Block-2 - Awareness Responsibility & Compliance

ignou MEV-003
THE PEOPLE'S
UNIVERSITY Environmental Law
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and and Management
Trans-disciplinary Studies
AWARENESS RESPONSIBILITY
AND COMPLIANCE 2
MEV-003
Environmental Law
and Management
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Block
2
AWARENESS, RESPONSIBILITY AND
COMPLIANCE
UNIT 1
Social and Civil Society Movements In India 5
UNIT 2
Environmental Ethics 18
UNIT 3
Biosafety 29
UNIT 4
Corporate Sector and Environment 46
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. (Ms.) Shyamala Mani Dr. Rachna Agarwal Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Deeksha Dave
Professor, National Institute of School of Vocational Education Environmental Studies Environmental Studies, School
Urban Affairs (NIUA) India Habitat and Training, Indira Gandhi School of Interdisciplinary and of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Centre New Delhi National Open University, New Trans-disciplinary Studies disciplinary Studies,
Delhi Indira Gandhi National Open Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. R. Baskar University, New Delhi University, New Delhi
Department of Environmental Prof. Daizy R Batish
Science & Engineering, Guru Department of Botany, Panjab Prof. Ruchika Kuba Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
Jambheshwar University of University, Chandigarh School of Health Sciences, Indira School of Interdisciplinary and
Science & Technology, Hisar Gandhi National Open University, Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Haryana Prof. M. Krishnan New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
Vice Chancellor, Madurai Kamraj New Delhi
Prof. H.J. Shiva Prasad University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur
Professor of Civil Engineering School of Interdisciplinary and Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
College of Technology, G.B. Pant Dr. Chirashree Ghosh Trans-disciplinary Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
University of Agriculture & Technology Department of Environmental Indira Gandhi National Open Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Pant Nagar, Uttarakhand Studies, University of Delhi, University, New Delhi Gandhi National Open University
New Delhi New Delhi
Dr. T.K. Joshi Dr. Shachi Shah
Director, Occupational & Mr. Ravi Agarwal Environmental Studies, Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
Environmental Programme, Centre Director, Toxic Link, Jangpura School of Interdisciplinary and School of Interdisciplinary and
for Occupational & Environmental Extension, New Delhi Trans-disciplinary Studies Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira
Health, Maulana Azad Medical Indira Gandhi National Open Gandhi National Open University
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi New Delhi
College, New Delhi School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi University, New Delhi
Prof. Nilima Srivastava National Open University, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
School of Gender and Development New Delhi Environmental Studies
Studies, Indira Gandhi National Dr. B. Rupini School of Interdisciplinary and
Open University, New Delhi Environmental Studies, School Trans-disciplinary Studies
of Interdisciplinary and Trans- Indira Gandhi National Open
Prof. S.K. Yadav University, New Delhi
School of Agriculture disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi National Open National Open University,
University, New Delhi New Delhi
BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur Dr. Deeksha Dave Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Dr. Deeksha Dave
School of Interdisciplinary and Environmental Studies, School Environmental Studies Environmental Studies, School
Trans-disciplinary Studies, of Interdisciplinary and Trans- School of Interdisciplinary and of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
Indira Gandhi National Open disciplinary Studies, Trans-disciplinary Studies disciplinary Studies,
University, New Delhi Indira Gandhi National Open Indira Gandhi National Open Indira Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi University, New Delhi University, New Delhi
PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, School of Dr. Sushmitha Baskar Prof. Ruchika Kuba
Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Environmental Studies, School of School of Health Sciences,
Indira Gandhi National Open University, Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open
New Delhi Indira Gandhi National Open University, University, New Delhi
New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATOR CONTENT EDITORS

Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan Prof. P. Santhy, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open Prof. Ruchika Kuba, School of Health Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open
University, New Delhi University, New Delhi
Dr. B. Rupini, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
FORMAT EDITORS
Dr. B. Rupini Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-
and Trans-disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi disciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
National Open University, New Delhi New Delhi
Secretarial/Technical Assistance: Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU. New Delhi
PRINT PRODUCTION
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February, 2019
 Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN: 987-93-88498-86-9
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BLOCK 2 INTRODUCTION
Block 2 is Awareness, Responsibility and Compliance. This block consists of
4 units.
Unit 1 discussed about Social and Civil Society Movement in India. It introduces
you the social and civil society movements in environment. It pronounced The
Bishnoi Movement as one of the earliest Environmental movement which
concerned for Environmental Protection, ensures improvement in the living
conditions of the desert community in Rajasthan. How Colonial India witnessed
forest policies, tribal land displacement and deprivation of livelihood of Adivasi
was depicted. It elaborated the environmental movements of contemporary India
like Chipko Movement, Narmada Bachao Andolan movements to protest against
destruction of natural resources conservation.
Unit 2 highlighted the Environmental Ethics relates to our moral obligation
towards the environment. There are several approaches to environmental ethics
viz., anthropocentricism, biocentrism and ecocentrism. Due to increasing
apprehensions regarding environment and the growing awareness about the
impact of human activities, there is a growing realization that environmental ethics
has enormous scope. The environment is not something which we can remove
oneself from. Human beings have started realizing that they have a right to
healthy and safe environment. The unit explained the meaning of environmental
ethic, environmental justice and the role of indigenous knowledge in protecting
our ancient wisdom on environment. When a person realizes his environmental
obligations he is able to think how an action or an event affects the entire range
of environmental settings. For example, climate change which affects the world
in various different ways. Further, the lifestyle of a person also impacts the
environment and the future generations must be taken care of while consuming
the limited resources present on the earth. The unit explains that it is not just
the numbers but the ways of living of population which has a role in deteriorating
the environment of a particular place.
Unit 3 we have studied about biosafety. Biological hazards differ from all other
kinds of hazards in the that the biological agents can grow and multiply in the
host organism causing diseases. The pathogenic microbes are a cause of concern
for the human health, plant and animal health. They have the potential to cause
diseases with tremendous economic and environmental consequences. The
chapter details about containment, the biosafety levels and biosafety cabinets
used. The unit also introduces the learner to GMOs and LMOs, their benefits
and concerns and the biosafety guidelines.
Unit 4 You have studied about the influence of business organizations and their
operations on environment and its various functions. Traditional business models
focused on wealth creation by today there is a growing realization that natural
resources are the base of every business. Now-a-days, not only the corporate
sector but the consumers are also vigilant about their ecological footprint and
are keen to go for green buying and eco-friendly purchases. Despite the hype
over green consumerism, it is still at a beginner stage and not yet in a position
to influence the society and make the people environmentally responsible.
However, in many cases there is a lack of will to purchase the green products.
Only a handful of the consumers go out of their way to make green choices.
The unit also explained the environmental dimension of corporate social
responsibility.
Awareness, Responsibility
and Compliance
4
UNIT 1 SOCIAL AND CIVIL SOCIETY
MOVEMENTS IN INDIA
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Ecology and History in Ancient India.
1.3 Early Environmental Movement in India: The Bishnoi Movement in
Medieval Western Rajasthan.
1.4 Bishnoi Philosophy of Conservation of Vegetation and Movement for
Environmental Protection.
1.5 Colonial India: Forest Policies, Tribal Land Displacement and
Deprivation of Livelihood of the Adivasis.
1.6 Routine Revolts by Tribes of Forests.
1.7 Forest Act of 1865, 1878, 1972 and 1935. The Case-study of Bastar in
Pre-independence and Post-policing of Forest Land and Increasing Rural
Taxation.
1.8 Van Mahotsava is Independent India: The National Forest Policies of
1952 and 1988.
1.9 Environmental Movements in Contemporary India: Chipko Movement,
Narmada Bachao, Andolan and Appiko.
1.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.11 Key Words
1.12 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.13 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Archaeological history and anthropological evidences clearly indicate that
human civilization shaped the contours of natural environment throughout the
centuries. From pre-historic times to the colonial times, society and state shaped
the contours of natural environment for the economic growth and sustainability
of a growing India civilization and state-societies. In this introduction, here
we are not arguing against or in favor of agricultural expansion versus
environmental movements. Here is a brief historical narrative of the causative
factors for the emergence of social and civil movements for conservation of
natural environment.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define the social and civil society movements in Environment; 5
and Compliance  describe a brief history of movement for conservation of natural
environment; and
 explain about environmental activities in contemporary India.
1.3 EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT IN

INDIA: THE BISHNOI MOVEMENT IN
MEDIEVAL WESTERN RAJASTHAN
The human society eked out their living in the pre-historic times (Paleolithic
and Mesolithic period) through hunting and gathering. Neolithic age (new Stone
Age) witnessed the beginnings of subsistence agricultural activities and
emergence of villages. As subsistence agriculture expanded into surplus
agriculture, we witnessed the beginnings of urbanization and emergence of
cities. The first four river valley civilizations of the world are Indus valley
civilization in South Asia (India and Pakistan), Nile Valley civilization in Egypt,
Hwang-Ho valley civilization in China and Euphrates Tigris valley civilization
in Iraq. The urban society utilized water-resources for agrarian expansion to
produce surplus production to sustain majority of the non-agricultural, urbanized
section society. It is important to know that it is the environmental factors
which were responsible for the decline of Indus/Harappa urbanization (Cradle
of Indian and South Asian Civilization) such as earthquake, floods and silting
of river Indus and its major tributaries. It is obvious that over-utilization of
natural resources without ensuing re-generation played have with Indus valley
civilization and was responsible for its decliner.
In Mauryan empire is known for taping into natural resources in strengthening
its revenue base. A detailed study of Asokan inscriptions and Kantilya’s
Arthasashtra clearly reveal that the Mauryan state expanded agricultural
activities into forest and tribal regions to augment their revenue income. Heavy
taxation system of the Mauryan encouraged fallow land to be brought under
cultivation and peasants were exempted from agricultural taxes for bringing
fallow land under cultivation. It is equally interesting that the ancient would
was concerned absent environmental protection such as the measures taken by
emperor Asoka in conserving natural resources through afforestation plantation,
digging of wells, ban on the killing of deer’s and peacocks in royal kitchen on
certain days. Early medieval period of Indian History (AD 7th –AD 13th
Centuries) witnessed processes of state formation and agricultural expansion
further into hinterland and tribal habitat throughout the sub-continent. It is
true that plenty of availability of land did not lead to any social or civil movement
as we do not have any documented evidence of environmental movement for
early India. However medieval India witnessed conflicts just like medieval
Europe over common resources. It is in the Thar Desert of India that the first
civil movement for environmental protection arose which has been well
documented in the historical literature. This is the famous Bishnoi movement
of western Rajasthan founded by Saint Jambhoji in Bikaner in 1453.
Bishnoi Movement in Medieval Rajasthan
One of the earliest environmental movements in historic India was the Bishnoi
movement in medieval Rajasthan. It was founded by a Parmar Rajput, Jambhoji,
Bikaner. Jambhoji was born to a Paramar Rajput named Lohat and his Bhati
6 Rajput wife Hansa. An agro-pastoralist, Lohat received divine message
(akashvani) that a Krishna-like avatar would be born to him to liberate 12 Social and Civil Society
Movements In India
crore human beings. It was forecast that this son would be a yogi (sage). Hansa
gave birth to Krishna like Jambhoji. In fact, Jambhoji, like infant Krishna
performed miracles and surprised visitors to his home. He like Krishna was
born with an aura. Like Vishnu, he (Jambhoji) lit lamps with water and not oil.
Hence, Vilhoji adapted Krishna’s childhood deeds to a significant extent to
highlight the avatar status of Jambhoji. Vilhoji repeats that Jambhoji is the
Vishnu re-incarnate in Kali Yuga. All the Vishnoi saints, including Alamji,
legitimized Jambhoji’s avatar anddivine status through appropriation of
Vishnu’s and Krishna’s characteristic. Vilhoji makes another interesting
identification of Jambhoji, with Lakshmana of Ramayana who killed Ravana
and rescued Sita from Lanka.
1.4 BISHNOI PHILOSOPHY OF CONSERVATION

