Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal 0123-4641: Issn
Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal 0123-4641: Issn
Colombian Applied Linguistics Journal 0123-4641: Issn
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REFLECTION ON PRAXIS
Citation / Para citar este artículo: Bhowmik, S. K. (2015). World Englishes and English Language Teaching: A Pragmatic and Humanistic Approach.
Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J., 17(1), pp.142-157.
Received: 12-Aug-2014 / Accepted: 27-Apr-2015
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.14483/udistrital.jour.calj.2015.1.a10
Abstract
Seidlhofer (2005) describes the current status of English as an “unstable equilibrium.” In many ways this analogy
regarding the current state of affairs with English language teaching (ELT) is appropriate. Taking a World Englishes
(WE) perspective, this paper presents various mismatches between teaching goals and objectives vis-à-vis the teaching
and learning outcomes in ELT. The paper then makes the argument that in order for more successful English language
teaching and learning to take place, a pragmatic and humanistic approach needs to be adopted. An outline of such an
approach is discussed.
Keywords: ELT, a humanistic approach to ELT, a pragmatic approach to ELT, World Englishes
Resumen
Seidlhofer (2005) describe el estado actual de inglés como un “equilibrio inestable”. En muchos sentidos, esta
analogía con respecto a la situación actual con la enseñanza del idioma Inglés (ELT) es apropiado. Tomando una
perspectiva de las lenguas inglesas del mundo (World Englishes), este trabajo presenta varios desajustes entre las
metas y los objetivos en relación con los resultados de enseñanza y aprendizaje en la enseñanza ELT. En el documento
se presenta, entonces, el argumento de que para que la enseñanza y el aprendizaje del idioma Inglés tengan lugar con
más éxito, un enfoque pragmático y humanista debe ser adoptado. Se discute un esquema de este tipo de enfoque.
Palabras clave: ELT, enfoque humanístico a ELT, enfoque pargmático a ETL, lenguas inglesas del mundo
What is more, the measures used to evaluate the most native speakers. One of the most commonly
standards vary across time and space. For instance, made arguments by native speakers is that a lack of
in Britain many people relate spelling errors to standards allows a proliferation of what they label as
a non-standard variety of English. For others, it deficit English. One may notice that this argument
might be the lexical, grammatical, or phonological involves more material than practical considerations;
system. Widdowson (1994) distinguishes between it involves material stakes such as the control and
two major functions of language: communal ownership of English on the part of native speakers.
and communicative. While communal functions An example to this end would help clarify this point:
relate more to the conventions (such as spelling It is predominantly the native speakers who control,
and accent) of a given language, communicative design, and produce the majority of ELT materials
functions have more to do with communication worldwide and provide themselves with a huge share
among its users. According to Widdowson, it is at of the ELT market (Kirkpatrick, 2007). Therefore,
the level of communal function that the concept of a complete control and ownership of English are
“standard” becomes an issue as it allows its users to of significant material interests to them. However,
exclude those who do not follow the conventions— considering the volume of the global spread of
the “standards” of English. It also allows the English in the twenty-first century, restricting the
followers of the standard variety of English to wield language to native speakers is as impractical as it is
power and prestige (Lowenberg, 2000) over those inappropriate.
who do not belong to the “community” (see also
Kachru, 1982, pp. 49-52 for an account of how Indeed, pluricentricity is the theme of much of
the concept of “models” [roughly synonymous to the work related to the spread of English in recent
“standards”] can be disadvantageous). In contrast, times. While Kachru’s (1982, 1985) concentric
at the communicative level, the fact remains that model sets the tone for conceptualization of what
as long as communication is accomplished, the is now popularly known as World Englishes (WE),
English language remains fully functional. This is the trend has moved on and continued to promote
not to say, however, that the communal function of the importance of viewing English as a language
English should be considered unimportant. of the world, owned by the peoples around the
globe. Over the years, English has been “the most
As one can see, the ownership of English and the widely taught, read and spoken language the world
“standards” of the language are inseparably related. has ever known” (Kachru & Nelson, 1996, p. 71).
