AS Level Biology Thitheeksha Kompally What are Cells? Cell: basic unit of all living organisms; it is surrounded by a cell surface membrane and contains genetic material(DNA) and cytoplasm containing organelles.
Cells are the structural and functional units of life because a
cell is capable of independent existence and can carry out all the vital functions for living. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients into energy, and carry out specialized functions. 1.1 The microscope in cell studies MAGNIFICATION CALCULATIONS Magnification: the number of times larger an image of an object is than the real size of the object MAGNIFICATION = image size actual size 1.1 The microscope in cell studies MAGNIFICATION CALCULATIONS The size of cells is typically measured using the micrometre (μm) scale, with cellular structures measured in either micrometers (μm) or nanometers (nm) When doing calculations all measurements must be in the same units. It is best to use the smallest unit of measurement shown in the question To convert units, multiply or divide depending if the units are increasing or decreasing Magnification does not have units 1.1 The microscope in cell studies MICROSCOPY RESOLUTION: the ability to distinguish between two objects very close together; the higher the resolution of an image, the greater the detail that can be seen. If two separate points cannot be resolved, they will be observed as one point The resolution of a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light As light passes through the specimen, it will be diffracted For a standard light microscope, the limit of resolution is around 200nm. 1.1 The microscope in cell studies There are two types of microscopes; light microscope and electron microscope. LIGHT MICROSCOPE: microscopes that use light as a source of radiation. A light microscope has two types of lens: An eyepiece lens, which often has a magnification of x10 A series of (usually 3) objective lenses, each with a different magnification To calculate the total magnification the magnification of the eyepiece lens and the objective lens are multiplied together:
eyepiece lens magnification x objective lens magnification
= total magnification 1.1 The microscope in cell studies EYEPIECE GRATICULES & STAGE MICROMETERS An eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer are used to measure the size of the object when viewed under a microscope The type of microscope and magnification used can vary signficantly so the eyepiece graticule needs to be calibrated each time when measuring objects The calibration is done using a stage micrometer, this is a slide with a very accurate known scale in micrometres (µm) The eyepiece graticule is a disc placed in the eyepiece with 100 divisions, this has no scale To know what the graticule divisions equal at each magnification the eyepiece graticule is calibrated to the stage micrometer at each magnification 1.1 The microscope in cell studies ELECTRON MICROSCOPE: microscope that uses electrons as a source of radiation. Electron microscopes are good for examining organelles in high detail have a much higher resolution and magnification than a light microscope as electrons have a much smaller wavelength than visible light can be expensive Electron microscopy requires the specimen to be dead 1.1 The microscope in cell studies ELECTRON MICROSCOPES ARE OF TWO TYPES: Transmission electron microscope & Scanning electron microscope. In a transmission electron microscope, the electron beam passes through the specimen. Flat 2D images are produced and only works if the specimen is very thinly sliced. It has a very high resolution. In a scanning electron microscope, the electron beam does not pass through the specimen. Instead, electrons are scattered from the surface of the specimen and detected. 3D images are produced and specimens are not required to be thinly sliced. It has a lower resolution when compared to TEM. 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS CELL SURFACE MEMBRANE (7nm) Partially permeable membrane which controls the exchange of materials between the internal cell environment and external cell environment. Cell membrane is formed from a phospholipid bilayer of phospholipids spanning a diameter of around 10nm. 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS CELL WALL (10nm) Cell walls are formed outside of the cell membrane and offer structural support to cell Structural support is provided by the polysaccharide cellulose in plants, and peptidoglycan in most bacterial cells Narrow threads of cytoplasm (surrounded by a cell membrane) called plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells. Freely permeable to most substances. 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS NUCLEUS (10μm) The nucleus is the largest cell organelle. Present in all eukaryotic cells, the nucleus is relatively large and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope) which has many pores Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA and ribosomes to travel out of the nucleus, as well as allowing enzymes (eg. DNA polymerases) and signalling molecules to travel in The nucleus contains chromatin (the material from which chromosomes are made) Usually, at least one or more darkly stained regions can be observed – these regions are individually termed ‘nucleolus’ and are the sites of ribosome production 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS MITOCHONDRIA (10μm) The mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle. Like many eukaryotic organelles, the mitochondrion is also membrane bound. It is made up of two membranes, an inner membrane and an outer membrane. The inner membrane is folded to create cristae. The inner region of the mitochondrion, located inside the inner membrane, is called the mitochondrial matrix. The matrix formed by the cristae contains enzymes needed for aerobic respiration, producing ATP Small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the matrix (needed for replication) 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS CHLOROPLASTS (5-10 μm) Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. They are only present in photosynthetic cells . There are no chloroplasts in animal or bacterial cells The most important function of chloroplast is to make food by the process