OF VEGETATION AND MOVEMENT FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
The Bishnoi movement had a wide following in the desert community of
western Rajasthan in the medieval period. Its philosophical and socio-economic
content enjoyed popularity among the local population of Rajputs, Jats and
Rabaris of Raikas (the caste of camel breeders) because it made a significant
difference to their life. The Bishnoi concern for environmental protection
ensured improvement in the living conditions of the desert community. This
concern assumed significant proportion against the background of the famines
of AD 1450, 1485 and 1490 in western Rajasthan followed by those of 1742,
1747, 1792, 1796, 1804, 1812-16, 1837-8, 1866-9, 1890-2, 1898-1900, 1901-
2 and 1938-9. Bikaner region witnessed a series of famines in 1834, 1849,
1860, 1868-9, 1889-92 and 1899. The fact that the Bishnois of Rajasthan and
Haryana are a living culture today, despite the recurrent famines indicates the
continuing relevance and contemporarily of the philosophy and teaching of
the medieval saints (Nandini Sinha Kapur, ‘Tribes, Agro-pastoralists and
Environment in Western India ed. 7th -20 Centuries, New Delhi. 2011).
Following Jambhoji’s preaching’s, Vilhoji widened the scope for conservation
of nature by highlighting the environmental and economic importance of
vegetation, particularly the Khejri tree. The Bishnois were not only inspired to
sacrifice their lives for the protection of cattle but also for the preservation of
trees. Vilhoji warned his disciples that they would go to hell if they did not
demonstrate kindness towards trees. He instructed his disciples to plan the
right kind of trees which would bear nectar-like and not poison-like fruits. He
compared truth and falsity with two types of trees: sweet and salty. Vilhoji
narrated the story of Jambhoji’s disciple Karamni who sacrificed her life in
1604 for the protection of Khejri trees – the lifeline of the desert as the trees
can survive severe drought conditions. Khinvani and Netu are two other heroes
who laid down their lives for saving trees.
Their accounts assert that if trees are not protected then gurudharma (teaching
of Jambhoji) would be disrespected. Bhati Rajput are condemned for felling
trees and other Jambhoji follower Mote gave up his life fighting against these
Bhatis. Glorification of these martyrs is sought as hero Netu attains heaven
and immortality. Jambhoji’s seat Sambharthal is hailed because it abounds in
forests and is habited by devout pastoralists. Jambjhoji wandered in these forests 7
and Compliance but never cut any tree for wood. He only picked up broken twigs to light fires.
Jambhoji encouraged his followers to grow mangoes out of thorny desert oaks.
Among his miracles, the story of conversion of lime trees into coconut trees
continues to be popular among his disciples. When human beings and animals
seek shelter in the shadows of trees, they get respite from heat. Interestingly,
Vilhoji laments that trees shed their leaves as soon as they are surrounded by
human being and animals. This is a clear indication of the Bishnoi preference
for conservation of vegetation.
Water Resources and Agriculture
Vilhoji popularized conservation of the other scarce item of the desert: water.
Conservation of water was not only to meet the daily needs of a desert society
but also for agricultural activities. According to Vilhoji, when rain comes,
cows get green grass to eat and water to drink. Hence, water is the foundation
for good quality of milk and not any hymn or mantra. It was imperative to
conserve rain water at the local level both for drinking purposes and pastoral
activities. Vilhoji prayed to Devji (Jambhoji) to bestow kindness on earth by
sending rain-bearing clouds.
It is significant that the need for water and water-conservation were sanctified
though such comparisons as ‘Water can exist without fish but fish cannot survive
without water, just like guru Jambhoji does not need his disciples as much as
his disciples need him’. When it rains, cattle grow up healthy and give plenty
of milk. Milch cow graze on green grass that only grows after rains. Good
quality fodder like bagarau and chandlevo grass grows only if it rains. To sanctify
the scarcest resource of the desert, water is claimed to be the sacred Banganga
of the Puranic traditions.
The need for generation and conservation of water perhaps was the most
important factor in the cultivation of grains for the sustenance of the local
population. The Bishnoi concern for agricultural activities to meet the local
requirements is evident in Vilhoji’s narrative of the famine of 1542 in Katha
Guggalai ki. The famine was so terrible that the starved population began to
migrate elsewhere in search of livelihood. When Jambhoji attempted to stop
the people from migrating, they petitioned hat if their daily requirement of
1.25 maunds of grain were arranged for, they would not migrate in search of
livelihood. Jambhoji promised them daily their food through divine intervention.
But in lieu he demanded that the local population promise to save animals and
birds and not kill them. If they promised to protect the animal-wealth only
then God would remove their difficulties. This is a Bishnoi principle that
connects conservation of cattle wealth with agricultural wealth. People doubted
Jambhoji’s claim of divine generation of food. But Vilhoji writes that wherever
Jambhoji preached, those places produced more grains, fruits and flowers. In
another account Jambhoji is said to have gone a forest accompanied by a Purbia
and his camel laden with sacks. The Purbia was delighted to see maunds of
grains which Jambhoj procured from the forest. The starved population
acknowledged this miracle and received grain from Jambhoji every alternate
day.
The need for a desert economy to trade in grains with its neighboring states is
also a Bishnoi concern. As severe winter gave way to summer, the local people
prepared their camels to leave for trading. They visited Sindh to buy wheat
8 and came back to plough the fields before the monsoon. In another incident,
Jambhoji created a camel out of guggal (sticky material meant to be burnt as Social and Civil Society
Movements In India
incense) and loaded it with sacks of grain and sent Purbia with money and
camel to the villages of Bishnois. Hence, Jambhoji fed famine-struck people
with grains and emphasized upon generation of grains through local cultivation
and trade with fertile regions like Sindh. Water and good quality agricultural
production are inextricably linked with each other and are always reflected in
Vilhoji’s teachings. Trees which receive plenty of water grow to have large
branches and bear fruits and render cool shadows. Those who look after the
trees reap the fruits and hence, we should respect trees. Fertility of soil and
seeds are sanctified by comparing these with a knowledgeable guru who can
liberate a disciple. Vilhoji compares chanting of God’s name with continuous
irrigation. He teaches his disciples to fill wells water and irrigate plants just
like they should chant God’s name till the end, then gardens would be laden
with fruits and flowers.
If agriculture was essential to sustain and sedentarize a desert society and to
meet the increasing revenue demands of the Rathaur state of Jodhpur and
Bikaner, then pastoral activities was the lifeline of the desert economy. The
Bishnois not only uphold preservation of cattle wealth but also relate cattle
and dairy farming to the worship of their chief deity Vishnu. Vilhoji instructs
his disciples to strain the water before they drink to save micro-organisms. He
condemns those who eat meat instead of good food (meaning vegetarian food)
in the same context. For the same reasons, Vilhoji warned against lighting fire
without regard to micro-organisms; if a fire burns organisms, then it becomes
inauspicious. He also encouraged people to walk less to minimize the killing
of small organisms.
In Katha Avatarpat (the story of Jambhoji’s birth), the predominance of pastoral
wealth over agricultural activities is clearly evident. Jambhoji’s father, Paramar
Lohat, who cultivated his field and irrigated in with water drawn from a well,
had plenty of cows and goats. His agro-pastoral activities are vividly described
by Vilhoji. Lohat grazed his cattle and spent money on his animals while
procuring grains during the monsoon. It is when he had gone to the forests to
graze his cows that the divine Vishnu appeared before him and foretold the
birth of avatar Devji (Jambhoji).
1.5 COLONIAL INDIA: FOREST POLICIES,

TRIBAL LAND DISPLACEMENT AND
DEPRIVATION OF LIVELIHOOD OF THE
ADIVASIS
Colonial rule was the first turning point in Indian history that a government
claimed a direct proprietary right over forests. This was not the case in pre-
colonial times including Mughal India. The British state became the conservator
of forests when it passed the Indian Forest Act of 1878. Hundreds of thousands
of acres of forest lands that adivasis had used for centuries and were considered
commons suddenly kept in reserve, a practice that continued for the rest of the
colonial period. With British control of the forests came the concomitant rise
of moneylenders, traders, and immigrants, and the influx of these new
intermediary groups led to widespread adivasi land displacement and were
deprived of livelihood. These are only some of the major changes instituted
9
and Compliance during the colonial period. The introduction of money rather than a barter
economy—also transformed the nature of tribal society during the course of
British rule.
1.6 ROUTINE REVOLTS BY TRIBES OF FORESTS

Consequently, revolts among the indigenous population became a routine
phenomenon during colonialism, especially in the nineteenth century. For
instance, in 1855 the Santhals rebelled; in 1868 the Naikdas; in 1873 the Kolis;
and in 1895 the Birsas. This is only a small smattering of the total number of
conflicts. Ranajit Guha has documented over 110 different colonial-era peasant
revolts and Kathleen Gough records at least 77 since the advent of British
rule.
British colonial rule in India ushered in a period of intense rebellion among
the country’s indigenous groups. Most tribal conflicts occurred in the British
provinces, and many historians have documented how colonial policies gave
rise to widespread rural unrest and violence. In the post-independence period,
many of the colonial-era policies continued to plague the system and were not
reformed. Tribal conflicts continued in the form of the Naxalite insurgency.
The princely state of Bastar continues to be a major centre of tribal conflict in
India.
Scholars have pointed out that the new colonial policies, such as the policing
of forest lands and increased rural taxation, led to widespread discontent and
rebellion among indigenous groups. To quote Stokes ‘resentment against
(moneylenders) boiled over most readily into violence among tribal people
like the Bhils, Santals, and the Gonds’. Historians have shown that in post-
independence, era the new Indian government did not reform a number of
colonial-period policies, especially those dealing with forestry, and tribal
conflicts continued to occur throughout the country, especially in former areas
of direct British rule like Bengal, Bihar, and Jharkhand. The Naxalite movement
became the manifestation of tribal revolt in contemporary India.
Tribal revolts began in Bastar precisely because of increasing British influence
in the state. Three specific policies were implemented in Bastar that gave risotto
tribal revolt: colonial officials took directly controlled the forests, they displaced
tribals from their land, and they interfered into succession to the local royal
throne, which upset the native population.
Bastar led to the rise of the contemporary Naxalite insurgency. The case of
Bastar, reaffirms the role of British colonialism in producing tribal conflict in
India by showcasing its effects in areas that never formally came under the
ambit of direct rule. Importantly, however, the continuing violence in Bastar
demonstrates implicates the post-colonial government’s failures to end the root
causes of the bloodshed.
Despite its remote location, the political and economic developments in colonial
Bastar led to persistent rebellion and provides important insights for other
regions throughout Asia. The British practice of retaining areas of indirect rule
within a colony was adopted from India and exported to other colonial territories
such as Burma and Malaya. Therefore, understanding contemporary violence
10 in other post-colonial states in Asia-ethnic separatism throughout former areas
of indirect rule in Myanmar, for example-can be understood by analysing what Social and Civil Society
Movements In India
happened in Bastar.
This part of this chapter contains four major sections. In the first two the general
history of tribal revolts in colonial and then post-colonial India are discussed.
In the final two, broad trends within the kingdom of Bastar, again in the colonial
and post-colonial periods are listed.
1.7 FOREST ACT OF 1865, 1878, 1972 AND 1935.

THE CASE-STUDY OF BASTAR IN PRE-
INDEPENDENCE AND POST-POLICING OF
FOREST LAND AND INCREASING RURAL
TAXATION.
The survey and mapping of India’s forests allowed the implementation of
scientific management. The dominant paradigm of scientific management was
to pursue the maximum sustainable production, and management practices
were organised around this principle. In deforested areas, commercially valuable
species were planted (Sagreiya, 1967), while in some cases, mixed forests
were replaced with marketable monocultures continuing with the interests of
the colonial rulers, forest management, and its restrictions of access to local
communities, resulted in, as described by Sagreiya (1967), ‘a steady build up
of forest capital.’ The forest capital was depleted during World War One, but
regenerated through intensive management, but again deforestation occurred
during World War Two, this time far beyond its sustained production (Sagreiya,
1967). An increase of 65% over the war period does not indicate the timber not
accounted for, which, by all accounts is considerably, greater, when timber
procured from other sources is also considered (Gadgil and Guha, 1992). Gadgil
and Guha also point out that as the war proceeds, the area covered by working
plans diminishes, indicating an increase in cutting of forests from areas not
covered with working plans, which would have been unaccountable.
According to Gadgil and Guha (1995), the large-scale annexation of Indian

forests by the colonial state constituted a critical turning point, politically,
socially and ecologically; politically, because the colonial claim to the forests
represented an unprecedented expansion of state power and intervention, with
a simultaneous reduction in local communities’ rights. Socially, the traditional
patterns of resource use were disrupted by the restrictions to local access, and
ecologically, as the forests were undergoing a process of ‘commodification’
which transformed their nature.
State control, which was a critical feature of the 1878 Forest Act, also facilitated
the development of scientific forestry. Dietrich Brandis was the first Inspector
General of Forests, and is considered the founder of modern forestry; indeed,
he is often paid tribute as the ‘Father of Indian Forestry’ (Chaturvedi, 1998).
Brandis was a botanist from Bonn University, and Germany was considered
the leading European country in forest management in colonial times. One of
the first tasks undertaken by the newly-formed Forest Department was to survey
and map the forests of India. Forests were demarcated so that working plans
could be formulated (Sagreiya, 1967).
11
and Compliance According to the 1878 Forest Act, three types of forest were to be designated;
Reserved, protected, and village. Reserved forests were supposed to be the
most commercially valuable and amenable to sustained exploitation. Overall
state control of reserved forests was sought, which meant relinquishment, or
transferral of other claims and rights, limited access was granted. Legally,
channels to contest the reservation of forests existed, though rural communities
had little experience with legal procedures. Protected forests were similarly
state controlled, but some concessions were granted, conditional to the
reservation of commercial tree species, when they became valuable. Protected
forests could also be closed to fuel wood collection and grazing, whenever it
was considered necessary. As timber demand for empire increased, the state
had granted limited control itself to be inadequate, thus many protected forests
were re-designated as reserved forests. The act also provided for a third
designation of forests in its constitution, village forests, which according to
Gadgil and Guha (1992), was not under the control of the colonial government
over most of India. The area of forest appropriated by the state in 1878 was
14,000 square miles, which had increased to 81,400 and 3300 square miles,
for reserved and protected forests respectively, by 1900 (Stebbing, 1922). In
east era India, state appropriation of forest land let to the dispossession of
adivasi communities’ ancestral land. In the Singhbum District of Bihar, large-
scale encroachment by the Forest Department in the late nineteenth century
displaced the Ho tribe from their villages in an attempt to demarcate a reserve
forest. The reservation was criticized leading to conflict between the Ho and
Forest Department which escalated into a ‘tree war’, one that still periodically
erupts (Corbridge and Jewitt, 1997).
The Forest Acts, passed by the colonial administration in 1865 (Indian Forest
Act), 1927 and 1935 resulted in military, strategic and administrative control
of tribal and forests criminal tribe Act of 1871 was yet another important step
towards absolute control of tribal habitat and their resources.
Gandhi Ji situated his views of conservation of natural environmental in the
context of urbanization, factor system and nebulous industrialization. For the
ideal India lived in an ideal village in natural setting. India witnessed two
national forest policies in post-independent India: The National Forest Policy
of 1952 and the National Forest Policy of 1988.
1.8 VAN MAHOTSAVA IS INDEPENDENT INDIA:

THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICIES OF 1952
AND 1988
The Government inaugurated Van Mahotsava in India. A central Board of
Forestry was set Target was to raise the area under forest to 100 million hectares.
Hence, there was a focuses reduction of the long range development for forest
resources and meet the growing demand of timber and fire wood. This policy
was evaluated by the National Commission on Agriculture. The National Forest
Policy of 1988 replaces the forest policy of 1952. The Forest policy of 1988
was concerned with protection, conservation and development of forests at
the world stage, several events of recent history between in 1950s, 1960s and
1970s illustrated the magnitude of environmental damage caused by humans
such as hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Alok, the infamous oils of 1967 and
12 1969, mercury poisoning on the people of Minamata. In 1972, the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholder and Social and Civil Society
Movements In India
for the first time united the representatives’ of multiple governments. This
conference led to the creation of government environmental agencies and the
United National Environment program activists of anti nuclear movement and
public awareness gradually gone birth to ‘Green Politics) and ‘environmental
activism’. The first earth day was celebrated on 22nd April, 1970.
India witnessed a large number of environmental movements with conservation
at its centre some of the notable movements that we are going to read in this
unit are Chipko movement led by Sundarlal Baluguwa in the 1970s in Tehri
who spearheaded anti Tehri Dam movement in the 1980s Appico movement
in Karnataka, Narmada Bachoo Andolon led by Dr. Medha Patekar among
other.
1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN

