𝑎 = 𝑥J .
𝑦O − 𝑦u = 𝑚(𝑥t − 𝑥u )
𝑦O − 𝑦J = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥J )(𝑥 − 𝑥J )
𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑎 )
𝑦O − 𝑓 (𝑎) = lim (𝑥 − 𝑎 )
Ç→Â 𝑥−𝑎
Best practice: Find tangent line at 𝑥 = 𝑎 for 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑦O = 𝑓 Ä (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎), 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
Antiderivatives
Fundamental Theorem’s
𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥, 𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants

I
𝑖) 𝑦 = $ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 (𝑣) ∙ 𝑣 Ä − 𝑓 (𝑢) ∙ 𝑢′
Í
I
𝑦 = $ 𝑓 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 (𝑣 ) ∙ 𝑣 Ä − 𝑓 (𝑎 ) ∙ 𝑎 Ä = 𝑓 (𝑣 ) ∙ 𝑣 Ä − 0 = 𝑓 (𝑣 ) ∙ 𝑣 Ä
”
•
𝑦 = $ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 (𝑏 ) ∙ 𝑏 Ä − 𝑓 (𝑢 ) ∙ 𝑢 Ä = 0 − 𝑓 (𝑢 ) ∙ 𝑢 Ä
Í
= −𝑓 (𝑢) ∙ 𝑢′
Limit Definition of a Definite Integral

H •
𝑖𝑖) lim D 𝑓(𝑥í ) 𝛥𝑥 = $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
H→∞ ”
íIu
𝑏−𝑎
𝛥𝑥 = , 𝑥í = 𝑎 + 𝑖 ∙ 𝛥𝑥
𝑛
93
Common Antiderivatives or Integrals
1 1 r
$ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 $ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 $ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 t + 𝐶 $ 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 +𝐶
2 3
1 1
$ 𝑥 H 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 Hü + 𝐶, 𝑛 ≠ −1 $ 𝑥 su 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑛+1 𝑥
1 ”ƒ 1 ”ƒ¨•
$ 𝑒 ƒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ƒ + 𝐶 $ 𝑒 ”ƒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 +𝐶 $ 𝑒 ”ƒ¨• 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 +𝐶
𝑎 𝑎
1 1 1
$ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝐶
𝑥+1 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎
𝑢Ä
$ 𝑓(𝑢)𝑢′ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐹 (𝑢) + 𝐶 $ 𝑒 Í 𝑢′ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 Í + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑢 = ln|𝑢| + 𝐶
𝑢
The Unit Circle
94
Limits
Translation-
The limit of f of x as x goes to a lim 𝑓(𝑥)

ƒ→”
f of x approaches the limit as x approaches a 𝑓 (𝑥 ) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎
The actual limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 ⇔ 𝐿s = 𝐿¨

ƒ→”
Left hand limit lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿s

ƒ→” 1
Right hand limit lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿¨

ƒ→” :
Limit exists lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim: 𝑓(𝑥)

ƒ→” 1 ƒ→”
Limit does not exists (DNE) lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≠ lim: 𝑓(𝑥 )

ƒ→” 1 ƒ→”
Continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝐿 = 𝐿±

Left Continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝐿s
Right Continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝐿¨
Non-continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 ≠ 𝐿
95
Types of Discontinuity
Jump
Occurs with piecewise functions i.e.
−𝑥, 𝑥<1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = =
𝑥 + 1, 𝑥 ≥ 1
Removable
𝑥 t − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = = ⇒
𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 2)
0
𝑔 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2 ⇒ 𝑥≠2 ∵ 𝑓 (2) =
0
Occurs at holes in the graph
Infinite
𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = r
𝑥 + 𝑥t + 𝑥 + 1
∴ 𝐻𝐴: 𝑦 = 0, 𝑉𝐴: 𝑥 = −2
Occurs at asymptotes
96
Limit of a Constant lim 𝑐 = 𝑐

ƒ→”
Limit of Single Variable lim 𝑥 = 𝑎

ƒ→”
If The Function is Continuous lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

ƒ→”
The Constant Multiple Law lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)

ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Sum and Difference Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Product Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Quotient Law 𝑓 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

lim Ó Ô = ƒ→” , lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
ƒ→” 𝑔 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑔(𝑥) ƒ→”
ƒ→”
H
The Power Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 )]H = Ölim 𝑓(𝑥 )× , 𝑛∈ℕ
ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Root Law lim µ³𝑓(𝑥) = µ´ lim 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑛∈ℕ

ƒ→” ƒ→”
Exponential Law ËÈR ì(ƒ)

lim 𝑎 ì(ƒ) = 𝑎0→S
ƒ→”
Infinite Limits
There are three basic cases for evaluating non-trig/log functions at infinity. This is where the
horizontal asymptote formulas arise -- used in Algebra.
−𝑛
Case 1: 𝑥
𝑛 > 𝑚, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ 𝑥−𝑛
lim =0
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
−𝑛
Case 2: 𝑥
𝑛 < 𝑚, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ 𝑥−𝑛
lim H =∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
−𝑛
Case 3: 𝑥
𝑛 = 𝑚, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
a𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ a 𝑥−𝑛
lim =
ƒ→∞ b𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ b Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
97
Precise Definition of a Limit 𝜺, 𝜹
The limit of f of x as x goes to a lim 𝑓(𝑥)

ƒ→”
f of x approaches the limit as x approaches a 𝑓 (𝑥 ) → 𝐿 as 𝑥 → 𝑎
Limit
For every 𝜖 > 0, there is a 𝛿 > 0 such that 0 < |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝛿 and |𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝐿| < 𝜖
Left Hand Limit
For every 𝜖 > 0, there is a 𝛿 > 0 such that 𝑎 − 𝛿 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 and |𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝐿| < 𝜖
Right Hand Limit
For every 𝜖 > 0, there is a 𝛿 > 0 such that 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑎 + 𝛿 and |𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝐿| < 𝜖
Derivation of “The Difference Quotient”
𝛥𝑦 𝛥𝑦 𝑦 − 𝑦J
𝑚= ⇒ = , 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥J
𝑦 − 𝑦J 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑥J )
⇒ = ,
𝑥 − 𝑥J 𝑥 − 𝑥J
𝛥𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥J ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝛥𝑥 + 𝑥J
𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) 𝑓 (𝛥𝑥 + 𝑥J ) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)

⇒ = ≡
𝑥 − 𝑥J 𝛥𝑥 ℎ
Slope of Secant Line or Difference Quotient
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )

𝑚= ≡ ⇔ ℎ = 𝛥𝑥
ℎ 𝛥𝑥
Intermediate Value Theorem
If 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝑓(𝑎) < 𝑁 < 𝑓(𝑏) and 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏), then there is a 𝑐 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∋
𝑓(𝑐 ) = 𝑁. (∋ means “such that”)
98
Common Limits
Infinite Limits
lim 𝑥 H = ∞, 𝑛 > 0 1 lim 𝑥 H = 0, 𝑛 < 0

ƒ→∞ lim = 0,𝑛 > 0 ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H
1 lim 𝑒 ƒ = ∞ 1
lim = ∞, 𝑛 < 0 ƒ→∞ lim =0
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H ƒ→∞ 𝑒 ƒ
1
lim =∞
lim 𝑒 sƒ = 0 ƒ→∞ 𝑒 sƒ lim ln 𝑥 = ∞
ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
1 1
lim =0 su ] lim =0
ƒ→∞ ln 𝑥 lim ln[𝑥 = −∞ ƒ→∞ ln[𝑥 su ]
ƒ→∞
lim sin 𝑥 = −1 to 1, 𝐷𝑁𝐸 1 lim cos 𝑥 = −1 to 1

ƒ→∞ lim sin O Q = 0 ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥
lim tan 𝑥 = −∞ to ∞, 𝐷𝑁𝐸 1 lim csc 𝑥
ƒ→∞ lim cos O Q = 1 ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥
= −∞ to − 1& 1 to ∞, DNE
1 1 lim sec 𝑥
lim tan O Q = 0 lim csc O Q = ∞ ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
= −∞ to − 1& 1 to ∞, DNE
1 lim cot 𝑥 = −∞ to ∞ 1
lim sec O Q = 1 ƒ→∞ lim cot =∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
99
Derivatives
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )

𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = lim ≡ lim ⇔ ℎ = 𝛥𝑥
B→J ℎ ƒ→ƒX 𝛥𝑥
Notations
0th Derivative 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑌
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1st Derivative 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥
2nd Derivative 𝑑t𝑦
𝑦 ÄÄ = 𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑦 t
3rd Derivative ÄÄÄ ÄÄÄ (
𝑑r𝑦
𝑦 =𝑓 𝑥) = r
𝑑𝑦
4th Derivative 𝑑¯𝑦
𝑦 (¯) = 𝑓 (¯) (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑦 ¯
𝑛DY Derivative 𝑑H 𝑦
𝑦 (H) = 𝑓 (H) (𝑥) =
𝑑𝑦 H
Note:
1. Any derivative after the 3rd is written as 𝑓 (H) (𝑥 ) or 𝑦 (H) not to be confused with a power
ê
2. ê[… ]
is called “The Derivative Operator” it simply means to take the derivative of
whatever follows with respect to whatever is in […].
Time Derivatives
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑑t
𝑑𝑡 t
100
The Slope Notation for Calculus
𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓 (𝑎 ) 𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ ) − 𝑓 (𝑎 )
𝑚 = lim ≡ lim =𝑚
ƒ→” 𝑥−𝑎 B→J ℎ
Slope of function aka derivative:

𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = lim
B→J ℎ
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑦J = 𝑓 (𝑥J )
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥J ) = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑥J )
Tangent Line
𝑓 (𝑥 ), 𝑥=𝑎 𝑦O = 𝑓 Ä (𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎)
Physics Notation
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑t𝑠
𝑎 = 𝑎 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑣 = 𝑣̇ = t = 𝑠 ÄÄ (𝑡) = 𝑠 ÄÄ = 𝑠̈ ,
Ä Ä
2nd Derivative Acceleration
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
101
Derivative Rules (operator notations)
Derivative of a 𝑑
𝑐=0
Constant 𝑑𝑥
Sum and Difference 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑

[𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔 (𝑥 )
Power Rule 𝑑 H
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 Hsu
𝑑𝑥
Constant Multiple Rule 𝑑 𝑑

𝑐𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Product Rule 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑓(𝑥 )
Quotient Rule 𝑑 𝑑
Ó Ô=
Chain Rule 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔
[𝑓 ∘ 𝑔](𝑥) = Ð𝑓’𝑔(𝑥)“Ò = ⋅ = 𝑓′’𝑔(𝑥 )“ ∙ 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑥
102
Derivative Rules (prime notations)
Derivative of a (𝑐 )Ä = 0
Constant
Power Rule (𝑥 H )′ = 𝑛𝑥 Hsu
Constant Multiple Rule (𝑐𝑢)Ä = 𝑐𝑢′
Product Rule [𝑢𝑣]Ä = 𝑢𝑣 Ä + 𝑣𝑢′
Quotient Rule 𝑢 Ä 𝑣𝑢Ä − 𝑢𝑣′

Ö × =
𝑣 𝑣t
Chain Rule [𝑢(𝑣)]′ = 𝑢Ä (𝑣) ∙ 𝑣′
Exponential and Logarithmic
Operator Prime
exp{u} 𝑑 ì(ƒ) (𝑒 Í )Ä = 𝑒 Í ⋅ 𝑢′
𝑒 = 𝑒 ì(ƒ) ∙ 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Natural Log 𝑑 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 𝑢Ä
ln 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = [ln(𝑢)]Ä =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑢
Base Log 𝑑 1 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 1 𝑢Ä
ËÌ ” log • 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ⋅ [log• 𝑢]Ä = ⋅
Note: log• 𝑎 ≡
ËÌ • 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑏 𝑓(𝑥 ) ln 𝑏 𝑢
Exponential 𝑑 ì(ƒ) (𝑎Í )Ä = 𝑎Í 𝑢Ä ln 𝑎

𝑑𝑥
Inverse Function Derivative
𝑑 su 1
𝑓 (𝑥 )5 = Ä su , 𝑓 su (𝑎) = 𝑏 ⇔ 𝑓 (𝑏) = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 ” 𝑓 ’𝑓 (𝑎)“
103
Trig Derivatives
Standard
(sin 𝑢)Ä = cos 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (cos 𝑢)Ä = − sin 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (tan 𝑢)Ä = sec t 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä

Inverse
𝑢′ 𝑢′ 𝑢′
(sinsu 𝑢)Ä = (cossu 𝑢)Ä = − (tansu 𝑢)Ä =
√1 − 𝑢t √1 − 𝑢t 1 + 𝑢t
𝑢′ 𝑢′ 𝑢′
(csc su 𝑢)Ä = − (sec su 𝑢)Ä = (cot su 𝑢)Ä = −
|𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 |𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 1 + 𝑢t
Common Derivatives
Operator
𝑒 = 𝑒ƒ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ì(ƒ) 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ln 𝑥 =
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1 𝑑 −1
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 t − 1 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 t
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 t − 1 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥t 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥t
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
104
Prime
[𝑒 Í ]Ä = 𝑢Ä 𝑒 Í 𝑢Ä [𝑎Í ]Ä = 𝑢Ä 𝑎Í ln 𝑎
[ln 𝑢]Ä =
𝑢
[csc 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 [sec 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 [cot 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csc t 𝑢
√1 − 𝑢t √1 − 𝑢t 1 + 𝑢t
[arccsc 𝑢]Ä = [arcsec 𝑢]Ä = [arccot 𝑢]Ä =
|𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 |𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 1 + 𝑢t
Implicit Differentiation
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
[ 𝒚] = 𝑦Ä
𝑑 [ 𝒙] 𝑑𝑥
Always pay attention to the variables
𝑑 t 𝑑
𝑦 2(𝑦)tsu 𝑦 = 2𝑦𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Chain/Power Rule 𝑑 H 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑛𝑦 Hsu ≡ 𝑛𝑦 Hsu 𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Chain/Product 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑥 +𝑦 ≡ 𝑥𝑦 Ä + 𝑦
Chain/Quotient 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦′
O Q= ≡
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑦t 𝑦t
Logarithmic 𝑑 𝑦Ä
ln 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
Exponential 𝑑 À
𝑎 = 𝑦 Ä 𝑎 À ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
Euler’s Number 𝑑 À
𝑒 = 𝑦Ä𝑒À
𝑑𝑥
Trigonometric 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑦 ⋅ = cos 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Tangent Line
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑦O = 𝑓 Ä (𝑎, 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑏
105
Related Rates
The idea for related rates, in general, is to find the equation that relates geometrically to the
question, implicitly differentiate it, and then plug in the given variables and solve for the
unknown. Here are a few examples i.e. just use the equation/formula that mimics the object in
question.
Right triangle 𝑎t + 𝑏t = 𝑐 t ⇒ 𝑎𝑎Ä (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑏Ä (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑐 Ä (𝑡)

Circle 𝑑𝐴
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 t ⇒ = 2𝜋𝑟𝑟 Ä 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Sphere 4 𝑑𝑟
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 r ⇒ 𝑉 Ä (𝑡) = 4𝜋𝑟 t
3 𝑑𝑡
Notation
𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ 2 𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ
sinh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 = ƒ
2 𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ
ƒ 𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ
2 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
sech 𝑥 = ƒ cosh 𝑥 = coth 𝑥 = ƒ
𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ 2 𝑒 − 𝑒 sƒ
106
Graphs
𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ 2
sinh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 =
2 𝑒ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ 2
cosh 𝑥 = sech 𝑥 =
2 𝑒ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
tanh 𝑥 = coth 𝑥 =
𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ
107
Identities
sinhsu 𝑥 = ln Ö𝑥 + ³𝑥 t + 1× , −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞
1 1+𝑥
2 1−𝑥
Derivatives
Standard
[sinh 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢′ cosh 𝑢 [cosh 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä sinh 𝑢 [tanh 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä secht 𝑢

[csch 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csch 𝑢 coth 𝑢 [sech 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä sech 𝑢 tanh 𝑢 [coth 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä cscht 𝑢
Inverse
𝑢Ä 𝑢Ä 𝑢Ä
[sinhsu 𝑢]Ä = [coshsu 𝑢]Ä = [tanhsu 𝑢]Ä =
√1 + 𝑢t √𝑢t − 1 1 − 𝑢t
su
[csch ]Ä
𝑢 =− [sech su ]Ä
𝑢 =− [coth su ]Ä
𝑢 =
|𝑢|√1 + 𝑢t 𝑢√1 − 𝑢t 1 − 𝑢t
108
Extrema
Graphing Process
i) Identify the domain of the function, asymptotes, and intercepts.
ii) Compute the first derivative, set it equal to zero and solve for 𝑦 Ä = 0, 𝑦 Ä = undefined
(critical numbers).
iii) Identify whether the first derivative is positive or negative to the left and right of
each critical number. If it is positive, it is increasing. If it is negative, it is decreasing.
iv) Compute the second derivative, set it equal to zero and solve 𝑦 ÄÄ = 0, 𝑦 Ä ′ =
undefined (critical numbers).
v) Identify whether the second derivative is positive or negative to the left and right of
each critical number. If it is positive, it is concave up. If it is negative, it is concave
down.
vi) Verify that the intervals of increasing, decreasing and concavity line up with the
domain and then identify whether the critical numbers are maximums, minimums
or points of inflection.
vii) Use this information to graph the function.
Critical Numbers
Critical numbers occur where the derivative(s) is equal to zero and or undefined.
Max/Min
Absolute Maximum Absolute Minimum Local Max Local Min
𝑓(𝑐 ) ≥ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∀ƒ ∈ 𝐷 𝑓 (𝑐 ) ≤ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∀ƒ ∈ 𝐷 𝑓(𝑐 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥 ) ∀ƒ 𝑥 → 𝑐 𝑓(𝑐 ) ≥ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ∀ƒ 𝑥 → 𝑐
Note: Absolute max/min can occur at locals i.e. if the local is the highest/lowest point on the
graph, it is also absolute.
The max/min occur only if 𝑓(𝑐 ) is defined i.e. the function must be continuous at the critical
number or end of intervals.
109
Increasing and decreasing
Wherever the first derivative is positive, the function is increasing. Wherever the first
derivative is negative, the function is decreasing.
Concavity
Wherever the second derivative is positive, the function is concave up. Wherever the second
derivative is negative, the function is concave down.
Points of inflection
A point of inflection occurs when to the left/right of the critical number have opposite
concavity, and 𝑓 (𝑐 ) is defined.
Theorems
Rolle’s Theorem
If the following three conditions hold, there is a value in the interval (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓′(𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒) = 0
1) 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]
2) 𝑓 is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏)
3) 𝑓 (𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
Mean Value Theorem
If the following two conditions hold true, then there is a value in (𝑎, 𝑏) such that
𝑓 (𝑏 ) − 𝑓 (𝑎 )
𝑓 Ä (𝑐 ) =
𝑏−𝑎
1) 𝑓 is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]
2) 𝑓 is differentiable on (𝑎, 𝑏)
3) Simply verify the first two conditions, and the solve for 𝑐 in the above equations, and
then verify 𝑐 is in (𝑎, 𝑏)
First & Second Derivative Test
1st: The first test is too simply test the left and right side of the critical number(s) to see if the
function is increasing/decreasing and then if 𝑓 is defined at that critical number it is a
max/min.
2nd: For the second derivative test, there is a maximum or a minimum if the following are true.
Minimum Maximum Test Fails

𝑓 Ä (𝑐 ) = 0 ∧ 𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑐 ) > 0 𝑓 Ä (𝑐 ) = 0 ∧ 𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑐 ) < 0 𝑓 Ä (𝑐 ) = 0 ∧ 𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑐 ) = 0
110
L’Hospital’s Rule
Indeterminate Forms
0 ±∞ ∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 ⋅ ∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ± ƒ→”
ƒ→” 0 ƒ→” ±∞ ƒ→” ∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∞ − ∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0J lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞J
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→”
Rule
If the limit is one of the following forms:
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {0 ⋅ ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0J , 1∞ , ∞J }
ƒ→”
and can the be manipulated into on of the following forms:
𝑔 (𝑥 ) 0 ±∞ ∞
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ~ lim =[ , ,± \
ƒ→” ƒ→” ℎ (𝑥 ) 0 ±∞ ∞
Then
𝑔 (𝑥 ) 𝑔′(𝑥 ) 𝑔′′(𝑥 ) 𝑔(H) (𝑥)

lim = lim = lim = ⋯ lim (H)
ƒ→” ℎ (𝑥 ) ƒ→” ℎ′(𝑥 ) ƒ→” ℎ′′(𝑥 ) ƒ→” ℎ (𝑥 )
Process
You will need to perform manipulations to the functions in order to use this rule (in general).
The most common scenario is applying a logarithmic rule when you have a exponential
function
Let 𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑥 ), and 𝑣 = 𝑔(𝑥 )
ËÌ I ËÌ I
( u ) ËÈR ( u )
] 0→S
lim 𝑔(𝑥 )ì(ƒ) = lim 𝑣 Í = lim 𝑒 ËÌ I = lim 𝑒 Í ËÌ I = lim 𝑒 Í = 𝑒 Í
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→”
111
ê
ËÌ I
ËÈR êƒ
J ∞ 0→S ê u
= 𝑒J = 𝑒 ∞ =ℋ 𝑒 êƒ Í
Now you may get the exponent into the appropriate indeterminate form, and take the ratio of
derivatives.
Note: The previous problems, is a common problem in school. There are many different
manipulations for different functions. To list them all would be impossible, and it would take
away from the purpose of learning problem solving skills. You will need to use the entire
algebraic, limit, and derivative rules together in order to successfully solve the problems.
Optimization
(In general) Optimization is to simply find two functions that fit a geometric shape i.e. one that
represents the geometry, and the other to fit the number given in the problem e.g. area of
rectangle with perimeter P. Rearrange to plug one function in the other and then use derivative
tests to find the max/min(s).
General Idea: 𝐴(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦, 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑃
Max are of rectangle with perimeter 𝑃 𝑃 − 2𝑥

∴ 𝐴 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 O Q
2
Once you find the function that you are trying to optimize, in this case “max area” use the
derivative tests to find the values in question.
Business Formulas
Cost Function 𝐶 (𝑥 )
Marginal Cost Function 𝑑
𝐶 Ä (𝑥 ) = 𝐶 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Demand/Price function (price per unit) 𝑝( 𝑥 )
Revenue 𝑅 (𝑥 ) = 𝑝 (𝑥 ) ⋅ 𝑥
Marginal Revenue 𝑑
𝑅 Ä (𝑥 ) = 𝑅 (𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥 ) + 𝑥𝑝Ä (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Profit Function 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑅 (𝑥 ) − 𝐶 (𝑥 )
Marginal Profit Function 𝑃 Ä (𝑥 ) = 𝑅 Ä (𝑥 ) − 𝐶 Ä (𝑥 )
Average Profit Function 𝑃 (𝑥 )
𝑃_ (𝑥 ) =
𝑥
112
Parametric and Polar Operations
Notations
𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝑡 ), 𝑡 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑦 = 𝑦 (𝑡 ), 𝑡 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 Ä (𝑡 ) = ≡ 𝑥̇ 𝑦 Ä (𝑡 ) = ≡ 𝑦̇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
First Derivative
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
= = ⋅ =
𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥
Ä 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Second Derivative
Ä 𝑑 Ä Ä 𝑑 Ä Ä 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 Ä 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑑t𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 (𝑡) − 𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 – 𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
= = = =
𝑑𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 Ä (𝑡) [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (1) 𝑥 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
= = = = 𝑑𝑡Ä 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t 𝑥 (𝑡 )
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 t 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
∴ t=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Trigonometric
𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 𝑟t 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑦
𝜃 = arctan
𝑥
Circle
𝑥−ℎ t 𝑦−𝑘 t 𝑥−ℎ 𝑦−𝑘

Î Ï +Î Ï = 1 = (cos 𝜃 )t + (sin 𝜃 )t ⇒ = cos 𝜃 ∧ = sin 𝜃 ,
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋]
Ellipse
113
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋]
Polar Derivative
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑟(𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 𝑟 Ä (𝜃) sin 𝜃
= = = Ä
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟 𝑑
𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑟 (𝜃) cos 𝜃 − 𝑟(𝜃) sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Polar Equations for Ellipse
𝑥t 𝑦t 0≤𝑎<𝑏 𝑐 t = 𝑎t − 𝑏t
+ =1 Foci (±𝑐, 0)
𝑎t 𝑏t
Vertices (±𝑎, 0)
𝑥t 𝑦t 0≤𝑎<𝑏 𝑐 t = 𝑎t − 𝑏t
+ =1 Foci (0, ±𝑐, )
𝑏t 𝑎t
Vertices (0, ±𝑎, )
𝑒<1 𝑒 = eccentricity, 𝑑 = diretrix

𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑑 𝑐 t = 𝑎t − 𝑏t
𝑟 (𝜃 ) = 𝑟 (𝜃 ) =
𝑎 ± 𝑒 cos 𝜃 𝑎 ± 𝑒 sin 𝜃
𝑐
𝑒=
𝑎
Polar Equations for Hyperbola
𝑥t 𝑦t 𝑐 t = 𝑎t + 𝑏t
− =1 Foci (±𝑐, 0)
𝑎t 𝑏t
Vertices (±𝑎, 0)
•
Asymptotes 𝑦 = ± ” 𝑥
𝑦t 𝑥t 𝑐 t = 𝑎t + 𝑏t
− =1 Foci (0, ±𝑐, )
𝑎t 𝑏t
Vertices (0, ±𝑎, )
”
Asymptotes 𝑦 = ± • 𝑥
𝑒 > 11 𝑒 = eccentricity, 𝑑 = diretrix

𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑑 𝑐 t = 𝑎t + 𝑏t
𝑟 (𝜃 ) = 𝑟 (𝜃 ) =
𝑎 ± 𝑒 cos 𝜃 𝑎 ± 𝑒 sin 𝜃
𝑐
𝑒=
𝑎
Polar Equations for Parabola
𝑒=1 𝑒 = eccentricity, 𝑑 = diretrix 𝑦 t = 4𝑝𝑥, 𝑑 = −𝑝

𝑥 t = 4𝑝𝑦, 𝑑 = −𝑝
114
𝑑 𝑑
𝑟 (𝜃 ) = 𝑟 (𝜃 ) =
𝑎 ± cos 𝜃 𝑎 ± sin 𝜃
Antiderivatives & Integration