of photosynthesis. surrounded by a double-membrane Membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form structures called grana Grana are joined together by lamellae (thin and flat thylakoid membranes) Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis: The light-dependent stage takes place in the thylakoids The light-independent stage (Calvin Cycle) takes place in the stroma Also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise proteins needed in chloroplast replication and photosynthesis 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS RIBOSOME Ribosomes are small, spherical structures that are responsible for synthesizing proteins in eukaryotic cells. They are made up of a combination of RNA and protein and are located in the cytoplasm or on the endoplasmic reticulum 80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells 70S (composed of 50S and 30S subunits) ribosomes in prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts Site of translation (protein synthesis) 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an important organelle in eukaryotic cells. It plays a major role in the production, processing, and transport of proteins and lipids. The two types of endoplasmic reticulum are smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). The RER has a rough surface due to abundant ribosomes present on its surface. 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM The RER contains stacked, fluid-filled membranes The surface of the RER is covered in ribosomes. The RER folds and packages proteins and sends them to the Golgi Apparatus.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
The SER does not have ribosomes. Its main function is to synthesise lipids. The SER is also involved in detoxification 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS GOLGI APPARATUS A Golgi body, also known as a Golgi apparatus, is a cell organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It is responsible for sorting, modifying and packaging proteins and lipids that are produced in the endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi Apparatus has several functions, including: 1. Sorting and modifying proteins and lipids 2. Packaging molecules into vesicles 3. Directing molecules to their final destination within the cell or outside the cell 4. Participating in the synthesis of carbohydrates 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS LARGE PERMANENT VACOULE Sac in plant cells surrounded by the tonoplast, selectively permeable membrane Vacuoles in animal cells are not permanent and small
VESICLE Membrane-bound sac for transport and storage 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS LYSOSOMES Lysosomes are small, round, membrane bound vesicles formed by Golgi bodies. They contain a group of digestive enzymes. The lysosomes’ function is to get rid of worn out old cell organelles which no longer have benefits. Lysosomes digest the large molecules of nutrients engulfed by the cell and change them into structurally simpler substances to enable the cell to benefit from them. The cell is not affected by the lysosome enzymes because these enzymes are surrounded by a membrane, isolating them from the cell’s components. 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS MICROVILLI Microvilli are small finger-like projections found on cells within the body that help the cells to get nutrition. Microvilli are membrane protuberances that arise from epithelial cells. They are usually about 0.1µm in diameter and up to 2 µm long. 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS CENTRIOLE Hollow fibres made of microtubules, two centrioles at right angles to each other form a centrosome, which organises the spindle fibres during cell division Not found in flowering plants and fungi 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS MICROTUBULES Microtubules are microscopic hollow tubes made of the proteins alpha and beta tubulin that are part of a cell's cytoskeleton, a network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cell, gives the cell shape, and keeps its organelles in place. 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURES & FUNCTIONS CILIA Cilia are hair-like structures on surface membranes. (made from microtubules) Allows the movement of substances over the cell surface
FLAGELLA microscopic hair-like structures involved in the locomotion of a cell. Contract to provide cell movement 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims Structure of Animal & Plant Cells The only structures found in animal cells but not plant cells are the centrioles and microvilli Plant cells also have additional structures: the cellulose cell wall, large permanent vacuoles and chloroplasts 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells Unlike eukaryotic organisms, prokaryotic cells are unicellular i.e. made up of a single prokaryotic cell. Bacteria are examples of prokaryotic organisms. Prokaryotes have a cellular structure distinct from eukaryotes: Their genetic material is not packaged within a membrane-bound nucleus and is usually circular (eukaryotic genetic material is packaged as linear chromosomes) Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles They are many (100s/1000s) of times smaller than eukaryotic cells Their ribosomes are structurally smaller (70 S) in comparison to those found in eukaryotic cells (80 S) 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells 1.2 Cells as the basic unit of living organims VIRUSES Virus: a very small infectious particle which can replicate only inside living cells; it consists of a molecule of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. Viruses are not living cells. Viruses are not cells, nor are they living organisms Viruses invade host cells. Viruses have no cell organelles. Viruses have a genome. Viruses have a protein coat called a capsid. Viruses have attachment proteins. Viruses are extremely small. THANK YOU
(Methods in Enzymology 183) Abelson J.N., Simon M.I., Doolittle R.F. (Eds.) - Molecular Evolution - Computer Analysis of Protein and Nucleic Acid Sequences-Academic Press (1990)
(Methods in Enzymology 183) Abelson J.N., Simon M.I., Doolittle R.F. (Eds.) - Molecular Evolution - Computer Analysis of Protein and Nucleic Acid Sequences-Academic Press (1990)