CONTEMPORARY INDIA: CHIPKO
MOVEMENT, NARMADA BACHAO,
ANDOLAN AND APPIKO
Sunderlal Bahuguna is a well know environmentalist, Chipko movement and
a follower of Mahatma Gandhi. He believes in the philosophy of Non-violence
and Satyagraha. He fought for long for the preservation of forests in
the Himalayas, first as a member of the Chipko movement in the 1970s, and
later led the Anti-Tehri Dam movement starting 1980s, to early 2004. He was
one of the pioneering environmentalists of India, and later he and his people
associated with the Chipko movement started taking up environmental issues,
including large-scale protest against construction of large dams.
He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan, India’s second highest civilian honour,
on 26 January 2009.
Sunderlal Bahuguna was born in village Maroda near Tehri, Uttarakhand on 9
January 1927. He claimed in a function arranged at Kolkata, that his ancestors
bearing surname Bandopadhyaya, migrated from Bengal to Tehri, some 800
years ago. Early on, he fought against untouchability and later started organising
hill women in his anti-liquor drive from 1965 to 1970. He started social activities
at the age of thirteen, under the guidance of Shri Dev Suman, who was a
nationalist spreading message of non-violence and he was with Congress party
of Uttar Pradesh (India) at the time of Independence. Bahuguna also mobilised
people against colonial rule before 1947. He adopted Gandhian principles in
his life and married his wife Vimla with the condition that they would live
among rural people and establish ashram in village. Inspired by Gandhi, he
walked through Himalayan forests and hills, covering more than 4,700
kilometres by foot and observed the damage done by mega developmental
projects on fragile eco-system of Himalaya and subsequent degradation of social
life in villages.(Wikipedia, Sunderlal Bahuguna).
Chipko Movement
Chipko movement was started in 1973 spontaneously in (Uttar Pradesh) to
save trees and forests from felling by forest contractors. In Hindi, “Chipko”
literally means “stick” and people started hugging to trees when it was being
cut. Chipko movement later inspired Appiko Movement in Karnataka. This 13
and Compliance was one of Sunderlal Bahuguna’s lifelong contributions to the cause, of
environment. He created of the Chipko’s slogan “Ecology is permanent
economy. Sunderlal Bahuguna helped bring the movement to prominence
through about 5,000-kilometer trans-Himalaya march undertaken from 1981
to 1983, travelling from village to village, gathering support for the movement.
He had an appointment with the then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and
that meeting is credited with resulting in Ms. Gandhi’s subsequent 15-year
ban on felling of green trees in 1980. He was also closely associated with Gaura
Devi, one of the pioneers of the movement (Wikipedia, Sunderlal Bahuguna).
Anti Tehri Dam Protests
He stood against the anti-Tehri Dam protests for decades, he used

the Satyagraha methods, and repeatedly went on hunger strikes at the banks
of Bhagirathi as a mark of his protest. In 1995, he called off a 45-day-long fast
following an assurance from the then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao of
the appointment of a review committee on the ecological impacts of the dam,
thereafter he went on another long fast another fast which lasted for 74 days
at Gandhi Samadhi, Raj Ghat, during the tenure of Prime Minister, H.D. Deve
Gowda, he gave personal undertaking of project review (Wikipedia, Sunderlal
Bahuguna).
Eventually, the dam reservoir started filling up in 2004, and on 31 July 2004
he was finally evacuated to a new accommodation at Koti, a little hillock,
along the Bhagirathi where he lives today, continues his environment work.
Sunderlal Bahuguna has been a dedicated to the conservation of the Himalayan

ecology and its people, working for temperance, the plight of the hill people
(especially working women). He has also struggled to defend India’s rivers.
Narmada Bachao Andolan
Narmada Bachao Andolan is one of the most powerful mass movements, which
started in 1985 against the construction of huge dam on the Narmada River.
Narmada is the India’s largest west flowing river, which supports a large number
of people with unique culture and tradition ranging from the indigenous (tribal)
people inhabited in the jungles here to the large number of village folk. The
proposed Sardar Sarovar Dam and Narmada Sagar will displace more than
250,000 people. The struggle is over the resettlement or the rehabilitation of
these people. The two proposals are already under construction, supported by
US$550 million loan by the World Bank. There are plans to build over 3000
big and small dams along the river.
It is multi crore project that will generate a big revenue for the government.
The supporters are of the view that it will produce 1450 MW of electricity and
pure drinking water to 40 million people covering thousand of villages and
towns. Some of the dams have been already been completed such as Tawa and
Bargi Dams. But it is environmentally not suitable say this hydro project will
devastate human lives and bio diversity by destroying thousands of acres of
forests and agricultural land. On the other hand it will deprive thousands of
people of their livelihood. They believe that the water and energy could be
provided to the people through alternative technological means that would be
ecologically beneficial.
14
Led by one of the well-know environmentalists Medha Patkar, it has now been Social and Civil Society
Movements In India
turned into the International protest, gaining support from NGO’S all around
the globe. Protestors are agitating the issue through the mass media, hunger
strikes, massive marches and rallies and the through the on screen of several
documentary films. Protests have been protesting peacefully, but peaceful they
been harassed, arrested and beaten up by the police several times. The Narmada
Bachao Andolan has been pressurizing the World Bank to withdraw its loan
from the project through media.
Appiko Movement in Karnataka
Vandana Shiva, has pointed out that the people’s struggle against commercial
forest policy has been significant in the region of Uttara Kannada. The
destruction of tropical natural forests has caused irreversible changes in the
ecosystem of the forests. The desiccation of mixed species denied people’s
access to biomass for fodder, fertilizer and other resource. ‘The clear felling of
natural forests has led to severe soil erosion and drying up of perennial water
resources. Moved by the destruction of essential ecological processes, the youth
of Salkani village in Sirsi launched a Chipko movement, which was locally
known as “Appiko Chaluvali”. They embraced the trees which were to be
felled by contractors of the forest depart-ment’ (quoting article shared by Puja
Mondal, Appiko Movement in India: useful notes).
The protest within the forest continued for 38 days and finally the felling orders
were withdrawn. The success of this agitation spread to other places and the
movement has now been launched in eight areas covering the entire Sirsi forest
division in Uttara Kannada and Shimoga districts.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the
unit.
1. Give an introductory note to the human intervention and civilization
activities in changing the natural land-scope through the centuries.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. How did the Bishnoi Philosophy conserve the natural resource of the Thar
Desert?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. How did British Colonialism interface with the livelihood of the tribal
and forest communities?
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15
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and Compliance 4. Give a brief outline of the National Forest Policy of 1952 and the National
Forest Policy of 1988 with reference to Van Mahotsava in India.
..............................................................................................................
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1.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about how Human civilization and human
intervention have shaped the contours of natural landscape and natural
environment from the Paleolithic age to the modern times the Bishnoi
movement in Medieval Western Rajasthan is one of the earliest environmental
movements recorded in Indian history. Colonial India: witnessed forest policies,
tribal land displacement and deprivation of livelihood of Adivasi. Routine
revolts by tribes of forests were a feature of British India. Forest Act of 1865,
1878, 1972 and 1935 tightened colonial control over forests, its resources and
its routes. Van Mahotsava was inaugurated under the national forest policy of
1952 to increase forest coverage. This policy was replaced by the National
Forest Policies of 1988. Environmental Movements in contemporary India:
Chipko movement, Narmada Bachao, Andolan and Appiko Independent India
witnessed environmental movements to protest against destruction of natural
resources and for the conservation of nature environmental leaders like Sundar
Lal Bahuguna, Vandana Shiva, and Medha Patkar, are reckoning names in
today’s India.
1.11 KEY WORDS

Environmental movement : It is a term used to build up awareness and
a growing organized movement to protect
natural environmental.
Conservation of : It is a term used to describe preservation
environmental resources and generation of natural resources.
1.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Mahesh Rangarajan & K. Sivaramakrisnan (Ed.) India’s Environmental History:
Colonialism, Modernity, and the Nation 2012, 2013 Ranikhet.
Madhav Gadgil & Ramchander Guha (Ed.) This Fissured Land: And Ecological
History of India, 1992 University of California.
Ramchander Guha (Ed.) The Unquiet woods: Ecological change and Peasant
resistance in the Himalaya, 2000 University of California press.
Madhav Gadgil & Ramchander Guha (Ed.) Ecology & Equity: The use and
Abuse of Nature in Contemppery India, 2013 New Delhi.
Nandini Sinha Kapur (Ed.) Tribes, Agro-tastoralists and Environment in
16 Western India (7- 28th Centaury), 2008 New Delhi.
Social and Civil Society
1.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Movements In India
Answers to Check Your Progress 1

1. Your answer should include the following points:
 Human civilization has shaped the contours of natural environmental
throughout the centuries.
 The first four river valley civilizations grew on river banks as
urbanized societies exploited water resources and alluvium soil.
 The Mauryan Empire intruded into forests for wood, elephants,
mining wealth and control of strategic routes.
 The Bishnoi philosophy propagated conservation of natural
Vegetation, and water resources and agricultural practices in the arid
climate of Western Rajasthan.
 The Bishnois Condemned felling of trees and fiercely fought for the
protection of Khejri trees.
 Their teachings for the conservation of nature were equated to
Gurudharma (duties for the master, Guru Jambhoji, the founder of
the Bishnoi Monument).
 1878 Forest Act made administrative categories of forests for the
total control of forest resources and routes intervening into the
additional livelihood of foresters and tribal’s.
 Reserved forests were commercially valuable and subject to
exploitation.
 In the Singhbum District of Bihar, large-scale encroachment by the
forest Department displaced the HO tribe from their villages in the
late nineteenth Century in an attempt to demarcate and preserved
forest.
The forest Acts of 1865, 1972 and 1935 were attempts at total control
of the forests by the colonial state.
 The Govt. of India inaugurated Van Mahotsava under the National
Forest Policy of 1952.
 Central Board of Forestry of raise area under forest to 100 million
hectares. This policy was evaluated by the National Commission on
Agriculture.
 The National Forest Act of 1952 was replaced by the National Forest
Policy of 1988. The Forest Policy of 1988 was concerned with
protection, conservation and development of forests.
17
and Compliance
UNIT 2 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Definition of Environmental Ethics
2.3 Approaches of Environmental Ethics
2.4 Environmental Attitudes
2.5 Environmental Justice
2.5.1 Importance of Environmental Justice
2.6 Human rights and environment

2.7 Population, Consumption and Future Generations
2.7.1 IPAT Equation
2.8 Indigenous Knowledge and its Importance

2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Key words
2.11 References & Suggested Further Readings
2.0 INTRODUCTION
Man has always tried to build a mutual relationship with nature in spite of the
fact during the course of evolution, the environment has been altered. Human
beings have satisfied their needs taking the resources from the planet and
altogether making attempts to renew those resources. Today also we need to
understand the value of precious natural resources and unique nature’s services
and functions. Therefore it is our responsibility to see that the planet remains
habitable not only for us but for the other living organisms as well. This notion
has given rise to the concept of environmental ethics. It is the moral
responsibility of the individuals to act according to his knowledge and
capabilities for the welfare of the society and communities. Therefore ethics
play an important role in our society. Individuals who are committed to protect
the earth are making significant changes in their lifestyles so as to reduce their
personal impact. In this unit you will learn more about environmental ethics
and several principles pertaining to it. The importance of indigenous knowledge
and essentials of development practices are also discussed in this unit.
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to
 Define environmental ethics;
18
 explain the principles of environmental ethics;
 justify safe environment as a human right; and Environmental Ethics
 describe the importance of indigenous knowledge in conserving nature.
2.2 DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Ethics is a division of philosophy that determines what is right and what is
wrong. In the same way environmental ethics help us to understand the
association between humans and nature. Environmental issues must consider
individual and societal ethics. Environmental ethics fosters considering ethics
and codes of conduct to the nature and the relationship that exists between
humans and other forms of life on this earth. Ethical issues regarding
environment were discussed earlier also but environmental ethics as a separate
branch emerged when global conferences and events concerning environment
took place during 1970s. International events such as Stockholm Declaration
and Brundtland commission established the importance of environment and
any activity which harmed the components of nature was criticised.
Environmental ethics came to the fore at this time when there was increased
awareness about the impact of population on world’s environment. According
to Aldo Leopold, 1949 “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity,
stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends
otherwise...”
Environmental ethics is the idealistic situation which demonstrates the ethical
relationship between human beings and environment. In other words it explains
the appropriate behaviour of human beings while utilizing the resources and
services of nature.
It helps define man’s moral and ethical obligations towards the environment.
Human values are considered to be an important factor when looking at
environmental ethics. In other words, it means that humans give importance to
certain functions and on the basis of the relative importance of a particular
function decide whether to exploit or conserve a particular resource. Human
values differ from person to person as every individual does not accord the
same value on nature’s components. For example, for a poor person cutting
down the forest is necessary to clear the land for agriculture whereas another
person who lives in city may consider it unethical because he knows that forests
destruction has lot many environmental consequences like increase in carbon-
di-oxide. Thus in this sense environmental ethics are quite relative and vary
from person to person and situation to situation. There are several arguments
and counter arguments on the justification of man’s interaction with
environment.
For example: Is it ethically correct to build a hydroelectric dam inspite of the
fact that it will cause displacement of thousand so people or will disrupt the
migration pattern of some fishes.
Environmental ethics pertains to our commitment and responsibilities towards
environment. It directs us to take care of our surroundings. Environmental
ethics strives to bring together human values, moral principles, and optimum
decision making in the overall interest of the environment and human
community. The term was used in US for the first time in 1970. According to
Wikipedia “Environmental ethics is the part of environmental philosophy which
considers extending the traditional boundaries of ethics from solely including 19
and Compliance humans to including the non-human world. It exerts influence on a large range
of disciplines including environmental law, environmental sociology,
ecotheology, ecological economics, ecology and environmental geography.”
All the above definitions emphasize equal responsibilities to establish equality.
Provision of food and other materials is necessary but satisfaction of aesthetic
human needs is also equally important. However, over exploitation of resources
by growing human population has upset the natural balance and causes
ecological problems.
Climate Justice
The term climate justice denotes a term to consider global warming as an
ethical and political issue, rather than one treating it as environmental or
physical issue. We have been discussing climate change as an
environmental issue with focus on emissions, rising temperatures and
melting ice and so on so forth but in all these discussions we missed out a
very important component i.e. the people. Climate justice thus recognises
the human dimension of climate change and helps us to understand the
challenges faced by the communities most vulnerable to climate change.
The people who are affected are generally the ones who contribute least
towards climate change. This injustice can be corrected by taking suitable
measures like achieving zero carbon economy and providing equal rights
of development to all.
2.3 APPROACHES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

ETHICS
Whenever you are debating on environmental issue you must have come across
varied opinions. There are always arguments and counter arguments on the
cause and effects of environmental problems. It is so because individuals differ
on their obligations concerning the environment. Some value human concerns
more than nature and justifies the exploitation of environment for the benefit
of human beings. This view is known as anthropocentric view. A person with
this viewpoint considers nature as a resource which is under his own disposal.
Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, put forward the viewpoint that the
ultimate goal of ethics should be to cause the greatest good for the greatest
number of people. This is also known as utilitarian justification because it
stresses that conservation of nature is important as it provides individuals with
direst economic benefits. For example, mangrove trees are the source of
livelihood for the fishermen who live on fish, shrimp or other aquatic resources.
The utilitarian justification for species preservation is based on recognizing
the enormous benefits of biodiversity for human beings.
Ecological justification views the ecosystems as the source of the survival of
certain species. For example, in case of degraded ecosystems, many species
are on the verge of extinction like tigers or great Indian bustard. Same is the
case of mangroves which provide habitat to the fishes. The ecological
justification for species protection is based on understanding the roles of all
the species in maintaining ecosystem functions. Although it is not possible to
describe the importance of every species in maintaining the balance of
20 ecosystem therefore we assume that each species is ecologically important
and work towards the conservation of the entire ecosystem. Environmental Ethics
There are three primary theories regarding environmental ethics. They are as
follows:
Anthropocentrism: Anthropocentrism view opines that human comfort and
happiness is the overall environmental responsibility. It argues that human
beings are the most important entities of the universe and so the assumption
here is that human beings can utilize and exploit the environment for their
interests and making their lives better. Therefore, environment is crucial to
their existence and hence it is the duty of human beings to protect the nature
and must ensure the sustainability and longevity of human life on this planet.
The anthropocentric view is considered to be responsible for causing global
warming, pollution, water scarcity, loss of biodiversity and many other
problems.
Biocentrism: Biocentrism believes that all forms of life are equal and according
to Natural rights, they have an inherent right to exist. It is an ethical point of
view and applies to all living things. Roots of biocentric ethics lies in our
ancient culture and religions. Worshipping of animals and protection of trees
has been extensively described in our traditions and historical accounts.
However, there are numerous challenges in practising biocentrism. It is too
demanding and even eating meat or even vegetables come under violation of
this approach. For this, some propose that distinction between basic and non
basic interests must be clearly made. For example, hunting of animals is
unethical but killing animals in self defence is considered appropriate.
Ecocentrism: Another approach to environmental responsibility is called
ecocentrism. It believes that environment must be protected considering moral
aspects and not because human beings are deriving some profit out of it. It is a
nature centred system of values unlike anthropocentricism which is basically
human centred. It differs from biocentrism in the sense that the abiotic
components of environment are also considered important under it. It believes
environment as a whole and humans have moral responsibility of protecting it.
2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES

Environmental attitudes determine our behaviour towards environment which
affects its quality. The type of attitude we have forms our action towards
preserving or destroying environment.
The three most common attitudes are:
Development ethic- This attitude is anthropocentric by nature. It believes in
the supremacy of human beings over all other organisms. Therefore as per this
attitude, Earth’s resources are only for the benefit of human beings. Present
day environmental degradation is the result of development approach and
Preservation ethic- This attitude is ecocentric by nature. It believes that nature
and its resources are indispensable and should be protected at all cost.
Proponents of this attitude consider preservation of environment as most
important.
Conservation ethic- This attitude seeks to find a balance between unplanned
development and preservationist attitude. The proponents of this attitude
promote human well being but also make efforts for environmental protection. 21
and Compliance There are several factors which influence Environmental Attitudes such as
demographic, social and psychological factors.
Sacred Groves
India has a long tradition of conservation of natural resources by associating
local deities with them. Such areas which are preserved and where
unlawful activities are restricted are known as sacred groves. The size of
sacred groves varies from few trees to dense forests. Ancient communities
used to live near forests and rivers. Hence were considered pious. Any
harm to these resources was considered an act against God’s wish. Cutting
of trees and hunting of animals is strictly prohibited in these areas. By
this biodiversity conservation was carried out. Today also, there are various
places demarcated as sacred groves. It is considered as a biodiversity
conservation measure. These are sustainable measures adopted by local
communities. However, in today’s times, the sacred groves are on decline
due to deforestation and urbanization. Further, there is also a change in
the social beliefs of the people.
2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

You must not be aware that in Houston in 1970s, the landfills and incinerators
were situated in communities of colour than their white neighbourhoods. This
realization by Robert Bullard, a sociologist laid the foundation of the term
called environmental justice. Later Robert Bullard was called as the father of
environmental justice. 17 Principles of Environmental Justice were framed in
1991 and after that at the Earth Summit in 1992; Environmental justice was
discussed at the international platform.
Environmental justice denotes fair and equal treatment to all human beings
irrespective of their nationality, religion, sex, income or race in relation to
execution of environmental regulations, laws and policies. It implies right to
safe and secure environment to all human beings. You must have seen children,
women and poor workers exposed to toxic chemicals and harmful gases in
factories or forcibly consuming contaminated water. All these are examples of
environmental injustice. People residing in hazard prone regions or near
polluting industries are also the victims of environmental pollution.
Environmental justice is thus an important tool to provide clean and healthy
living conditions to the masses. It becomes all the more important for the people
who have been traditionally living near the polluted sites and have no access
to clean water. For instance, one of the environmental justice issues is inadequate
access to healthy food. Certain communities in society have no access,
availability and affordability to healthy foods. Therefore, unbiased distribution
of environmental benefits, participation of all the communities in environmental
decision-making, giving importance and recognizing the utility of local
knowledge and right of individuals to live a decent life all come under the
umbrella of environmental justice.
2.5.1 Importance of Environmental Justice

Environmental justice is important to provide the following basic
functions:
22
Better Human Relationship With Environment – Our relationship with Environmental Ethics
environment depends on what value we assign to it various parts and subparts.
Justice towards nature shapes our thinking and attitude. It is necessary so that
we are able to assign value to the nature’s services and understand that it is
vital for the healthy survival of living beings on this planet. Environmental
pollution which threatens the life of living organisms must be condemned.
When people understand that environmental justice protects them against
nature’s vagaries, they tend to protect the environment. Hence a congenial
relationship develops between nature and human beings.
Natural Resource Conservation- Human beings help to conserve the natural
resources when environmental justice is being followed. When people follow
environmental justice, it makes them clear that earth’s resources are free to be
used and every individual should have equal access of using them. They realise
that unfair distribution and usage of natural resources make them further scarce
and limited. Unequal distribution of these resources may lead to resource
conflicts and wars.
Ensuring Long Term Sustainability- The basic objective of all conservation
measures is to ensure the sustainability of the resources so that the coming
generations are also benefitted and are able to enjoy the benefits. Environmental
justice strengthens the idea of inter generational and intra generational equity.
It contributes in checking indefinite and uncontrolled extraction of natural
resources. It strengthens the central idea of sustainability and reduces the
dependence on non-renewable resources.
Equal Distribution of Resources – Environmental justice implies fair and
equal distribution of resources which are provided to all by virtue of their
existence as human beings. The resources are unfairly distributed on earth and
therefore the rate of their exploitation also differs from region to region. By
assigning environmental justice, all the basic resources such as water, soil,
food are made available to all without any distinction. Pollution abatement
measure comes in this category as they arrive to provide clean air to all the
masses. Environmental justice thus stresses on equal distribution of resources.
Strengthening Environmental Laws, Policies and Regulations-
Environmental justice supports the policies and regulations which govern the
environment. It supports the principle that all people and communities are
entitled to equal protection of our environmental laws. It treats all people equal
while enforcing environmental regulations.
unit.
1. Which of the following is an example of environmental justice?
a) Absence of fast food restaurants
b) No farms near community
c) No access to food
d) No culinary schools in the community 23
and Compliance 2. Differentiate between biocentrism and ecocentrism.
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2.6 HUMAN RIGHTS AND ENVIRONMENT

Human rights are fundamental rights guaranteed to human beings because of
their inherent nature. They are applicable to all human beings irrespective of
their religion, place of origin, colour or sex. Right to food, right to education,
right to live peacefully, all are examples of human rights. In today’s era, when
the environment is getting polluted, the need has emerged to declare right to
safe environment as a human right. The fundamental right to life is dying out
because we are increasingly exposed to harmful chemicals in air, water and
even our food. We are forced to consume contaminated water, breathe polluted
air and eat food burdened with pesticides. Environmental conditions indicate
the extent to which people enjoy their basic human rights. A healthy environment
provides healthy living conditions for organisms to thrive. Further, it is
understood that human rights cannot be secured in a degraded or polluted
environment. It is time to recognize that those who pollute or destroy the natural
environment are not just committing a crime against nature, but are violating
human rights as well.
Internationally much has been discussed on the linkages between human rights,
health and environmental protection. To address the specific problems in these
areas, legal instruments such as laws and rules, specialized departments and
agencies have been set up. In the past, heath, environment and human rights
were dealt separately. The links between these were established at the Stockholm
conference in 1972. At the Stockholm concluding session, the participants
declared that Man is both creature and moulder of his environment, which
gives him physical sustenance and affords him the opportunity for intellectual,
moral, social and spiritual growth. Both aspects of man’s environment, the
natural and the man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the enjoyment
of basic human rights even the right to life itself. Principle 1 of the Stockholm
Declaration established a foundation for linking human rights, health, and
environmental protection, declaring that Man has the fundamental right to
freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality
that permits a life of dignity and well-being.
2.7 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND FUTURE

GENERATIONS
The world’s population increased to six billion people during the 20th century
and it may reach 9 billion by 2050. However, the per capita income is also
increasing and people are consuming the earth’s resources at an alarming rate.
The rich countries of the world have the major share in consumption. For
example, the rich countries of the world are responsible for most of the world’s
carbon dioxide emissions and people there use most of the world’s resources
and produce more waste.
24
In view of this, it is often discussed that increasing population and consumerism Environmental Ethics
is going to deprive the future generations of the vital resources that are essential
for survival. The quality and quantity of the resources is dwindling and we
must understand that today’s decisions and actions are going to affect the future
of coming generations. There is a Native American saying that “We have not
inherited the Earth from our fathers. We are borrowing it from our children”.
Therefore one must have concerns for the coming generations regarding
resource availability. Every discovery and every advancement is our endowment
to the coming generations. The knowledge and the experiences in the form of
economic prosperity and technological progress are passed on from one
generation to another. However, unplanned development and reckless
exploitation of resources may produce more harm than good. The non renewable
resources are scarce and limited. We must ensure that these are available for
our coming generations. Protection of the earth is everyone’s responsibility
and our actions and connections will create a common future for all.
2.7.1 IPAT Equation

IPAT equation was proposed by Ehrlich and Holdren in the early 1970s. It
conveys the idea that environmental impact (I) is the result of population (P),
affluence (A) and technology (T). The equation was basically used to know
the impact of human activities on environment.
Alarming increase in World population growth raises a question whether Earth
would be able to support such huge numbers and whether enough food, water
and energy s available for all. However, it is now clear that population alone is
not responsible for environmental degradation but how people live also is
responsible. It is consumption habits or the affluence of the people that influence
the overall health of the environment. If a society becomes more affluent,
there is increased consumption and use of natural resources. For example,
people living in high income countries eat more meat-based diet, as opposed
to people in low income countries who eat mostly grains.
Let us understand this by the following example:
Suppose a poor person A lives in a village where there is no electricity or
vehicles, his ecological footprint, will be lower than person B who lives in a
city and consumes electricity for carrying out day to day activities.
2.8 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ITS

IMPORTANCE
The meaning and nature of traditional knowledge has been explained in the
current module. The knowledge of the tribal communities about the medicinal
properties of certain plants has been described. The module explains the
importance of traditional knowledge in ensuring the optimum utilization of
resources and promoting their sustainable use. It was discussed that in the
move towards conservation of Traditional Knowledge and sustainable
development, efforts should be made to capture, document and safeguard the
ethnicity of the tribal communities.
Indigenous Knowledge (IK) is a local knowledge possessed by a culture or
society which influences local level decision making in fields of agriculture,
25
health care and natural resource management. The indigenous knowledge
and Compliance enables poor and marginalized group of people to have greater control over
their resources.
Therefore we can say that indigenous knowledge is very functional and lively
in nature. This knowledge forms an integral part of ancient folk lore which
gets passed on from one generation to another by word of mouth and
experiences. So, proper understanding of folk life can help us gain better insights
about the indigenous knowledge at a particular place. Around 85 per cent of
India’s population lives in the villages and 600 million of them are involved in
agriculture. There is a dire need to focus on their development and to sustain
and enhance their capacity to produce food grains for the entire nation by
carefully utilizing natural resources. The outstanding traditional knowledge
they had inherited from their ancestors regarding plants, animals, birds, soil,
water, flora and fauna should be leveraged for sustainable development.
Documenting the best practices and disseminating them to other farmers across
the country would result in many other farmers adopting productive methods.
India has a rich heritage of Indigenous knowledge/ traditional medicine from
plants. The traditional knowledge is fading up due to generation gap trapping
that knowledge is very crucial as well as important. Biodiversity, indigenous
knowledge, and sustainable development are very closely linked.
unit.
1. What are the major environmental problems of today that are threatening
the full enjoyment of human rights?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2 To what extent is the indigenous knowledge relevant tin today’s time?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2.9 LET US SUM UP

Environmental ethics relates to our moral obligation towards the environment.
There are several approaches to environmental ethics viz. anthropocentricism,
biocentrism, and ecocentrism. Due to increasing apprehensions regarding
environment and the growing awareness about the impact of human activities,
there is a growing realisation that environmental ethics has enormous scope.
The environment is not something which we can remove oneself from. Human
beings have started realising that they have a right to healthy and safe
environment. The unit explains the meaning of environmental ethic,
26 environmental justice and the role of indigenous knowledge in protecting our
ancient wisdom on environment. When a person realizes his environmental Environmental Ethics
obligations, he is able to think how an action or an event affects the entire
range of environmental settings. For example, climate change which affects
the world in various different ways. Further, the lifestyle of a person also
impacts the environment and the future generations must be taken care of while
consuming the limited resources present on the earth. The unit explains that it
is not just the numbers but the ways of living of population which has a role in
deteriorating the environment of a particular place.
2.10 KEY WORDS

Environmental Justice : It is the fair treatment and meaningful
involvement of all people regardless of race,
colour, national origin, or income with respect
to the development, implementation, and
enforcement of environmental laws, regulations,
and policies.
Ethics : Moral principles that govern a person’s
behaviour or the conducting of an activity.
Human Rights : Human rights are moral principles or norms that
describe certain standards of human behaviour,
and are regularly protected as legal rights in
municipal and international law.
Indigenous Knowledge : It refers to knowledge systems embedded in the
cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or
local communities.

READINGS
Benson, John, Environmental Ethics: An Introduction with Readings, (London:
Routledge, 2001).
Boylan, Michael (ed.), Environmental Ethics, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001).
Ehrlich, Paul, The Population Bomb, (New York: Ballantine Books, 1968).
Gewirth, Alan, “Human Rights and Future Generations” in Boylan, Michael
(ed.), Environmental Ethics, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001): 207-211.
Regan, Tom, The Case for Animal Rights, (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2nd ed., 1983/2004).
2.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Your answers must include the following points:
 c
2) Your answers must include the following points: 27
and Compliance  Difference in focus and values.
 Examples
 Air and water polluted
 Congestion on roads and streets
 No aesthetic value remaining
 No space to live
 The knowledge is unique and eco-friendly in nature
 Medicinal value of plants needs to be recognized
 Traditional water conservation methods are still relevant.
28
UNIT 3 BIOSAFETY
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Containment
3.2.1 Types of Containment
3.2.2 Elements of Containment
3.3 BiosafetyLevels
3.4 Biological Safety Cabinets
3.5 GMOs and LMOs
3.5.1 Benefits and Controversies of GMOs & LMOs
3.5.2 Environmental, Human Health, Ethical and Socio-economic Concerns
3.5.3 Limitations of the Regulatory System in India
3.6 BiosafetyGuidelines
3.6.1 Rules For The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export & Storage of Hazardous
Microorganisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989
3.6.2 The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC)
3.6.3 The Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM)
3.6.4 Status of Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC) in India
3.6.5 Codex Alimentarius Commission
3.6.6 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
3.6.7 World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreements
3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Key Words
3.9 References and Suggested Further Readings
3.0 INTRODUCTION
Microbes can be harmless, beneficial or harmful pathogens. Some non-pathogenic
micro-organisms have been used in biotechnologyto produce enzymes, biofertilizers
in agriculture, probiotics, used in bioremediation or for fermentation in food production
and technology. The infectious or pathogenic microbes are a cause of concern for
the human health, plant and animal health. Theyhave the potential to cause diseases
with tremendous economic and environmental consequences. Further, viruses are
also a concern for environmental and human health.
Pathogenicityis the capacityof certain microbial strains to cause disease. It represents
a form of versatility that enables certain microbes to replicate within a specific host
and damage host cells. The outcome of the infection is dependent on (a) the properties
of the pathogen (virulence, invasiveness, toxic or allergenic effects) and (b) on the
host’s immunity.Accordingly, the pathogens can be classified as two basic types: (i)
primarypathogens that cause disease amonghealthyindividuals, and (ii) opportunistic 29
and Compliance pathogens that cause disease onlyin those individuals who are compromised in their
immunity. Some etiological agents have been extensively cultured and studied. The
consequences of working with such agents can cause lab-associated-infections. Such
infections have been documented as early as the 1890s. They are at higher risk for
infection with certain microbial agents such as: Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, Brucella, hepatitis B virus. Biological hazards differ from other
hazards in one major significant wayi.e., the biological agents can grow and multiply
in the host organism causing diseases. Some examples of etiological agents typically
used in research or biomedical laboratories include microbes like: bacteria, viruses,
fungi, protozoa and multi-cellular parasites.
Biological safetyor biosafetyis new to the field of occupational safety. Developments