Basic Rules
Power Rule for antiderivatives 1

𝑦Ä = 𝑥H ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 H + 𝐶 ⇔ 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
Exponential 𝑎ƒ
𝑦 Ä = 𝑎ƒ ⇒ 𝑦= +𝐶
ln(𝑎)
Natural Log (case 1) 1
𝑦Ä = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥
Natural Log (case 2) 1 1
𝑦Ä = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝐶
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎
Natural Log (case 3) 𝑢 Ä (𝑥 )
𝑦Ä = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln|𝑢(𝑥 )| + 𝐶
𝑢 (𝑥 )
Euler’s Number (case 1) 1 ”ƒ
𝑦 Ä = 𝑒 ”ƒ ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 +𝐶
𝑎
Euler’s Number (case 2) 1
𝑦 Ä = 𝑒 ”ƒ¨• ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 ”ƒ¨• + 𝐶
𝑎
Euler’s Number (case 3) 𝑦 Ä = 𝑢Ä (𝑥 )𝑒 Í(ƒ) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 Í(ƒ) + 𝐶
Anti-Chain-Rule Substitution Method 𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä ’𝑔(𝑥)“𝑔Ä (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“ + 𝐶
Riemann Sum for Area Approximation
H
𝑏−𝑎
𝐴 ≈ lim D 𝑓 (𝑥í∗ ) 𝛥𝑥 , 𝛥𝑥 = , 𝑥í = 𝑎 + 𝑖 ∙ 𝛥𝑥
H→∞ 𝑛
íIu
H H
𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)
D 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑛 D𝑖 =
2
íIu íIu
H H H
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
D 𝑐𝑓(𝑥í ) = 𝑐 D 𝑓 (𝑥í ) D 𝑖t =
6
íIu íIu íIu
H H H H t
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
r
D[𝑓 (𝑥í ) ± 𝑔(𝑥í )] = D 𝑓(𝑥í ) ± D 𝑔(𝑥í ) D𝑖 = Ó Ô
2
íIu íIu íIu íIu
115
Area Approximation Rules
Midpoint Rule
•
𝑏−𝑎 𝑥u + 𝑥t 𝑥t + 𝑥r
$ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ≈ Î𝑓 O Q+𝑓O Q+ ⋯Ï
” 𝑛 2 2
Trapezoid Rule
•
𝑏−𝑎
$ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ≈ [𝑓 (𝑥u ) + 2𝑓 (𝑥t ) + 2𝑓(𝑥r ) + ⋯ + 2𝑓(𝑥Hsu ) + 𝑓 (𝑥H )]
” 2𝑛
The Integral Notation ∫

H •
lim D 𝑓(𝑥í∗ ) 𝛥𝑥 ≡ $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
H→∞ ”
íIu
Definite Integral Properties
• •
$ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎) $ 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑎)
” ”
” • •
$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 $ 𝑐𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” ” ”
” •
$ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 $ [𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
s” ”
⇔ 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓 (𝑥 ) (odd) • •
= $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ± $ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” ”
” ” • 𝒌 ”
$ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + $ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
s” J ” ” 𝒌
⇔ 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) (even)
NOTE:
• ”
$ 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ≠ $ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ⋅ $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
” •
116
Fundamental Theorems
Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑢 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑣 for the following:

I
Í
I
”
•
Í
= −𝑓 (𝑢) ∙ 𝑢′
H •
𝑖𝑖) lim D 𝑓(𝑥í∗ ) 𝛥𝑥 = $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
H→∞ ”
íIu
𝑏−𝑎
𝛥𝑥 = , 𝑥í = 𝑎 + 𝑖 ∙ 𝛥𝑥
𝑛
Differential Equation (1st order)
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ⇒ = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥) ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ⇒ $ 𝑑𝑦 = $ 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑐u = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐t ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐t − 𝑐u = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑐r ≡ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶
117
Common Integrals
1
$ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 $ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 $ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 t + 𝐶
2
1 1 1
$ 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 r + 𝐶 $ 𝑥 H 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 Hü + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶
3 𝑛+1 𝑥
⇔ 𝑛 ≠ −1
1 ”ƒ 1 ”ƒ¨•
𝑎 𝑎
1 1 1
$ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝐶 $ 𝑓 (𝑢)𝑢′ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐹 (𝑢) + 𝐶
𝑢Ä •
$ 𝑒 Í 𝑢′ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 Í + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑢 = ln|𝑢| + 𝐶 $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑏 ) − 𝐹 (𝑎 )
𝑢 ”
$ 𝑢Ä cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä sec t 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢
+𝐶
$ 𝑢Ä csc 𝑢 sec 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä csc t 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cot 𝑢
+𝐶
$ 𝑑𝑢 = arcsin 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑢 = arccos 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑢 = arctan 𝑢
√1 − 𝑢t √1 − 𝑢t 1 + 𝑢t
+ 𝐶
Definite Integral Rules
118
Substitution • Ñ(•)
$ 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“𝑔Ä (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
” Ñ(”)
Integration by Parts • •
$ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔Ä (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)|•” − $ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” ”
Let
𝑢 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑔Ä (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑔 (𝑥 )
Then
• •
$ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣|•” − $ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
” ”
Trig Substitution
³𝑎t − 𝑥 t ³𝑎t + 𝑥 t ³𝑥 t − 𝑎t
1 − sint 𝜃 = cos t 𝜃 1 + tant 𝜃 = sec t 𝜃 sec t 𝜃 − 1 = tant 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝜃 ∈ Ö− , × 𝜃 ∈ Ÿ− , 𝜃 ∈ Ö0, ∨ 𝜃 ∈ Î𝜋, Q
2 2 2 2 2 2
Trig Identity
sin 𝑥 1 𝑑 1 𝑑𝑢
$ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑑𝑥 = − $ ⋅ (− sin 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥, ln[𝑢(𝑥 )] =
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
1
= − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶 = ln 5 5 + 𝐶 = ln|sec 𝑥| + 𝐶
cos 𝑥
Partial Fractions
𝑝 (𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵 𝑝( 𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + = + +
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 [𝑥 t (𝑥 + 1)] 𝑥 𝑥 t 𝑥 + 1
𝑝 (𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑝 (𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
= + t = + t + t
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
t 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
t t 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)t
119
Integration Steps
Ask yourself the following questions:
1. Is the integrand in integratable form?

2. Can I perform a function or trig-identity manipulation?
3. Should I use U-Substitution or Trig-Substitution?
4. Integration by Parts?
5. Partial fraction decomposition?
For a definite integral always check to see if the function is defined on the bounds
Improper Integration
Infinite Bounds
¨∞ J ¨∞ J a²
$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = lim $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + lim $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
s∞ s∞ J a- →s∞ a a² →∞ J
-
Undefined Bounds
• J a²
$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) ⇒ lim1 $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + lim: $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” a- →” a- a² →• J
Areas, Volumes, and Curve Length
Area with respect to an axis
Cartesian
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• ê
𝐴 = $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ⇔ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≥ 0 ∀ƒ ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝐴 = $ 𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 ⇔ 𝑔(𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀À ∈ [𝑐, 𝑑 ]
” š
120
Area between curves
Given two curves 𝑓 ∧ 𝑔 set them equal to each other to find all x-coordinates of intersection.
•
𝐴 = $ [𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥 ⇔ 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥 ) ∀ƒ ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
”
or
ƒ b:- ƒ² ƒ·
𝐴=$ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥 = c$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥c + c$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥c + ⋯
ƒb ƒ- ƒ²
Polar Area
1 d² 1 d²
𝐴 = $ [𝑟(𝜃)] 𝑑𝜃 ∧ 𝐴 = $ ([𝑅(𝜃)]t − [𝑟(𝜃)])t 𝑑𝜃
t
2 d- 2 d-
Volume about an axis (Disk Method)
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
• ê
𝑉 = 𝜋 $ [𝑓(𝑥 )]t 𝑑𝑥 ⇔ 𝑓 (𝑥) ≥ 0 ∀ƒ ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑉 = 𝜋 $ [𝑔(𝑦)]t 𝑑𝑦 ⇔ 𝑔(𝑦) ≥ 0 ∀À ∈ [𝑐, 𝑑 ]
” š
Volume between curves (Washer Method)
Given two curves 𝑓 ∧ 𝑔 set them equal to each other to find all x-coordinates of intersection.
•
𝑉 = 𝜋 $ ([𝑓 (𝑥)]t − [𝑔(𝑥 )]t ) 𝑑𝑥 ⇔ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥) ∀ƒ ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
”
Cylindrical Shell Method
Rotate about 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 Rotate about 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• ê
𝑉 = $ 2𝜋𝑥𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑉 = $ 2𝜋𝑦𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
” š
121
Arc Length
Cartesian Polar Parametric
• d- 𝐿
𝐿 = $ ³1 − [𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )]t 𝑑𝑥 𝐿 = $ ³[𝑟(𝜃)]t − [𝑟 Ä (𝜃)]t 𝑑𝜃 a²
” d- = $ ³[𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t − [𝑦 Ä (𝑡)]t 𝑑𝑡
a-
Surface Area
Cartesian Polar Parametric
• d- a²
𝑆ƒs”ƒíM = $ 2𝜋𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑙, 𝑆ƒs”ƒíM = $ 2𝜋𝑟(𝜃) cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑙 𝑆ƒs”ƒíM = $ 2𝜋𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑙,
” d- a-
𝑑𝑙 = ³1 − [𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )]t 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑙 = ³[𝑟(𝜃)]t − [𝑟 Ä (𝜃)]t 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑙 = ³[𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t − [𝑦 Ä (𝑡)]t 𝑑𝜃
• d- a²
𝑆Às”ƒíM = $ 2𝜋𝑔(𝑦) 𝑑𝑙, 𝑆Às”ƒíM = $ 2𝜋𝑟(𝜃) sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑙 𝑆Às”ƒíM = $ 2𝜋𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑙,
” d- a-
𝑑𝑙 = ³1 − [𝑔Ä (𝑦)]t 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑙 = ³[𝑟(𝜃)]t − [𝑟 Ä (𝜃)]t 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑙 = ³[𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t − [𝑦 Ä (𝑡)]t 𝑑𝜃
Physics Applications
Center of Mass with Constant Density
𝒙-coordinate 𝒚-coordinate
𝑀À 𝑀ƒ
𝑥̅ = 𝑦_ =
𝑚 𝑚
•
𝜌 •
𝑀À = 𝜌 $ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑀ƒ = $ [𝑓 (𝑥 )]t 𝑑𝑥
” 2 ”
• •
𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌 $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≥ 0 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴 = 𝜌 $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ 0 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
” ”
1 • 1 •
∴ 𝑥̅ = $ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ∴ 𝑦_ = $ [𝑓(𝑥 )]t 𝑑𝑥
𝐴 ” 2𝐴 ”
1 • 1 •
𝑥̅ = $ 𝑥[𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )] 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓 ≥ 𝑔 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑀ƒ = $ [𝑓 (𝑥 )]t − [𝑔(𝑥 )]t 𝑑𝑥, 𝑓 ≥ 𝑔
𝐴 ” 2𝐴 ”
∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
Sequences vs Series
Sequence Series
∞
𝑎H = {𝑎J , 𝑎u , 𝑎t , … } D 𝑎H = 𝑎J + 𝑎u + 𝑎t + ⋯
HIJ
122
Sequence Tests
𝑎H Converges 𝑎H Diverges
lim 𝑎H = 𝐿 lim 𝑎H = ±∞ ∨ 𝐷𝑁𝐸
H→∞ H→∞
Series Tests
Test Form Condition Diverges Converges
Geometric ∞
|𝒓| ≥ 𝟏 𝒂
Hsu |𝒓| < 𝟏 𝑺 =
D 𝑎𝑟 𝟏−𝒓
HIu
∞
P-Series 1 𝒑≤𝟏 𝒑>𝟏
D
𝑛K
HIu
∞ ∞ ∞
Integral 𝒂𝒏 is positive and
Test D 𝑎H decreasing on [𝟏, ∞) $ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = ∞ $ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌
𝟏 𝟏
HIu
𝟏
𝒆. 𝒈. 𝒂𝒏 =
𝒏𝟐
𝟏
⇒ 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐
∞
Comparison 𝒂𝒏 , 𝒃𝒏 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝒂𝒏 ≥ 𝒃𝒏 ∀𝒏 𝒂𝒏 ≤ 𝒃𝒏 ∀𝒏
D 𝑎H
HIu ⇔ 𝒃𝒏 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬 ⇔ 𝒃𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬
∞
Limit 𝒂𝒏 , 𝒃𝒏 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝜮𝒃𝒏 𝐃𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬 𝜮𝒃𝒏 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬
Comparison D 𝑎H
HIu 𝒂𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝒌, 𝒌>𝟎
𝒏→∞ 𝒃𝒏
∞
Alternating Does not show 𝒄𝒏¨𝟏 ≤ 𝒄𝒏 ∀𝒏
Series D (−1)Hsu 𝑐H 𝒄𝒏 > 𝟎 divergence &
HIu 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒄𝒏 = 𝟎
𝒏→∞
Ratio ∞ 𝒂𝒏¨𝟏 𝒂𝒏¨𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 5 5>𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 5 5<𝟏
D 𝑎H 𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏 𝒏→∞ 𝒂𝒏
HIu 𝐨𝐫 = ∞
∞
Root 𝒏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ³|𝒂𝒏 | > 𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒏³|𝒂𝒏 | < 𝟏
D 𝑎H 𝒏→∞ 𝒏→∞
𝐨𝐫 = ∞
HIu
Test for Absolute/Conditional Absolutely Conditionally Convergent
Convergence Convergent
∞ ∞ ∞
If D 𝑎H 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐧 D |𝑎H | Converges D |𝑎H | Diverges

HIu HIu HIu
If all else fails, perform “The nth Term for Divergence Test” i.e. if lim 𝑎H ≠ 0 or 𝐷𝑁𝐸 then the
H→∞
sum diverges—does not show convergence.
123
Taylor series
𝑓 (H) (𝑎) 𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑥) 𝑓 ÄÄÄ (𝑥 )
𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≈ (𝑥 − 𝑎)H = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )(𝑥 − 𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎 )t + (𝑥 − 1)r + ⋯
𝑛! 2! 3!
Maclaurin Series
𝑓 (H) (0) 𝑓 ÄÄ (0) t 𝑓 ÄÄÄ (0) r

𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≈ (𝑥 )H = 𝑓 (0) + 𝑓 Ä (0)𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
𝑛! 2! 3!
Power Series
∞
1
= D [𝑢 ]H
1−𝑢
HIJ
Radius/Interval of Converges
The ROC and interval of convergence for a function is found by putting 𝑓 into it’s power series
representation, and then applying, in general, either “geometric series test”, “ratio test”, and or
“root test”. Note: The ratio/root test require you to plug the interval ends back in to the series,
and use whatever test is necessary to find if the series is divergent/convergent at that end-
point.
From |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅
𝐼 = [𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅] 𝐼 = [𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅) 𝐼 = (𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅] 𝐼 = ( 𝑎 − 𝑅, 𝑎 + 𝑅)
124
3D Calculus
Magnitude
𝑣⃗ = 𝐯 = 〈𝑣u , 𝑣t , 𝑣r 〉 ⇒ |𝑣⃗| = ‖𝐯‖ = ´𝑣ut + 𝑣tt + 𝑣rt
Unit Vectors
𝑣⃗ 𝐯
𝑣Š = ≡ 𝐯Š = 𝐮 =
|𝑣⃗| ‖𝐯‖
𝚤̂ ≡ 𝐢 𝚥̂ ≡ 𝐣 𝑘• ≡ 𝐤
𝚤̂ = 〈1, 0, 0〉 𝚥̂ = 〈0, 1, 0〉 𝑘• = 〈1, 0, 0〉
Note:
𝑣⃗ = 〈𝑣u , 𝑣t , 𝑣r 〉 = 𝑣u 〈1, 0, 0〉 + 𝑣t 〈0, 1, 0〉 + 𝑣r 〈0, 0, 1〉 = 𝑣u 𝚤̂ + 𝑣t 𝚥̂ + 𝑣r 𝑘• = 𝑣u 𝐢 + 𝑣t 𝐣 + 𝑣r 𝐤
Dot/Cross Product
Dot
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏’⃗ = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛
= 〈𝑎u , 𝑎t , 𝑎r 〉 ⋅ 〈𝑏u , 𝑏t , 𝑏r 〉
= 𝑎u 𝑏u + 𝑎t 𝑏t + 𝑎r 𝑏r
Properties
𝐚 ⋅ 𝐚 = ‖𝐚‖ t 𝐚⋅𝐛=𝐛⋅𝐚
𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 + 𝐜) = 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛 + 𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜 (k𝐚) ⋅ 𝐛 = k(𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛) = 𝐚 ⋅ (k𝐛)
Cross
𝑎⃗ × 𝑏’⃗ = 𝐚 × 𝐛 = 〈𝑎u , 𝑎t , 𝑎r 〉 × 〈𝑏u , 𝑏t , 𝑏r 〉
𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ 𝑘•
= ”𝑎u 𝑎t 𝑎r ”
𝑏u 𝑏t 𝑏r
𝑎t 𝑎r 𝑎u 𝑎r 𝑎u 𝑎t
= 6𝑏 6 6 6 6 ’⃗
t 𝑏r 𝚤
⃗ − 𝑏u 𝑏r 𝚥
⃗ + 𝑏u 𝑏t 6 𝑘
= [𝑎t 𝑏r − 𝑏t 𝑎r ]𝚤⃗ − [𝑎u 𝑏r − 𝑏u 𝑎r ]𝚥⃗ + [𝑎u 𝑏t − 𝑏u 𝑎t ]𝑘’⃗
125
Properties
𝐚 × 𝐛 = −𝐛 × 𝐚 (k𝐚) × 𝐛 = k(𝐚 × 𝐛) 𝐚 ⋅ (𝐛 × 𝐜) = (𝐚 × 𝐛) ⋅ 𝐜
= 𝐚 × (k𝐛)
(𝐚 + 𝐛) × 𝐜 = 𝐚 × 𝐜 + 𝐛 × 𝐜 𝐚 × (𝐛 + 𝐜) = 𝐚 × 𝐛 + 𝐚 × 𝐜 𝐚 × (𝐛 × 𝐜) = (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐜)𝐛
− (𝐚 ⋅ 𝐛)𝐜
Angles Between Vectors
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏’⃗ = |𝑎⃗|•𝑏’⃗ • cos 𝜃 •𝑎⃗ × 𝑏’⃗• = |𝑎⃗|•𝑏’⃗• sin 𝜃

𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏’⃗ •𝑎⃗ × 𝑏’⃗ •
⇒ 𝜃 = arccos ⇒ 𝜃 = arcsin
|𝑎⃗|•𝑏’⃗• |𝑎⃗|•𝑏’⃗•
Projections
Scalar Vector
𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏’⃗ 𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑏’⃗
comp’⃗’Â⃗ 𝑏’⃗ = proj𝐚’⃗𝑏’⃗ = 𝑎⃗
|𝑎⃗| |𝑎⃗|t
Areas/Volume
Triangle Parallelogram Parallelepiped
1 𝐴 = •𝑎⃗ × 𝑏’⃗• 𝑉 = •𝑎⃗ ⋅ ’𝑏’⃗ × 𝑐⃗“•

𝐴 = •𝑎⃗ × 𝑏’⃗•
2
Line
ℒ (𝑡) = 𝑃J + 𝑡𝑣⃗ 𝑣⃗ = ’’’’’’’’⃗

𝑃u 𝑃t = 𝑃t − 𝑃u
= (𝑥J , 𝑦J , 𝑧J ) + 𝑡〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 〉 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) − (𝑥J , 𝑦J , 𝑧J )
= 〈𝑥J + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦J + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧J + 𝑐𝑡 〉 = 〈𝑥 − 𝑥J , 𝑦 − 𝑦J , 𝑧 − 𝑧J 〉
= (𝑥J , 𝑦J , 𝑧J ) + 𝑡〈𝑥 − 𝑥J , 𝑦 − 𝑦J , 𝑧 − 𝑧J 〉 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 〉
126
Line from tip to tip
A line segment from the tips two vectors beginning from the origin to 𝑣⃗u → 𝑣⃗t is
ℒ(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑡)𝑣⃗u + 𝑡𝑣⃗t , 𝑡 ∈ [0, 1]
Equation of a Plane
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑛 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 〉 ⊥ surface
𝑛 is perpendicular to the surface 𝑣⃗ is in the plane, 𝑃J = (𝑥J , 𝑦J , 𝑧J ) (point in plane)
𝑛 ⊥ 𝑣⃗ ⇒ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑣⃗ = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 〉 ⋅ 〈𝑥 − 𝑥J , 𝑦 − 𝑦J , 𝑧 − 𝑧J 〉 = 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥J ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦J ) + 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑧J ) = 0
Vector Functions
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 〈𝑟u (𝑡), 𝑟t (𝑡), 𝑟r (𝑡)〉 = 〈𝑓 (𝑡), 𝑔(𝑡), ℎ(𝑡)〉
Limit lim 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 〈lim 𝑓(𝑡) , lim 𝑔(𝑡) , lim ℎ(𝑡)〉
a→” a→” a→” a→”
Derivative 𝑑𝑟⃗
= 〈𝑓 Ä (𝑡), 𝑔Ä (𝑡), ℎÄ (𝑡)〉
𝑑𝑡
a² a² a² a²
Definite Integral
$ 𝑟⃗(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = ª$ 𝑟u (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡« 𝚤̂ + ª$ 𝑟t (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡« 𝚥̂ + ª$ 𝑟r (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡« 𝑘•
a- a- a- a-
Indefinite Integral
$ 𝑟⃗(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = O$ 𝑟u (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡Q 𝚤̂ + O$ 𝑟t (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡Q 𝚥̂ + O$ 𝑟r (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡Q 𝑘• + 𝐶
Differentiation Rules
Note: 𝑣⃗ (𝑡), 𝑢
’⃗(𝑡), 𝑓(𝑡)
Function dot Vector Vector cross Vector

𝑑 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑢
’⃗ 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
’⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗
[ 𝑓 (𝑡 ) ⋅ 𝑢
’⃗(𝑡)] = 𝑢
’⃗(𝑡) + 𝑓 (𝑡 ) [𝑢
’⃗(𝑡) × 𝑣⃗ (𝑡)] = × 𝑣⃗ (𝑡) + 𝑢
’⃗(𝑡) ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Vector dot Vector Chain Rule
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
’⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑
[𝑢
’⃗(𝑡) ⋅ 𝑣⃗(𝑡)] = 𝑣⃗ (𝑡) ⋅ ’⃗(𝑡) ⋅
+𝑢 ’⃗Ä ’𝑓(𝑡)“𝑓 Ä (𝑡)
’⃗’𝑓(𝑡)“ = 𝑢
𝑢
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Arc length
127
a²
𝑑𝑟u t 𝑑𝑟t t 𝑑𝑟r t a² a²
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝐿 = $ ºÎ Ï + Î Ï + Î Ï 𝑑𝑡 = $ ³[𝑓 Ä (𝑡)]t + [𝑔Ä (𝑡)]t + [ℎÄ (𝑡)]t 𝑑𝑡 = $ c c 𝑑𝑡
a- 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 a- a- 𝑑𝑡
Tangents
Unit Tangent Vector 𝐫 Ä (𝑡 ) 𝑑𝑠

𝐓(𝑡 ) = , |𝐫 Ä (𝑡)| =
|𝐫 Ä (𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡
Curvature 1 𝑑𝐓
𝑑𝐓 𝑑𝐓 𝑑𝑡 |𝐓 Ä (𝑡)|
𝜅(𝑡) = 5 5 = 5 5 = ” 𝑑𝑡 ” = Ä
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 |𝐫 (𝑡)|
𝑑𝑡
Curvature 2 (vector function) |𝐫 Ä (𝑡) × 𝐫 ÄÄ (𝑡)|
𝜅(𝑡) =
|𝐫 Ä (𝑡)|r
Curvature 3 (single variable) |𝑓 ÄÄ (𝑥 )|
𝜅(𝑥) = r
(1 + [𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )]t )t
Curvature 4 (parametric) |𝑥 Ä (𝑡)𝑦 ÄÄ (𝑡) − 𝑦 Ä (𝑡)𝑥 ÄÄ (𝑡)|
𝜅 (𝑡 ) = r
t t t
Ö’𝑥 Ä (𝑡)“ + ’𝑦 Ä (𝑡)“ ×
Normal Vector 𝐓 Ä (𝑡 )
𝐍(𝑡 ) =
|𝐓 Ä (𝑡)|
Binormal Vector 𝐁(𝑡) = 𝐓(𝑡) × 𝐍(𝑡)
128
Tangential and Normal Components (acceleration)
Physics Notations
Position 𝑟⃗(𝑡) ≡ 𝐫(𝑡)
Velocity 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝐫
𝑣⃗ (𝑡) = 𝑟⃗ Ä (𝑡) = = = 𝐫 Ä (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Speed 𝑣 = |𝑣⃗(𝑡)| = |𝑟⃗ Ä (𝑡)|
Acceleration 𝑎⃗(𝑡) = 𝑣⃗ Ä (𝑡) = 𝑟⃗ ÄÄ (𝑡)
𝐫 Ä (𝑡 ) 𝑣⃗(𝑡) 𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗
𝐓(𝑡 ) = = = 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝐓 ⇒ = 𝑎⃗ = 𝑣 Ä 𝐓 + 𝑣𝐓′
|𝐫 Ä (𝑡)| |𝑣⃗(𝑡)| 𝑣 𝑑𝑡
Curvature |𝐓 Ä | |𝐓 Ä |
𝜅= Ä = ⇒ 𝜅𝑣 = |𝐓′|
|𝐫 | 𝑣
Tangential Component (acceleration) 𝑑 Ä 𝑑𝑣

𝑎• = |𝑟⃗ | = = 𝑣Ä , 𝑣 = |𝑣⃗| = |𝑟⃗′| ≡ ‖𝐫′‖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Normal Component (acceleration) 𝑎ž = 𝜅𝑣 t