The concept of SE is relative to how the native While researchers recognize different varieties of
speakers define the term to maintain its communal English based on various linguistic levels such as
functions. As discussed above, no matter how vocabulary and grammar, and accent (Strevens,
important standards are for maintaining communal 1983; cited in Kachru & Nelson, 1996), what binds
integrity, they may not simply serve any purpose in it together is its common communicative goal.
accomplishing communicative functions. In the Indeed, helping learners develop communicative
current scenarios in which English language teaching skills in English has been one of the primary
and learning take place, it is the communicative teaching goals in ELT curricula. However, with so
function that matters the most to both learners and many different indigenous varieties of English (e.g.,
teachers (e.g., Alptekin, 2002; Rajagopalan, 2004). Indian English, Nigerian English, Singaporean
Since the main purpose of most English language English, etc.) coupled with conflicting learning
education is to make learners communicatively needs for passing standardized English tests and
competent, addressing the communal function of communicating with different subsets of people,
English, making students learn about the nuanced setting appropriate teaching goals in ELT and
conventions or standards of the language may be teaching communicative skills is not an easy
a misfit in the long list of ELT goals and objectives. task. A corollary of this has been a tremendous
impetus for the codification of the characteristics
This approach to English language teaching/ of different varieties of English, which has resulted
learning is in contradiction with the interests of in new research agenda in WE.
difficult to do away with. Seidlhofer (2005), for one encounters on a daily basis. Like other spheres
example, maintains that the “Anglo-Saxon attitudes” of life, this phenomenon is applicable in ELT as well.
(p. 167) are still extremely prevalent in English Likewise, it is important to consider the adaptability
language education around the world. That is, factors in ELT—factors that would make various
while on the surface we have moved away from aspects of ELT—curriculum and materials, methods
monocentrism, in reality pluricentrism is still to be and approaches serve the desired purposes most
materialized at various levels of English language efficiently. The ensuing discussions will show this
teaching and learning. Seidlhofer (2005) calls this task is not easy. Hadley (1999) reports on novelty in
phenomenon “submission to native-speaker norms” ELT curricula at the tertiary level in some Japanese
(p. 170). This tendency of submission is so strong colleges and universities. To keep up with the need
that in certain non-native contexts educators are for effective English language pedagogy and at the
establishing the so called “English village” in order discretion of the Japanese Ministry of Education,
to immerse nonnative English learners (Jenkins, these colleges and universities introduced what
2006, p. 172) to approximate the native standards. Hadley describes as “innovative” ELT curricula.
Some of the characteristics of these curricula
As one can see, ELT in the twenty-first century are: only English language usage in classrooms
suffers from a lack of a uniform variety of English (also known as immersion), no teacher-centered
for instructional purposes. The discussions above classes–students may express themselves the way
illustrate how issues such as “standards” and they wanted—“laughing, joking, and expressing
“ownership” of English play significant roles in ELT their opinions in English” (Fukuda & Sasaki, 1995;
today. The continuous spread of English has been a cited in Hadley, 1999, p. 93). Also prevalent were
tremendous boost for the recognition of nonnative practices such as “English lounges” where English
varieties of English as viable alternatives to inner- was the only language for communication, native-
circle English for ELT. In spite of a considerable speaker-conducted English classes, pairing
amount of work in this regard, it seems as though students with native-English-speaking roommates
it is going to take a while before such a pluricentric (e.g., American), and increasing the number of
approach to English becomes the norm rather than native-speaking teachers to promote co-operative
exception in ELT. learning based on interactions between teachers
and learners. Furthermore, English content courses
taught exclusively in English were introduced.