in genetic engineering have influenced people involved in biomedical research by
increasing their awareness of the safety aspects related to their work. The most
important development with an international impact was initiated in 1979 by the
World Health Organisation (WHO), which set up a Working Group within a special
programme on safety measures in microbiology. They formulated a set of minimum
standards for laboratory safety compiled in a ‘Laboratory Biosafety Manual’. The
manual describes the definition of the four risk groups based on the relative hazard
of infective microbes to the laboratory workers, the community, the livestock and
the environment. The WHO recommends each country to outline their own
classification by risk group of the agents encountered in that country based on the
factors detailed below:
(a) Pathogenicity of the Agent:
(b) Mode of Transmission and Host Range of the Agent: These factors may
be influenced by the existing levels of immunity, densityand movement of the
host population; the presence of appropriate vectors and standards of
environmental hygiene.
(c) Availability of Effective Preventive Measures: The measures include:

prophylaxis by vaccination or antisera; sanitary measures such as food and
water hygiene; the control of animal reservoirs or arthropod vectors; the
movement of people or animals; and the importation of infected animals or
animal products.
(d) Availability of Effective Treatment: This includes passive immunization

and post exposure vaccination, antibiotics, and chemotherapeutic agents, for
the possibility of emergence of resistant strains.
The WHO also underlines that the conditions prevailing in the geographical area in
which the microbes are handled should be addressed while assessing the various
criteria for classification.Also, individual governments should also decide to prohibit
certain pathogens from being imported or handled other than for urgent diagnostic
purposes (quarantine organisms).
Biosafetyrefers to reduce and eliminate the potential risks arising from biotechnology
and its products. It has been defined as “the avoidance of risk to human health
and safety, and to the conservation of the environment, as a result of the use
for research and commerce of infectious or genetically modified organisms”.
30
The scientific disciplines that revolve around biosafetystudies include subjects like: Biosafety
molecular biology, microbiology, plant breeding, genetics, plant pathology, agronomy,
weed science, entomology, ecology, etc. Biological hazards include pathogenic
microbes, toxins, venoms, human blood, body fluids, cells, tissues, recombinant
deoxyribonucleic acid, and genetically modified agents.
3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
 define the concept of biosafety and containment;
 describe the various biosafety levels and biosafety cabinets; and
 comprehend the concerns on GMOs and LMOs.
3.2 CONTAINMENT
Biohazard control is the management of biological hazards through proper application
of engineered containment and administrative controls. Containment refers to a series
of safety measures and methods for managing infectious agents in the laboratory.
The purpose of containment is basically to help reduce or eliminate human and
environmental exposure to potentiallyharmful infectious agents.
3.2.1 Types of Containment

There are two levels of biological containment. They are primary and secondary
containment.
(a) Primary Containment
Basically, primary containment protects people and the immediate laboratory

environment where scientific experiments are carried out from exposure to
highly infectious agents. Safe and good microbiological techniques coupled
with good safety equipments provide sufficient primary containment. Some
examples of primarycontainments include: safetyequipments such as biological
safety cabinets (BSCs), and safety centrifuge cups. In certain cases, when it is
difficultto workin biologicalsafetycabinets, some personal protective equipment
(PPE), such as laboratory coats, masks and gloves may act as the primary
barrier between personnel and infectious materials.
(b) Secondary Containment
The secondary containment concerns with the protection of the environment

that is external to the laboratory from exposure to infectious materials. Here
again, good facility design and operational practices provide secondary
containment. Some examples of secondary containment or barriers include:
work areas that are separate from public areas, decontamination facilities, hand-
washing facilities, special ventilation systems, and airlocks.
3.2.2 Elements of Containment 31

and Compliance The main elements of biological containment are as follows: 1) safe laboratory
practices, good safety equipments, and facility design. To ensure minimal exposure
to the infectious agents, the workers and employees must assess the hazards
associated with their work and occupation and should apply the biosafetyprinciples
accordingly.
3.3 BIOSAFETY LEVELS

Biosafety Levels 1 to 4 was established by the Center for Disease Control (CDC)
and the National Institute of Health (NIH), USA. They are the combinations of safe
laboratorypractices and techniques, safetyequipment and facilities.All the biosafety
levels are most appropriate for the biohazards and for the laboratory activities.
(a) Biosafety Level 1
This refers to the practices, safety equipment and facilities appropriate for work
with defined and characterized strains of viable microorganisms not known to cause
disease in healthy adult humans. The laboratory is separate and scientific work is
conducted on open bench tops using standard microbiological practices. In this
level, no special containment equipment or facilitydesign is required. The laboratory
personnel have specific training in the procedures conducted in the lab and are
supervised by a scientist with general training in microbiology or a related science.
Further, a biological safety cabinet is also not required for work involving these
microbial agents.
(b) Biosafety Level 2
This refers to the practices, safety equipment and facilities used for working with
indigenous moderate-risk microbial agents that are associated with human disease.
It differs from biosafety level 1 in the following aspects. The lab staff should have
specific training in handling pathogenic agents. They are instructed by competent
scientists and access to the lab is limited when work is being conducted. Extreme
precautions are taken with infectious agents; and certain procedures are conducted
in biological safety cabinets.
(c) Biosafety Level 3
indigenous agents with a potential for respiratorytransmission that maycause serious
and potentially lethal infection. The primary and secondary barriers are highly
necessary to protect personnel in the contagious area, the community, and the
environment from exposure to these potentiallyinfectious agents.AClass II biological
safety cabinet is required for work involving these agents.
(d) Biosafety Level 4
dangerous infectious agents that pose a high risk of life threatening disease. The lab
staff have specialized skills and training in handling extremely hazardous infectious
agents and the use of primaryand secondarycontainments and the laboratorydesign
32 characteristics. The lab staffs are supervised bycompetent scientists who are trained
and experienced in working with these dangerous agents. Access to the laboratory Biosafety
is strictly controlled by the laboratory director. The facility is either in a separate
building or in a controlled area within a building, which is completely isolated from
all other areas of the building. A Class III biological safety cabinet is required for
work involving these agents.
Table 3.1: Summary of Biosafety Levels and Infectious Agents
Biosafety Level of Potential Examples of Techniques used Safety equipment Facilities required
infectious agents Infectious agents required (Primary (Secondary
Levels
barriers) barriers)
Not reported to Bacillus subtilis, Standard None Open benchtop, sink
1 cause disease in E.coli, Naegleria microbiological
humans gruberi practices
2 Known to cause Measles, Level 1 plus:Limited Class I or II BSCs Level 1 plus:

human disease. Hepatitis B virus, access Biohazard or other physical Autoclave
Percutaneous Toxoplasma spp., warning signs containment devices
injury: mucus Salmonellae spp., “Sharps” precautions used for agents that
membrane Biosafety manual cause splashes,
exposure defining any needed aerosols of
waste infectious materials.
decontamination or PPE: Lab coat,
medical surveillance gloves, face masks
policies Respiratory
protection as
required
Indigenous agents M. Tuberculi, Level 2 plus: Primary barriers: Level 2
3
with potential for Coxiella, Bacillus Controlled access Class I or II BSCs plus:Physical
aerosol anthracis, St. Decontamination of or other physical separation from
transmission, Louis encephalitis waste containment devices access corridors
disease may have virus Decontamination of used for all open Self-closing, double
serious or lethal lab clothing Baseline manipulations of door access Exhaust
consequences serum samples of lab agents. PPE: Lab air not recirculated
personnel clothing, gloves, Negative airflow into
respiratory laboratory
protection
Dangerous / exotic
Ebola zaire, Sin Level 3 All procedures Level 3
4 agents that pose a plus:Clothing change plus:Separate
Nombre Virus, conducted in Class I
high risk of life
Rift Valley Fever before entry into lab or II BSCs in building or isolated
threatening Shower on exit All zone Exhaust
combination with
disease. Aerosol- material vacuum, and
full-body, air-
transmitted lab decontaminated on decontamination
supplied, positive-
infections or exit from lab systems Additional
pressure personnel
related agents requirements as
suit
with unknown risk outlined in Biosafety
of transmission in Microbiological
and Biomedical
Laboratories
Note: BSE: Biological Safety Cabinet; PPE: Personal protective equipment

Source: Biosafety in Microbiology and Biomedical Laboratories, U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, HHS publication (CDC) 99-8395.
4th Edition. April 1999. p 52-53.
33
and Compliance Check Your Progress 1
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define biosafety.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Explain the various types of biological containment.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. Describe the different biosafety levels.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.4 BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINETS

The terms biological safety cabinet and biosafety cabinet have been widely
used to describe a variety of containment devices equipped with HEPA filters
designed to provide employees and workers utmost protection from
biohazardous materials. These terms are only used for those devices that meet
the requirements of Class I, II, or III specifications, based on their construction
patterns, airflow velocities and patterns, and their exhaust system functions.
Some important major international standards for biological safety cabinets
are given below:
 American Standard NSF 49
 European Standard EN 12469
 Australian Standard AS 2252
 Japanese Standard JIS K 3800
(a) Class I Biological Safety Cabinets: The Class I biosafety cabinet is the
most basic design of all the cabinets available presently. The design
consists of, a stream of inward air moving into the cabinet which contains
aerosols generated during microbiological manipulations. This then
passes through a filtration system that traps all airborne particles and
contaminants. Finally, clean, decontaminated air is exhausted from the
cabinet. The filtration system usually consists of a pre-filter and a HEPA
(High Efficiency Particulate Air) filter. Although the Class I cabinet
protects the worker/ operator and the environment from exposure to
biohazards, it does not prevent samples being handled in the cabinet
34 from coming into contact with airborne contaminants that may be present
in room air. Hence, there is a possibility of cross-contamination which Biosafety
can interfere with experimental consistency. So the application of Class
I cabinets is limited and it is largely considered obsolete. All Class I
biosafety cabinets are suitable for work with microbial agents belonging to
biosafety levels 1, 2 and 3.
(b) Class II Biological Safety Cabinets: The Class II biosafety cabinet
consists of: a stream of inward air moving into the cabinet which is known as
the inflow. This prevents the aerosol generated during microbiological
manipulations to escape through the front opening. The air inflow on Class II
cabinet flows through the front inlet grille, near the operator and no unfiltered
inflow air enters the work zone of the cabinet. This way the sample in the
working zone is not contaminated by the outside air. Another unique feature
of these cabinets is a vertical laminar (unidirectional) HEPA-filtered air stream
that descends downward from the interior of the cabinet. This continuously
flushes the cabinet interior of airborne contaminants and protects the samples
being handled within the cabinet from contamination and is known as the
downflow. The different Class II cabinets have differences in the percentage
of air exhausted to that of the air re-circulated from the common air plenum.
Also, various Class II cabinets have different ways of cabinet exhaust. Some
cabinets mayexhaust air directlyback to the lab, while others mayexhaust air
through a duct system to the external environment. These biosafety cabinets
are efficient in protecting the employee/operator, samples handled and the
environment from exposure to biohazards. These cabinets are suitable for
work with microbial agents assigned to biosafety levels 1, 2 and 3.
(i) Class II Type A (A1/A2) Biological Safety Cabinets: The Class II Type
A biosafety cabinet is the most common Class II cabinet. This is the most
common safety cabinet of all the different types available. It has a common
plenum from which 30% of air is exhausted, and 70% air is re-circulated to
the work area as the downflow. These cabinets exhaust air directly back to
the lab and they may contain positive pressure contaminated plenums. These
cabinets should not be used while using toxic chemicals as the exhaust HEPA
filtration removes airborne aerosol, biohazards but not chemical fumes. The
Class IITypeA1 has the positively-pressurized contaminated plenumbordering
the ambient environment, so is less safe than the Class II Type A2 that has a
negative pressure surroundingthe positivelypressurized contaminated plenum.
Hence the Type A1 design is now considered obsolete. In the A2 cabinets
70% of air from the positive plenum is recirculated as downflow, and
the remaining 30% is discharged to the lab through the exhaust filter.
(ii) Class II Type B Biological Safety Cabinets: The basic difference
between Type A and Type B cabinet is that the Type B cabinets should be
operated with an external blower and it exhausts air to the external
environment through a ductwork system. In the absence of the external
blower the cabinet’s internal blower will blow the air and microbial agents
inside the working area through the front opening, towards the operators
face posing risks and biohazards. Type B cabinets are commonly used
when chemicals are involved and they provide an increased level of safety
when compared to the Type A cabinets.
(iii) Class II Type B1 Biological Safety Cabinets: This has a common plenum
from which 70% of air is exhausted and 30% is re-circulated to the work 35
and Compliance area as the downflow. These cabinets have an excellent exhaust system that
eliminates re-circulation when work is performed towards the back within the
interior of the cabinet.
(iv) Class II Type B2 Biological Safety Cabinets: Here all inflow and downflow
air is exhausted after HEPA filtration to the external environment without
recirculation within the cabinet. These cabinets are best suited for work with
toxic chemicals employed as an adjunct to microbiological processes under
all circumstances since no re-circulation of air occurs. These cabinets are
considered to be the safest of all Class II biosafety cabinets.
(c) Class III Biological Safety Cabinets: These cabinets are absolutely safe
and the levels of safety cannot be attained with Class I and Class II
cabinets. The Class III cabinets are usually made up of welded metal
construction and are designed to be gas tight. The work is performed
through glove ports in the front of the cabinet. During routine operation,
negative pressure relative to the ambient environment is maintained
within the cabinet. On all Class III cabinets, a supply of HEPA filtered
air helps in protection and prevents cross contamination of samples. The
samples are transferred into the cabinet using a pass-through unit installed
at the side of the work area. They exhaust air back to the lab and air may
also be exhausted via a ductwork system to the external environment.
These cabinets are suitable for work with microbial agents assigned to
biosafety levels 1, 2, 3 and 4. They are used for work involving the most
lethal biohazards.
unit.
1. Describe the Class I biosafety cabinet.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Describe the Class II biosafety cabinet.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.5 GMOsAND LMOs

A Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material
has been altered using recombinant DNA technology. It is the ability to combine
DNA molecules from different sources into one molecule in a test tube. Thus, the
36
abilities or the phenotype of the organism, or the protein it produces, can be modified Biosafety
through the modification of its genes. In genetic engineering, DNA is cut up and
genes can be moved around from one organism to another. Recently, advancements
have been made in the field of Science and Technology using genetic engineering
and biotechnology. These include the cultivation of geneticallymodified (GM) crops,
use of genetically modified organisms (GMO), especially recombinant bacteria and
development of transgenic animal models using dairy cattle as bioreactors for
producing pharmaceuticals to alter composition of cow’s milk to resemble human
milk. However, the cultivation of GM crops developed for both food and industrial
purposes are most important in the Indian context. LMO means living modified
organisms. LMO may be defined as ‘Any living organism that possesses a
novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern
biotechnology’ (The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000). The term living
modified organism (LMO) is considered to be functionally the same as
genetically modified organism (GMO) (Secretariat of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD Secretariat) 2013).
3.5.1 Benefits and Controversies of GMOs & LMOs