Acceleration 𝒂 = 𝑣 Ä 𝐓 + 𝜅𝑣 t 𝐍 = 𝑎• 𝐓 + 𝑎ž 𝐍
Note: 𝐓⋅𝐓 = 1∧𝐓⋅𝐍 = 0
Dot Product of Velocity and 𝑣⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ = 𝑣𝐓 ⋅ (𝑣 Ä 𝐓 + 𝜅𝑣 t 𝐍) = 𝑣𝑣 Ä 𝐓 ⋅ 𝐓 + 𝜅𝑣 r 𝐓 ⋅ 𝐍

Acceleration
= 𝑣𝑣′
Tangential Acceleration 𝑣⃗ ⋅ 𝑎⃗ 𝐫 Ä (𝑡) ⋅ 𝐫 ÄÄ (𝑡)

𝑎• = 𝑣 Ä = =
𝑣 |𝐫 Ä (𝑡)|
Normal Acceleration |𝐫 Ä (𝑡) × 𝐫 ÄÄ (𝑡)|
t
𝑎ž = 𝜅𝑣 =
|𝐫 Ä (𝑡)|
Frenet-Serret Formulas
129
𝑑𝐓 𝑑𝐍 𝑑𝐁
= 𝜅𝐍 = −𝜅𝐓 + 𝜏𝐁 = −𝜏𝐍
𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑥
Pre-Diff Eq. Review

Arithmetic
𝑎
Ÿ𝑏 𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 ± 𝑏𝑐
𝑎𝑏 ± 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑎(𝑏 ± 𝑐 ) = (𝑏 ± 𝑐 )𝑎 = ± =
𝑐 𝑏𝑐 𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑
𝑎−𝑏 𝑏−𝑎 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 𝑏 𝑎𝑏
= = 𝑏 + 𝑐, 𝑎 ≠ 0 𝑎O Q =
𝑐−𝑑 𝑑−𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑐
𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑐 𝑎±𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 Ÿ𝑏 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎𝑑
=Ÿ ∙Ÿ = = ± 𝑐 = 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 = 𝑏𝑐
𝑏 1 𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 Ÿ𝑑
Ÿ𝑐
Exponential
1 1
𝑎u = 𝑎 𝑎J = 1 𝑎sH = = 𝑎H 𝑎H 𝑎§ = 𝑎H¨§
𝑎H 𝑎sH
130
𝑎H 𝑎 H 𝑎H 𝑎 sH 𝑏H u u H
= 𝑎Hs§ Ÿ = Ÿ = (𝑎H )§ = O𝑎§ Q (𝑎 H )§ = (𝑎 § )H
𝑎§ 𝑏 𝑏H 𝑏 𝑎H
Radicals
¶ µ u
µ µ
´ √𝑎 = ¶µ
√𝑎 = 𝑎 §H √𝑎H = 𝑎, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑 √𝑎H = |𝑎|, 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
u u
² ²
u
µ
§ µ𝑎 µ√𝑎 𝑎 H 𝑎 H
√𝑎 = √𝑎 = ³ 𝑎u = 𝑎t √𝑎§ = 𝑎H ´ =µ = u=Ÿ
𝑏 √𝑏 𝑏H 𝑏
Fractions
𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑑 ± 𝑏𝑐 𝑔(𝑥 ) ℎ(𝑥 ) [𝑔(𝑥 )𝑟(𝑥 )] ± [𝑓(𝑥)ℎ(𝑥 )]

± = ± =
𝑏 𝑑 𝑏𝑑 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑟 (𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑟(𝑥 )
Logarithmic
ln(𝑏)
= log ” 𝑏 𝑦 = log • 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑏 À 𝑒 ≈ 2.72 log” 𝑎 = 1
ln(𝑎)
log ” 1 = 0 log ” 𝑎Í = 𝑢 log ¿ 𝑢 = ln 𝑢 log” 𝑢• = 𝑏 log” 𝑢
𝑢 ln(𝑏)
log ” 𝑢𝑣 = log” 𝑢 + log ” 𝑣 log” = log ” 𝑢 − log” 𝑣 log ” 𝑏 =
𝑣 ln(𝑎)
Å
1
𝑣 = ln 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑒 I 𝑣 = 𝑒 Í ⇒ 𝑢 = ln 𝑣 𝑒=D
𝑛!
HIJ
ln 𝑎 = undefined, 𝑎 ≤ 0 ln 1 = 0 ln 𝑒 Í = 𝑢 ⇒ 𝑒 ËÌ Í = 𝑢
𝑢
ln 𝑒 u = 1 ⇒ 𝑒 ËÌ(u) = 1 ln 𝑢• = 𝑏 ln 𝑢 ln 𝑢𝑣 = ln 𝑢 + ln 𝑣 ln = ln 𝑢 − ln 𝑣
𝑣
Other Formulas/Equations
Quadratic Formula
131
t
−𝑏 ± √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥=
2𝑎
Discriminant
Two Real Solutions 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0
Repeated Solution 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
Complex Solution (𝑥 = 𝛼 ± 𝛽𝑖 ) if 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0
Complete the Square
𝑏 t 𝑏t
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑎 O𝑥 + Q +𝑐−
2𝑎 4𝑎
Other Formulas
Distance Formula Midpoint Formula
𝐷 = ³(𝑥 − 𝑥J )t + (𝑦 − 𝑦J )t 𝑥 + 𝑥J 𝑦 + 𝑦J
𝑀=O , Q
2 2
Equation of a Line 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝑦t − 𝑦u (𝑦t − 𝑦u ) = 𝑚(𝑥t − 𝑥u )
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 =
𝑥t − 𝑥u
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶
Equation of Parabola 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Vertex: (ℎ, 𝑘) 𝑦 = 𝑎 (𝑥 − ℎ )t + 𝑘
Equation of Circle (𝑥 − ℎ )t + (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t = 𝑟 t
Center: (ℎ, 𝑘)
Radius: 𝑟
Equation of Ellipse (𝑥 − ℎ )t (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t
+ =1
𝑎t 𝑏t
Right Point: (ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘)
Left Point: (ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘)
132
Top Point: (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏)
Bottom Point: (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏)
Equation of Hyperbola (𝑥 − ℎ )t (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t
− =1
𝑎t 𝑏t
Center: (ℎ, 𝑘)
•
Slope: ±”
•
Vertices: (ℎ + 𝑎, 𝑘), (ℎ − 𝑎, 𝑘)
Equation of Hyperbola (𝑦 − 𝑘 )t (𝑥 − ℎ )t
− =1
𝑎t 𝑏t
Center: (ℎ, 𝑘)
•
Slope: ±”
•
Vertices: (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑏), (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑏)
Areas
Square: 𝐴 = 𝐿t = 𝑊 t Rectangle: 𝐴=𝐿∙𝑊 Circle: 𝐴 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟t

u u
Ellipse: 𝐴 = 𝜋 ∙ 𝑎𝑏 Triangle: 𝐴 = t 𝑏 ∙ ℎ Trapezoid: 𝐴 = t (𝑎 + 𝑏 ) ∙ ℎ
KL
Parallelogram: 𝑏∙ℎ Rhombus: 𝐴 = t
, 𝑝 and 𝑞 are the diagonals
Surface Areas
Cube: 𝐴M = 6𝐿t = 6𝑊 t Box: 𝐴M = 2(𝐿𝑊 + 𝑊𝐻 + 𝐻𝐿) Sphere: 𝐴M = 4𝜋𝑟 t
Cone: 𝐴M = 𝜋𝑟’𝑟 + √ℎt + 𝑟 t “ Cylinder: 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 t
Volumes
¯
Cube: 𝑉 = 𝐿r = 𝑊 r Box: 𝑉 =𝐿∙𝑊∙𝐻 Sphere: 𝑉 = r 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟r
u ¯
Cone: 𝑉 = r 𝜋 ∙ 𝑟tℎ Ellipsoid: 𝑉 = r 𝜋 ∙ 𝑎𝑏𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are the radii
Domain Restrictions
𝑢
𝑦= , 𝑣≠0 𝑦 = √𝑢 , 𝑢≥0 𝑦 = ln 𝑢 , 𝑢>0
𝑣
𝑦 = 𝑎Í , none 𝑦 = µ√𝑢 none if 𝑛 is odd, 𝑢 ≥ 0 if 𝑛 is even
133
Right Triangle
𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 𝑟t ⇔ 𝑟 = ³𝑥 t + 𝑦 t
𝑥 𝑦
cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛽 =
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑥
𝑥 𝑦
𝑦 𝑥
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝛼 𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝛽
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝛼 𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝛽
𝑦 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
𝛼 = arctan Ÿ = tansu Ÿ 𝛽 = arctan O Q = tansu O Q
𝑥 𝑥 𝑦 𝑦
1 1 1
sin 𝜃 = csc 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 =
csc 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cot 𝜃
134
1 1 1
csc 𝜃 = sec 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
sec 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = cot 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
sin(2𝜃) = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos(2𝜃) = 1 − 2 sint 𝜃
cos 2𝜃 = cos t 𝜃 − sint 𝜃 cos 2𝜃 = 2 cost 𝜃 − 1
t DÂÌ d
cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2 sint 𝜃 tan 2𝜃 = usDÂÌ² d Officia
Half Angle Formulas
1 1 1 − cos(2𝜃)
sint 𝜃 = [1 − cos(2𝜃)] cost 𝜃 = [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜃)] tant 𝜃 =
2 2 1 + cos(2𝜃)
sin(𝛼 ± 𝛽 ) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 ± cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽
cos(𝛼 ± 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 ∓ sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
tan(𝛼 ± 𝛽 ) =
1 1
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽 ) − cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)] cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽 ) + cos(𝛼 + 𝛽)]
2 2
1 1
sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽 )] cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 = [sin(𝛼 + 𝛽 ) − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽 )]
2 2
135
2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2
Unit Circle
136
The actual limit lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 ⇔ 𝐿s = 𝐿¨

ƒ→”
Left hand limit lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿s

ƒ→” 1
Right hand limit lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿¨

ƒ→” :
Limit exists lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim: 𝑓(𝑥)

ƒ→” 1 ƒ→”
Limit does not exists (DNE) lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≠ lim: 𝑓(𝑥 )

ƒ→” 1 ƒ→”
Continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝐿 = 𝐿±

Left Continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝐿s
Right Continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝐿¨
Non-continuous function 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 ≠ 𝐿
Limit of a Constant lim 𝑐 = 𝑐

ƒ→”
Limit of Single Variable lim 𝑥 = 𝑎

ƒ→”
If The Function is Continuous lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎)

ƒ→”
The Constant Multiple Law lim [𝑐𝑓(𝑥 )] = 𝑐 lim 𝑓(𝑥)

ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Sum and Difference Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥)
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Product Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥)
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Quotient Law 𝑓 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑓(𝑥)

lim Ó Ô = ƒ→” , lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
ƒ→” 𝑔 (𝑥 ) lim 𝑔(𝑥) ƒ→”
ƒ→”
H
The Power Law lim [𝑓(𝑥 )]H = Ölim 𝑓(𝑥 )× , 𝑛∈ℕ
ƒ→” ƒ→”
The Root Law lim µ³𝑓(𝑥) = µ´ lim 𝑓(𝑥) , 𝑛∈ℕ

ƒ→” ƒ→”
Exponential Law ËÈR ì(ƒ)

lim 𝑎 ì(ƒ) = 𝑎0→S
ƒ→”
Infinite Limits
137
There are three basic cases for evaluating non-trig/log functions at infinity. This is where the
horizontal asymptote formulas arise -- used in Algebra.
−𝑛
Case 1: 𝑥
𝑛 > 𝑚, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ 𝑥−𝑛
lim =0
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
−𝑛
Case 2: 𝑥
𝑛 < 𝑚, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ 𝑥−𝑛
lim H =∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
−𝑛
Case 3: 𝑥
𝑛 = 𝑚, 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦
a𝑥 § + 𝑥 §su + ⋯ a 𝑥−𝑛
lim =
ƒ→∞ b𝑥 H + 𝑥 Hsu + ⋯ b Ratio of polynomials of degree m & n
Common Limits
Infinite Limits
lim 𝑥 H = ∞, 𝑛 > 0 1 lim 𝑥 H = 0, 𝑛 < 0

ƒ→∞ lim = 0,𝑛 > 0 ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H
1 lim 𝑒 ƒ = ∞ 1
lim = ∞, 𝑛 < 0 ƒ→∞ lim =0
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 H ƒ→∞ 𝑒 ƒ
1
sƒ lim =∞
lim 𝑒 =0 ƒ→∞ 𝑒 sƒ lim ln 𝑥 = ∞
ƒ→∞ ƒ→∞
1 1
lim =0 su ] lim =0
ƒ→∞ ln 𝑥 lim ln[𝑥 = −∞ ƒ→∞ ln[𝑥 su ]
ƒ→∞
lim sin 𝑥 = −1 to 1, 𝐷𝑁𝐸 1 lim cos 𝑥 = −1 to 1

ƒ→∞ lim sin O Q = 0 ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥
lim tan 𝑥 = −∞ to ∞, 𝐷𝑁𝐸 1 lim csc 𝑥
ƒ→∞ lim cos O Q = 1 ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥
= −∞ to − 1& 1 to ∞, DNE
1 1 lim sec 𝑥
lim tan O Q = 0 lim csc O Q = ∞ ƒ→∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
= −∞ to − 1& 1 to ∞, DNE
1 lim cot 𝑥 = −∞ to ∞ 1
lim sec O Q = 1 ƒ→∞ lim cot =∞
ƒ→∞ 𝑥 ƒ→∞ 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝛥𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )

𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) = lim ≡ lim ⇔ ℎ = 𝛥𝑥
B→J ℎ ƒ→ƒX 𝛥𝑥
138
Notations
0th Derivative 𝑑𝐹 𝑑𝑌
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1st Derivative 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥
2nd Derivative ÄÄ ÄÄ (
𝑑t𝑦
𝑦 =𝑓 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑦 t
3rd Derivative 𝑑r𝑦
𝑦 ÄÄÄ = 𝑓 ÄÄÄ (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑦 r
4th Derivative 𝑑¯𝑦
𝑦 (¯) = 𝑓 (¯) (𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑦 ¯
𝑛DY Derivative (H) (H) (
𝑑H 𝑦
𝑦 =𝑓 𝑥) =
𝑑𝑦 H
Note:
3. Any derivative after the 3rd is written as 𝑓 (H) (𝑥 ) or 𝑦 (H) not to be confused with a power
ê
4. ê[… ]
is called “The Derivative Operator” it simply means to take the derivative of
whatever follows with respect to whatever is in […].
Time Derivatives
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑑t
𝑑𝑡 t
Physics Notation
139
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑t𝑠
𝑎 = 𝑎 (𝑡 ) = = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 = 𝑣̇ = t = 𝑠 ÄÄ (𝑡) = 𝑠 ÄÄ = 𝑠̈ ,
Ä( ) Ä
2nd Derivative Acceleration
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Derivative Rules (operator notations)
Derivative of a 𝑑
𝑐=0
Constant 𝑑𝑥
Sum and Difference 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑

[𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑔 (𝑥 )
Power Rule 𝑑 H
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 Hsu
𝑑𝑥
Constant Multiple Rule 𝑑 𝑑

𝑐𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Product Rule 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
[𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑔(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑓(𝑥 )
Quotient Rule 𝑑 𝑑
Ó Ô=
Chain Rule 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑔
[𝑓 ∘ 𝑔](𝑥) = Ð𝑓’𝑔(𝑥)“Ò = ⋅ = 𝑓′’𝑔(𝑥 )“ ∙ 𝑔′(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑔 𝑑𝑥
Derivative Rules (prime notations)
140
Derivative of a (𝑐 )Ä = 0
Constant
Power Rule (𝑥 H )′ = 𝑛𝑥 Hsu
Constant Multiple Rule (𝑐𝑢)Ä = 𝑐𝑢′
Product Rule [𝑢𝑣]Ä = 𝑢𝑣 Ä + 𝑣𝑢′
Quotient Rule 𝑢 Ä 𝑣𝑢Ä − 𝑢𝑣′

Ö × =
𝑣 𝑣t
Chain Rule [𝑢(𝑣)]′ = 𝑢Ä (𝑣) ∙ 𝑣′
Exponential and Logarithmic
Operator Prime
exp{u} 𝑑 ì(ƒ) (𝑒 Í )Ä = 𝑒 Í ⋅ 𝑢′
𝑒 = 𝑒 ì(ƒ) ∙ 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Natural Log 𝑑 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 𝑢Ä
ln 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = [ln(𝑢)]Ä =
𝑑𝑥 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑢
Base Log 𝑑 1 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 1 𝑢Ä
ËÌ ” log • 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ⋅ [log• 𝑢]Ä = ⋅
Note: log• 𝑎 ≡
ËÌ • 𝑑𝑥 ln 𝑏 𝑓(𝑥 ) ln 𝑏 𝑢
Exponential 𝑑 ì(ƒ) (𝑎Í )Ä = 𝑎Í 𝑢Ä ln 𝑎

𝑑𝑥
Inverse Function Derivative
𝑑 su 1
𝑓 (𝑥 )5 = Ä su , 𝑓 su (𝑎) = 𝑏 ⇔ 𝑓 (𝑏) = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥 ” 𝑓 ’𝑓 (𝑎)“
141
Trig Derivatives
Standard
(sin 𝑢)Ä = cos 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (cos 𝑢)Ä = − sin 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä (tan 𝑢)Ä = sec t 𝑢 ∙ 𝑢Ä

Inverse
𝑢′ 𝑢′ 𝑢′
(sinsu 𝑢)Ä = (cos su 𝑢)Ä = − (tansu 𝑢)Ä =
√1 − 𝑢t √1 − 𝑢t 1 + 𝑢t
𝑢′ 𝑢′ 𝑢′
(csc su 𝑢)Ä = − (sec su 𝑢)Ä = (cot su 𝑢)Ä = −
|𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 |𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 1 + 𝑢t
Common Derivatives
Operator
𝑒 = 𝑒ƒ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ì(ƒ) 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ln 𝑥 =
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1 𝑑 −1
𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 t − 1 𝑑𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 t
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
𝑑𝑥 |𝑥|√𝑥 t − 1 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥t 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝑥t
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
142
Prime
[𝑒 Í ]Ä = 𝑢Ä 𝑒 Í 𝑢Ä [𝑎Í ]Ä = 𝑢Ä 𝑎Í ln 𝑎
[ln 𝑢]Ä =
𝑢
[csc 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 [sec 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 [cot 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csc t 𝑢
√1 − 𝑢t √1 − 𝑢t 1 + 𝑢t
[arccsc 𝑢]Ä = [arcsec 𝑢]Ä = [arccot 𝑢]Ä =
|𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 |𝑢|√𝑢t − 1 1 + 𝑢t
Implicit Differentiation
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
[ 𝒚] = 𝑦Ä
𝑑 [ 𝒙] 𝑑𝑥
Always pay attention to the variables
𝑑 t 𝑑
𝑦 2(𝑦)tsu 𝑦 = 2𝑦𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Chain/Power Rule 𝑑 H 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑛𝑦 Hsu ≡ 𝑛𝑦 Hsu 𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Chain/Product 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑥 +𝑦 ≡ 𝑥𝑦 Ä + 𝑦
Chain/Quotient 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦′
O Q= ≡
𝑑𝑥 𝑦 𝑦t 𝑦t
Logarithmic 𝑑 𝑦Ä
ln 𝑦 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑦
Exponential 𝑑 À
𝑎 = 𝑦 Ä 𝑎 À ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
Euler’s Number 𝑑 À
𝑒 = 𝑦Ä𝑒À
𝑑𝑥
Trigonometric 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
sin 𝑦 = cos 𝑦 ⋅ = cos 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Tangent Line
𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) ⇒ 𝑦O = 𝑓 Ä (𝑎, 𝑏)(𝑥 − 𝑎) + 𝑏
143
𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ 2 𝑒 ƒ − 𝑒 sƒ
sinh 𝑥 = csch 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 =
2 𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ
ƒ 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
2 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ 𝑒 ƒ + 𝑒 sƒ
sech 𝑥 = ƒ cosh 𝑥 = coth 𝑥 = ƒ
𝑒 + 𝑒 sƒ 2 𝑒 − 𝑒 sƒ
Identities
sinhsu 𝑥 = ln Ö𝑥 + ³𝑥 t + 1× , −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞
1 1+𝑥
2 1−𝑥
Derivatives
Standard
[sinh 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢′ cosh 𝑢 [cosh 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä sinh 𝑢 [tanh 𝑢]Ä = 𝑢Ä secht 𝑢

[csch 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä csch 𝑢 coth 𝑢 [sech 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä sech 𝑢 tanh 𝑢 [coth 𝑢]Ä = −𝑢Ä cscht 𝑢
Inverse
[sinhsu 𝑢]Ä = [coshsu 𝑢]Ä = [tanhsu 𝑢]Ä =
√1 + 𝑢t √𝑢t − 1 1 − 𝑢t
[cschsu 𝑢]Ä = − [sechsu 𝑢]Ä = − [cothsu 𝑢]Ä =
|𝑢|√1 + 𝑢t 𝑢√1 − 𝑢t 1 − 𝑢t
144
L’Hospital’s Rule
Indeterminate Forms
0 ±∞ ∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 ⋅ ∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ± ƒ→”
ƒ→” 0 ƒ→” ±∞ ƒ→” ∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ∞ − ∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0J lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1∞ lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∞J
ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→” ƒ→”
Rule
If the limit is one of the following forms:
lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = {0 ⋅ ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0J , 1∞ , ∞J }
ƒ→”
and can the be manipulated into on of the following forms:
𝑔 (𝑥 ) 0 ±∞ ∞
lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ~ lim =[ , ,± \
ƒ→” ƒ→” ℎ (𝑥 ) 0 ±∞ ∞
then
𝑔 (𝑥 ) 𝑔′(𝑥 ) 𝑔′′(𝑥 ) 𝑔(H) (𝑥)

lim = lim = lim = ⋯ lim (H)
ƒ→” ℎ (𝑥 ) ƒ→” ℎ′(𝑥 ) ƒ→” ℎ′′(𝑥 ) ƒ→” ℎ (𝑥 )
Business Formulas
Cost Function 𝐶 (𝑥 )
Marginal Cost Function 𝑑
𝐶 Ä (𝑥 ) = 𝐶 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Demand/Price function (price per unit) 𝑝( 𝑥 )
Revenue 𝑅 (𝑥 ) = 𝑝 (𝑥 ) ⋅ 𝑥
Marginal Revenue 𝑑
𝑅 Ä (𝑥 ) = 𝑅 (𝑥) = 𝑝(𝑥 ) + 𝑥𝑝Ä (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Profit Function 𝑃 (𝑥 ) = 𝑅 (𝑥 ) − 𝐶 (𝑥 )
Marginal Profit Function 𝑃 Ä (𝑥 ) = 𝑅 Ä (𝑥 ) − 𝐶 Ä (𝑥 )
Average Profit Function 𝑃 (𝑥 )
𝑃_ (𝑥 ) =
𝑥
145
Parametric and Polar Operations
Notations
𝑥 = 𝑥 (𝑡 ), 𝑡 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏] 𝑦 = 𝑦 (𝑡 ), 𝑡 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 Ä (𝑡 ) = ≡ 𝑥̇ 𝑦 Ä (𝑡 ) = ≡ 𝑦̇
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
First Derivative
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑦
= = ⋅ =
𝑥 (𝑡 )
Ä 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Second Derivative
Ä 𝑑 Ä Ä 𝑑 Ä Ä 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 Ä 𝑑 𝑑𝑥
𝑑t𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑦 (𝑡) − 𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 – 𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
= = = =
𝑑𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 Ä (𝑡) [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t
𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑥 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑦 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 (1) 𝑥 Ä (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
= = = = 𝑑𝑡Ä 𝑑𝑥
[𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t [𝑥 Ä (𝑡)]t 𝑥 (𝑡 )
𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑑 t 𝑦 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥
∴ t=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Trigonometric
𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 𝑟t 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑦
𝜃 = arctan
𝑥
Circle

𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋]
Ellipse

𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋]
146
Polar Derivative
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑟(𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 𝑟 Ä (𝜃) sin 𝜃
= = = Ä
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑟 (𝜃) cos 𝜃 − 𝑟(𝜃) sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 cos 𝜃
Antiderivatives & Integration

Basic Rules
Power Rule for antiderivatives 1

𝑦Ä = 𝑥H ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 H + 𝐶 ⇔ 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1
Exponential 𝑎ƒ
𝑦 Ä = 𝑎ƒ ⇒ 𝑦= +𝐶
ln(𝑎)
Natural Log (case 1) 1
𝑦Ä = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥
Natural Log (case 2) 1 1
𝑦Ä = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝐶
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎
Natural Log (case 3) 𝑢 Ä (𝑥 )
𝑦Ä = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln|𝑢(𝑥 )| + 𝐶
𝑢 (𝑥 )
Euler’s Number (case 1) 1 ”ƒ
𝑦 Ä = 𝑒 ”ƒ ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 +𝐶
𝑎
Euler’s Number (case 2) 1
𝑦 Ä = 𝑒 ”ƒ¨• ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 ”ƒ¨• + 𝐶
𝑎
Euler’s Number (case 3) 𝑦 Ä = 𝑢Ä (𝑥 )𝑒 Í(ƒ) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑒 Í(ƒ) + 𝐶
Anti-Chain-Rule Substitution Method 𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä ’𝑔(𝑥)“𝑔Ä (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“ + 𝐶
Riemann Sum for Area Approximation
H
𝑏−𝑎
𝐴 ≈ lim D 𝑓 (𝑥í∗ ) 𝛥𝑥 , 𝛥𝑥 = , 𝑥í = 𝑎 + 𝑖 ∙ 𝛥𝑥
H→∞ 𝑛
íIu
H H
𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)
D 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑛 D𝑖 =
2
íIu íIu
H H H
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
D 𝑐𝑓(𝑥í ) = 𝑐 D 𝑓 (𝑥í ) D 𝑖t =
6
íIu íIu íIu
147
H H H H t
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
r
D[𝑓 (𝑥í ) ± 𝑔(𝑥í )] = D 𝑓(𝑥í ) ± D 𝑔(𝑥í ) D𝑖 = Ó Ô
2
íIu íIu íIu íIu
The Integral Notation ∫
H •
lim D 𝑓(𝑥í∗ ) 𝛥𝑥 ≡ $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
H→∞ ”
íIu
Definite Integral Properties
• •
$ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎) $ 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑎)
” ”
” • •
$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 $ 𝑐𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” ” ”
” •
$ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 $ [𝑓(𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
s” ”
⇔ 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓 (𝑥 ) (odd) • •
= $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ± $ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” ”
” ” • 𝒌 ”
$ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + $ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
s” J ” ” 𝒌
⇔ 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) (even)
NOTE:
• ”
$ 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ≠ $ 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ⋅ $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
” •
Fundamental Theorems
Let 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑢 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑣 for the following:

I
Í
I
”
•
Í
= −𝑓 (𝑢) ∙ 𝑢′
148
H •
𝑖𝑖) lim D 𝑓(𝑥í∗ ) 𝛥𝑥 = $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
H→∞ ”
íIu
𝑏−𝑎
𝛥𝑥 = , 𝑥í = 𝑎 + 𝑖 ∙ 𝛥𝑥
𝑛
Differential Equation (1st order)
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 Ä = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) ⇒ = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥) ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ⇒ $ 𝑑𝑦 = $ 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑐u = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐t ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐t − 𝑐u = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑐r ≡ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶
Common Integrals
1
$ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 $ 𝑘 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐶 $ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 t + 𝐶
2
1 1 1
$ 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 r + 𝐶 $ 𝑥 H 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 Hü + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶
3 𝑛+1 𝑥
⇔ 𝑛 ≠ −1
1 ”ƒ 1 ”ƒ¨•
𝑎 𝑎
1 1 1
$ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏| + 𝐶 $ 𝑓 (𝑢)𝑢′ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝐹 (𝑢) + 𝐶
𝑢Ä •
$ 𝑒 Í 𝑢′ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 Í + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑢 = ln|𝑢| + 𝐶 $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑏 ) − 𝐹 (𝑎 )
𝑢 ”
$ 𝑢Ä cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä sec t 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢
+𝐶
$ 𝑢Ä csc 𝑢 sec 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑢Ä csc t 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cot 𝑢
+𝐶
$ 𝑑𝑢 = arcsin 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑢 = arccos 𝑢 + 𝐶 $ 𝑑𝑢 = arctan 𝑢
√1 − 𝑢t √1 − 𝑢t 1 + 𝑢t
+ 𝐶
149
Definite Integral Rules
Substitution • Ñ(•)
$ 𝑓’𝑔(𝑥 )“𝑔Ä (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
” Ñ(”)
• •
Integration by Parts
$ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔Ä (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)|•” − $ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑓 Ä (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” ”
𝑢 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑔Ä (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑓 Ä (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑔 (𝑥 )
• •
$ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣|•” − $ 𝑣 𝑑𝑢
” ”
Trig Substitution
³𝑎t − 𝑥 t ³𝑎t + 𝑥 t ³𝑥 t − 𝑎t
1 − sint 𝜃 = cos t 𝜃 1 + tant 𝜃 = sec t 𝜃 sec t 𝜃 − 1 = tant 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
𝜃 ∈ Ö− , × 𝜃 ∈ Ÿ− , 𝜃 ∈ Ö0, ∨ 𝜃 ∈ Î𝜋, Q
2 2 2 2 2 2
Partial Fractions
𝑝 (𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵 𝑝( 𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + = + +
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 [𝑥 t (𝑥 + 1)] 𝑥 𝑥 t 𝑥 + 1
𝑝 (𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑝 (𝑥 ) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸
= + t = + t + t
𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
t 𝑥 (𝑥 + 1)
t t 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)t
Integration Steps
Ask yourself the following questions:
6. Is the integrand in integratable form?