Issues of curriculum and materials
As one examines the characteristics of
While setting a uniform target variety is important “innovative” ELT curricula, several interesting
for English language instruction, designing effective phenomena emerge. Clearly, making learners
curricula (although there are disagreements, I use communicatively competent is an objective that
the term syllabus and curriculum interchangeably was taken seriously by administrators at these
in this paper, see Brown, 1995 for more) and institutions. Furthermore, there is an attempt to
developing suitable materials are also part of provide learners with as much exposure to English as
important considerations in ELT. With an ever- possible, by creating English-speaking environments
expanding landscape of English, ELT curriculum within a non-native context. In fact, there are overt
and materials need to be innovative to meet the efforts to have native-speaking teachers/students
burgeoning complexities surrounding English involved in the process (which may remind one of
language pedagogy. Below, I discuss why it is often the “Anglo-Saxon attitudes” [Seidlhofer, 2005, p.
difficult to make ELT curriculum and materials 167] of grassroots-level administrators). While it is
effective while facing the challenges that various WE heartening to see efforts for innovation in ELT, one
phenomena pose. cannot help wondering about potential challenges
associated with it. For instance, implementing the
Innovation and flexibility are two major themes in mandatory use of English at all times may help
the twenty-first century to deal with the new challenges improve learners’ spoken abilities, but the question
for a compromise norm of pronunciation of English contexts (i.e., materials used come from contexts
as an International Language (EIL). EIL norms such as USA or Britain that are completely foreign to
would have three core areas of instruction namely them). The claim that authentic materials stimulate
segmental, nuclear stress, and the effective use of motivation in language tasks also needs to be
articulatory setting. Jenkins (1998) maintains that EIL considered with caution. Peacock (1997) shows how
norms of pronunciation would promote international authentic materials were found less interesting than
intelligibility, freedom to express EIL speakers’ own artificial materials. On a separate note, Wong, Kwok,
variety, and stop approximation of native speakers’ and Choi (1995) maintain that the effectiveness of
norms. Jenkins’ (1998) argument, while persuasive, authentic materials depends upon, among other
it is just a proposal and likewise, we must examine things, teacher’s knowledge of “each student’s
it carefully. As one would imagine, codifying all ability,” students’ “temperament and readiness,”
pronunciation problems with non-native speakers of and the teacher’s judgment on manipulation of the
English is an extremely difficult task. Also, it is quite materials. González (2010), in this regard, argues for
daunting to address pronunciation difficulties of non- an incorporation of local teacher educators’ voices
native speakers with so many different L1s and to into the design of curricula and development of
come up with a uniform set of core pronunciation materials.
instruction areas. All in all, one may see that designing
an effective English curriculum entails a great deal of As one can see, materials by themselves cannot
difficulty. involve students in tasks for language learning.
It requires a great deal of perseverance and hard
Since curriculum design and materials work on the part of the teachers. In fact, without
development go hand in hand, failing to shed some teachers’ conscientious efforts, it is extremely
light on materials development, this section of the difficult for language learners to make the best use
paper would remain incomplete. Good materials are of the materials. The bottom line is that unless more
essential for achieving the goals and objectives stated localized culture- and context-specific materials are
in the syllabus. Lately, the concept of authentic texts used in ELT classrooms, it is difficult for both teachers
(Little, Devitt, & Singleton, 1988) is quite pervasive and learners to relate to the language tasks. Matsuda
in ELT circles. It is believed that “…exposing (2003) fittingly argues that textbooks should provide
students to the language of the real world will help English language learners more exposure to English
them acquire an effective receptive competence in as an International Language (EIL) by incorporating
the target language” (Guariento & Morley, 2001, p. more characters from outer- and expanding-circle
347). It is also believed that authentic texts bridge countries. In order for a successful incorporation of
the gap between students’ linguistic knowledge and EIL components into the materials, textbook writers/
their capacity to use the language in real life situation materials developers must be conscientious of the
(Wilkins, 1976 as cited in Guariento & Morley, 2001). appropriacy of the characters and activities/tasks so
Literature in the field suggests that, in spite of their that they derive “authentic” response from learners.
supposed effectiveness, authentic texts/materials
are not devoid of their own share of problems. One
of the problems voiced by Guariento and Morley What to test, how to test?