There are some benefits associated with GMOs. They include: (1) Animals:
increased resistance, productivity, feed efficiency, better yields of meat, eggs,
and milk; (2) Crops: improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides,
increased nutrients yields, and stress tolerance, reduced maturation time,
enhanced taste and quality; (3) Environment: conservation of soil, water, and
energy, better natural waste management, more efficient processing and
increased food security for growing populations. Some controversies associated
with GMOs include: access and intellectual property, domination of world
food production by a few companies, increasing dependence on industrialized
nations by developing countries, bio-piracy foreign exploitation of natural
resources, ethics, violation of natural organisms’ intrinsic values, potential
human health impact: allergens, transfer of antibiotic resistance markers, etc.
3.5.2 Environmental, Human Health, Ethical and Socio-

economic Concerns
The GM crops may have the capability to improve agriculture production,
food quality, nutrition and health, but some concerns have been expressed by
the public and scientists about effect of GM foods regarding safety of these
foods.
(a) Environmental Concerns: (i) Emergence of resistance: Some crops have
been engineered for pesticide resistance so there is a potential for
development of resistance in the target organism which has been in cotton.
(ii) Genetic pollution and pollen movement: The pollen from GM crops
may be transferred to other plants species and can be a cause of concern.
For example, the transgenic material from GM maize cultivated by a farmer
can be transferred to non-GM maize cultivated in the neighbouring field
due to environmental factors, without the farmer’s knowledge. (iii) Loss of
biodiversity: Sometimes contamination of non-GM varieties of plants through
pollen drift can cause loss of biodiversity.
(b) Health and Safety Concerns: The use of recombinant DNA technology in
the production of GM foods involves transfer of genes from different species
37
and Compliance into the food producing organism. The safety of these components is not clearly
known and they may have the potential to induce toxic effects in the human
body. Some effects include: (i)Alteration in nutritional composition: The GM
crops can have altered nutritional composition which mayaffect the nutritional
status of the consumer. (ii)Allergenicity: The allergenicitypotential of the new
protein expressed on the transgene inserted into the crops is a major food
safety concern. (iii) Antibiotic Resistance - Potential for Gene transfer: Some
concerns lie on the possible transfer of genetically modified DNA from plants
to gut microflora of humans and animals. The antibiotic resistant genes that are
frequently used as selection markers in the genetic modification process have
the potential to adversely affect the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotics.
(c) Ethical Concerns: There are conflicting opinions and ethical concerns that
the gene transplantation processes to germplasm of crops violates nature and
vegans on using animal genes in plants. Concerns also are how this technique is
distinct fromplant hybridization, chemicallyor radioactivelyinduced mutations,
cell fusions or synthetic foods etc.
(d) Socioeconomic Concerns: The use of genetic engineering for food and
agriculture is a cause of concern in the developed and developing countries.
Most of the European Union countries are not enthusiastic about GM
foods but countries like Australia, Canada and USA are promoting it for
agriculture export reasons. Among the developing countries, Argentina
and China are enthusiastic about GM foods. The technology is developed
by the private sector companies which can lead to reduced competition,
monopoly of profits and exploitation of farmers. Some other concerns
include: local farmers in the developing countries will be affected as
imported GM commodities will undercut local production so there can be
increased inequality of income as large farmers may take the upper hand.
3.5.3 Limitations of the Regulatory System in India

a) Inadequate standards for risk assessment
b) Instructions on labeling and packaging of products containing GMOs yet
to be specified.
c) Detailed safeguards as embodied in the Cartagena Protocol yet to be
incorporated.
d) Inadequate infrastructure for risk assessment.
e) Shortage of skilled personnel.
3.6 BIOSAFETY GUIDELINES

The concerns related to biological safety have led to the development of
guidelines and regulations in various countries for research, testing, safe use
and handling of genetically modified foods (GMOs) and their products. India
is one of the earliest countries to establish a biosafety system for the regulation
of GMOs. In India, the Environment Protection Act was enacted in 1986 by
the Ministry of Environment & Forests for the protection and improvement of
environment. Under this act, the ‘Rules for Manufacture, Use/Import/ Export
& Storage Of Hazardous Micro Organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms
38 or Cells, 1989’ were notified by MoEF through Notification No. 621 in Official
Gazette of Govt. of India on December 5, 1989. A brief overview of the rules is Biosafety
detailed below.
3.6.1 Rules for The Manufacture, Use, Import, Export &

Storage of Hazardous Microorganisms/ Genetically
Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989
These rules are applicable to the manufacture, import and storage of micro-organisms
and Gene-Technological products. The rules cover the areas of research as well as
large scale applications of GMOs and their products throughout India. The rules
also cover the application of hazardous microorganisms which maynot be genetically
modified. The implementation of Rules 1989 is being administered bythe Department
of Biotechnology (DBT) and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).
These rules define the competent authorities and composition of the authorities for
handling of various aspects. There are six competent authorities and they include: (i)
The Recombinant DNAAdvisory Committee (RDAC), (ii) Institutional Biosafety
Committee (IBSC), (iii) Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation (RCGM), (iv)
Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC), (v) State Biotechnology
Coordination Committee (SBCC) and (vi) District Level Committee (DLC). While
RDAC has an advisory role, IBSC, RCGM and GEAC are involved in regulations
and SBCCs and DLCs are involved in monitoring.
3.6.2 The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC)

It was established by the Ministry acts as a statutory body for review and approval
from environmental activities involving large scale use of GMOs and their products
in research and development, industrial production, environmental release and field
application. The Ministries of Environment and Forests issued a draft notification in
July 2001 as an amendment regarding the permission and approval of foodstuffs.
This notification restricts a person from importing, manufacture transport, store,
distribute or sell any food, feed, raw or processed or any ingredient of food, food
additives or any food product that contains GM material, without the approval of
the GEAC. A Biotechnology Coordination Committee under the GEAC functions
as the legal and statutory body with judicial powers to inspect, investigate and take
action in case of violation of statutory provision under EPA.
3.6.3 The Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation

(RCGM)
This is set up under the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of
Science and Technology, that monitors the safety aspects of ongoing research
projects involving GMOs. It publishes manuals specifying procedures for
regulatory process, activities involving GMOs in research, use and application
for environmental safety (Recombinant DNA Safety Guidelines 1992 and
Revised Guidelines for Research in Transgenic Plants 1998). The mechanism of
implementation of guidelines is through the Recombinant DNAAdvisoryCommittee
(RDAC) and Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBSC). The guidelines are also
updated periodically. The existing biosafety guidelines are as given below:
(a) Recombinant DNA Safety Guidelines, 1990
(b) Revised guidelines for research in transgenic plants and guidelines for toxicity
and allergenicity evaluation of transgenic seeds, plants and plant parts, 1998
39
and Compliance (c) Guidelines for generating preclinical and clinical data for rDNA vaccines,
diagnostics and other biologicals, 1999
(d) Guidelines for the Conduct of Confined Field Trials of Regulated,
Genetically Engineered Plants, 2008
(e) Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) for Confined Field Trials of
Regulated, GeneticallyEngineered Plants, 2008
(f) Guideline for the Monitoring of Confined Trials of Regulated, Genetically
Engineered Plants, 2008
(g) Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Foods Derived from Genetically
Engineered Plants, 2008
(h) Protocols for Food and Feed Safety Assessment of GE crops, 2008.
3.6.4 Status of Genetic Engineering Approval Committee

(GEAC) in India
(a) Commercial Release of Transgenic Crops: Bt cotton is the only
transgenic crop approved for commercial cultivation in India. The Bt
cotton variety is a genetically modified organism (GMO) cotton variety,
which produces an insecticide to bollworm. The technology was used
in cotton crops through genetic engineering techniques for the control of
bollworms, the major pest thereby reducing the risk of crop failures. The
strains of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis produce over 200
different Bt toxins harmful to insects. Bt cotton was approved by the
Genetic Engineering Approval Committe in India in 2002 in nine cotton
growing states namely Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu after
extensive biosafety and agronomic testing. Between 2002 and 2008 the
GEAC has approved 267 Bt cotton hybrids out of which 132 were
approved.
(b) Status of Approval of GM Food Crops in India: Bt brinjal is a suite
of transgenic brinjals created by inserting a crystal protein gene (Cry1Ac)
from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis into the genome of various
brinjal cultivars. The insertion of the gene along with certain other genetic
elements such as promoters, terminators and antibiotic resistance marker
gene into the brinjal is accomplished using Agrobacterium mediated
genetic transformation. The Bt brinjal has been developed to give
resistance against lepidopteron insects, in particular the Brinjal fruit and
shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis). Mahyco, an Indian seed company
based in Maharashtra, has developed the Bt brinjal. The large scale field
trials of Bt brinjal is under progress at several locations in our country at
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) /State Agricultural
Universities/ Indian Council of Agriculture Research.
3.6.5 Codex Alimentarius Commission

The Codex Alimentarius Commission of the FAO/WHO set up an Ad-hoc
intergovernmental task force on foods derived from biotechnology to develop
standards, guidelines and recommendations for foods derived from
40 biotechnology. Risk assessment of GM foods which addresses the current safety
concerns of GM foods was identified.
3.6.6 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Biosafety
The Cartagena Protocol was negotiated under the auspices of the Convention of
Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992. The Protocol provides rules for safe transfer,
handlingand disposal ofLivingModified Organisms(LMOs) or GeneticallyModified
Organisms (GMOs).
3.6.7 World Trade Organization (WTO) Agreements

Is mainlyinvolved in establishing rules for international trade in GM foods. There are
two agreements in the WTO which are applicable to risk assessment and the labeling
of GM foods. These are the Agreements on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures
(SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). The risk assessment of GM foods for
trade requirements is addressed under the agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures (SPS).
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. What are GMOs and LMOs?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Explain the environmental, human health, ethical and socio-economic
concerns of GMOs.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3. Describe the biosafety guidelines in India.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
3.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studied about biosafety. Biological hazards differ from all
other kinds of hazards in that the biological agents can grow and multiply in
the host organism causing diseases. The pathogenic microbes are a cause of
concern for the human health, plant and animal health. They have the potential to
cause diseases with tremendous economic and environmental consequences. The
chapter details about containment, the biosafety levels and biosafety cabinets used.
The unit also introduces the learner to GMOs and LMOs, their benefits and concerns
and the biosafetyguidelines.
41
and Compliance
3.8 KEY WORDS
Biosafety : It is a term used to describe the efforts to substantially reduce and
eliminate the potential risks arising from biotechnology and its
products. It has been defined as “the avoidance of risk to human
health and safety, and to the conservation of the environment, as
a result of the use for research and commerce of infectious or
genetically modified organisms”.
HEPA : The HEPA filter is the heart of the biological safety cabinet. It is a
disposable dry filter consisting of borosilicate microfibers cast
into a thin sheet. HEPA: high efficiency Particulate air: Modern
“American-convention” HEPA: 99.99% at 0.3 microns.
LMO : Living modified organisms. LMO may be defined as ‘Any living
organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material
obtained through the use of modern biotechnology’ (The Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety 2000). The term living modified organism
(LMO) is considered to be functionally the same as genetically
modified organism (GMO) (Secretariat of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD Secretariat) 2013).
GMO : A Genetically Modified Organism is an organism whose genetic
material has been altered using recombinant DNA technology.

READINGS
Burge, H. A. 1992. Classification of the fungi. Clin. Rev. Allergy 10, 153-163.
de Hoog G.S. 1996. Risk assessment of fungi reported from humans and
animals. Mycoses 39, 407-417.
Harding L., Liberman D. F. 1999. Epidemiology of laboratory-associated
infections. In: Fleming D. O., Richardson J. H., Tulis J. J. and Vesley D. (ed.):
Laboratory Safety. Principles and Practices, 2nd ed., pp 7-15. ASM Press,
Washington, D.C., 1995.
- Collins C. H. and Kennedy D. A. Laboratory-Acquired Infections. 4th ed.
Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd., Oxford.
Lister P. 1992. Classification of biological hazards. Vet. Rec. 131, 494.
Meinhof W., et al. 1996. Health risks in connection with fungi: a contribution
to the assessment of fungi in the risk potential of safety provisions. German.
Mycoses. 39 Suppl 1, 48-50.
Padhye A. A, et al. 1998. Biosafety considerations in handling medically
important fungi. Med Mycol. 36 Suppl 1, 258-265.
Sewell D. L. 1995. Laboratory-Associated Infections and Biosafety. Clinical
Microbiology Reviews. 8, 389-405.
Vollekova, A., et al. 1998. Classification of microscopic fungi from the aspect
42 of risk of infection in laboratory personnel. Slovak.]. Epidemiol. Mikrobiol.
Imunol. 47,154-158.
Biosafety
Biosafety is a term used to describe the efforts to substantially reduce and
eliminate the potential risks arising from biotechnology and its products.
It has been defined as “the avoidance of risk to human health and safety,
and to the conservation of the environment, as a result of the use for
research and commerce of infectious or genetically modified organisms”.
The scientific disciplines that revolve around biosafety studies include
subjects like: molecular biology, microbiology, plant breeding, genetics,
plant pathology, agronomy, weed science, entomology, ecology, etc.
Biological hazards include pathogenic microbes (human, animal or plant
pathogens), toxins, venoms, human blood, body fluids, cells, tissues,
recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid, and genetically modified agents.
Biohazard control is the management of biological hazards through proper
application of engineered containment and administrative controls.
Containment refers to a series of safety measures and methods for
managing infectious agents in the laboratory. The purpose of containment
is basically to help reduce or eliminate human and environmental exposure
to potentially harmful infectious agents.
Types of containment: Primary Containment, Secondary Containment
Elements of containment: The main elements of biological containment
are as follows: 1) safe laboratory practices, good safety equipments, and
facility design. To ensure minimal exposure to the infectious agents, the
workers and employees must assess the hazards associated with their work
and occupation and should apply the biosafety principles accordingly.
Biosafety Levels 1 to 4 was established by the Center for Disease Control
(CDC) and the National Institute of Health (NIH), USA that are the
combinations of safe laboratory practices and techniques, safety equipment
and facilities. All the biosafety levels are most appropriate for the
biohazards and for the laboratory activities.
(a) Biosafety Level 1
(b) Biosafety Level 2
(c) Biosafety Level 3
(d) Biosafety Level 4
 The terms biological safetycabinet and biosafetycabinet have been widely
used to describe a variety of containment devices equipped with HEPA 43
and Compliance filters designed to provide employees and workers utmost protection from
biohazardous materials. These terms are only used for those devices that
meet the requirements of Class I, II, or III specifications, based on their
construction patterns, airflow velocities and patterns, and their exhaust
system functions.
 Class I Biological safety cabinets: Most basic design of all the
cabinets. The design consists of, a stream of inward air moving into
the cabinet which contains aerosols generated during microbiological
manipulations. This then passes through a filtration system that traps
all airborne particles and contaminants. Finally, clean, decontaminated
air is exhausted from the cabinet. The filtration system usually consists
of a pre-filter and a HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filter.
Although the Class I cabinet protects the worker/ operator and the
environment from exposure to biohazards, it does not prevent samples
being handled in the cabinet from coming into contact with airborne
contaminants that may be present in room air. Hence, there is a
possibility of cross-contamination which can interfere with
experimental consistency. So the application of Class I cabinets is
limited and it is largely considered obsolete. All Class I biosafety
cabinets are suitable for work with microbial agents belonging to
biosafety levels 1, 2 and 3.
 Class II Biological safety cabinets – details of chamber.
 These biosafety cabinets are efficient in protecting the employee/
operator, samples handled and the environment from exposure to
biohazards.
 These cabinets are suitable for work with microbial agents assigned
to biosafety levels 1, 2 and 3.
 A Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) is an organism whose
genetic material has been altered using recombinant DNA technology.
It is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources
into one molecule in a test tube. Thus, the abilities or the phenotype
of the organism, or the protein it produces, can be modified through
the modification of its genes. LMO means living modified organisms.
LMO may be defined as ‘Any living organism that possesses a novel
combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern
biotechnology’ (The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 2000).
 The GM crops mayhave the capabilityto improve agriculture production,
food quality, nutrition and health, but some concerns have been expressed
by the public and scientists about effect of GM foods regarding safety of
these foods.
44  Environmental Concerns
 Health and Safety Concerns Biosafety
 Ethical Concerns
 Socioeconomic Concerns
 The concerns related to biological safety have led to the development
of guidelines and regulations in various countries for research, testing,
safe use and handling of genetically modified foods (GMOs) and
their products. India is one of the earliest countries to establish a
biosafety system for the regulation of GMOs. In India, the
Environment and Protection Act was enacted in 1986 by the Ministry
of Environment & Forests (MoEF) for the protection and
improvement of environment. Under this act, the ‘Rules for
Manufacture, Use/Import/ Export & Storage Of Hazardous Micro
Organisms/ Genetically Engineered Organisms or Cells, 1989’ were
notified by MoEF through Notification No. 621 in Official Gazette
of Govt. of India on December 5, 1989.
 The existing biosafety guidelines.
45
and Compliance
UNIT 4 CORPORATE SECTOR AND
ENVIRONMENT
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 How Businesses Relate to Natural Environment?
4.3 Green Business
4.3.1 Meaning and Definition
4.3.2 Measures of Green Business
4.4 Green Products