7. Can I perform a function or trig-identity manipulation?
8. Should I use U-Substitution or Trig-Substitution?
9. Integration by Parts?
10. Partial fraction decomposition?
150
For a definite integral always check to see if the function is defined on the bounds
Improper Integration
Infinite Bounds
¨∞ J ¨∞ J a²
$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = lim $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + lim $ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
s∞ s∞ J a- →s∞ a a² →∞ J
-
Undefined Bounds
• J a²
$ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏) ⇒ lim1 $ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + lim: $ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
” a- →𝑎 a- a² →• J
Differential Equations
Note: You have already been solving differential equations i.e.
Calculus Review
𝑑𝑦 1 u 1 u 1 u
− Ç O(4 + etÇ )t Q = 0 ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = Ç O(4 + etÇ )t Q 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ $ 𝑑𝑦 = $ Ç O(4 + etÇ )t Q 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 e e e
1 u
tÇ )t
∴𝑦=$ O ( 4 + e Q 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑒 sƒ ³4 + (𝑒 ƒ )t 𝑑𝑥
eÇ
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑒 ƒ ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑒 ƒ 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑑𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑑𝑥
𝑒ƒ 𝑢
1 𝑑𝑢 √2t + 𝑢t
= $ ³4 + 𝑢t O Q = $ 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 𝑢 𝑢t
𝑢 = 2 tan 𝜃 ⇒ 𝑑𝑢 = 2 sec t 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
³4 + (2 tan 𝜃)t t
³4(1 + tant 𝜃)
$ ( )
2 sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = $ 2 sec t 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(2 tan 𝜃)t 4 tant 𝜃
r
1
4√sec t 𝜃 sec 𝜃 cos r𝜃 1
=$ sec t 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = $ 𝑑𝜃 = $ t 𝑑𝜃 = $ 𝑑𝜃
t
4tan 𝜃 t
tan 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 ∙ sint 𝜃
cost 𝜃
151
= $ sec 𝜃 csc t 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = $ sec 𝜃 (1 + cot t 𝜃) 𝑑𝜃
cos 𝜃
$ sec 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + $ sec 𝜃 cot t 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| + $ 𝑑𝜃
sint 𝜃
= ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| − ∫ (− cot 𝜃 csc 𝜃 )𝑑𝜃
ln|sec 𝜃 + tan 𝜃| − csc 𝜃 + 𝐶
𝑒ƒ √𝑒 tƒ + 1 √𝑒 tƒ + 4
𝜃 = arctan O Q, sec 𝜃 = , csc 𝜃 =
2 2 𝑒 tƒ
1 u
tÇ )t
√𝑒 tƒ + 1 𝑒 ƒ √𝑒 tƒ + 4
⇒$ O ( 4 + e Q 𝑑𝑥 = ln c + c − + 𝐶u
eÇ 2 2 𝑒 tƒ
√𝑒 tƒ + 4
∴ 𝑦 = ln 6³𝑒 tƒ + 1 + 𝑒 ƒ 6 − ln 2 − + 𝐶u
𝑒 tƒ
√𝑒 tƒ + 4
= ln 6³𝑒 tƒ + 1 + 𝑒 ƒ 6 − + 𝐶u − ln 2
𝑒 tƒ
√𝑒 tƒ + 4
= ln 6³𝑒 tƒ + 1 + 𝑒 ƒ 6 − +𝐶
𝑒 tƒ
Intro to the “first-order” differential

equation
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑦Ä = 𝑥 ⇒ =𝑥
𝑑𝑥
⇒ $ 𝑑𝑦 = $ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥𝑦
Type:
First-order-nonhomogeneous 1
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑐u = 𝑥 t + 𝑐t
linear differential equation 2
Solution Method: 1
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥 t + 𝑐t − 𝑐u , 𝐧𝐨𝐭𝐞: 𝑐t − 𝑐u = 𝑐r = 𝐶
2
Separable variable
1 t
∴ 𝑦= 𝑥 +𝐶
Answer: 2
Explicit-general solution
152
Homogeneous 𝑦 (H) + ⋯ 𝑦 H + ⋯ = 0
A differential equation that has a function of
which does contain the variable that is being Example:
differentiated. (©)
𝑦Ä t
ÄÄ
𝑦 − 𝑦 + 𝑥 − cos(𝑥𝑦) = 0
𝑦
Nonhomogeneous (H)
𝑓§ü 𝑦 + ⋯ 𝑓§ (𝑥 )𝑦 H + ⋯ = 𝑔(𝑥 )
A differential equation that has a function of
which does not contain the variable that is Example:
being differentiated. 𝑦Ä t
𝑦 (©) − 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑥 − cos(2𝑥 ) = 0
𝑦
Linear Example:
A differential equation that contains only
derivatives in the numerator state, has the 𝑦 (H) + 𝑦 (Hsu) + ⋯ 𝑦 = 0
highest power of the variable being
differentiated is 1, and the differentiated 𝑎H (𝑥)𝑦 (H) + 𝑎Hsu (𝑥 )𝑦 (Hsu) + ⋯ = 0
variable is not being operated on.
Non-linear Example:
A differential equation where the 𝑦Ä t 1
differentiated variable is also being operated 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑥 − cos(2𝑥 ) = 0, = 𝑦 su
𝑦 𝑦
on by functions.
𝑦 (©) − 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑦 Ä 𝑥 t − cos(𝑥𝑦) = 0
𝑦𝑦 Ä = 𝑥
Note: Make sure to understand how the following terms relate to a DE i.e. the type of DE will
tell you what method to use in order to solve the DE
Type: Order – Linearity – Homogeneity
Problem:
• Initial-Value Problem (IVP) has a Particular Solution
• NON-IVP has a General Solution (Constant 𝐶 in solution)
• Explicit Solution: 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 )
• Implicit solution: 𝑦 H ⋯ = 𝑓 (𝑥, … )
The order of a differential equation is dependent upon the highest derivative e.g. 𝑦 ÄÄÄ + 𝑦 ÄÄ = 0
is a third-order differential equation.
Note: Do not confuse 𝑦 H with 𝑦 (H)

• 𝑦 (H) is the nth derivative
• 𝑦 H is the nth power
ê ê ê ê
e.g. 𝑦 ¯ = 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 where 𝑦 (¯) = êƒ ªêƒ Oêƒ Ÿêƒ 𝑦 Q«
Order of derivative notation: 𝑌, 𝑦, 𝑦 Ä , 𝑦 ÄÄ , 𝑦 ÄÄÄ , 𝑦 (¯) , … 𝑦 (H)
153
êÀ ê² À ê· À
Respect to time: 𝑦̇ , 𝑦̈ , 𝑦⃛ ≡ 𝑦 Ä (𝑡), 𝑦 ÄÄ (𝑡), 𝑦 ÄÄÄ (𝑡) ≡ êa
, êa ² , êa ·
Lets look at a couple examples of equations that are linear and nonlinear.
ê¸ À
𝑦 © + 𝑥𝑦 ÄÄ − êƒ ¸ = sin(𝑥𝑦), Sixth-Order-Nonlinear and homogeneous
ê¸ À
𝑥𝑦 ÄÄ − êƒ ¸ = sin(𝑥 ), Sixth-Order-Linear and nonhomogeneous
𝑦′′ + 𝑦′ + 𝑦𝑥 = 0, Second-Order-Linear and homogeneous
𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑦𝑦 Ä = ln 𝑥, Second-Order-Nonlinear and nonhomogeneous Note: Although the

power of y is 1 in this case, it is dependent upon y’ making it nonlinear.
𝑦′′′ + 𝑦 t + 𝑥𝑒 À = 0, Third-Order-Nonlinear and homogeneous
1st Order Solution Methods

Separable Variable
Scenario
The separable variable equation is pretty much just an average integration problem you may
have encountered in calculus. The idea is that you have a first-order DE and it is in the form of a
function of 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) can be found in a DE e.g. 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑦 Ä = 𝑝(𝑥 ), which can be separated
into the form 𝑔(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ℎ(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥. The separable variable could also be viewed as 𝑦′ =
𝑓u (𝑦)𝑓t (𝑥 )
Ex. 1 (Explicit vs. Implicit)
Given 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦 and 𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 t 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑦 Ä = 𝑝(𝑥 )
Solve 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑦 Ä = 𝑝(𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝑥𝑦𝑦 Ä = 𝑥 t
Type: 𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑥t
𝑑𝑥
First-Order-Nonlinear-Nonhomogeneous-ODE
⇒ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
ODE- Ordinary Differential Equation
PDE- Partial Differential Equations
⇒ $ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = $ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Solution Method: Separable Variable
𝑦t 𝑥t
Answer: Implicit-General Solution ⇒ + 𝑐u = + 𝑐t
2 2
⇒ 𝑦 t + 𝑐r = 𝑥 t + 𝑐¯
⇒ 𝑦 t = 𝑥 t + 𝑐¯ − 𝑐r = 𝑥 t + 𝑐©
154
∴ 𝑦t = 𝑥t + 𝐶
Ex. 2 (Separable Variable)
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 =2+𝑥
Solve the DE 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑦 Ä − 𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑦 2 + 𝑥
⇒ =
Type: first-order-linear nonhomogeneous 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
differential equation
2+𝑥
⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
Solution: Separable Variable 𝑥
Answer: Explicit-General Solution 2+𝑥

⇒ $ 𝑑𝑦 = $ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑐u = 2 ln|𝑥| + 𝑥 + 𝑐t
∴ 𝑦 = 2 ln |𝑥| + 𝑥 + 𝐶
Ex. 3 *(IVP Problem)
Give the implicit solution to the IVP 𝑦 𝑑𝑥

− =
𝑥 𝑑𝑦
−𝑦𝑥 su = 𝑥 Ä (𝑦); 𝑦(−3) = 4
⇒ 𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥𝑑𝑥
Type:
With respect to 𝑦: first-order- ⇒ $ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = − $ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

nonlinear homogeneous.
1 t 1
With respect to 𝑥: first-order- ⇒ 𝑦 = − 𝑥 t + 𝑐t − 𝑐u
2 2
nonlinear homogeneous.
⇒ 𝑦 t + 𝑥 t = 2(𝑐t + 𝑐u ) = 𝐶
Note: There are two possible
solutions to this problem i.e. watch Solving explicitly:
out for instructions. In some online 𝑦 = ±³𝐶 − 𝑥 t
homework, it will want the
“explicit” version. Lets solve this implicitly first (−3)t + (5)t = 25 = 𝐶 so
𝑥 t + 𝑦 t = 5t a circle centered at the origin with radius
5.
Now lets take a look at this explicitly
True: −3 = −³𝐶 − (4)t
155
False: −3 = +³𝐶 − (5)t
(square-root is never negative)
y’+P(x)y=Q(x)
Process
Given a first order linear non-homogeneous differential equation of the form 𝑦 Ä + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 =
𝑄(𝑥 ) the solution is:
Ex. 1
𝑑𝑦 9 1
+ 𝑦= - 9 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑃 (𝑥 ) = , 𝑄 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥 𝑥-
This is when “type” becomes important to
identify. ® »
𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ƒêƒ = 𝑒 ® ËÌ|ƒ| = 𝑒 ∫ ËÌ•ƒ • = 𝑥 ®
Type: first-order-linear nonhomogeneous
differential equation 1 1
⇒𝑦= ®
Î$ 𝑥 ® ∙ - 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐u Ï
This type of differential equation has a simple 𝑥 𝑥
formula. In fact, almost all DE’s have straight to 1
the point formulas. = Î$ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐u Ï
𝑥®
Method:
1 1 t
= Î 𝑥 + 𝑐u Ï
1 𝑥® 2
𝑦= Î$ 𝐼 (𝑥)𝑄(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶Ï ⇔ 𝐼(𝑥 )
𝐼 (𝑥 ) 1 𝑥 t + 2 ∙ 𝑐u
= 𝑒 ∫ K(ƒ)êƒ = Ó Ô
𝑥® 2
1 𝑥 t + 𝑐t
= ®Ó Ô
𝑥 2
𝑥 t + 𝐶 1 s¬
∴𝑦= = 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∗ 𝑥 s®
2𝑥 ® 2
156
Ex. 2
𝑦 ∙ sin(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦 − y t ∙ csc(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 ∙ csc(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
There are many forms DE’s can take on and many solutions to them, some are easier than
others, so the only true way to understand when to use what is to expose your self to many
situations.
1 𝑑𝑦
𝑦 su csc(𝑥 ) (𝑦 ∙ sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 − y t ∙ csc(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 ∙ csc(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ) ⇒ − csc t (𝑥 ) 𝑦 = csc t (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
² (ƒ)êƒ
∴ 𝑃(𝑥 ) = − csc t (𝑥 ) , 𝑄(𝑥 ) = sec(𝑥 ) , 𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ s +É+ = 𝑒 +,D(ƒ)
1
𝑦= Î$ 𝑒 +,D(ƒ) ∙ csc t (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶Ï = 𝑒 s +,D(ƒ) Ð−𝑒 +,D(ƒ) + 𝐶Ò = −1 + 𝐶𝑒 s +,D(ƒ)
𝑒 +,D(ƒ)
∴ 𝑦(𝑥 ) = 𝐶𝑒 s +,D(ƒ) − 1
Exact Differential Equation

The exact equation is not very common and stems from partial derivatives. The solution is
generally very simple.
Situation
𝜕 𝜕
𝑓ƒ (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓À (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 ⇔ 𝑓ƒ = 𝑓
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 À
This implies that there is a common function ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) in each individual antiderivative
Ex. 1
(𝑥 t − 𝑦 t )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 t − 2𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕
𝑓ƒ = 𝑥 t − 𝑦 t ⇒ 𝑓 = −2𝑦
𝜕𝑦 ƒ
𝜕
𝑓À = 𝑦 t − 2𝑥𝑦 ⇒ 𝑓 = −2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 À
𝜕 𝜕
∴ 𝑓ƒ = −2𝑦 = 𝑓
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 À
So this is an exact equation
All you have to do is integrate and find the common term, and recall from several variable
calculus that we are integrating a multiple variable function, and that the constant added, is a
function of the variable not being integrated i.e.
157
1 r
$(𝑥 t − 𝑦 t ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 t + 𝑘(𝑦) = 𝑐u
3
1 r
$(𝑦 t − 2𝑥𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦 t + 𝑙(𝑥 ) = 𝑐t
3
From this we can easily identify 𝑘(𝑦) and 𝑙(𝑥 ) or it may just be easy to see the similarity i.e.
u u
think about taking partial derivatives of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = r 𝑥 r − 𝑥𝑦 t + r 𝑦 r
1 1
𝑘 (𝑦 ) = 𝑦 r , 𝑙 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 r , 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = −𝑥𝑦 t
3 3
1 r 1
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 t + 𝑦 r = 𝐶
3 3
There are other approaches to this; in fact you could solve this in on straight shot by just
integrating the whole equation and identifying the common term but check with your teacher
how much detail they would prefer.
Note: This problem is not likely to show up on exams (maybe a quiz) because it is such a rare
case and is really very simple to solve. Your exams will most likely have all second order or
higher differential equations.
Integrating Factors
When you have the “exact equation” looking situation but it is not an exact equation i.e.
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
𝑀𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁𝑑𝑦 = 0 & ≠
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Then you can multiply the whole equation by 𝜇 (𝑥) or 𝜇 (𝑦) and it will then become an exact
equation.
¤¥ s¦0 ¦0 s¤¥
êƒ êÀ
𝜇 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ ¦ , 𝜇 (𝑦 ) = 𝑒 ∫ ¤
Ex. 1
(𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 t + 3𝑦 t − 20)𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑀 = 𝑥𝑦, 𝑁 = 2𝑥 t + 3𝑦 t − 20
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁 𝑀À − 𝑁ƒ −3𝑥 𝑁ƒ − 𝑀À 3𝑥 3
= 𝑥 ≠ 4𝑥 = , = t , = =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑁 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 t − 20 𝑀 𝑥𝑦 𝑦
We are looking for the one that has a single variable and also easiest to integrate.
r
∫ÀêÀ ·
∴ 𝜇 (𝑦 ) = 𝑒 = 𝑒 r ËÌ|À| = 𝑒 ËÌ•À • = 𝑦 r
158
Now multiply the original equation by 𝑦 r
𝑦 r ∙ [(𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 t + 3𝑦 t − 20)𝑑𝑦 = 0] ⇒ (𝑥𝑦 ¯ )𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥 t 𝑦 r + 3𝑦 © − 20𝑦 r )𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕 𝜕
∴ (𝑥𝑦 ¯ ) = 4𝑥𝑦 ¯su = 4𝑥𝑦 r ⇒ 4𝑥𝑦 r = 2(2𝑥𝑦 r ) = (2𝑥 t 𝑦 r + 3𝑦 © − 20𝑦 r )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑁
⇔ =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Thus, it is an exact equation now. Integrate all the way through and identify the equivalent
term i.e.
1
$(𝑥𝑦 ¯ ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐u ⇒ ª 𝑥 t 𝑦 ¯ + 𝑔(𝑦)« = 𝑐u
2
1 1
$(2𝑥 t 𝑦 r + 3𝑦 © − 20𝑦 r ) 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐t ⇒ ª 𝑥 t 𝑦 ¯ + 𝑦 ° − 5𝑦 ¯ + ℎ(𝑥 )« = 𝑐u
2 2
Setting these two equations equal (there are many ways to find this by the way, this is just one
method, see exact equations) finding 𝑔(𝑦) and ℎ(𝑥 )
1 1 1
ª 𝑥 t 𝑦 ¯ + O 𝑦 ° − 5𝑦 ¯ Q + ℎ(𝑥 )« = O 𝑥 t 𝑦 ¯ + 𝑔(𝑦) + 0Q
2 2 2
1 t ¯ 1 t ¯ 1
⇒ 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑔(𝑦) = O 𝑦 ° − 5𝑦 ¯ Q , ℎ(𝑥 ) = 0, 𝑐u + 𝑐t = 𝐶
2 2 2
1 t ¯ 1 °
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑔(𝑦) + ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝐶 ∴ 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑦 − 5𝑦 ¯ = 𝐶
2 2
Reduction of Order
Process
Given a second order linear homogeneous DE of the form 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑃 (𝑥)𝑦 Ä + 𝑄(𝑥 ) = 0

accompanied with 𝑦u (𝑥)
Solution
Since the first solution is given, you must find the second solution, which is:
𝑒 s ∫ §(ƒ)êƒ 𝑒 s ∫ §(ƒ)êƒ
𝑦t (𝑥) = 𝑦u (𝑥 ) $ 𝑑𝑥, ∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑦u + 𝑐t ª𝑦u (𝑥 ) $ 𝑑𝑥«
[𝑦u (𝑥 )]t [𝑦u (𝑥 )]t
Ex. 1
159
𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 2𝑥𝑦 Ä − 6𝑦 = 0, 𝑦u = 𝑥 t
Find 𝑃 (𝑥)
1 t ÄÄ 2 6 2
[𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 Ä − 6𝑦 = 0] ⇒ 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑦 Ä − t 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑃 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥t 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
t 1² •
t$
𝑒 s ∫ƒêƒ t$
𝑒 st ËÌ|ƒ| t$
𝑒 ËÌ•ƒ 𝑥 st
∴ 𝑦t = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 t $ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 t $ 𝑥 s° 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 t )t 𝑥¯ 𝑥¯ 𝑥¯
1 s© 1 1
= 𝑥t Î 𝑥 Ï = − 𝑥 sr ⇒ 𝑦t =
−5 5 𝑥r
The constant can be ignored because a constant times a constant is a constant