(2001) is the mismatch between authentic texts and
language tasks. They argue that authentic materials Tests are integral part of any language program.
are of no help unless they can derive authentic No matter how undesirable tests are, for both
responses from language learners. teachers and learners, there needs to be some form
of tests in order for teachers to assess learners’
This phenomenon is especially true in the case achievement and to evaluate the effectiveness of
of English language materials. In ELT, for example, instructions. Furthermore, tests may be required for
learners’ tasks are typically based upon guessing gate-keeping measures for various purposes (e.g.,
rather than a complete control and understanding of jobs, immigration, pay raise, etc.). More often than
the tasks as students cannot relate the tasks to the not, language tests entail high-stakes choices. Tests
Conundrums relating to standards of English to work within various local exigencies, which keep
pose a different kind of problem in testing spoken changing across contexts and cultures and give rise
English. As mentioned earlier, because there is no to further challenges (e.g., Baumgartner, 2007).
uniform reference point for SE pronunciation, it Overall, in order for English teachers to be successful
is extremely difficult for test administrators to set in their job, it is imperative that they are aware of the
uniform grading rubrics for testing pronunciation. various nuances of ELT at present. Matsuda (2006)
Although Levis’ (2005) “intelligibility principle” amply maintains that changing curriculum alone
may be considered to be a compromise position does not help materialize the changes in ELT. Since
in assessing pronunciation, researchers argue teachers play a crucial role in carrying out the actual
that there is no universally-agreed-upon measure teaching activities, teacher training is an important
for “intelligibility” of speech (Derwing & Munro, process that must be given due importance.
2005; Jenkins, 2000). In fact, there are so many
variables that affect intelligibility measurement that Non-native English-speaking teachers
it is almost impossible to obtain a truly objective (NNESTs) constitute about 80 percent of the total
score of intelligibility. Finally, most second language English teachers in the world (Canagarajah, 1999).
acquisition research shows that foreign accent is a Considering the current status of English language
natural phenomenon for post-puberty learners of education, it is neither practical nor possible to
any given language. Therefore, there are questions employ only native English-speaking teachers
regarding whether or not it is practical to set native- (NESTs) to teach English (Pasternak & Bailey,
like pronunciation norms for testing spoken English. 2004). What this means is that NNESTs need to
be properly trained and educated with the current
As one can see, testing in ELT can be extremely theories of language and methods of language
difficult. It is evident from the discussions above that teaching. In addition, they must also be abreast of
many of the problems occur due to the unavailability the latest language acquisition theories so that they
of a uniform, universally-agreed-upon standard can employ the requisite knowledge of ELT.
variety of English that can be modeled while designing
tests. Additionally, diverse global communication This brings us to the core issue of teacher
scenarios as well as new needs and new demands education: How are language proficiency and
coupled with an ever-changing landscape of English professional qualifications viewed in ELT? It is
language because of its continuous spread over the indeed an intriguing issue that has left scholars in
last few decades make it challenging for educators to the field occupied in debate for years. Pasternak and
determine English language testing norms. Needless Bailey’s (2004) view on the matter is that language
to say, this continues to confound English language proficiency is only one aspect of English language
teachers in their classroom teaching and beyond. teachers’ professional qualification. English
teachers must also have appropriate professional
preparations to be able to teach (Phillipson, 1992).