4.5 Green Consumerism
4.5.1 Factors Promoting Green Consumerism
4.5.2 Obstacles in the Path of Green Consumerism
4.6 Corporate Social Responsibility and Environment Protection

4.6.1 The Environmental (sustainability) Dimension of CSR
4.7 Let Us Sum Up
4.8 Key Words
4.9 References and Suggested Readings
4.0 INTRODUCTION
It is interesting to discuss the role of business in environmental protection.
Today we live in a world, where greenhouse gases keep releasing, air and
water pollution is worsening and we continue to loose ecosystems like forests,
mangroves and coral reefs. The changing environmental conditions are a result
of the reckless exploitation of earth’s resources by various sectors including
the business organizations. However, as you know there is growing awareness
regarding protection of the environment. Many organizations are also playing
their role in reducing their footprint. In daily life, we often come across the
initiatives like water and energy conservation, recycling, minimising waste
production, etc. which are taken up by several business organizations. For
example, Fevicol has come out with ecofriendly adhesive and similarly
Samsung is offering environmentally friendly monitors using LED monitor
technology.
In this unit, you will study more about the role of business organizations in
environmental protection. Let us first understand the inter relationship between
business activities and environment.
46
Corporate Sector and
4.1 OBJECTIVES Environment
After reading this unit, you will able to:

 establish link between business and environmental concerns;
 explain the importance of green business;
 define green products and green consumers;
 describe Green Consumerism;
 define Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR); and
 explain the environmental dimension of corporate social responsibility.
4.2 HOW BUSINESSES RELATE TO NATURAL

ENVIRONMENT?
Natural resources form the backbone of all industrial and business operations.
It is so because they require energy, water and raw materials which are obtained
from environment. Agro based industries, for example, utilize biotic resources
while Iron and Steel industry relies on mining operations. Service organizations
also depend on the resources obtained from nature. Inspite of using resources
from the environment, businesses have traditionally shown indifferent attitude
towards replenishing these resources. Environmental protection was hardly
given any importance as an integral part of social responsibility. Companies
harnessed the resources of the environment to maximum profits. Further,
businesses often derive a profit from a product without considering the overall
social cost or the damage the product or the production process has caused to
the environment and human populations. Take the case of pollution in water
bodies. Many companies discharge waste into bodies of water, like ponds or
rivers. Sometimes, this is relatively harmless to the ecosystem, but increasingly
the amount of waste could become too toxic for some of the organisms. If the
toxins for instance, kill certain plants in a pond, then many fish could die. This
in turn could frustrate fishermen who make a living by catching fish in the
pond. Business transactions aren’t always just transactions between two people
during trade. Sometimes other people and non-human animals are also harmed
by business transactions.
Over the last quarter of a century, the wealth of world economy has quadrupled,
benefitting hundreds of millions of people. On the other hand, according to the
Millennium Ecosystems Assessment, 60 percent of the world’s major ecosystem
goods and services that underpin livelihoods have been degraded or used
unsustainably. This is because the economic growth in recent decades has been
accomplished mainly through drawing down natural resources without allowing
stocks to regenerate and through allowing widespread ecosystem degradation
and loss.
According to environmental economists, environmental degradation is the result
of the failure of the market systems to assign optimum value to the environment
inspite of the economic functions and economic and social benefits that it
provides. Different business sectors are adopting natural capital accounting in
a diversified ways. Many countries are also adopting the measurement and 47
and Compliance valuation of natural capital in their national accounts. Efforts are underway in
various countries to develop frameworks for including the value of natural
capital in national accounts. Critical environmental factors, such as clean water
and pure air, dictate how companies conduct their day-to-day operations.
The business leaders are also realizing an urgent need to protect natural capital. It is
argued that the better understanding of our relationship with natural capital will be
beneficial for our business, society and environment. Let’s look at some examples.
A change in beliefs and values towards energyconservation and global climate change
may create a change in consumer preference away from SUVs to hybrid sedans.
Similarly, healthyfood choices will help in reducing fast food consumption. When it
was found that a certain instant noodle brand contains high amount of MSGs
(Monosodium glutamate), it was banned and people also stopped consuming the
same. People today are more aware and conscious about the things they buy and
consume.
A countrymust adopt a strategy that would enable it to achieve inclusive rural growth
and environmental well being at the same time. For instance, there is strong evidence
that nature-based tourism can act as an engine of sustainable rural growth and provide
better rural jobs and higher incomes than are currently available. Likewise, global
experience illustrates that protection of soil and watersheds can be a highly cost-
effective wayof securing a sound and resilient rural development. In short, prevention
of environmental degradation is more efficient and cost-effective than restoring the
damaged resources.
4.3 GREEN BUSINESS

For the past few years, the business world has been swept up in a green wave which
shows rising concerns about environmental issues. Pressures from both natural forces
and key stakeholders have made going green somewhat unavoidable. However, still
several business groups feel that environmental practices cost a lot of money. On the
contrary, it is found that going green doesn’t raise costs but lowers them in the long
run. Environmental crisis, such as climate change and water shortages, continue to
advance along with the prices of oil and other resources. You must have observed
employees and consumers, both of whom are under extreme financial pressure, still
want some measure of environmental performance and social responsibility in the
companies they work for and buy from.
Green business strives to meet the triple bottom line (meaning
an accounting framework with three parts- social, ecological and
financial).Often, sustainable businesses have progressive environmental and
human rights policies. Green businesses are socially and environmentally
responsible and improve their communities. They adopt principles and practices
that protect people and the planet. Along with ensuring that their practices
aren’t polluting, many green businesses take steps to protect the planet by
adopting ecofriendly measures.
4.3.1 Meaning and Definition

Green business may be defined as an enterprise that has minimal negative
impact on the global or local environment, community, society, or economy.
Green businesses ensure that they use the safest ingredients, to keep their
customers and clients and their families healthy. They also provide green living
48
alternatives to improve quality of life, with products and services that help in areas Corporate Sector and
Environment
like sustainable agriculture, clean energyand efficiency, fair trade, healthyair, clean
water, and they also follow 3R (reduce, reuse and recycle), setting a perfect example.
They also serve as models for the role businesses can play in the transformation of
our society to one that is socially just and environmentally sustainable. Now a days,
stricter government regulations and law makes it mandatory for the organization to
complywith the environmental clearance and carry out proper Environment Impact
Analysis.
4.3.2 Measures of Green Business

Due to surmounting pressures from all over, the green wave is permanentlychanging
business.Companiesmust dealwithexistingenvironmentalissueswhile simultaneously
working on current economic challenges. It is interesting to note that for business,
the solutions to both economic and environmental problems heavily overlap. The
same strategies and tactics that address long-term environmental challenges will
help businesses survive today’s economic conditions. From changing a light bulb
and using recyclable products to installing energy efficient equipment and systems,
everybusiness can make simple changes that save energycosts and natural resources.
You can start greening your business by adopting following measures:
1. Become Energy Efficient: Generating electricity from renewable energy
rather than fossil fuels helps to reduce our dependence on coal and oil
which cause significant pollution. The air and water pollution emitted by
coal and natural gas plants is also linked to breathing problems,
neurological damage, heart attacks, and cancer.
2. Adopt Environmentally Sound Business Practices: Comply
with environmental regulations, carrying out environmental audit and
environmental impact assessment to mitigate the threats to the
environment. Most of the companies are assessed by an environment
management system (for example, ISO 14000). However, very few
companies report on their energy audits. Given the increasing concerns
about global climate change, this may become an important reporting
measure.
3. Improve Waste Management System: Proper waste management plan
must be the core of any business model so as to reduce the amount
which is generated and improve the quality of life for their customers,
employees, communities, and the planet.
4. Improving Environmental Concerns/Values: Growing knowledge
about the green issues makes it incumbent for business organizations to
adopt green practices in order to improve the safety of their product and
services.
5. Economic Incentives/ Disincentives- This can be a policy instrument to
save nature and protect life. While legislation is aimed at directly changing
the behaviour of polluters by putting a limit on certain practices, economic
instruments aim to make environmentally damaging behaviour cost more.
Under these market-based policies, polluters are not told what to do but
are provided with appropriate choices. With this, they find it expensive to
continue in their old methods. Usually, economic instruments are used in 49
and Compliance conjunction with legal measures.
Two main types of economic instruments for providing an incentive to
use resources sustainably are: Price-based measures use charges and
subsidies to internalise environmental costs and benefits and Rights-based
measures ‘create rights to use environmental resources, or to pollute the
environment, up to a pre-determined limit, and allowing these rights to be
traded’.
Going green is not so easy for business organizations. We find several barriers
while practising the same. Some of them are as follows:
1. Improved environmental sustainability is not valued in internal capital
allocation decisions: Companies often lack the internal mechanisms
to properly value the benefits of managing environmental sustainability,
such as reduced exposure to energy price volatility, water risks and other
environmental impacts of operations and supply chains.
2. Companies lack metrics to account for external environmental costs:
Without a clear method to price external costs, such as the risk of climate
change to society, companies can’t factor these “expenses” into their
traditional decision-making. Companies may find they are not fully
cognizant of the real costs and risks associated with their investments
over time.
3. Environmental factors, such as climate change and water scarcity, are
not being fully integrated into long-term business strategy. As a result,
companies often miss opportunities to improve financial performance
through environmental improvements in processes and product lines.
4.4 GREEN PRODUCTS

Green colour associates itself with prosperity. Linking with greening of the
business, the idea is to make profitable changes in the business policies so that
long term benefits are achieved. Similarly, a product is green when it brings
prosperity by its usage or experience. A green product is one which does not
cause any sort of environmental damage during its entire life cycle. All products
have an environmental impact whether big or small. The idea is to reduce it to
the minimum. The chief characteristics of green products are as under:
 It does not cause damage to the environment at any stage of its life,
including manufacture, use and disposal.
 It is safe to the health of people.
 It does not cause deleterious effect on other forms of life as well like
insects, plants, birds, fishes, etc.
 It consumes a reasonable amount of energy and other resources during
manufacture, use or disposal.
 It does not lead to the generation of any kind of toxic waste.
 It does not risk the existence and survival of biodiversity.
In a nut shell, a product is green if it is cleanly manufactured, runs without any
50
damage to the surroundings and is energy efficient. Whatsoever the waste products Corporate Sector and
Environment
are generated must also be treated well. The organizations are coming up with these
measures voluntarilyas well as because of the regulatory bodies. Practicing green is
inherentlyproactive; it means finding methods to produce green goods and services.
In all this one must understand that it requires businesses to be honest with consumers
and not mislead them by false promising.
To label a product as green, it is always suggested to analyze the life cycle of that
product. Life CycleAnalysis (LCA) measures the overall environmental impact of
anyproduct during its entire life cycle ranging from procurement of the raw material
to its manufacture to final distribution. Since such studies track resource use, energy
requirements, and waste generation in order to provide comparative benchmarks,
both manufacturers and consumers can select products that have the least impact
upon the natural environment.
unit.
1. Think of the green products which you must have come across or must be
using. Do you prefer to use these products even if they are expensive?
Express your views.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. What are the objectives of green business?
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4.5 GREEN CONSUMERISM

The customer is the king of the market and drives the business. The demands
made by the consumer and the choices have a significant influence on various
stakeholders of any business. In the current era, where environmental concerns
are limited not just to the scientists and the policy makers, green consumerism
can be of a great support in saving the planet. It motivates the consumers to do
their bit in solving the current problems associated with the environment by
simple changes in their day to day buying decisions. Consumers constitute a
major segment of the society and their buying products and availing services
decisions have a remarkable influence on the resources of the environment.
Green consumerism makes them aware about the environmental problems
caused by several products and urges them to purchase environmentally benign
products and adopt green lifestyles.
The main idea is that when the demand for green products grows manifold it is the
pressure on the manufacturing firms to adopt the policies, processes and products
51
and Compliance which do not cause any damage to the nature. There is quite a possibility that the
non green products are completely washed away from the market. It is this fear that
pressurizes the companies to adopt green measures. However, it also happens that
at several occasions the customers are confronted with false advertisements and
fake information about green products and services. In this way the consumers are
misguided. You must also be verycareful when anysuch information is shared with
you. Moreover, several companies started exploring green initiatives pertinent to
their business in order to earn green points.
Green consumerism was introduced when the consumers became aware of the
environmental concerns and urged to play their role. The growth of green
consumerism follows two approaches. The first view states that market related
pressures make the growth of green products and therefore growth of green
consumerism is market driven. On the other hand, the second point suggests
that the demand from the customers largely on the value based moral grounds
leads to the growth of greening of businesses.
It is also realised that the growing public awareness of environmental issues
has brought with it a corresponding change in the buying decisions of a
significant segment of consumers. As the Encyclopedia of the Environment
observed, “many consumers, and not just the most environmentally conscious,
are seeking ways to lessen the environmental impacts of their personal buying
decisions through the purchase and use of products and services perceived to
be environmentally preferable.” Therefore, the marketing campaigns are
targeting the new breed of consumers today. Thus environmental claims are
often more abstract and offer consumers the opportunity to act on their
environmental concerns.
Green consumerism is influenced by several elements like lifestyle, identity,
ideology, choice, quality of life and health. It is shaped by social, cultural and
economic factors of society. The culture and customer differ from one place
to another and so does the social status and mindset of the people. It must not
be interpreted that only the big modern companies can try venturing into green
business but more often it is the traditional businesses such as grocery, hardware/
building materials and appliance/electronic stores are increasing their lines of
green products as they realize their profitability. As the green consumers grow,
the market expands and soon the businesses will take this as a business
opportunity. In the current scenario, it is important for businesses to recognize
this phenomenon and capitalize on the emerging market for environmentally
friendly goods and services. The awareness of the consumers and their wish to
purchase green products makes important point here.
At present green consumerism has become a kind of tool to address the issues
of environmental degradation without affecting the economy of the market.
The needs of the customers are satisfied by positioning the green features of
the products .The market today is flooded with a number of green choices
available in food, fabric, furniture, electronic items, etc. The demand for green
products as well as the recent availability of green products in the market seems
to suggest that green consumerism may affect at least some environmental
goals.
28th September is celebrated as Green Consumers Day !!!!
52 Are you a green consumer???