𝑐t
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑥 t +
𝑥r
At this point it should become obvious that 𝑐u + 𝑐t + ⋯ + 𝑐H = 𝐶, this is also true for numbers
i.e. 𝑐u + 5 + 𝑒 + ln(10) + 𝑒 š· + 6𝑐t = 𝐶. In other words: a constant with a constant is a
constant.
SECOND ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
General, Particular and Superposition Solutions
For differential equations of higher order than 1, there will be multiple solutions i.e.
𝑦u , 𝑦t , … , 𝑦H where each individual y and all the y’s together are solutions to the DE.
General Solution
The general solution contains a constant e.g. 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝐶𝑒 ÉÈÌ(ƒ)
Particular Solution
The particular solution contains no constants, usually due to an initial value or as part of a non-
homogeneous solution.
Superposition Solution
For DE’s with multiple solutions, the sum of the solutions is also a solution i.e. 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑦u +
𝑐t 𝑦t + ⋯ + 𝑐H 𝑦H and in a non-homogeneous situation the solution will be the sum of the
solution to the homogenous part of the equation and the nonhomogeneous part generally
noted as 𝑦 = 𝑦š + 𝑦K .
The general solution is generally noted as 𝑦š and the particular 𝑦K giving the solution to be 𝑦 =
𝑦š + 𝑦K
160
𝑦 = (𝑐u 𝑦š,u + 𝑐t 𝑦š,t + ⋯ + 𝑐H 𝑦š,H ) + (𝑦K,u + 𝑦K,t + ⋯ + 𝑦K,H )
Linear Homogenous with Constant Coefficients
Scenario
𝑎u 𝑦 (H) + ⋯ + 𝑎t 𝑦 (Hs¨) + ⋯ + 𝑎§ 𝑦 = 0
Auxiliary equation
Substitute 𝑦 = 𝑒 ©a into the equation, eliminate 𝑒 ©a and solve for r
𝑎u 𝑟 H + ⋯ + 𝑎t 𝑟 (Hs¨) + ⋯ + 𝑎§ = 0
Solution(s)
If 𝑟 has a pair of solutions 𝑦š = 𝑐u 𝑒 ©- a + 𝑐t 𝑒 ©² a
If 𝑟 has n repeating solutions 𝑦š = 𝑐u 𝑒 ©a + 𝑐t 𝑡𝑒 ©a + 𝑐r 𝑡 t 𝑒 ©a + ⋯ + 𝑐H 𝑡 Hsu 𝑒 ©a
If 𝑟 has a pair of complex solutions 𝑟 = 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽, 𝑦 = 𝑒 ªa cos(𝛽𝑡) + 𝑒 ªa sin(𝛽𝑡)
Generally Speaking (second order)
𝑎𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑒 §ƒ , 𝑦 Ä = 𝑚𝑒 §ƒ , 𝑦 ÄÄ = 𝑚t 𝑒 §ƒ
⇒ 𝑎[𝑚t 𝑒 §ƒ ] + 𝑏[𝑚𝑒 §ƒ ] + 𝑐[𝑒 §ƒ ] = 𝑒 §ƒ [𝑎𝑚t + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 ] = 0
Identify 𝑒 §ƒ > 0 so it has no purpose for our solution leaving 𝑎𝑚t + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 = 0, which is the
auxiliary equation and the quadratic equation may be used to solve it.
−𝑏 ± √𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑎𝑚t + 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑚=
2𝑎
Two-real: 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑒 §- ƒ + 𝑐t 𝑒 §² ƒ
Repeated: 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑒 §ƒ + 𝑐t 𝑥𝑒 §ƒ
Complex: i.e. 𝑏t − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽 𝑦 = 𝑒 ªƒ [𝑐u cos(𝛽𝑥 ) + 𝑐t sin(𝛽𝑥 )]
161
Ex. 1
3𝑦 ÄÄ + 4𝑦 Ä + 5𝑦 = 0 −4 ± √16 − 4 ∙ 3 ∙ 5
𝑟=
2∙3
Auxiliary equation: 3𝑟 t + 4𝑟 + 5 = 0
4 √−44
Note: =− ±
6 6
t √11 2 2
𝑦u = 𝑒 Ÿsr a cos ª 𝑡« = − ± 𝑖 √11
3 3 6
2 1
Ÿs
t
a √11 = − ± 𝑖 √11
𝑦t = 𝑒 r sin ª 𝑡« 3 3
3
2 √11
𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑦u + 𝑐t 𝑦t ⇒𝛼 =− ∧𝛽=
3 3
t √11 √11
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑒 Ÿsr a Ó𝑐u cos ª 𝑡« + 𝑐t sin ª 𝑡«Ô
3 3
Ex. 2
3𝑦 ÄÄÄ + 4𝑦 Ä = 0 (third-order implies three solutions i.e. 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑦u + 𝑐t 𝑦t + 𝑐r 𝑦r )
𝑟(3𝑟 t + 4) = 0 2
𝑟 =0±𝑖
√3
2
⇒ 𝑟=0 & 𝑟 =0±𝑖
√3 ⇒ 𝑐u 𝑦u + 𝑐t 𝑦t
2 2
= 𝑒 J∙a Î𝑐u cos O 𝑡Q + 𝑐t sin O 𝑡QÏ
√3 √3
2 2
= 𝑐u cos O 𝑡Q + 𝑐t sin O 𝑡Q
√3 √3
𝑟=0 What about the solution 0? 0 is repeated once

hence
𝑐r 𝑦r = 𝑐r 𝑒 J∙a = 𝑐r (1) = 𝑐r
2 2
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐u cos O 𝑡Q + 𝑐t sin O 𝑡Q + 𝑐r
√3 √3
Ex. 3
𝑦 ÄÄÄ + 8𝑦 = 0 Note: 𝑥 r + 𝑎r = (𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 t − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎t )
162
𝑟r + 8 = 0
⇒ (𝑟 + 2)(𝑟 t − 2𝑟 + 4) = 0
⇒ 𝑟 = «−2, 1 ± 𝑖√3¬
𝑦u,t = 𝑒 a Ð𝑐u cos’√3𝑡“ + 𝑐t sin’√3𝑡“Ò
𝑦r = 𝑐r 𝑒 sta
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑒 a Ð𝑐u cos’√3𝑡“ + 𝑐t sin’√3𝑡“Ò + 𝑐r 𝑒 sta
Ex. 4
𝑦 (¯) + 8𝑦 ÄÄÄ = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 ¯ + 8𝑟 r = 𝑟 r (𝑟 + 8) = 0 ⇒ 𝑟 r = 0, 𝑟 = −8
Zero is repeated three times here
𝑦u,t,r = 𝑐u 𝑒 J∙ƒ + 𝑐t 𝑥𝑒 J∙ƒ + 𝑐r 𝑥 t 𝑒 J∙ƒ = 𝑐u + 𝑐t 𝑥 + 𝑐r 𝑥 t , 𝑦¯ = 𝑐¯ 𝑒 s-ƒ
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐u + 𝑐t 𝑥 + 𝑐r 𝑥 t + 𝑐¯ 𝑒 s-ƒ
Ex. 5 IVP y(0)=1, y’(0)=2, y’’(0)=3, y’’’(0)=4
Using the solution from example 4
𝑦š = 𝑐u + 𝑐t 𝑥 + 𝑐r 𝑥 t + 𝑐¯ 𝑒 s-ƒ
𝑦 Ä = 𝑐t + 2𝑐r 𝑥 − 8𝑐¯ 𝑒 s-ƒ , 𝑦 ÄÄ = 2𝑐r + 64𝑐¯ 𝑒 s-ƒ , 𝑦 ÄÄÄ = −512𝑐¯ 𝑒 s-ƒ
𝑦 (0) = 1 ⇒ 1 = 𝑐u + 𝑐t ∙ 0 + 𝑐r ∙ 0 + 𝑐¯ 𝑒 J = 𝑐u + 𝑐¯
𝑦 Ä (0) = 2 ⇒ 2 = 𝑐t + 2𝑐r ∙ 0 − 8𝑐¯ 𝑒 J = 𝑐t − 8𝑐¯
𝑦 ÄÄ (0) = 3 ⇒ 3 = 2𝑐r + 64𝑐¯ 𝑒 J = 2𝑐r + 64𝑐¯
𝑦 ÄÄÄ (0) = 4 ⇒ 4 = −512𝑐¯ 𝑒 J = −512𝑐¯
Solve the system
𝑐u + 𝑐¯ = 1, 𝑐t − 8𝑐¯ = 2, 2𝑐r + 64𝑐¯ = 3, −512𝑐¯ = 4
129 31 7 1
𝑐u = , 𝑐t = , 𝑐r = , 𝑐¯ = −
128 16 4 128
163
129 31 7 1 s-ƒ
∴ 𝑦K = + 𝑥 + 𝑥t − 𝑒
128 16 4 128
Reduction of Order
Process
Given a second-order-linear homogeneous DE of the form 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 Ä + 𝑄(𝑥 ) = 0, and

accompanied with 𝑦u (𝑥).
Solution Formula
Since the first solution is given, you must find the second solution, which is:
𝑒 s ∫ §(ƒ)êƒ 𝑒 s ∫ §(ƒ)êƒ
𝑦t (𝑥) = 𝑦u (𝑥 ) $ 𝑑𝑥, ∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑦u + 𝑐t ª𝑦u (𝑥 ) $ 𝑑𝑥«
[𝑦u (𝑥 )]t [𝑦u (𝑥 )]t
Ex. 1
𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 2𝑥𝑦 Ä − 6𝑦 = 0, 𝑦u = 𝑥 t
Find 𝑃 (𝑥)
1 t ÄÄ 2 6 2
[𝑥 𝑦 + 2𝑥𝑦 Ä − 6𝑦 = 0] ⇒ 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑦 Ä − t 𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑃 (𝑥 ) =
𝑥t 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
t 1² •
t$
𝑒 s ∫ƒêƒ t$
𝑒 st ËÌ|ƒ| t$
𝑒 ËÌ•ƒ 𝑥 st
∴ 𝑦t = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 $ ¯ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 t $ 𝑥 s° 𝑑𝑥
t
(𝑥 t )t 𝑥¯ 𝑥¯ 𝑥
1 s© 1 1
= 𝑥t Î 𝑥 Ï = − 𝑥 sr ⇒ 𝑦t =
−5 5 𝑥r
The constant can be ignored because a constant times a constant is a constant

𝑐t
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑥 t +
𝑥r
At this point it should become obvious that 𝑐u + 𝑐t + ⋯ + 𝑐H = 𝐶, this is also true for numbers
i.e. 𝑐u + 5 + 𝑒 + ln(10) + 𝑒 š· + 6𝑐t = 𝐶. In other words: a constant with a constant is a
constant.
164
Substitution
General Situation
The method of substitution works well with DE’s that look similar to an exact equation i.e.
(𝑥 t + 4𝑥𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + (𝑦 t − 4𝑥 t )𝑑𝑦 = 0
We can check for an exact and see that 𝜕À 𝑓ƒ = 4𝑥 ≠ −8𝑥 = 𝜕ƒ 𝑓À so we know we cannot use
that method because they are not equal.
Substitution Solution Method
Set 𝑦 = 𝑣 (𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑥 and take the derivative i.e. 𝑦 Ä = 𝑣(𝑥 ) + 𝑥 ∙ 𝑣 Ä (𝑥 ) and solve for 𝑑𝑦.
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
=𝑣+𝑥∙ ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 Î =𝑣+𝑥∙ Ï ⇒ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
If you use this method and it gets really sloppy, it probably is not the best choice so try
something else; lets see how this DE plays out.
Substitute 𝑦 and 𝑑𝑦 and simplify i.e.
’𝑥 t + 4𝑥(𝑣𝑥 )“𝑑𝑥 + ((𝑣𝑥 )t − 4𝑥 t )(𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑑𝑣) = 0
⇒ 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑥 t 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 t 𝑣 r 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 r 𝑣 t 𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑥 t 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 4𝑥 r 𝑑𝑣 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 t 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 t 𝑣 r 𝑑𝑥 + 4𝑥 t 𝑣𝑑𝑥 − 4𝑥 t 𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 r 𝑣 t 𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑥 r 𝑑𝑣 = 0
1 t
⇒ (𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 t 𝑣 r 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 r 𝑣 t 𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑥 r 𝑑𝑣 = 0)
𝑥t
⇒ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑣 r 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑣 t 𝑑𝑣 − 4𝑥𝑑𝑣 = 0
⇒ (1 + 𝑣 r )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥(𝑣 t − 4)𝑑𝑣 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥(𝑣 t − 4)𝑑𝑣 = −(1 + 𝑣 r )𝑑𝑥
𝑣t − 4 1
⇒ 𝑑𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑣r 𝑥
Now integrate the separable variable differential equation.
𝑣t 4 1
$Ó r
− r
Ô 𝑑𝑣 = − $ 𝑑𝑥
1+𝑣 1+𝑣 𝑥
À
At this point, it is just a really tedious calculus problem. Ÿ𝑣 = ƒ Two of the integrals are simple
i.e.
1 1 1 𝑦 r 1
ln|1 + 𝑣 r | − 4 $ 𝑑𝑣 = − ln|𝑥| + 𝐶 ⇒ ln 51 + Ÿ 5 − 4$ 𝑑𝑣
3 1 + 𝑣r 3 𝑥 1 + 𝑣r
= − ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
165
u
We just need to integrate uÏ · . This is a very complicated integral to do by hand. I used
Wolfram|Alpha to complete this.
1 1 2𝑣 − 1
∴ r
= O− ln(𝑣 t − 𝑣 + 1) + 2 ln(𝑣 + 1) + 2√3 tansu O QQ
1+𝑣 6 √3
1 𝑦 r 1 2𝑣 − 1
⇒ ln 51 + Ÿ 5 − 4 O− ln(𝑣 t − 𝑣 + 1) + 2 ln(𝑣 + 1) + 2√3 tansu O QQ = − ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
3 𝑥 6 √3
𝑦
1 𝑦 r 1 𝑦 t 𝑦 𝑦 2 Ÿ𝑥 − 1
su (
⇒ ln 51 + Ÿ 5 − 4 (− ln OŸ − + 1Q + 2 ln Ÿ + 1 + 2√3 tan ))
3 𝑥 6 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 √3
= − ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
This was a very loaded situation; it is highly unlikely to see something like this in an
undergraduate DE course.
When to use this method? If you have a situation with a first-order differential equation that is
not linear and the exact equation method does not work or is two complicated and vice versa.
But, there is another method i.e. “The Integrating Factor Method” (this method is not effective
for this problem.) Try it out in the integrating factor section.
Bessel’s Equation of Order 𝒗

Form
𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑥𝑦 Ä + (𝑥 t − 𝑣 t )𝑦 = 0
166
Solution to First Kind Bessel (𝒗 = fraction)
𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝐽I (𝑥 ) + 𝑐t 𝐽sI (𝑥 )
∞ ∞
(−1)H 𝑥 tHÏ (−1)H 𝑥 tHsI
𝐽I (𝑥) = D Ÿ , 𝐽sI (𝑥 ) = D Ÿ
𝑛! 𝛤 (1 + 𝑣 + 𝑛) 2 𝑛! 𝛤 (1 − 𝑣 + 𝑛) 2
HIJ HIJ
16𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 16𝑥𝑦 Ä + (16𝑥 t − 1)𝑦 = 0
t ÄÄ
1 t
Ä t
⇒ 𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 + ª𝑥 − O Q « 𝑦 = 0
4
1
𝑣=
4
Solution to Second Kind Bessel (𝒗 = integer)
cos(𝑣𝜋) 𝐽I (𝑥 ) − 𝑐t 𝐽sI (𝑥 )
𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝐽I (𝑥 ) + 𝑐t 𝑌I (𝑥 ), 𝑌I (𝑥) =
sin(𝑣𝜋)
16𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 16𝑥𝑦 Ä + (16𝑥 t − 1)𝑦 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑥𝑦 Ä + (𝑥 t − 9)𝑦 = 0
𝑣=3
Solution to Third Kind Bessel (𝜶𝒙 = 𝒕)
𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑥𝑦 Ä + (𝛼 t 𝑥 t − 𝑣 t )𝑦 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑥𝑦 Ä + (𝑡 t − 𝑣 t )𝑦 = 0
Solution
𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝐽I (𝑡) + 𝑐t 𝑌I (𝑡) = 𝑐u 𝐽I (𝛼𝑥 ) + 𝑐t 𝑌I (𝛼𝑥 )
16𝑥 t 𝑦 ÄÄ + 16𝑥𝑦 Ä + (16𝑥 t − 1)𝑦 = 0
𝛼=4
Variation of parameters
𝑦 ÄÄ + 4𝑦′ = 3 sin 𝑥
1st solve homogenous using constant coefficients
167
𝑦 ÄÄ + 4𝑦 Ä = 0 ⇒ 𝑦B = 𝑐u 𝑒 s¯ƒ + 𝑐t
2nd Solve the particular solution using variations of parameters
Identify 𝑦u , 𝑦t , 𝑔(𝑥 )
𝑦u = 𝑒 s¯ƒ , 𝑦t = 1, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 3 sin(𝑥 )
Compute Wronskian
𝑦u 𝑦t 𝑒 s¯ƒ 16 = (𝑒 s¯ƒ )(0) − (1)(−4𝑒 s¯ƒ ) = 4𝑒 s¯ƒ

𝑊(𝑥 ) = 6𝑦 Ä Ä6 ⇒ 6
𝑦t
u −4𝑒 s¯ƒ 0
𝑦K = 𝑢u 𝑦u + 𝑢t 𝑦t
𝑦u 𝑔 𝑒 s¯ƒ 3 sin(𝑥 ) 3 3
𝑢u = − $ 𝑑𝑥 = − $ s¯ƒ
𝑑𝑥 = $ − sin(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = cos(𝑥 )
𝑊 4𝑒 4 4
𝑦t 𝑔 3 sin(𝑥 ) 3 ¯ƒ
3 ¯ƒ
𝑢t = $ 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑒 sin ( 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑒 (4 sin(𝑥 ) + cos(𝑥 ))
𝑊 4𝑒 s¯ƒ 4 68
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑦B + 𝑦K
⇒
3 3
𝑦 = 𝑐u 𝑒 s¯ƒ + 𝑐t + cos(𝑥) 𝑒 s¯ƒ − 𝑒 ¯ƒ (4 sin(𝑥 ) + cos(𝑥 ))
4 68
Method of undetermined coefficients

𝑦 ÄÄ + 2𝑦 Ä + 5𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 sƒ
𝑦 = 𝑦š + 𝑦K
i)
𝑟 t + 2𝑟 + 5 = 0 ⇔ 𝑟 = −1 ± 2𝑖 ⇒ 𝑦š = 𝑒 sƒ [𝑐u cos(2𝑥) + 𝑐t sin(2𝑥 )]
ii)
𝑦K = 𝐴𝑥𝑒 sƒ , 𝑦 Ä = 𝐴𝑒 sƒ − 𝐴𝑥𝑒 sƒ , 𝑦 ÄÄ = −𝐴𝑒 sƒ − [𝐴𝑒 sƒ − 𝐴𝑥𝑒 sƒ ] = −2𝐴𝑒 sƒ + 𝐴𝑥𝑒 sƒ
𝑦 ÄÄ + 2𝑦 Ä + 5𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 sƒ
⇒ [𝐴𝑥𝑒 sƒ − 2𝐴𝑒 sƒ ] + 2[𝐴𝑒 sƒ − 𝐴𝑥𝑒 sƒ ] + 5[𝐴𝑥𝑒 sƒ , ] = 𝑥𝑒 sƒ
⇒ 𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 2𝐴 − 2𝐴𝑥 + 5𝐴𝑥 = 𝑥
168
1
⇒ 4𝐴𝑥 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝐴 =
4
𝑥
∴ 𝑦 = 𝑒 sƒ [𝑐u cos(2𝑥) + 𝑐t sin(2𝑥 )] + 𝑒 sƒ
4
Second Solution for Reduction of Order
Find the general solution of
From 𝑦 = 𝑦B + 𝑦K the ℎ implies the homogeneous solution also the general solution, the 𝑝
implies the particular solution. This problem will not be easy to find the particular solution,
hence it states “find the general solution”.
(𝑥 t − 1)𝑦 ÄÄ − 2𝑥𝑦 Ä + 2𝑦 = 𝑥 t + 1
We need to make a guess on the solution for 𝑦u . Since the coefficients are polynomials, we
should also choose a polynomial to be 𝑦u . Start with the easiest option i.e. 𝑦u = 𝑥. Why did we
choose this? Well, 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 Ä = 1 ⇒ 𝑦 ÄÄ = 0 ∴ (𝑥 t − 1)(0) − 2𝑥(1) + 2(𝑥) = −2𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 0.
We chose it because it zeroes the homogeneous solution.
Formula:
1
𝑦 ÄÄ + 𝑷(𝒙)𝑦 Ä + 𝑄(𝑥 )𝑦 = 0, 𝑦u = 𝒚𝟏 (𝒙), 𝑦t = 𝑣𝒚𝟏 , 𝑣=$ 𝑒 s ∫ 𝑷(𝒙)êƒ 𝑑𝑥
( 𝒚𝟏 ) t
1 t ÄÄ Ä t ÄÄ
𝟐𝒙 Ä
2 𝑥t + 1
[( 𝑥 − 1 ) 𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 2𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 ] ⇒ 𝑦 + O− Q 𝑦 + O Q 𝑦 =
𝑥t − 1 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 𝑥t − 1 𝑥t − 1
ê ²
2𝑥 1 s ∫Ÿs 𝟐𝟐𝒙 êƒ 1 ∫êƒ ’ƒ² su“êƒ 1 ËÌ•ƒ ² su•
( )
∴𝑷 𝒙 =− t ⇒𝑣= $ 𝑒 𝒙 s𝟏 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑒 ƒ su 𝑑𝑥 = $ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 −1 (𝑥 )t 𝑥t 𝑥t
1 t 1
$ t
(𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥 = $ 1 − 𝑥 st 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 +
𝑥 𝑥
1
∴ 𝑦B = 𝑐u 𝑥 + 𝑥 O𝑥 + Q 𝑐t = 𝑐u 𝑥 + (𝑥 t + 1)𝑐t
𝑥
Solve for the particular using undetermined coefficients
(If you try 𝐴𝑥 t + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 it won’t work so move up the polynomial)
𝑦K = 𝐴𝑥 r + 𝐵𝑥 t + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 ⇒ 𝑦KÄ = 3𝐴𝑥 t + 2𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑦KÄÄ = 6𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐵
(𝑥 t − 1)𝑦 ÄÄ − 2𝑥𝑦 Ä + 2𝑦 = 𝑥 t + 1
⇒ (𝑥 t − 1)(6𝐴𝑥 + 2𝐵) − 2𝑥(3𝐴𝑥 t + 2𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 ) + 2(𝐴𝑥 r + 𝐵𝑥 t + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷) = 𝑥 t + 1
⇒ 2𝐴𝑥 r − 6𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐵 + 2𝐷 = (0)𝑥 r + (1)𝑥 t + (0)𝑥 + (1)𝑥 J
169
⇒ 𝑛𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 …
Try variation of parameters

𝑊 = 6𝑥 𝑥 t + 16 = 2𝑥 t − (𝑥 t + 1) = 𝑥 t − 1
1 2𝑥
𝑦t 𝑔 (𝑥 t + 1)t
𝑢u = $ 𝑑𝑥 = $ t 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝑥 −1
𝑦u 𝑔 𝑥 (𝑥 t + 1)
𝑢t = $ 𝑑𝑥 = $ t 𝑑𝑥
𝑊 𝑥 −1
Rank of matrix and pivots

[ 𝟏 1] , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴u ) = 1 [ 𝟏 1] , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴- ) = 1
𝟏 𝟏
Ö ×, 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴t ) = 1 Ö ×, 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴® ) = 1
1 0
[𝟏 1 1] , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴r ) = 1 [𝟏 1 1] , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴uJ ) = 1
𝟏 𝟏
³1´ , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴¯ ) = 1 ³0´ , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴uu ) = 1
1 0
𝟏 0 𝟏 1 1
Ö ×, 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴© ) = 2
0 𝟏 ³1 1 1´ , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴ut ) = 1
1 1 1
𝟏 0 0 𝟏 1 1
Ö ×, 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴° ) = 2
0 𝟏 1 ³1 1 −𝟏´ , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴ur ) = 2
1 1 1
𝟏 0 𝟏 1 1
³0 0´ , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴¬ ) = 2 ³0 𝟏 1´ , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴u¯ ) = 3
0 𝟏 0 0 𝟏
Note: max rank is the smaller dimension of 𝑛 × 𝑚 e.g. 3 × 7 means that 3 is the highest possible
rank. It goes with the transpose as well i.e. 7 × 3 still has a highest rank of 3.
170
1 2 1 1 1 1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ⇐ 𝑅2 𝟏 2 1 1 1 1
𝐴=Ö × Ö × ⇒ 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴) = 2
−1 −2 1 1 1 1 ~ 0 0 𝟐 2 2 2
3
3 2 3 1 ⎡𝟏 0 0 − 7⎤
𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 ⇒ ³1 3 3µ3´ ~ ⎢0 𝟏 0¹ 8 ⎥ , 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘(𝐴) = 3 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴 = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘
3 2 1 1 ⎢0 0 𝟏 7 ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
Length of a vector and the unit vector

𝑥u
⎡ 𝑥t ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Given a vector 𝒙 = 𝑥⃗ = (𝑥u , 𝑥t , 𝑥r , … , 𝑥H ) = ⎢ 𝑥r ⎥
⎢⋮⎥
⎣𝑥H ⎦
The length of the vector is the magnitude of the vector
‖𝒙‖ ≡ |𝑥⃗| = ´𝑥ut + 𝑥tt + 𝑥rt + ⋯ + 𝑥Ht
Ex:
Find the length of (1,2,3,4)
1
(1,2,3,4) = ¾2¿ ⇒ |(1,2,3,4)| = ³1t + 2t + 3t + 4t = √1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = √30 units
3
4
Ex:
From the vector above, find its unit vector.
𝑣⃗ 𝒗 𝑣⃗ 𝒗
= ⇒ c c= À À = 1 units
|𝑣⃗| ‖𝒗‖ |𝑣⃗| ‖𝒗‖
1
𝒙 1 2 (1,2,3,4) 1 2 3 4
= ¾ ¿= =O , , , Q
‖𝒙‖ √1 + 4 + 9 + 16 3 √30 √30 √30 √30 √30
4
𝑥⃗ 1 t 2 t 3 t 4 t 1 4 9 16 30
c c = ºªO Q +O Q +O Q +O Q «=º + + + = º = 1 units
|𝑥⃗| √30 √30 √30 √30 30 30 30 30 30
171
Solutions of Augmented Matrices
Consider the basic scenario i.e. remember from algebra when you have 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 and 𝑑𝑥 +
𝑒𝑦 = 𝑓? Remember that these two lines either lye on each other, intersect or never touch, and
this means they have either a unique solution, infinite solutions, on no solution. The same goes
with 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 , except this is a plane.
For ℝr , consider the following system and its three possible solutions after reduction:
Coefficient Matrix
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑥 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑒𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 + 𝑔𝑦 = ℎ ⇒ ³𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 ´ Ó𝑦Ô = ³ ℎ ´ ⇒ ³𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 µℎ ´
𝑖𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 = 𝑙 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑧 𝑙 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
The Coefficient Matrix = ³ 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔´
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
Unique Solution
1 0 0∗ 𝑥 ∗
~ ³0 1 0µ∗´ ⇒ Ó𝑦Ô = Ó∗Ô
0 0 1∗ 𝑧 ∗
In 2𝐷/3𝐷 here is a single point of intersection
Infinite Solution
1 0 0∗ 𝑥 ∗ 0
³
~ 0 1 0 µ ∗ ´ ⇒ Ó𝑦 Ô = Ó ∗ Ô + 𝑠 0´
³
0 0 00 𝑧 0 1
In 3𝐷 two planes lie on top of each other

In 2𝐷 two lines lie on top of each other
172
No Solution
1 0 0∗ 𝑥 ∗
~ ³0 1 0µ∗´ ⇒ Ó𝑦Ô = Ó∗Ô
0 0 0∗ 0 ∗
Two planes/lines never touch
Solving System of Equations