New age, new challenges, new roles They must have declarative knowledge–knowledge
of English teachers about the subject area, in this case the English
language, as well as an understanding of various
English teachers these days are confronted facts relating to educational psychology, second
with unprecedented challenges that make their language acquisition, and current socio-political
job difficult. Because teachers play a central role events. They must also have procedural knowledge–
in language pedagogy both in and outside the knowledge about how to/ability to do things, in this
classroom, the way they go about doing their tasks case the actual teaching. Pasternak and Bailey (2004)
has a profound impact on ultimate teaching and maintain that English language teachers should be
learning outcomes. Literature in the field suggests able to accomplish at least three key things: Knowing
how English teachers’ jobs have become complex about (1) how to use the target language; (2) how to
with the emerging norms and varieties of English teach in a culturally sensitive way; and (3) how to
across the globe. Additionally, English teachers have behave in a target culture (p. 158). As explained in
fundamental human spirits that crave the values English-speaking high school/college/university),
and ideologies specific to the native culture to what extent the prevalent high-stakes English
(Canagarajah, 1999). González (2010) reports tests are successful in providing reliable measures
how the adoption of the Common European for the diverse communication needs for English
Framework of Reference (CEFR) as the standard language learners given the changing landscape
in English language education policy in Colombia of the English language, and whether a preference
encountered resistance from students and teachers for native English teachers is customary only at
alike. A humanistic approach to ELT would promote college or university levels or whether it pervades K
sensitivities towards learners’ native cultures, and through 12 education as well. Furthermore, it would
“self-regulated development [and] spontaneous … be interesting to explore to what extent nonnative
exercise of natural powers” (Aloni, 1997, p. 92). speakers of English are willing to accommodate
Such an approach would also help both teachers and their native-speaking counterparts to facilitate
learners appreciate diversity and pluricentrism–two communication, for communication is a mutual
central characteristics of WE. After all, considering act, and successful communication is not only a
the current landscape of English, no one can confine native speakers’ burden, after all. This entails that
his or her perspectives to the native-speaking norms in order for successful communication to take place
of English anymore. nonnative speakers of English must learn how to
accommodate their native-speaking counterparts
Finally, if the purpose of having native- in ways that would enhance mutual intelligibility.
speaking norms of English is “exclusion” rather than In order for a more comprehensive understanding
“inclusion” (Widdowson, 1994), such a purpose is of ELT, future research must look into issues such
completely uncalled for given the current socio- as these.
political scenarios. A pluricentric approach to
English is what the world needs most, whereby To conclude, in this paper I attempted to
diversity would stand for a welcome change, not as point out various mismatches in English language
a basis for discrimination, intended or unintended. teaching goals and objectives vis-à-vis teaching
Only a humanistic approach to ELT can ensure an and learning outcomes in four major areas of
end to this effect. concern—I discussed how setting standards for the
target variety of English for instruction purposes,
designing curriculum and developing materials,
Conclusion testing, and training teachers have become
complicated due to the global spread of English.
I must concede that ELT in our time is much Although chosen somewhat arbitrarily, these four
more complex than a framework of the kind areas constitute the major components of any
proposed here can resolve. There are issues that are language education program. It is hoped that
difficult to deal with as the ever-changing landscape delineating these issues may instill useful insights
of English comes up with fresh challenges. For into the rich body of literature and research in
instance, people all over the world learn English ELT. I must also acknowledge at this point that my
for a variety of purposes, with a whole range of plea for a pragmatic and humanistic approach to
goals and objectives in mind. Likewise, designing ELT is derived partly from the predicament English
a uniform needs analysis framework, curriculum, language learners around the world face due to
appropriate teaching methodology, and assessment various WE phenomena described here and partly
tools for this entire spectrum of the population is from my personal experience as a nonnative speaker
almost an impossible task. Nevertheless, future of English. Although some of the issues discussed
research in the field may delve into issues such in this paper can be found elsewhere, especially
as what gatekeeping systems are prevalent (and publications relating to WE, my efforts here have
appropriate) in the contexts of nonnative-nonnative been intended to make ELT practitioners aware
communication (e.g., in a context where a non- of the current challenges they face because of the
English-speaking student seeks admission to a non- global spread of English. I argue that in order for
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