Answer the following questions in Yes or No? Corporate Sector and
Environment
I prefer to buy green product only when it is cheap.
I read the labels before buying any product.
I always try to reuse the products.
I prefer to use green products when they are available at nearby stores.
I prefer to use green products because I want to contribute in saving the planet.
4.5.1 Factors Promoting Green Consumerism

There are several factors which lead to change in the behaviour of the individuals
and motivate them for green consumerism. You must have come across such
situations which may have motivated you to go for green purchases. Some of
the factors are described as follows:
Demographic Reasons
Demographic variables such as educational level, culture, age, etc many times
help a lot in explaining the differences in environmental consciousness. For
example, a person who is educated is aware of environmental problems and is
more willing to share his/her responsibility towards saving the planet. Similar
to this family size, rural-urban class, sex ratio, etc too influence the growth of
green consumerism.
Sociological Reasons
Environmental concerns have become increasingly visible and popular in our
ancient culture and beliefs. The environmental movements associated with
protecting our surroundings like hills, water bodies, trees and biodiversity seem
to be everybody’s pleasure and every individual wants to be a part of these
movements. The positive social value of green products induces pro-
environmental behaviour. Thus, if the individual is aware and takes it up as a
social responsibility to have an effective conduct which is reinforced by the
society very well aware of the existing situation Sometimes the dearth of
information and poor communication challenges can hinder the growth of
green consumerism.
For example, the awareness that purse seine net fishing for tuna involves the
needless killing of dolphins has exerted sufficient pressure on tuna canners to
force drastic and hopefully effective change. The major tuna canners have
announced that they will buy only tuna certified as being caught by dolphin-
safe means. In this kind of clear case, social pressures can be effective.
Psychological Reasons
A person can be motivated for protecting the nature and life on the planet due
to psychological reasons also. The media like the newspapers, magazines, T.V.
etc. provoke a person’s mind and one can feel the threat coming out the
environmental degradation in the form of various disasters. As the issues of
environment protection start getting significance and citizens are made aware
of it, the individuals become alert about their purchasing decisions. Therefore, the
psychological change in the mindset and the concerns about the environment change
a person’s attitudes. When just the psychology of a person drives green purchase 53
and Compliance decision then there is problem, rather it should be self motivated. For example, the
individual may feel he or she have responded to the threat of ozone depletion by
buying ozone friendlyaerosol products. But ozone depletion is affected byautomobile
emissions as well as aerosol products. Thus, the behavioural change can be seen as
insufficient to help fight the environmental problem.
It is recognized that environmental concern is triggered byself interest. This interest
arises onlywhen the individuals perceive the potential environmental hazard is located
in their immediate surroundings. Due to this threat, there is a change in their behaviour
which is commonlyevident in the form of adherence to the green products and going
for green shopping.
Economic Reasons
Although not always but at several instances it is found that environmentallyfriendly
substitutes are available at a cheaper price than their counterparts. For example,
unbleached toilet paper is cheaper than bleached and dyed toilet paper. Economic
advantages are the most important motives to switch to green products and services.
Incentives are also paid for recycling certain items which is another economic reason
promoting green consumerism at several occasions.
4.5.2 Obstacles in the Path of Green Consumerism

There are various hindrances in the path of green consumerism. One of the most
important one is that the consumers are never willing to pay more for the green
product if some other cheaper alternative is there. It is quite natural for a medium
income class to think in this manner. As per the producers are concerned, going out
of the box and designing a green product or recycling a product too requires cost
which has to met by the consumers. In addition to this, sometimes if the consumers
compromise on the quality of the product, it leads to the loss of the utility of the
product. The best green product may not be able to satisfy the consumers. For
example, baking soda is a good cleaning agent but it does not make the bathroom
smell like a daisy. The last but not the least obstacle is that many times opting for
green consumerism makes the customer put a ban on the usage of the product or
service. It is altogether verydifficult to make the people believe that the environmental
problems threaten the existence of life on the planet.All the more at various instances
the local problems are more attention drawing and therefore pushing a change in the
buying behaviour is very difficult. Achieving consensus on such issues is nearly
impossible. One cannot determine whether all the individuals will agree to let
go for making earth a better place to live on for future generations. Clearly, the
extent of sacrificing too varies from one individual to another. It doesn’t matter
that the environmental concerns are shared regionally, nationally or
internationally, achieving the environmental goals collectively is the ultimate
objective. It is a well established fact that the environmental benefits are shared
by all whether it is pure air or rich forests. Therefore equal contribution from
all the members of the society is required.
There is a tendency that individuals do not sacrifice for a collective good for
several reasons. A green consumer cycles to his/her work place and the result
i.e. the cleaner air is shared by all. Apart from this, one less car on the road will
make insignificantchange. Sounlessanduntil a majorchunkof the populationbecomes
green consumers till then it is difficult to achieve the goals of green business. Since
any gain goes to everyone in the group, those who contribute nothing to the effort
54 will get just as much as those who made a contribution.
Taking care of the nature is not the sole objective of the green consumers. Corporate Sector and
Environment
Environmental consumer behaviour is thus not based on pursuit of
environmental goals. No consumer will buy a costly ozone friendly product
unless some incentives are associated with it. It is difficult to capture the
motivation of consumers to bring out a change in the behaviour of the
individuals. The following are some of the pertinent issues related to green
consumerism:
i) It is not compulsory to buy green products. While making a purchase
decision consumers pay due attention to the quality, cost, availability and
brand of the product. Whenever they have to make a choice between green-
versus-non green products, the consumers choose a green product only
they are satisfied on these parameters.
ii) The common masses do not have much understanding about the
importance of buying green products. They are confused by the green
washing done by the companies and are not able to distinguish between
the green and non green products. In such cases, they are not able to make
correct decisions.
iii) Most people are unaware of the environmental impacts of the products
that they are using. A large section of the population is ignorant about
green consumerism and its importance in protecting environment.
iv) The benefits of using the green products and services are not always clearly
visible. Many environmental initiatives companies are not displayed on
product labels.
Following the green path is not so easy. In order to make a slight change in the
buying behaviour the consumers have to make certain changes and sacrifice to
emerge as green consumers.
4.6 CORPORATE SOCIALRESPONSIBILITYAND

ENVIRONMENT PROTECTION
Business organizations are meant to produce goods or offer services in a market-
based economy. This is their primary function and apart from this, they also
have other social responsibilities. These responsibilities pertain to the social
and environmental well being. You must have noticed large business companies
participating in activities such as blood donation, tree plantation, etc. All these
practices are considered as CSR practices of the organizations. CSR is about
how companies manage the business processes to produce an overall positive
impact on society.
CSR is Corporate Social Responsibility, which means the commitment of
businesses to contribute to sustainable economic development by working with
employees, their families, the local community and society at large to improve
their lives in ways that are good for business and for development. Companies
integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their
interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis under CSR.
The concept of corporate social responsibility is based on the idea that not only
public policy but companies, too, should take responsibility for social issues. The
idea of being a socially responsible company means doing more than comply with 55
and Compliance the law when investing in human resources and the environment.
Corporate social responsibility should not be seen as a substitute to regulation or
legislation concerning social rights or environmental standards.
3.6.1 The Environmental (sustainability) Dimension of CSR

Environmentaldimension ofCSR generallymeans the extenttowhich businessactivity
negatively impacts the natural environment. It is clearly an important issue because
of the impact on the environment due to several emerging environmental problems.
We must understand that environmental responsibility is intimately connected with
the day-to-day decisions of the managers. Crucial decisions in product and service
design significantly affect the utilization of materials both in the short term and in
long-term recyclability. Process design influences the amount of energy and labour
that is spent and also the materials wastage. Reducing waste, in all its forms, is not
onlyenvironmentallybeneficial but it also saves cost for the organization. Sometimes,
such decisions can be more difficult. For example, process technologies may be
efficient from the operations point of view but may cause pollution, the economic
and social consequences of which are borne by society at large. Such conflicts are
usuallyresolved through regulation and legislation.
The root cause of pollution disasters is the operational failures. Take the example of
spilling of oil from tankers, mis-management of nuclear waste, leaking of chemicals
into river, or emission of gases. One thing which is common to all of these is mis-
handling of these operations.
Environmental CSR initiatives play a key role for major corporations to impact
climate change, water use footprint and energy conservation. Some of the
leading corporations that have achieved CSR success with environment
protection measures can motivate others to improve operational efficiency,
rethink product designs, and seek out better technology. Effective resource
utilization, improving energy efficiency and conserving natural resources are
major environmental CSR goals that are relevant in today’s context. Cost
savings, revenue generation, are some other benefits associated with CSR.
Environmental CSR initiatives can affect the environmental disclosure,
environmental policy, environmental impact, and environmental performance.
Environmental disclosure improves the transparency of the internal working
and whatsoever implementations have taken place are made visible. A
company’s environmental policy will provide the directives to the organization
to follow certain measures and focus on environmental goals. Impact refers to
the explaining the effect of environmental initiatives on regional or global
environment. Environmental performance indicates key performance indicators
which are set as benchmarks of achievement on long term basis.
Despite the economic downturn, corporations are encouraged to continue to
invest in environmental CSR initiatives in order to facilitate long-term growth.
For the chemical manufacturing industry, energy efficiency and production
optimization are key areas to improve. Similarly the pharmaceutical industry
must focus on treatment of effluent discharges and oil and gas industry on
energy efficiency and operational optimization.
Now a days, environmental CSR investments are no longer viewed as “optional
expenses.” Environmental CSR initiatives maintain corporate sustainability
within each industry sector, while achieving growth and enhancing competitive
56
advantages.
Check Your Progress 2 Corporate Sector and
Environment
unit.
1. Explain the environmental dimension of Corporate Social Responsibility.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
2. Mention the CSR practices of any five leading companies of India.
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................
4.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have studied about the influence of business organizations
and their operations on environment and its various functions. Traditional
business models focussed on wealth creation but today there is a growing
realisation that natural resources are the base of every business. Now a days,
not only the corporate sector but the consumers are also vigilant about their
ecological footprint and are keen to go for green buying and eco-friendly
purchases. Despite the hype over green consumerism, it is still at a beginner
stage and not yet in a position to influence the society and make the people
environmentally responsible. However, in many cases there is a lack of will to
purchase the green products. Only a handful of the consumers go out of their
way to make green choices. The unit also explains the environmental dimension
of corporate social responsibility.
4.8 KEY WORDS

Corporate Social Responsibility : Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
is a business approach that contributes
to sustainable development by
delivering economic, social and
environmental benefits for all
stakeholders.
Green Economy : The green economy is defined as an
economy that aims at reducing
environmental risks and ecological
scarcities, and that aims for sustainable
development without degrading the
environment.
Environmental Management : Environmental management system 57
and Compliance System (EMS) refers to the management of an
organization’s environmental
programs in a comprehensive,
systematic, planned and documented
manner.
Green Business : Sustainable business, or green business,
is an enterprise that has minimal negative
impacton the globalor localenvironment.
4.9 REFERENCESAND SUGGESTED READINGS

Stoeckle,Andrew, et al. 1994. “Green Consumerism and Marketing.” Encyclopedia
of the Environment, RuthA. Eblen and William R. Eblen, eds. Houghton Mifflin.
Sears, David O., Richard R. Lau, Tom R. Tyler and Harris M. Allen Jr. 1980. “Self
Interest vs. Symbolic Politics in PolicyAttitudes and Presidential Voting.”American
Political Science Review, September: 670- 84
Wagner, S. (2002). “Environmentally Oriented Consumer Behaviour:A Cognitive
Study with Implications for Communications Management’, unpublished D.Phil.
thesis, University of Oxford.
YoungW, Hwang K, McDonald S, and Caroline J. Oates, Sustainable Consumption
(2010): Green Consumer Behaviour when Purchasing Products

 Examples of green products like recycled paper
 Advantages and disadvantages of using green products.
 Become Energy Efficient
 Adopt Environmentally Sound Business Practices
 Improve Waste Management System
 ImprovingEnvironmental concerns/values
1) Your answer should include the following points:
 Importance of environmental aspect of CSR
 Need to adopt environmental management practices in organizations
2) Your answer should include the following points:
 Examples of companies both manufacturing and service based which
promote CSR (particularly the environmental dimension)
 Mahindra and Mahindra, Tata Motors, Infosys, SBI, ICICI
58

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ignou MEV-003

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

COURSE COORDINATOR CONTENT EDITORS

1.3 EARLY ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT IN

1.4 BISHNOI PHILOSOPHY OF CONSERVATION

1.5 COLONIAL INDIA: FOREST POLICIES,

1.6 ROUTINE REVOLTS BY TRIBES OF FORESTS

1.7 FOREST ACT OF 1865, 1878, 1972 AND 1935.

According to Gadgil and Guha (1995), the large-scale annexation of Indian

1.8 VAN MAHOTSAVA IS INDEPENDENT INDIA:

1.9 ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS IN

Anti Tehri Dam Protests

He stood against the anti-Tehri Dam protests for decades, he used

Sunderlal Bahuguna has been a dedicated to the conservation of the Himalayan

Narmada Bachao Andolan

1.10 LET US SUM UP

1.11 KEY WORDS

1.12 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

Answers to Check Your Progress 1

2.6 Human rights and environment

2.8 Indigenous Knowledge and its Importance

 describe the importance of indigenous knowledge in conserving nature.

2.2 DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

2.3 APPROACHES OF ENVIRONMENTAL

2.4 ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES

2.5 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE

2.5.1 Importance of Environmental Justice

2.6 HUMAN RIGHTS AND ENVIRONMENT

2.7 POPULATION, CONSUMPTION AND FUTURE

2.7.1 IPAT Equation

2.8 INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND ITS

2.9 LET US SUM UP

2.10 KEY WORDS

2.11 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

2.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3.7 Let Us Sum Up

Biological safetyor biosafetyis new to the field of occupational safety. Developments

(a) Pathogenicity of the Agent:

(c) Availability of Effective Preventive Measures: The measures include:

(d) Availability of Effective Treatment: This includes passive immunization

 define the concept of biosafety and containment;

 describe the various biosafety levels and biosafety cabinets; and

 comprehend the concerns on GMOs and LMOs.

3.2.1 Types of Containment

(a) Primary Containment

Basically, primary containment protects people and the immediate laboratory

(b) Secondary Containment

The secondary containment concerns with the protection of the environment

3.2.2 Elements of Containment 31

3.3 BIOSAFETY LEVELS

(a) Biosafety Level 1

(b) Biosafety Level 2

(c) Biosafety Level 3

(d) Biosafety Level 4

Table 3.1: Summary of Biosafety Levels and Infectious Agents

2 Known to cause Measles, Level 1 plus:Limited Class I or II BSCs Level 1 plus:

Note: BSE: Biological Safety Cabinet; PPE: Personal protective equipment

3.4 BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINETS

3.5 GMOsAND LMOs