𝑥t + 𝑥¯ = 5 ∧ 𝑥r − 4𝑥¯ = 4 𝑥t + 𝑥¯ = 5 ⇒ 0𝑥u + 𝑥t + 0𝑥r + 𝑥¯ = 5
I like to set up a matrix for this problem, and 𝑥r − 4𝑥¯ = 4 ⇒ 0𝑥u + 0𝑥t + 𝑥r − 4𝑥¯ = 4
solve the matrix i.e.
0 0 0 0 0
010 1 5 1 ¹5¿
⇒Ö 6 × ⇒ ¾0 1 0
0 0 1 −4 4 0 0 1 −4 4
0 0 0 0 0
𝑥u 𝑥u
𝑥t 5 − 𝑥¯
⇒ 𝒙 = 𝑥 = 4 + 4𝑥
3 4
𝑥4 𝑥4
This helps to see the pivots, and identify that 0 + 𝑥u + 0𝑥¯
𝑥u ∧ 𝑥¯ are free variables. Which means you
5 + 0𝑥u − 𝑥¯
can set them equal to themselves. =
4 + 0𝑥1 + 4𝑥4
0 + 0𝑥1 + 𝑥4
0 1 0
5 0 −1
= % & + % & 𝑥u + % & 𝑥¯
4 0 4
0 0 1
You can choose 𝑥u ∧ 𝑥¯ = 𝑠 ∧ 𝑡 because they are free
0 1 0
5 0 −1
∴ 𝒙 = % & + 𝑠 % & + 𝑡 % & = {𝑠, 5 − 𝑡, 4 + 4𝑡, 𝑡}
4 0 4
0 0 1
173
Gauss Jordan Augmented Matrix
2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2 2 −1 2
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 11 ⇒ ³1 2 µ11´
2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 18 2 3 18
Row operations Executed
1 2 −1 2
𝑅2 ⇐ 𝑅1 − 𝑅2 ∧ 𝑅3 ⇐ 𝑅1 − 𝑅3 5
2 Ú0 − ”−10Û
2
0 −4 −16
2 1 2 −1 2
𝑅2 ⇐ − 𝑅2 ∧ 𝑅3 ⇐ − 𝑅3 ³0 1 µ4´
5 4
0 1 4
𝑅3 ⇐ 𝑅2 − 𝑅3 2 −1 2
³0 1 µ4´
0 0 0
𝑅1 ⇐ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2 06
³0 1µ4´
0 00
1 1 03
𝑅1 ⇐ 𝑅1 ³0 1µ4´
2
0 00
3 𝑥=3 ∴ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (3,4)
⇒ 𝐼t 𝒙 = Ö × ⇒
4 𝑦=4
174
Row Operation Rules and Guidelines for
Solve a System of Matrices
Solve the system of equations rref [{-1/4,1,0,1},{1,0,1,2},{3,-1,1,2}]
1 1
− 𝑥+𝑦=1 −4 1 01
4 ⇒Ú 1
𝑥+𝑧=2 0 1”2Û
3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2 3 −1 12
Always go in the following order unless a zero already exists and or a row operation makes it
exist.
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗∗ ∗ 12 11 9 ∗ 1 0 0 0∗
1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ nd 0 ∗ 10 8 ∗ rd 0 1 0 0”∗Û
1st Ú2 4 ∗ ∗”∗Û, 2 Ú 0 0 ” Û, 3 Ú
∗ 7 ∗ 0 0 1 0∗
3 5 6 ∗∗ 0 0 0 ∗ ∗ 0 0 0 1∗
General allowed operations when solve a system (not the same for a matrix A)
1. Row swapping 𝑅1 ⇔ 𝑅2 (means swap row 1 with row 2)

u
2. Divide/multiply a Row © 𝑅2 ∧ −3𝑅4 (means divide row 2 by 5 and multiply row 4 by -3)
3. Adding/subtracting scaled rows 5𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ⇐ 𝑅2 (means the new row 2 = 5[row 1] +

[row 2])
1
−4 1 01
Ú 1 0 1”2Û
3 −1 12
Take a look at the matrix. First multiply row 1 by −4 and then swap row 2 and row 3
1
−4𝑅1 = −4 Î− 1 0 1Ï = [1 −4 0 −4] ⇐ 𝑅1
4
𝑅2 ⇔ 𝑅3
1 −4 0 −4
³3 −1 1µ 2 ´
1 0 1 2
Now eliminate 3 and 1 from column 1
175
−3𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = −3[1 −4 0 −4] + [3 −1 1 2] = [0 11 1 14] ⇐ 𝑅2
−𝑅1 + 𝑅3 = (−1)[1 −4 0 −4] + [1 0 1 2] = [0 4 1 6] ⇐ 𝑅3
1 −4 0 −4
³0 11 1µ 14 ´
0 4 1 6
Now eliminate 4 from column 2

4 4 7 10
− 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = − [0 11 1 14] + [0 4 1 6] = Î0 0 Ï ⇐ 𝑅3
11 11 11 11
1 −4 0 −4
Ú0 11 1 ” 14 Û
7 10
0 0 11 11
u uu
Multiply row 2 by uu and row 3 by ¬
1 1 14
𝑅2 = Î0 1 Ï
11 11 11
11 10
𝑅3 = Î0 0 1 Ï
7 7
8 4
−4 𝑥 − 4𝑦 = −4 ⇒ 𝑥 = 4 O Q − 4 =
⎡1 −4 0 14 ⎤ 7 7
⎢0 1 1 14 14 1 10 8
1 ¹ 11 ⎥ ⇒ 𝑦 + 𝑧 = ⇒ 𝑦 = − O Q =
⎢ 11 10 ⎥ 11 11 11 11 7 7
⎣0 0 1
7⎦ 10
𝑧=
7
4
⎛7⎞ 1 4 2 2
8
∴𝒙= ⎜ ⎟ = Ý 8 Þ = Ý4Þ
⎜ 7 ⎟ 7 10 7
5
10
⎝7⎠
Echelon Forms: EF, REF, RREF

𝑥t − 𝑥u − 𝑥r = 2 −1 1 −1 2
2𝑥u − 𝑥t = 2 ⇒ ³ 2 −1 0 µ2´
2𝑥u + 𝑥t + 𝑥r = 2 2 1 1 2
Echelon Form
aka ef
176
−1 1 −1 2 2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ⇐ 𝑅2 −1 1 −1 2 −𝟏 1 −1 2
−3𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ⇐ 𝑅3
³2 −1 0 µ2´ 2𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ⇐ 𝑅3 ³ 0 1 −2µ6´ ³𝟎 𝟏 −2µ 6 ´
~
2 1 1 2 ~ 0 3 −1 6 𝟎 𝟎 𝟓 −12
Reduced Echelon Form

aka ref
−1 1 −1 2 −𝑅1 ⇐ 𝑅1 𝟏 −1 1 2
1
³0 1 −2µ 6 ´ 𝑅3 ⇐ 𝑅3 Ú𝟎 𝟏 −2” 6 Û
5 12
0 0 5 −12 ~ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 − 5
Reduced Row Echelon Form

aka rref
2 8
⎡ 5 ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 −1 1 −2 2𝑅3 + 𝑅2 ⇐ 𝑅2 ⎢ 1 −1 0 ¹ 6 ⎥ 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 ⇐ 𝑅1 ⎢𝟏 𝟎 𝟎¹ 5 ⎥
Ú0 1 −2” 6 Û −𝑅3 + 𝑅1 ⇐ 𝑅1 6
12 ⎢ 0 1 0¹ 5 ⎥ ~ ⎢𝟎 𝟏 𝟎
¹ 5 ⎥
0 0 1 − 5 ~ ⎢0 0 1 12⎥ ⎢𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 12⎥
⎣ − 5⎦ ⎣ − 5⎦
[{-1,1,-1,2},{2,-1,0,2},{2,1,1,2}]
Linear Dependence
Linear combination
Say you have ℬ = {𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤}, write it as a linear combination. All that means is 𝑢𝑥u + 𝑣𝑥t + 𝑤𝑥r
Now to verify linear independence/dependence set the combination equal to zero. If there is a
unique solution, the vectors are linearly independent else dependent i.e. if 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑜𝑟 𝑤 can be
written as a linear combination of the others e.g. 𝑢 = 𝑣 − 𝑤 or 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑤 then they are
dependent.
Different ways to verify dependency of vectors
Ex 1: Set u,v,w Linearly Dependent
Are the sets linear dependent/independent? (ℬ denotes basis. 𝒲 is generally subset/space)

177
𝒲u = {𝑢 − 2𝑣 + 𝑤, 𝑤 + 𝑣 − 𝑢, 2𝑤 − 𝑣}
(it can easily be seen that (𝑢 − 2𝑣 + 𝑤) + (𝑤 + 𝑣 − 𝑢) = 2𝑤 − 𝑣, which means the set is

dependent)
𝒲u : (𝑢 − 2𝑣 + 𝑤)𝑥u + (𝑤 + 𝑣 − 𝑢)𝑥t + (2𝑤 − 𝑣)𝑥r

𝑥u
= [𝑢 − 2𝑣 + 𝑤 −𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 ]
0𝑢 − 𝑣 + 2𝑤 t ´
³ 𝑥
𝑥r
1 −1 0 𝑥u
= ³[𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³−2´ [𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³ 1 ´ [𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³−1´´ ³𝑥t ´
1 1 2 𝑥r
1 −1 0 𝑥u
= [𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³−2 1 −1´ ³𝑥t ´
1 1 2 𝑥r
1 −1 0 1 0 1
rref ³−2 1 −1´ = ³0 1 1´ , not full rank ∴ LD
1 1 2 0 0 0
Ex 2: Set u,v,w Linearly Independent
𝒲t = {𝑢, 𝑣 + 2𝑢, 𝑢 − 2𝑣}
𝑢𝑥u + (𝑣 + 2𝑢)𝑥t + (𝑢 − 2𝑣 + 𝑤)𝑥r = 0 ⇒
=
1 2 1 𝑥u
= ³[𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³0´ [𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³1´ [𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³−2´´ ³𝑥t ´
0 0 1 𝑥r
1 2 1 𝑥u
= [𝑢 𝑣 𝑤] ³0 1 −2´ ³𝑥t ´
0 0 1 𝑥r
1 2 1
rref ³0 1 −2´ , full rank ∴ LI
0 0 1
Ex 3: Vectors Linearly Independent
Determine if the set is linearly independent or dependent
1 3 1
𝒲 = ÌÝ2Þ , Ý2Þ , Ý 1 ÞÍ
3 1 −1
178
1 3 1
𝑢𝑥u + 𝑣𝑥t + 𝑤𝑥r = Ý2Þ 𝑥u + Ý2Þ 𝑥t + Ý 1 Þ 𝑥r = 0 (𝐴𝒙 = 0)
3 1 −1
1 3 1 0 1 0 00
rref Ý³2 2 µ
1 0 ´Þ = ³ 0 1 0µ0´
3 1 −1 0 0 0 10
This is a full rank matrix therefore it is a linearly independent set of vetors.
Ex 4: Vectors Linearly D
ependent
1 3 −3
𝒲 = ÌÝ2Þ , Ý2Þ , Ý−6ÞÍ
3 1 −9
1 3 −3 0
³2 2 −6µ0´
3 1 −9 0
𝐴𝒙 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴O 𝐴su 𝐴𝒙 = 𝐴O 𝐴su 0 ⇒ 𝐴𝑇 (𝐼 )𝒙 = 0 ⇒ 𝐴O 𝒙 = 0
1 2 3 0
∴³3 2 1 µ0´ 𝑅1 = −3𝑅3 ∴ LD i. e. not full rank
−3 −6 −9 0
1 2 3 0 1 2 30
3𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ⇐ 𝑅3 ⇒ ³3 2 1 µ 0 ´ ~ ³3 2 1µ0´
−3 −6 −9 0 0 0 00
Ex 5: Polynomials
𝑝u = 𝑥 t + 𝑥, 𝑝t = 𝑥 − 𝑥 t , 𝑝r = 1
Don’t be scared of the polynomial, just follow the rules, and it will work itself out!
(note: 𝑝(𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 t + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 or higher order polynomials)
(𝑥 t + 𝑥 )𝑣u + (𝑥 − 𝑥 t )𝑣t + (1)𝑣r = 0
𝑣u 0
[𝑥 t + 𝑥 𝑥−𝑥 t ] 𝑣
1 ³ t ´ = ³0 ´ ⇒
𝑣r 0
179
𝑣u 0 1 −1 0 𝑣u 0
[𝑥 t + 𝑥 + 0 −𝑥 t + 𝑥 + 0 t
0𝑥 + 0𝑥 + 1 ] ³ 𝑣t ´ = ³ 0´ ⇒ [𝑥 t 𝑥 1 ] ³ 1 1 0 ´ ³ 𝑣t ´ = ³ 0´
𝑣r 0 0 0 1 𝑣r 0
1 −1 0
−𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ⇒ ³0 2 0´
0 0 1
Full rank and linearly independent
Ex 6: (M_(2x2))
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
𝒲 = =Ö ×,Ö ×,Ö ×,Ö ×Ï
1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
Ö ×𝑥 + Ö ×𝑥 + Ö ×𝑥 + Ö ×𝑥 = 0
1 1 u 0 1 t 0 1 r 1 0 ¯
𝑥u 0 𝑥t 𝑥t 𝑥r 0 𝑥 0
Î Ï+Ö0 𝑥t × + Î Ï+Î ¯ Ï=0
𝑥u 𝑥u 0 𝑥r 𝑥¯ 0
𝑥 + 𝑥t + 𝑥r + 𝑥¯ 𝑥t 0 0
Ö u × Ö ×
𝑥u + 𝑥¯ 𝑥u + 𝑥t + 𝑥r = 0 0
𝑥u + 𝑥t + 𝑥r + 𝑥¯ = 0 1 1 1 10 1 0 0 00
𝑥t = 0 0 0¹0¿
⇒ ¾0 1 0 0¹ ¿ ~ ¾0 1 0
𝑥u + 𝑥¯ = 0 1 0 0 10 0 0 1 00
𝑥u + 𝑥t + 𝑥r = 0 1 1 1 00 0 0 0 10
This is a full rank matrix, therefore it is a linearly independent set of 2X2 matrices
Column Space - Row Space - Null Space -

Kernel
−3 9 −2 −7
𝐴 = ³ 2 −6 4 8´
3 −9 −2 2
Step 1 rref(𝐴) rref[{-3,9,-2,-7},{2,-6,4,8},{3,-9,-2,2}]
3
⎡ ⎤
−3 9 −2 −7 ⎢𝟏 −3 0 2⎥
³2 −6 4 8 ´ ~ ⎢0 0 𝟏 5⎥
3 −9 −2 2 ⎢0 0 0 4⎥
⎣ 0⎦
Identify Row Space
180
1 0
𝟏 −𝟑 𝟎 𝟑/𝟐
−3 0
³𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟓/𝟒´ ⇒ ℬÒÓ = Ô% 0 & , % 1 &Õ
0 0 0 0 3/2 5/4
Identify Column Space
−𝟑 9 −𝟐 −7 𝟏 −3 0 3/2 −3 −2
³𝟐 −6 𝟒 8 ´ ~ ³0 0 𝟏 5/4 ´ ⇒ ℬÖÓ = ÌÝ 2 Þ , Ý 4 ÞÍ
𝟑 −9 −𝟐 2 0 0 0 0 3 −2
Check you work i.e. Note: CS*RS=A
−3 −2 −3 9 −2 −7
1 −3 0 3/2
³2 4 Î´ ³
Ï = 2 −6 4 8´
0 0 1 5/4
3 −2 3 −9 −2 2
Null Space (Kernel)
3 −6
−3 9 −2 −7 1 −𝟑 0 𝟑/𝟐
1 0
³ 2 −6 4 8 ´ ~ ³0 0 1 𝟓/𝟒´ ⇒ ℬ¦Ó = Ô% & , % &Õ
0 −5
3 −9 −2 2 0 0 0 0
0 4
You can extract the null space quickly by changing the sign of the non-pivot element and
adding a pivot where the pivot would line up to an identity matrix but this is how to compute
it:
The ‘Null Space’ is the solution to 𝐴𝒙 = 𝟎
3 3
𝑥u 𝑥u − 3𝑥 t + 𝑥¯ = 0 𝑥u = 3𝑥t − 𝑥¯
0 2 2
1 −3 0 3/2 𝑥 𝑥t = 𝑥t 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑥t = 𝑥t + 0𝑥¯
t 0
³0 0 1 5/4´ ¾𝑥 ¿ = ¾ ¿ ⇒ ⇒
r 0 5 5
0 0 0 0 𝑥¯ 𝑥 + 𝑥 = 0 𝑥 = 0𝑥 − 𝑥
0 r
4 ¯ r t
4 ¯
𝑥¯ = 𝑥¯ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑥¯ = 0𝑥t + 𝑥¯
3
3 − 3 −6
1 ⎛ 2⎞ 1 0
⇒ 𝒙 = % & 𝑥 t + ⎜ 0 ⎟𝑥 ¯ , 𝑥t = 1 ∧ 𝑥¯ = 4 ⇒ ℬ¦Ó = Ô% & , % &Õ
0 ⎜ 5⎟ 0 −5
0 − 0 4
4
⎝ 1 ⎠
Check your work A*NS=0:
181
−3 9 −2 −7 3 −6 0 0
³2 −6 ´
8 0 Ú 1 −5 Û = ³ 0 0´ = 𝟎
4 0
3 −9 −2 2 0 0
0 4
LUD Decomposition and Elementary

Matrices
1 2 1 ∗ 6𝑡ℎ 5𝑡ℎ ∗ 12𝑡ℎ 11𝑡ℎ 9𝑡ℎ
𝐴 = ³3 2 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈𝐷 = ? (note) ³ 1𝑠𝑡 1𝑠𝑡 ∗ 10𝑡ℎ 8𝑡ℎÛ
1´ , ∗ 4𝑡ℎ´ ∧ Ú
2𝑛𝑑 4𝑡ℎ ∗ 7𝑡ℎ
1 2 4 2𝑛𝑑 3𝑟𝑑 ∗ 3𝑟𝑑 5𝑡ℎ 6𝑡ℎ ∗
1 2 1 −3𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = [−3 −6 −3] + [3 2 1] = [0 −4 −2] ⇐ 𝑅2

³3 2 1´ (−1)𝑅1 + 𝑅3 = [−1 −2 −1] + [1 2 4] = [0 0 3] ⇐ 𝑅3
1 2 4
1 2 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 2 1
⇒ ³0 −4 −2´ ∨ 𝐸1 𝐴 = ³−3 1 0 ´ ³3 2 1 ´ = ³ 0 −4 −2 ´
0 0 3 −1 0 1 1 2 4 0 0 3
2
1 2 1 𝑅3 + 𝑅2 = [0 0 2] + [0 −4 −2] = [0 −4 0] ⇐ 𝑅2
⇒ ³0 −4 −2´ 3 1
0 0 3 − 𝑅3 + 𝑅1 = [0 0 −1] + [1 2 1] = [1 2 0] ⇐ 𝑅1
3
1 2 0 1
⇒ ³0 −4 0´ 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 = [0 −2 0] + [1 2 0] = [1 0 0] ⇐ 𝑅1
2
0 0 3
1
1 ⎡1 0 − ⎤ 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 ⎢ 3⎥ 0 1 2 1 1 0 0
⇒ ³0 −4 0´ ∨ 𝐸3 𝐸t 𝐸u 𝐴 = ¾ 2 ¿ 2 ⎥ ³−3 1 0 ´ ³3 2 1 ´ = ³0 −4 0´
0 1 0 ⎢0 1
0 0 3 ⎢ 3 ⎥ −1 0 1 1 2 4 0 0 3
0 0 1 ⎣
0 0 1 ⎦
=𝐷
182
𝟏 𝟏
⎡1 − ⎤
1 0 0 ⎢ 𝟐 𝟑 ⎥ 1 0 0
𝐿 = ³𝟑 1 0´ , 𝑈=⎢ 𝟐 , 𝐷 = ³0 −4 0´
𝟏 0 1 ⎢0 1 − ⎥⎥ 0 0 3
𝟑
⎣0 0 1 ⎦
𝟏 𝟏
⎡1 − ⎤
1 0 0 ⎢ 𝟐 𝟑 ⎥ 1 0 0 1 2 1
∴ 𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈𝐷 = ³𝟑 1 0´ ⎢ 𝟐 ³0 −4 0 ´ = ³3 2 1´
𝟏 0 1 ⎢0 1 − ⎥⎥ 0 0 3 1 2 4
𝟑
⎣0 0 1 ⎦
Transpose
(𝑛 × 𝑚 )O = (𝑚 × 𝑛 )
Ex 1:
1O
⎡2⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢3⎥ = [1 2 3 4 5]
⎢4⎥
⎣5⎦
Ex 2:
1 1
1 2 3O
Ö × = ³2 3 ´
1 3 2
3 2
Ex 3:
1 2 3 O 1 4 7
³4 5 6 ´ = ³2 5 8´
7 8 9 3 6 9
Ex 4:
(𝐴𝐵)O = 𝐵O 𝐴O
[(4 × 3)(3 × 5)]O = (3 × 5)O (4 × 3)O = (5 × 3)(3 × 4) = (5 × 4)
183
Symmetric matrix for A=LDU=LDL^T
1 3 4
𝐴 = ³3 1 3´
4 3 −1
1 0 0 1 3 4 1 3 4
𝐸u 𝐴 = ³−3 1 0 ´ ³3 1 3 ´ = ³0 −8 −9 ´
−4 0 1 4 3 −1 0 −9 −17
1 0 0 1 3 4
1 3 4
0 1 0 0 −8 −9
𝐸t (𝐸u 𝐴) = ¾ 9 ¿ ³0 −8 −9 ´ = ¾ 55¿
0 − 1 0 −9 −17 0 0 −
8 8
O
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
3 1 0 0 −8 0 3 1 0
𝐴 = 𝐿𝐷𝐿O = 𝐿𝐷𝑈 = ¾ 9 ¿¾ 55¿ ¾ 9 ¿
4 1 0 0 − 4 1
8 8 8
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 4
3 1 0 0 −8 0 9
∴𝐴=¾ 9 ¿¾ 55¿ ¾0 1 ¿
4 1 0 0 − 8
8 8 0 0 1
Matrix addition and subtraction

(𝑛 × 𝑚 ) ± (𝑛 × 𝑚 ) = (𝑛 × 𝑚 )
Ex 1:
1 2 1 1 1 1
𝐴=Ö ×∧𝐵 =Ö ×, 𝐴+𝐵 =?
1 1 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 1 1 1 1+1 2+1 1+1 2 3 2
𝐴+𝐵 =Ö ×+Ö ×=Ö ×=Ö ×
1 1 1 1 2 1 1+1 1+2 1+1 2 3 2
Ex 2:
184
1 2 1 1
𝐶 = ³2 2 ´ ∧ 𝐷 = ³1 1 ´ , 𝐶−𝐷 =?
2 2 1 1
1 2 1 1 1−1 2−1 0 1
𝐶 − 𝐷 = ³2 2 ´ − ³1 1´ = ³2 − 1 2 − 1´ = ³1 1´
2 2 1 1 2−1 2−1 1 1
Ex 3:
(𝐴 + 𝐵 )O − 5(𝐶 − 𝐷 ) = ?
0 1 2 2 0 5 2 −3
2 3 2O
Ö × − 5 ³1 1 ´ = ³3 3 ´ − ³5 5´ = ³−2 −2´
2 3 2
1 1 2 2 5 5 −3 −3
Multiply the matrices (2x2)(2x3)

(𝑚 × 𝑛)(𝑛 × 𝑝) = (𝑚 × 𝑝)
(𝟐 × 2)(2 × 𝟑) = (2 × 3)
[1 1 [1 5] Ö5× [1 5] Ö0×
5] Ö ×
Ö1 5× Ö1 5 0×
=Ú 4 0 2 Û
−1 2 4 0 2 [−1 2] Ö × [−1 2] Ö × [−1 2] Ö0×
1 5
4 0 2
(1)(1) + (5)(4) (1)(5) + (5)(0) (1)(0) + (5)(2)

=Î Ï
(−1)(1) + (2)(4) (−1)(5) + (2)(0) (−1)(0) + (2)(2)
21 5 10×
=Ö
7 −5 4
Matrix Multiplication (mxn)(nxp)

(𝒎 × 𝒏)(𝒏 × 𝒑) = (𝒎 × 𝒑)
Matrix multiplication is kind of like a giant ‘dot product’
This is the row by column method
Ex 1:
185
[1 2] Ö3×
(2 × 2)(2 × 1) = (2 × 1) : Ö1 2 3
×Ö × = Ú 1 Û = Î(1)(3) + (2)(1)Ï = Ö5×
1 1 1 [1 1] Ö3× (1)(3) + (1)(1) 4
1
Ex 2:
1
⎡[1 2 2 3 ´⎤
] ³
1 ⎢ ⎥
(2 × 3)(3 × 1) = (2 × 1) : Ö
1 2 2
× ³3 ´ = ⎢ 1 ⎥ = Î(1)(1) + (2)(3) + (2)(1)Ï
2 1 2 ⎢ 1 ⎥ (2)(1) + (1)(3) + (2)(1)
1 ⎢[2 ]
1 2 3³ ´ ⎥
⎣ 1 ⎦
9
=Ö ×
7
Ex 3:
1 3 2
(3 × 3)(1𝑥3) = 𝐷𝑁𝐸: ³1 2 2´ [ 1 2 3]
1 1 2
Ex 4:
1 3 2 1 3 2 1
(3 × 3)(1𝑥3)O = (3 × 3)(3 × 1) = (3 × 1) : ³1 2 2´ [ 1 2 3 ] O = ³1 2 2 ´ ³2 ´ =
1 1 2 1 1 2 3
1
⎡[1 3 2 ] ³2 ´⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 3 ⎥
1 ⎥ (1)(1) + (3)(2) + (2)(3) 13
⎢
⎢[1 2 2] ³2´⎥ = Ú(1)(1) + (2)(2) + (2)(3)Û = ³11´
⎢ 3 ⎥ (1)(1) + (1)(2) + (2)(3) 9
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢[1 1 2 ] ³2 ´⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
Ex 5:
1 4 3
(2 × 3)(3 × 3) = (2 × 3) : Ö1 4 1
× ³2 1 1´
3 1 1
1 2 2
186
1 4 3
⎡[1 4 1 ] ³2 ´ [ 1 4 1 ] ³1 ´ [ 1 4 1 ] ³1 ´⎤
⎢ ⎥
=⎢ 1 2 2 ⎥
⎢ 1 4 3 ⎥
⎢[3 1 1 ] ³2 ´ [ 3 1 1 ] ³1 ´ [ 3 1 1 ] ³1 ´⎥
⎣ 1 2 2 ⎦
(1)(1) + (4)(2) + (1)(1) (1)(4) + (4)(1) + (1)(2) (1)(3) + (4)(1) + (1)(2)

=Î Ï
(3)(1) + (1)(2) + (1)(1) (3)(4) + (1)(1) + (1)(2) (3)(3) + (1)(1) + (1)(2)
10 10 9
=Ö ×
6 15 12
Ex 6:
(2 × 3)(3 × 3)(3 × 2) = (2 × 3)(3 × 2) = (2 × 2):
1 4 3 1 0 1 0
1 4 1 10 10 9 19 10
Ö × ³2 1 1 ´ ³0 1 ´ = Ö × ³0 1´ = Ö ×
3 1 1 6 15 12 18 15
1 2 2 1 0 1 0
Idempotent matrix
𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴H = 𝐴
Ex 1:
2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4
𝐴 = ³−1 3 4 ´ ⇒ 𝐴𝐴 = ³−1 3 4 ´ ³−1 3 4 ´ = ³−1 3 4´
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3
2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4 2 −2 −4
⇒ 𝐴𝐴𝐴 = ³−1 3 4 ´ ³−1 3 4 ´ ³−1 3 4 ´ = ³−1 3 4´
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3
2 −2 −4 H 2 −2 −4
H
³ ´ ³
⇒ 𝐴 = −1 3 4 = −1 3 4 ´=𝐴
1 −2 −3 1 −2 −3
Ex 2: (2X2) Determine if A is Idempotent without multiplication
t ¨
𝐴=Ÿ
𝑎 𝑏
⇒ 𝐴¨ = O𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 Q = O𝑎t + 𝑏𝑐 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 Q
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑐𝑑 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 t 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑐𝑑 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 t
4 −1
Ÿ
12 −3
𝑎 = 𝑎t + 𝑏𝑐 ⇒ 4 = 4t + (−1)(12) = 16 − 12 = 4
𝑏 = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑑 ⇒ −1 = (4)(−1) + (−1)(−3) = −4 + 3 = −1
187
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑎 + 𝑐𝑑 ⇒ 12 = (12)(4) + (12)(−3) = 48 − 36 = 12
𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 t ⇒ −3 = (−1)(12) + (−3)t = −12 + 9 = −3
4 −1 4 −1 4 −1 4 −1 ¨
∴Ÿ Ÿ =Ÿ =Ÿ , Yes A is idempotent
12 −3 12 −3 12 −3 12 −3
Rotation and Translate

Ex. 1
Give the 4 × 4 matrix that rotates points in ℝr about the 𝑧-axis through an angle of −30°, and
then translates by 𝐩 = (5, −2, 1)
Unit points in ℝr and just 𝒗 = {𝒆u , 𝒆t , 𝒆r }, note: 𝒆H = (0, 0, … 1, … 0, 0)
About the 𝑧-axis means to
Create a 3 × 3 rotation matrix for −30° about 𝑧-axis
(1) We want to move a point on the 𝑥𝑦-plane 30° towards – 𝑦-axis, which is
r u
(cos(−30°) , sin(−30°) , 0) = Ÿ√ , − , 0 . Note: we are moving 𝑥 in a positive direction, and 𝑦
t t
in a negative direction i.e. choose the angle wisely.
(2) Next we want to move a point in the 𝑥𝑦-plane towards

the positive 𝑥-axis (two positive coordinates) Look at the
unit circle, coordinate (0,1). We ant to move this −30° the
u √r
coordinate for this is (cos(60°) , sin(60°)) = Ÿt , just put
t
u √r
this into 3 × 1 column vector Ÿt , t
,0
1 ⎡ √3 1 ⎤
(3) Since we are going about the 𝑧-axis, the ⎡ √3 0 ⎤ 0 0⎥
⎢ 2 2
third coordinate (0,0,1) does not move. ⎢ 2 2 ⎥ 0 0⎥
𝐴=⎢ 1 ⎢ 1 √3
√3 ⎥⇒ −
⎢− 2 0⎥ ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
Finally, we get the following matrix 𝐴 2 ⎢ 0 0
⎣ 0 1 0⎥
0 1⎦ ⎣
0 0 0 1⎦
188
Translated vector: Mapping 𝑥+5 𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 0𝑧 + 5 1 0 0 5 𝑥
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 1) → (𝑥 + 5, 𝑦 − 2, 𝑧 + 𝑦−2 0𝑥 − 0𝑦 + 0𝑧 − 2 1 0 −2) (𝑦)
¾ ¿=¾ ¿ = (0
1,1) gives the following matrix 𝑧+1 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1 0 0 1 1 𝑧
1 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 0𝑧 + 1 0 0 0 1 1
⎡ √3 1 ⎤ ⎡ √3 1 ⎤
1 0 0 5 ⎢ 2 2 0 0⎥ ⎢ 2 2 0 5⎥
∴ Ú0 1 0 −2Û ⎢ 1 √3 0 0⎥ = ⎢ 1 √3 0 −2⎥
0 0 1 1 ⎢− ⎥ ⎢− 2 2 ⎥
2 2
0 0 0 1 ⎢ 0 0 1 0⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 1⎥
⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1⎦
Ex. 2
Translate
Translate by (−2, 3), and then scale the 𝑥-coordinate by 0.8 and the 𝑦-coordinate by 1.2.
Note: Whenever you translate a vector, add an additional dimension with element as #1 i.e.
−2
−2
ℝH×u ⟼ ℝ(Hü)×u ⇒ Ÿ →Ý 3 Þ
3
𝟏
Translate:
(𝑥, 𝑦, 1) → (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 + 3, 1)
Scale 𝑥-coordinate:
𝟎. 𝟖(1, 0, 0) = (𝟎. 𝟖, 0, 0)
Scale 𝑦-coordinate:
𝟏. 𝟐(0, 1, 0) = (0, 𝟏. 𝟐, 0)
Assemble the 3 × 3 matrix with the scaled positions:
𝟎. 𝟖 0 0
³ 0 𝟏. 𝟐 0´
0 0 𝟏
Assemble the 3 × 3 translate matrix
𝑥−2 𝑥 + 0𝑦 − 2 1 0 −2 𝑥
(𝑥 + 2, 𝑦 + 3, 1) = ³𝑦 + 3´ = ³ 0𝑥 + 𝑦 + 3 ´ = Ý0 1 3 Þ ª𝑦 «
1 0𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 1 0 0 1 1
0.8 0 0 1 0 −2 0.8 0 −1.6

∴Ý0 1.2 0Þ Ý 0 1 3 Þ = Ý 0 1.2 3.6 Þ
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
189
Rotate about a point (𝒄, 𝒅)
Note:
𝐷 = dilate, 𝑅 = rotation, 𝑇 = translate. Scale 𝑥 ∧ 𝑦 by 𝛼, rotate by 𝜃, and translate (𝑎, 𝑏)
𝛼 0 0 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0 1 0 𝑎
𝐷 = ³0 𝛼 0´ , 𝑅 = ³ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0 ´ , 𝑇 = ³0 1 𝑏´
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 𝑐 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 0 1 0 −𝑐
³0 1 𝑑 ´ ³ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 0 ´ ³0 1 −𝑑 ´
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Nilpotent matrix (eigenvalues are zero)

𝐴¨HƒH = 0, 𝑘≤𝑛
Ex 1:
0 1 1
𝐴 = ³0 0 1´
0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
𝐴t = ³0 0 1 ´ ³0 0 1 ´ = ³0 0 0´
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
𝐴r = ³0 0 1´ ³0 0 1 ´ ³0 0 1 ´ = ³0 0 0´
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
190
Ex 2:
Find 𝑘 such that 𝐴¨ = 0_
10 −6 4 10 −6 4
³30 −18 12´ ³30 −18 12´
20 −12 8 20 −12 8
10 −6 4
⎡ [10 −6 4] ³30´ [10 −6 4] ³−18´ [10 −6 4] ³12´ ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 20 −12 8 ⎥
⎢ 10 −6 4 ⎥
[ ] [ ] [
= ⎢ 30 −18 12 ³30´ 30 −18 12 ³−18´ 30 −18 12 ³12´⎥ ]
⎢ 20 −12 8 ⎥
⎢ 10 −6 4 ⎥
⎢ [20 −12 8] ³30´ [20 −12 8] ³−18´ [20 −12 8] ³12´ ⎥
⎣ 20 −12 8 ⎦
𝑑
Note: [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ³ 𝑒 ´ = (𝑎)(𝑑 ) + (𝑏)(𝑒) + (𝑐 )(𝑓)
]
𝑓
0 0 0
= ³0 0 0´
0 0 0
∴𝑘=2
Determinant rules
(1) det 𝐴O = det 𝐴
u
(2) det 𝐴su = ûüD Ü
(3) det 𝐴𝐵 = det 𝐴 det 𝐵 ⇔ 𝐴 = 𝑛𝑥𝑛 = 𝐵
(4) det 𝑐𝐴 = 𝑐 H det 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑥𝑛
Given det 𝐴su = 5, det 𝐵O = 6
Evaluate det(𝐴𝐵) + det([5𝐴]𝐵O ), 𝐴 = 4𝑥4 = 𝐵
det(𝐴𝐵) + det([5𝐴]𝐵O ) = det 𝐴 det 𝐵 + det 5𝐴 det 𝐵O = det 𝐴 det 𝐵 + 5¯ det 𝐴 det 𝐵
1 1 1
∵ det 𝐴su = ∴ det 𝐴su = 5 ⇒ = 5 ⇔ det 𝐴 =
det 𝐴 det 𝐴 5
1 1 6 661
= (6) + 5¯ O Q (6) = + 5r ⋅ 6 =
5 5 5 30
191
Proofs
Let 𝐴 and 𝑃 be square matrices, with 𝑃 invertible. Show that det 𝑃𝐴𝑃su = det 𝐴.
u
Using determinant rule 2 i.e. det 𝐴su = ûüD Ü, we find:
det 𝑃 det 𝐴 det 𝑃

det(𝑃𝐴𝑃su ) = det 𝑃 det 𝐴 det 𝑃su = = det 𝐴 = det 𝐴
det 𝑃 det 𝑃
Find a formula for det(𝑟𝐴) when 𝐴 is an 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix.
Long version
𝑎uu ⋯ 𝑎uH 1 0 0 1 ⋯ 𝑢uH 𝑑uu ⋯ 0

𝐴 = 𝐿𝑈𝐷 ⇒ ³ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ´=³ ⋮ 1 0 ´ ³0 1 ⋮ ´³ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ´
𝑎Hu ⋯ 𝑎HH 𝑙Hu ⋯ 1 0 0 1 0 ⋯ 𝑑HH
1 0 0 1 ⋯ 𝑢uH 𝑑uu ⋯ 0
³ ⋮ 1 0 ´ ³0 1 ⋮ 𝑟´ ³ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ´
𝑙Hu ⋯ 1 0 0 1 0 ⋯ 𝑑HH
1 0 0 1 ⋯ 𝑢uH 𝑑uu ⋯ 0
= det Ý³ ⋮ 1 0 ´ ³0 1 ⋮ ´𝑟³ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ´Þ
𝑙Hu ⋯ 1 0 0 1 0 ⋯ 𝑑HH
1 0 0 1 ⋯ 𝑢uH 𝑑uu ⋯ 0 𝑑uu ⋯ 0

det ³ ⋮ 1 0´ det ³0 1 ⋮ ´ det Ý𝑟 ³ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ´Þ = (1)(1) det Ý𝑟 ³ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ´Þ
𝑙Hu ⋯ 1 0 0 1 0 ⋯ 𝑑HH 0 ⋯ 𝑑HH
𝑟𝑑uu ⋯ 0
= det ³ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ´ = 𝑟𝑑uu 𝑟𝑑tt … 𝑟𝑑HH = 𝑟 H 𝑑uu 𝑑tt … 𝑑HH = 𝑟 H det 𝐴
0 ⋯ 𝑟𝑑HH
Short version
det 𝑟𝐴 = det(𝑟𝐿𝑈𝐷) = det[(𝐿𝑈)(𝑟𝐷)] = det(𝐿𝑈) det(𝑟𝐷) = (1)(𝑟𝑑u 𝑟𝑑t 𝑟𝑑r ⋯ 𝑟𝑑H )
= (1)𝑟 H det(𝐷) = det 𝐿𝑈 (𝑟 det 𝐷) = 𝑟 det 𝐿𝑈 det 𝐷 = 𝑟 det 𝐿𝑈𝐷 = 𝑟 det 𝐴
192
Determinate’s of a (2x2) matrix
Various ways to check determinant
(2x2):
𝑎 𝑏× 𝑎 𝑏 6 ( )( ) ( )( )
𝐴=Ö ⇒ det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = 6 = 𝑎 𝑑 − 𝑏 𝑐
𝑐 𝑑 𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏× 𝑎 𝑏6 ( )( )
𝐴=Ö ⇒ det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = 6 = 𝑎 𝑐
0 𝑐 0 𝑐
𝑎 0 𝑎 0
𝐴=Ö × ⇒ det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = 6 6 = (𝑎)(𝑏)
0 𝑏 0 𝑏
Formula:
1 −3
6 6 = (1)(1)— 3(2) = 1 + 6 = 7
2 1
1 2
6 6 = (1)(−2) − (2)(−1) = −2 + 2 = 0
−1 −2
1 3
6 6 = (1)(−3) = −3
0 −3
1 0
6 6 = (1)(−5) = −5
0 −5
Row operation:
1 3 1 3 1 3
Ö ×~Ö ×⇒6 6 = (1)(−7) = −7
4 5 0 −7 4 5
−4𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = [−4 −12] + [4 5] = [0 −7] ⇐ 𝑅2
Note for future reference:
1 3 1 0 1 3 1 0 1 3
𝐴 = 𝐸u 𝑈 ⇒ Ö ×=Ö ×Ö × ⇒ det 𝐴 = det 𝐸u 𝑈 = det 𝐸u det 𝑈 = 6 66 6
4 5 4 1 0 −7 4 1 0 −7
= (1)(1)(1)(−7) = −7
193
Determinate of a (3x3) and higher matrices
Cofactor Expansion
Note:
6𝑎 𝑏 6 ( )( ) ( )( )
= 𝑎 𝑑 − 𝑏 𝑐
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒
µ𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 µ = +𝑎 6𝑒 𝑓
6−𝑏5 5+𝑐5 5
ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑓 𝑔 ℎ 𝑒 𝑔 ℎ 𝑒 𝑓 ℎ 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔
𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ
¹ ¹ = +𝑎 µ 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙µ − 𝑏µ 𝑖 𝑘 𝑙µ + 𝑐 µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑙µ−𝑑µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘µ
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
𝑛 𝑜 𝑝 𝑚 0 𝑝 𝑚 𝑛 𝑝 𝑚 𝑛 𝑜
𝑚 𝑛 𝑜 𝑝
Cofactor expansion: (best for 3x3 and higher but row operations can be easier Note:
Pay attention to 0’s
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐
µ𝑑 𝑎 𝑏6
𝑒 𝑓 µ = +0 5 5 − ℎ 6𝑑 𝑓6 + 0 6𝑑 = −ℎ 6𝑑 𝑓6
𝑒 𝑓 𝑒
0 ℎ 0
Example 1:
1 2 2
1 1 2 1 2 1
µ2 1 1µ = +(1) 6 6 − (2) 6 6 + (2) 6 6
3 4 1 4 1 3
1 3 4
= +(1)[(1)(4) − (1)(3)] − (2)[(2)(4) − (1)(1)] + (2)[(2)(3) − (1)(1)] = −3
Example 2: (look for the zero’s else it will be a pain!)
1 3 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 3
”3 2 1 1” = +0 µ2 1 1µ − 0 µ 3 1 1µ + 0 µ 3 2 1µ − 4 µ3 2 1µ
0 0 0 4
1 2 3 0 2 3 0 1 3 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
1 3 3
= −4 µ3 2 1µ = (−4)(−8) = 32
1 2 3
Example 3:
194
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
”3 2 1 1” = +0 µ2 1 1 µ − 0 µ 3 1 1 µ + 0 µ 3 2 1 µ − 4 µ3 2 1µ
0 0 0 4
2 3 0 1 3 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
1 2 3 0
1 0 0
2 1 3 1 3 2
= −4 µ3 2 1µ = −4 Ÿ+1 6 6 − 06 6 + 06 6 = −4[(2)(3) − (1)(2)] = −4(4)
2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3
= −16
Row Operations:
You must follow the exact element removal for this to work
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
∗ ∗ ∗
1𝑠𝑡 ∗ ∗ ∗
Ó 1𝑠𝑡 ∗ ∗Ô , Ú2𝑛𝑑 4𝑡ℎ ∗ ∗Û
2𝑛𝑑 3𝑟𝑑 ∗ 6𝑡ℎ ∗
3𝑟𝑑 5𝑡ℎ
1 2 2
𝐴 = ³2 1 1´ ⇒ det 𝐴 = −3
1 3 4
−2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = [−2 −4 −4] + [2 1 1] = [0 −3 −3] ⇐ 𝑅2
1 2 2 1 2 2
³2 1 1 ´ ~ ³0 −3 −3´
1 3 4 1 3 4
−𝑅1 + 𝑅3 = [−1 −2 −2] + [1 3 4] = [ 0 1 2] ⇐ 𝑅3
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
³2 1 1 ´ ~ ³0 −3 −3´ ~ ³0 −3 −3´
1 3 4 1 3 4 0 1 2
1
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 = [0 −1 −1] + [0 1 2] = [0 0 1] ⇐ 𝑅3
3
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
∴ ³2 1 1 ´ ~ ³ 0 −3 −3 ´ ~ ³ 0 −3 −3 ´ ~ ³ 0 −3 −3´ ⇒ det 𝐴 = (1)(−3)(1) = −3
1 3 4 1 3 4 0 1 2 0 0 1
This works because we decomposed 𝐴 using elementary matrices. You will probably touch on
this later but here it is.
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 2 2 1 0 0 1 2 2 1 2 2
0 1 0 2 1 0
𝐴 = ³2 1 1 ´ = ³2 1 0 ´ ¾ 1 ¿ ³ 0 −3 −3 ´ = ¾ 1 ¿ ³ 0 −3 −3 ´
1 3 4 1 0 1 0 − 1 0 0 1 1 − 1 0 0 1
3 3
= 𝐸t 𝐸u 𝑈 = 𝐿𝑈 ⇒ det 𝐿𝑈 = det 𝐿 det 𝑈 = (1)(−3) = −3
Vector Space, Subspace and Subset
195
A set is vector space if: A set is a subspace if:
1. 𝒖 + 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉 a. The zero vector of 𝑉 is in 𝐻.

2. 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒗 + 𝒖 b. 𝐻 is closed under vector addition.
3. (𝒖 + 𝒗) + 𝒘 = 𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) c. 𝐻 is closed under scalar multiplication.
4. 𝒖 + 𝟎 = 𝒖.
5. 𝒖 + (−𝒖) = 0
6. 𝑐𝒖 ∈ 𝑉.
7. 𝑐 (𝒖 + 𝒗) = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑐𝒗
8. (𝑐 + 𝑑 )𝒖 = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑑𝒖
9. 𝑐 (𝑑𝒖) = (𝑐𝑑 )𝒖
10. 1𝒖 = 𝒖
When showing the following sets are subspaces, the zero vectors is evaluating all constants at 0
Determine if the set is a subspace of ℙH
All polynomials of the form 𝒑(𝑡) = 𝑎 + 𝑡 t, where 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
1) 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 0 + 𝑡 t = 𝑡 t ∉ ℙr ∴ not a subspace
No
All polynomials in ℙH such that 𝑃(0) = 0
(1)
𝑃(0) = 0 ⇒ 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑎u 𝑡 + 𝑎t 𝑡 t + 𝑎r 𝑡 r + ⋯ + 𝑎Hsu 𝑡 Hsu ∴ {𝑎Hsu } = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝑃(0) = 0
Case 1: True
(2)
𝑃u + 𝑃t = 𝑎u 𝑡 + 𝑎t 𝑡 t + 𝑎r 𝑡 r + ⋯ + 𝑎Hsu 𝑡 Hsu + 𝑏u 𝑡 + 𝑏t 𝑡 t + 𝑏r 𝑡 r + ⋯ + 𝑏Hsu 𝑡 Hsu
= (𝑎 + 𝑏)u 𝑡 + (𝑎 + 𝑏)t 𝑡 t + (𝑎 + 𝑏)r 𝑡 r + ⋯ + (𝑎 + 𝑏)Hsu 𝑡 Hsu ⇒ (𝑃u + 𝑃t )(0) = 0
Case 2: True
(3)
𝑐𝑃 = 𝑐 (𝑎u 𝑡 + 𝑎t 𝑡 t + 𝑎r 𝑡 r + ⋯ + 𝑎Hsu 𝑡 Hsu ) = ((𝑐𝑎)u 𝑡 + (𝑐𝑎)t 𝑡 t + (𝑐𝑎)r 𝑡 r + ⋯ + (𝑐𝑎)Hsu 𝑡 Hsu )

⇒ 𝑐𝑃(0) = 0
Case 3: True- Yes it is a subspace of ℙH
Cramer’s rules
det’𝐴H (𝒃)“
𝑥H =
det(𝐴)
196
The solution in a way you may already know is
Rref [{4,1,6},{3,2,7}]
4 16 1 𝑥 =1
Ö 6 × ~ Ö𝐼t 6 × ⇒ 𝒙 = u
3 27 2 𝑥t = 2
Lets find this with “Cramer’s Rule”
4 𝟏𝟔 𝟔 𝟏
Ö 6 × ⇒ 𝐴u (𝒃) = Ö × ⇒ det’𝐴u (𝒃)“ = (2)(6) − (1)(7) = 12 − 7 = 5
3 𝟐𝟕 𝟕 𝟐
det’𝐴u (𝒃)“ 5
∴ 𝑥u = = =1
det(𝐴) 5
𝟒 1𝟔 𝟒 𝟔
Ö 6 × ⇒ 𝐴t (𝒃) = Ö × ⇒ det’𝐴t (𝒃)“ = (4)(7) − (6)(3) = 10
𝟑 2𝟕 𝟑 𝟕
det’𝐴t (𝒃)“ 10
∴ 𝑥t = = =2
det(𝐴) 5
IMPORTANT:
Notice that the index of 𝐴 is the location of 𝒃 i.e. if you had a 4 × 4 𝐴r (𝒃) = [𝒗u 𝒗t 𝒃 𝒗r ]
Basis coordinate vector

Given a set ℬ, and vector 𝑥 put ℬ into a matrix equation 𝐴𝒖 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝒖 = [𝑥]ℬ
Ex.1
1 −3 −7
𝑏u = Ö × , 𝑏t = Ö × , 𝑥 = Ö ×
−3 5 5
1 −3 [ ] −7 1 −3 −7 1 05
Ö × 𝑥 ℬ=Ö ×⇒Ö 6 ×~Ö 6 × ⇒ [𝑥 ]ℬ = (5,4)
−3 5 5 −3 5 5 0 14
1 −7 1 −20
∨ ∵ det 𝐴 ≠ 0, [𝑥]ℬ = 𝐴su 𝑥 = Ö 5 3× Ö × = − Ö × = Ö 5×
[(1)(5) − (−3)(−3)] 3 1 5 4 −16 4
5
∴ [𝑥 ]ℬ = Ö ×
4
Ex. 2
−3 7 11
𝑏u = ³ 1 ´ , 𝑏t = ³ 5 ´ , 𝑥 = ³ 0 ´
−4 −6 7
197
𝑐u
𝑐
[𝑥]ℬ = ¾ t ¿ ⇔ ℬ = {𝑏u , 𝑏t , … , 𝑏H } ⇒ 𝑏u 𝑐u + 𝑏t 𝑐t + ⋯ + 𝑏H 𝑐H = 𝒙
⋮
𝑐H
5
−3 7 11 −3 7 11 ⎡1 0 − 2⎤
³ 1 ´ 𝑐u + ³ 5 ´ 𝑐t = ³ 0 ´ ⇒ ³ 1 5 µ 0 ´ ~ ⎢0 1¹ 1 ⎥
−4 −6 7 −4 −6 7 ⎢0 0 2 ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
1 −5
∴ [𝑥 ]ℬ = Ÿ
2 2
Adjugate of a matrix
ajd(𝐴)
𝐴su =
det(𝐴)
𝑎 𝑏× +𝑑 −𝑏
𝐴=Ö ⇒ adj(𝐴t×t ) = Ö ×
𝑐 𝑑 −𝑐 +𝑎
198
𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒 O
⎡+ 6 6 −5
𝑔 𝑖
5 +5
𝑔
5
ℎ⎤
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ⎢ ℎ 𝑖 𝑎 𝑐 ⎥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏⎥
𝐴 = ³𝑑 𝑒 𝑓´ ⇒ adj(𝐴r×r ) = ⎢ − 6 6 + 6𝑔 𝑖 6 − 5 5
⎢ ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ⎥
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
⎢ 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏6⎥
+5 5 − 6𝑑 𝑓6 + 6
⎣ 𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒⎦
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑒 𝑓 𝑔 ℎ
𝐴=¾ ¿ ⇒ adj(𝐴¯×¯ )
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙
𝑚 𝑛 𝑜 𝑝
O
𝑓 𝑔 ℎ 𝑒 𝑔 ℎ 𝑒 𝑓 ℎ 𝑒 𝑓 𝑔
⎡ ⎤
+ µ𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 µ − µ 𝑖 𝑘 𝑙µ +µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑙µ −µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 µ⎥
⎢
⎢ 𝑛 𝑜 𝑝 𝑚 𝑜 𝑝 𝑚 𝑛 𝑝 𝑚 𝑛 𝑜 ⎥
⎢ 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ⎥
⎢− µ 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 µ +µ 𝑖 𝑘 𝑙µ −µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑙 µ +µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘µ ⎥
=⎢
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ⎥
⎢+ µ𝑓 𝑔 ℎ µ − µ 𝑒 𝑔 ℎµ +µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑙µ −µ 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘µ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ⎥
⎢− µ𝑓 𝑔 ℎ µ + µ𝑒 𝑔 ℎµ − µ𝑒 𝑓 ℎ µ + µ𝑒 𝑓 𝑔µ ⎥
⎣ 𝑗 𝑘 𝑙 𝑖 𝑘 𝑙 𝑒 𝑗 𝑙 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 ⎦
Compute the Adjugate
1 1 3
𝐴 = ³−2 2 1´
0 1 1
𝒆 𝒇 𝑑 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒 O
⎡+ 6 6 −5
𝑔 𝑖
5 +5
𝑔
5
ℎ⎤
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 ⎢ 𝒉 𝒊 𝑎 𝑐 ⎥
𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏⎥
𝐵 = ³𝑑 𝒆 𝒇´ ⇒ adj(𝐵) = ⎢ − 6 6 + 6𝑔 𝑖 6 − 5 5
⎢ ℎ 𝑖 𝑔 ℎ⎥
𝑔 𝒉 𝒊
⎢ 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏6⎥
+5 5 − 6𝑑 𝑓6 + 6
⎣ 𝑒 𝑓 𝑑 𝑒⎦
199
2 1 −2 1 −2 2 O
⎡+ 61 1
6 −6
0 1
6 +6
0 1⎤
6
⎢ 1 3 1 3 1 1 ⎥⎥
adj(A) = ⎢− 6 6 +6 6 −6 6
⎢ 1 1 0 1 0 1 ⎥
⎢ 1 3 1 3 1 1⎥
⎣+ 62 1
6 −6
−2 1
6 +6
−2 2 ⎦
6
O
+[(2)(1) − (1)(1)] −[(−2)(1) − (1)(0)] +[(−2)(1) − (2)(0)]
= Ú−[(1)(1) − (3)(1)] +[(1)(1) − (3)(0)] −[(1)(1) − (1)(0)] Û
+[(1)(1) − (2)(3)] −[(1)(1) − (3)(−2)] +[(1)(2) − (1)(−2)]
𝟏 𝟐 −𝟐 O 𝟏 𝟐 −5
=³𝟐 𝟏 −𝟏´ = ³ 𝟐 𝟏 −7´
−5 −7 4 −𝟐 −𝟏 4
Inverse of a 2x2 Matrix

Inverse of (𝟐 × 𝟐):
Option 1)
[𝐴|𝐼 ] ~ [𝐼|𝐴su ]
3 2
−3 21 0 1 0 − 11 11
Ö 6 × ~ Ú ” Û
1 30 1 0 1 1 3
11 11
Option 2)
𝑎 𝑏× adj(𝐴) 1
𝐴=Ö ⇒ 𝐴su = = Ö𝑑 −𝑏×
∧ 𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝐴su 𝑏 ⇔ det 𝐴 ≠ 0
𝑐 𝑑 det(𝐴) 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐 −𝑐 𝑎
−3 2 1 3 −2 1 3 −2 1 −3 2
𝐴=Ö × ⇒ 𝐴su = Ö ×=− Ö ×= Ö ×
1 3 (−3)(3) − (2)(1) −1 −3 11 −1 −3 11 1 3
Solve a system of equations with an inverse
Theorem:
𝐴𝒙 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝐴su 𝐴𝒙 = 𝐴su 𝑏 ⇒ 𝐼𝒙 = 𝐴su 𝑏 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝐴su 𝑏 ⇔ det(𝐴) ≠ 0
200
(Note: 𝑥⃗ = 𝒙 = (𝑥u , 𝑥t , … , 𝑥H ))
1 1 [3 −2] Ö2×
−3 2 2 3 −2 2 1 Û
Ö ×𝒙 = Ö × ⇒ 𝒙 = − Ö ×Ö × = − Ú
1 3 1 11 −1 −3 1 11 [−1 −3] Ö2×
1
1 (3)(2) + (−2)(1)
=− Î Ï
11 (−1)(2) + (−3)(1)
4
1 6−2 1 4 −
=− Ö × = − Ö × = ¾ 11¿
11 −2 − 3 11 −5 5
11
Similarly you could solve with rref i.e.
4
−3 2 2 −3 22 1 0 − 11
Ö ×𝒙 = Ö × ⇒ Ö 6 × ~ Ú ” Û
1 3 1 1 31 0 1 5
11
Inverse of 3x3
𝐴𝒙 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝐴su 𝐴𝒙 = 𝐴su 𝑏 ⇒ 𝐼𝒙 = 𝐴su 𝑏 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝐴su 𝑏 ⇔ det(𝐴) ≠ 0
Option 1)
[𝐴|𝐼 ] ~ [𝐼|𝐴su ]
1 1 2
𝐴 = ³1 2 1´ (symmetric matrix)
2 1 1
1 1 3
⎡ −4 −4 4 ⎤
1 1 21 0 0 ⎢1 0 0¹ 1 1 −3
³1 1 3 1⎥ ⇒ 𝐴su = − 1 ³
2 1µ0 1 0´ ~ ⎢ 0 1 0− − 4⎥ 1 −3 1´
¹ 4 4 4
2 1 10 0 1 ⎢0 0 1 3 1 1 ⎥ −3 1 1
⎣ 4 −4 − 4⎦
Option 2)
201
adj(𝐴)
𝐴su =
det(𝐴)
2 1 1 1 1 2
⎡ + 61 16 − 62 1
6 +6
2 1⎤
6
1 1 2 ⎢ 1 2 1 2 1 1 ⎥⎥
𝐴 = ³1 2 1´ ⇒ det 𝐴 = −4 ∧ adj(𝐴) = ⎢− 6 6 +6 6 −6 6
⎢ 1 1 2 1 2 1⎥
2 1 1 ⎢ 1 2 1 26 1 16⎥
⎣ + 62 16 − 61 1
+6
1 2⎦
+[(2)(1) − (1)(1)] −[(1)(1) − (1)(2)] +[(1)(1) − (2)(2)]

= Ú−[(1)(1) − (1)(2)] +[(1)(1) − (2)(2)] −[(1)(1) − (1)(2)]Û
+[(1)(1) − (2)(2)] −[(1)(1) − (1)(2)] +[(1)(2) − (1)(1)]
1 1 −3
=³ 1 −3 1 ´ (also symmetric)
−3 1 1
adj(𝐴) 1 1 1 −3
∴ 𝐴su = = − ³ 1 −3 1 ´ (also symmetric)
det 𝐴 4
−3 1 1
Trace
𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = D 𝜆H
det(𝐴 − 𝐼𝜆) = 0
Ex 1:
1 2 2 2
𝐴 = Ú0 2 2 2 Û ⇒ 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 1 + 2 + 1 − 1 = 3
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 −1
Ex 2:
1 2 2 1−𝜆 2 2
𝐴 = ³2 2 1 ´ ⇒ det ( 𝐴 − 𝐼𝜆 ) = µ 2 2−𝜆 1 µ=0
1 2 2 1 2 2−𝜆
2−𝜆 1 6 ( ) 62 1
6 + (2) 62 2 − 𝜆6
⇒ (1 − 𝜆 ) 6 − 2 =0
2 2−𝜆 1 2−𝜆 1 2
⇒ (1 − 𝜆)[(2 − 𝜆)(2 − 𝜆) − (2)(1)] − (2)[(2)(2 − 𝜆) − (1)(1)] + (2)[(2)(2) − (1)(2 − 𝜆)]
= (5 − 𝜆)𝜆t = 0 ⇒ 𝜆 = {0,5}
202
∴ 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 0 + 5 = 5
Ex 3:
Given 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 5 ∧ det(𝐴) = 6, find 𝐴
𝑎 1
𝐴=Ö ×
0 𝑑
det(𝐴) = 𝑎𝑑 = 6
𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 5
∴ 𝑑 = 5 − 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎(5 − 𝑎) = 6 ⇒ 5𝑎 − 𝑎t = 6 ⇒ 𝑎t − 5𝑎 + 6 = (𝑎 − 2)(𝑎 − 3) = 0
⇔ 𝑎 =2∨𝑎 = 3⇒ 𝑑 =2∨𝑑 =3
∴ (𝑎, 𝑑 ) = (2,3) ∨ (𝑎, 𝑑 ) = (3,2)
2 1 3 1
⇒𝐴=Ö ×∨Ö ×
0 3 0 2
Cholesky Decomposition
u u u u
𝐴 = 𝐿𝐷𝑈 = 𝐿𝐷𝐿O = 𝐿𝐷t 𝐷t 𝐿O = O𝐿𝐷 t Q O𝐷t 𝐿O Q = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐾
9 0 −27 18
𝐴=Ú 0 9 −9 −27Û
−27 −9 99 −27
18 −27 −27 121
Use elementary matrices to find 𝐿 (watch lesson on Elementary Matrices and or LDU
decomposition)
1 0 0 0 1 0 −9 6
𝐿=Ú 0 1 0 0Û ∧ 𝑈 = 𝐿O = Ú0 1 −3 −9Û
−9 −3 1 0 0 0 1 0
6 −9 0 1 0 0 0 1
9 0 0 0 3 0 0 0
𝐷 = Ú0 9 0 0Û ⇒ 𝐷ut = Ú0 3 0 0Û
0 0 9 0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 4 0 0 0 2
1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0 −9 6
u u
∴ 𝐿𝐷t 𝐷t 𝐿O = (Ú 0 1 0 0Û Ú 0 3 0 0Û) (Ú0 3 0 0Û Ú 0 1 −3 −9Û)
−9 −3 1 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 0
6 −9 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 1
203
3 0 0 0 3 0 −9 6
=Ú 0 3 0 0Û Ú 0 3 −3 −9Û = 𝐾 ∗ 𝐾
−9 −3 3 0 0 0 3 0
6 −9 0 2 0 0 0 2
Eigenvalues
1 2 2 1−𝜆 2 2
𝐴 = ³2 1 1´ ⇒ det(𝐴 − 𝐼𝜆) = µ 2 1−𝜆 1 µ
0 0 1 0 0 1−𝜆
1−𝜆 2 2
2 2
µ 2 1−𝜆 1 µ=0⋅6 6 − 0 ⋅ 61 − 𝜆 26 (
+ 1 − 𝜆) 6
1−𝜆 2 6
1−𝜆 1 2 1 2 1−𝜆
0 0 1−𝜆
1−𝜆 2 6 (
∴ (1 − 𝜆 ) 6 = 1 − 𝜆)[(1 − 𝜆)t − 4] = (1 − 𝜆)(−3 − 2𝜆 + 𝜆t )
2 1−𝜆
= (1 − 𝜆)(𝜆 + 1)(𝜆 − 3)
Characteristic Polynomial: 𝑝(𝜆) = (1 − 𝜆)(𝜆 + 1)(𝜆 − 3) ⇒ 𝑝(𝜆) = 0 ⇔ 𝜆 = {−1, 1, 3}
𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠(𝐴) = {−1, 1, 3}
Eigenvectors
Part II - Easiest way to find Eigen Vectors
1 2 2 1−𝜆 2 2
𝐴 = ³2 1 1´ ⇒ det(𝐴 − 𝐼𝜆) = µ 2 1−𝜆 1 µ=0 ⇒ 𝜆 = {−1, 1, 3}
0 0 1 0 0 1−𝜆
204
1 − (−1) 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 −1
𝜆u ⇒ Ú 2 1 − (−1) 1 Û = ³2 2 1 ´ ~ ³ 0 0 1 ´ ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝑠u Ý 1 Þ ⇒ 𝑣u
0 0 1 − (−1) 0 0 2 0 0 0 0
−1
=Ý 1 Þ
0
1 1
1−1 2 2 0 2 2 1 0 − −1
𝜆t ⇒ ³ 2 1−1 1 ´ = ³2 0 1´ ~ ¾ 2¿ ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝑠 % 2& ⇒ 𝑣 = Ý−2Þ
t t
0 1 1 −1
0 0 1−1 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 1
1−3 2 2 −2 2 2 1 −1 0 1 1
𝜆r ⇒ ³ 2 1−3 1 ´ = ³ 2 −2 1 ´ ~ ³0 0 1´ ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝑠r Ý1Þ ⇒ 𝑣r = Ý1Þ
0 0 1−3 0 0 −2 0 0 0 0 0
Note: 𝑠 is a free variable i.e. 𝑠u = 1, 𝑠t = 2, 𝑠r = 1
−1 −1 1
∴ 𝛬 = ÌÝ 1 Þ , Ý−2Þ , Ý1ÞÍ
0 2 0
Diagonlize a Matrix
Part III - Diagonlize 𝐴 = [{1,2,2}, {2,1,1}, {0,0,1}], note det(𝐴) ≠ 0 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝑆𝐷𝑆 su
1 2 2 1−𝜆 2 2
𝐴 = ³2 1 1´ ⇒ det(𝐴 − 𝐼𝜆) = µ 2 1−𝜆 1 µ=0 ⇒ 𝜆 = {−1, 1, 3}
0 0 1 0 0 1−𝜆
−1 −1 1
{𝑣u , 𝑣t , 𝑣r } = ÌÝ 1 Þ , Ý−2Þ , Ý1ÞÍ
0 2 0
𝐴 = 𝑆𝐷𝑆 su = [𝑣u 𝑣t 𝑣r ][𝜆u 𝑒u 𝜆t 𝑒t 𝜆r 𝑒r ][𝑣u 𝑣t 𝑣r ]su
Note: 𝑒H = (0, 0, ⋯ , 1, ⋯ , 0)
205
−1 −1 1 −1 0 0 −1 −1 1 su
su ³
∴ 𝐴 = 𝑆𝐷𝑆 = 1 −2 1´ ³ 0 1 0´ ³ 1 −2 1´
0 2 0 0 0 3 0 2 0
1 1 1
⎡− ⎤
⎢ 2 2 4⎥
−1 −1 1 −1 0 0 1⎥
=³ 1 −2 1´ ³ 0 1 0´ ⎢ 0 0
0 2 0 0 0 3 ⎢ 2⎥
⎢ 1 1 3⎥
⎣ 2 2 4⎦
Singular Value Decomposition

1 1
𝐴 = 𝑈𝛴𝑉 O , 𝐴 = ³ 0 1´
−1 1
Identify the unknowns
𝑣u
𝑉 O = 𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠(𝐴O 𝐴)O = Ö𝑣 ×
t
1 1 𝑁𝑆 (𝐴O ) 𝜎u 0
𝑈 = Ó 𝐴𝑣u 𝐴𝑣 Ô, 𝛴 = ³0 𝜎t ´ ⇔ 𝜎H = ³𝜆H
𝜎u 𝜎t t |𝑁𝑆(𝐴O )|
0 0
1 1 𝑁𝑆(𝐴O ) 𝜎u 0
∴ 𝐴 = Ó 𝐴𝑣u 𝐴𝑣 Ô³0 𝜎t ´ [𝑣u 𝑣t ]O
𝜎u 𝜎t t |𝑁𝑆(𝐴O )|
0 0
Find all values
1 1
2 0 0 1
𝐴=³ 0 1´ ⇒ 𝐴O 𝐴 = Ö × ⇒ {𝜆u , 𝜆t } = {3,2} ∧ {𝑣u , 𝑣t } = =Ÿ , Ÿ Ï
0 3 1 0
−1 1
0 1
∴ 𝑉O = Ö ×
1 0
206
1 1 1 1 1 1 𝑁𝑆 (𝐴O )
0 1
𝑈=³ ³ 0 1´ Ö × ³0 1´ Ö × ´
√3 −1 1 √2 0 |𝑁𝑆(𝐴O )|
1 −1 1
1
O) O 1 1 1 0 1 0 −1 0
𝑁𝑆(𝐴 ⇒𝐴 𝑥=0⇒Ö 6 ×~Ö 6 × ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑥r Ý−2Þ , 𝑥r = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 1 ∴ 𝑢r
1 0 −1 0 0 1 2 0
1
1
= Ý−2Þ
1
|𝑢r | = √1 + 4 + 1 = √6
1 1 1 1 1 1
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
⎢√3 √2 √6 ⎥ ⎢√3 √2 √6 ⎥
⎢1 2⎥ ⎢1 2 ⎥ √3 0 1 1
0 1
⇒𝑈=⎢ 0 − ⎥, ∴𝐴=⎢ 0 − ⎥Ú 0 √2Û Ö1 ×=³ 0 1´
√3 √6⎥ √3 √6⎥ 0
⎢ ⎢ −1 1
⎢1 − 1 1 ⎥ ⎢1 − 1 1 ⎥ 0 0
⎣√3 √2 √6 ⎦ ⎣√3 √2 √6 ⎦
System of differential equations

Note: [𝑆𝐷𝑆 su ]¨ = 𝑆𝐷¨ 𝑆 su (easy to prove, try it out with k=1,2,3,4… hint 𝑆𝑆 su = 𝐼)
𝑑𝑋 1
= 𝐴𝑋 ⇒ 𝑑𝑋 = 𝑋𝐴𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴𝑑𝑡 ⇒ ln|𝑋| = 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐶u ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝑒 Ö- ¨Üa = 𝑒 Ö- 𝑒 Üa = 𝐶𝑒 Üa
𝑑𝑡 𝑋
∞ ∞ ∞
Üa
𝐴¨ 𝑡 ¨ 𝑆𝐷¨ 𝑆 su 𝑡 ¨ 𝐷¨ 𝑡 ¨ su
∴ 𝑋 = 𝐶𝑒 ⇒𝑋=𝐶D = 𝐶D = 𝐶𝑆 D 𝑆
𝑘! 𝑘! 𝑘!
ÏJ ÏJ ÏJ
𝑥uÄ = 3𝑥u + 𝑥t − 𝑥r 3 1 −1 ∞ 3 1 −1 ¨ 𝑡 ¨
𝑥tÄ = 𝑥u + 3𝑥t − 𝑥r ⇒ 𝑋 Ä = Ý1 3 −1Þ 𝑋 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐶 D Ý1 3 −1Þ
𝑘!
𝑥rÄ = 3𝑥u + 3𝑥t − 𝑥r 3 3 −1 ÏJ 3 3 −1
3 1 −1 1 1 −1 1 0 0 −1 −1 1
Diagonlize 𝐴, 𝐴 = Ý1 3 −1Þ ⇒ 𝐴 = Ý1 0 1 Þ Ý0 2 0Þ Ý 3 3 −2Þ
3 3 −1 3 1 0 0 0 2 1 2 −1
∞1 1 −1 1 0 0 −1 −1 1 ¨ 𝑡¨
∴𝐶D 1 ³Ý 0 1 Þ Ý0 2 0Þ Ý 3 3 −2Þ´
𝑘!
ÏJ 3 1 0 0 0 2 1 2 −1
1 1 −1 ∞ 1 0 0 ¨ 𝑡 ¨ −1 −1 1
= 𝐶 Ý1 0 1 Þ D ³Ý0 2 0Þ´ Ý3 3 −2Þ
𝑘!
3 1 0 ÏJ 0 0 2 1 2 −1
207
∞
1¨ 𝑡 ¨
D 0 0
⎛ 𝑘! ⎞
⎜ÏJ ∞ ⎟
1 1 −1 ⎜ 2¨ 𝑡 ¨ ⎟ −1 −1 1
= 𝐶 Ý1 0 1 Þ⎜ 0 D 0 ⎟Ý 3 3 −2Þ
𝑘!
3 1 0 ⎜ ÏJ ⎟ 1 2 −1
⎜ ∞
2¨ 𝑡 ¨ ⎟
0 0 D
⎝ 𝑘! ⎠
ÏJ
1 1 −1 𝑒 0 0 −1 −1 1
= (𝑐u 𝑐t 𝑐r ) Ý1 0 1 Þ Ý0 𝑒t 0 ÞÝ 3 3 −2Þ
3 1 0 0 0 𝑒t 1 2 −1
Or use a formula (easiest with three eigenvectors)
1 1 −1
𝑋 = 𝑐u 𝑣u 𝑒 ë- + 𝑐t 𝑣t 𝑒 ë² + 𝑐r 𝑣r 𝑒 ë· = 𝑐u Ý1Þ 𝑒 + 𝑐t Ý0Þ 𝑒 t + 𝑐r Ý 1 Þ 𝑒 t
3 1 0
Linear Programming: Simplex Method

Solve the linear programming problem by the simplex method.
Maximize 𝑃 = 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 subject to 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≤ 145 and 4𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 104 and 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≥ 0
Simplex Tableau: (note: 𝑃 = 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 ⇒ 𝑃 − 5𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 0)
𝑥 𝑦 𝑢 𝑣 𝑃 Constant
3 5 1 0 0 145
4 1 0 1 0 104
−5 −4 0 0 1 0
1st Since −4 > −5 the second column is the pivot column

u u
2nd Perform © 𝑅1 ∧ − ¯ 𝑅3 to make column 2 have 1’s
3 1 1 0 0 29
5 5
4 1 0 1 0 104
5 1 0 0 1 0
4 4
3rd We want column two to be a unit column i.e. {0,1,0} perform 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 ∧ 𝑅2 − 𝑅3
17 0 1 1 0 75
−
5 5
4 1 0 1 0 104
208
11 0 0 1 1 104
−
4 4
tJ © uu
4th Repeat for column 1 {1,0,0} − u¬ 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ∧ − u¬ Ÿ ¯ 𝑅1 + 𝑅3
17 0 1 1 0 75
−
5 5
0 1 4 3 0 268
−
17 17 17
0 0 11 13 1 2947
− −
68 68 4 68
©
5th u¬ 𝑅1 ∧ −4𝑅3
1 0 1 1 0 375
−
17 17
0 1 4 3 0 268
−
17 17 17
0 0 11 13 1 2947
− −
17 17 17
Maximize 𝑃 = 5𝑥 + 4𝑦 subject to 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 ≤ 145 and 4𝑥 + 𝑦 ≤ 104 and 𝑥 ≥ 0 and 𝑦 ≥ 0
2947 1
max{𝑃} = ⇔ (𝑥, 𝑦) = (375,268)
17 17
209
Copyright © WeSolveThem.com | WESOLVETHEM LLC
Published: July 2018, U.S.A.
210

The Ultimate Cheat Sheets For Math and Physics Differential Equations

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Ultimate Cheat Sheets For Math and Physics Differential Equations

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Ultimate Cheat Sheets For Math and Physics Differential Equations

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Differential Equations

By The WeSolveThem Team

“Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.”

• Before attending a lecture

§ This is the most important part of preparing for a STEM

Everything from the “General Symbols,” “Notations in Calculus,” “Algebra” and

The * symbol means “of the utmost importance.”

Integers Rational Irrational Complex

Reflexive Symmetric Transitive Substitution

Both 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the same elements 𝐴=𝐵

Subset: If every element of a set 𝐴 is in 𝐵 𝐴⊆𝐵 ⇒𝐴⊆𝐵∧𝐵 ⊆𝐴⇔𝐴=𝐵

Proper Subset: If every element in A is also in B 𝐴⊂𝐵

Intersection: The elements that are both in 𝐴 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}

Union: All elements from 𝐴 and 𝐵 are in 𝐴 union 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ∨ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 }

Compliment: If 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑈, and 𝑈 is the universal set 𝐴̅ = 𝐴š = {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ∧ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}

𝐴∩𝐵 = 𝐵∩𝐴 Commutative law for intersection

𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) ∪ 𝐶 Associative law for union

𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ∩ 𝐶 Associative law for intersection

𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶 ) Distributive law for union

𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) Distributive law for intersection

Number of Elements in a Set

𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 ) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) + 𝑛(𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 ) − 𝑛(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 ) + 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

Commutative – Addition 𝑎+𝑏 =𝑏+𝑎

Associativity – Multiplication 𝑎(𝑏𝑐 ) = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐

Transitive If 𝑎 = 𝑏 and 𝑏 = 𝑐 then 𝑎 = 𝑐

Distribution Property 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐 ) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 and (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐

Cancellation Property −(−𝑎) = 𝑎

Identity – Addition 𝑎 + 0 = 𝑎 and 0 + 𝑎 = 𝑎

Additive Inverse 𝑎 + (−𝑎) = 0 and – 𝑎 + 𝑎 = 0

Identity – Multiplication 𝑎(1) = 𝑎 and (1)𝑎 = 𝑎

Show the following are true using the appropriate formula.

(𝑎H )§ = 𝑎H§ = 𝑎§H = (𝑎§ )H (2t )r = 2t∙r = 2(r∙t) = (2r )t

Show the following are true.

Show the following are true.

𝑥 = 𝑎 ± 𝑖𝑏 √−𝑎 = 𝑖 √𝑎, 𝑎 > 𝑎 𝑥 t = −4 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√−4 = ±2𝑖

Adding and Subtracting Fractions

𝑔(𝑥 ) ℎ(𝑥 ) [𝑔(𝑥 )𝑟(𝑥 )] ± [𝑓 (𝑥 )ℎ(𝑥 )] 𝑥 t + 1 𝑥 r (𝑥 t + 1)(2) − ’𝑥(𝑥 r )“ 2𝑥 t − 𝑥 ¯ + 2

Log “Base” Notation

Calculus: The derivative of the logarithmic function:

Operator notation Prime notation

ln 𝑎 = undefined, 𝑎 ≤ 0 ln(−5) = 𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

Collect like terms ln 𝑦 + ln 𝑦 − 𝑥 ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 − ln 𝑥 + ln 5

lnÐ𝑓(𝑥 )Ñ(ƒ) Ò = 𝑔(𝑥 ) ln[𝑓 (𝑥 )] ln[𝑓(𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )] = ln[𝑓 (𝑥)] + ln[𝑔(𝑥 )]

Expand the following

= ln[𝑒 tƒ tant 𝑥 ] − lnÐ(𝑥 t + 2)(-ƒ¨t) Ò

= ln(𝑒 tƒ ) + ln (tant 𝑥) − (8𝑥 + 2) ln(𝑥 t + 2)

= 2𝑥 + 2 ln (tan 𝑥) − (8𝑥 + 2) ln(𝑥 t + 2)

= 2𝑥 + 2 ln(tan 𝑥 ) − 8𝑥 ln(𝑥 t + 2) − 2 ln(𝑥 t + 2)

In some online homework programs or classes ln(𝑥 )” may be considered to be equal to

ln(𝑥 ” ) = 𝑎 ln 𝑥 ≠ ln(𝑥 )” = [ln(𝑥 )]” = ln” (𝑥 )

ln(4) = ln(2t ) = 2 ln(2)

ln(2)t = [ln(𝑥 )]t = lnt (2) = ln(𝑥 ) ∙ ln(𝑥 )

Prove the following:

log ÉÈÌ ƒ (1 − cos t 𝑥 ) 4

𝑥 r + 3𝑎𝑥 t + 3𝑎t 𝑥 + 𝑎r = (𝑥 + 𝑎)r

𝑥 r − 3𝑎𝑥 t + 3𝑎t 𝑥 − 𝑎r = (𝑥 − 𝑎)r

𝑓(𝑥 )𝑥 § − 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑥 H = 𝑓(𝑥 )(𝑥 § − 𝑥 H )

*Common mistake students make when solving for x:

The solution of 𝑥 = 0 was lost, thus: