SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY

General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600

Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

NAME JENNIFER F. GUITBA

COURSE CODE &
PHDCJM3 (PUBLIC SAFETY MANAGEMENT)
SECTION
Global Public Safety and Security: Exploring transnational threats and
TOPIC collaborative efforts, examining international organizations, treaties,
and best practices in global security
DATE MAY 11, 2024
INSTRUCTOR DR. WARREN GALAS MOYAO

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1) To analyze the types and impacts of threats that cross national borders and affect global
safety and security.
2) To examine how organizations like the UN work to counter these threats and promote
worldwide security.
3) To evaluate how well existing agreements between nations help reduce risks that
transcend borders.
4) To identify and study successful strategies and actions that contribute to making the
world safer, and understand their effects.

INTRODUCTION

Global public safety and security encompass a collective endeavor aimed at

safeguarding individuals, communities, and nations from an array of threats that extend
beyond national borders. These threats, ranging from terrorism and cybercrime to
pandemics and organized crime, pose significant challenges to global stability and
prosperity. Addressing such challenges is imperative due to their potential to inflict
widespread harm and disrupt the fabric of societies worldwide.
Transnational threats emphasize the interconnectedness of our world, necessitating
coordinated efforts and international cooperation to effectively mitigate their risks. Failing to
address these threats can lead to dire consequences, including increased vulnerability,
economic losses, and humanitarian crises.
Moreover, collaborative efforts in global security play a pivotal role in addressing these
challenges. Through joint intelligence sharing, diplomatic negotiations, capacity-building
initiatives, and the development of international legal frameworks, nations and organizations
can enhance their collective ability to prevent, detect, and respond to security threats.
While collaboration presents its own set of challenges, such as differing national
interests and resource constraints, overcoming these obstacles presents opportunities to
strengthen the global security architecture and build resilience against emerging threats.
Therefore, fostering collaboration and cooperation in addressing transnational threats is
essential for promoting global safety and security in an interconnected world.

BODY OF REPORT

I. TRANSNATIONAL SECURITY ISSUES: DEFINING THE THREAT

A. The Nature of Transnational Security Threats

TRANSNATIONAL SECURITY ISSUES as the name implies, are nonmilitary threats

that cross borders and either threaten the political and social integrity of a nation or the
health of that nation's inhabitants. Moreover, such issues might be deemed as threats
that tend "to degrade the quality of life for the inhabitants of a state."

TRANSNATIONAL THREATS are the defining security issues of our time (Cambone,
1998). These are non-traditional security issues that threaten the national security or
economic stability of a state’s society, and are not bounded by the borders of any state.
Transnational threats did not emerge fully formed with the 9/11 attacks. They
have deep historical roots, but have evolved most rapidly during and immediately

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

following the Cold War-era. The advent of airplane hijackings in the 1970s was the birth
of modern transnational terrorism, according to Bruce Hoffman in his book Inside
Terrorism, because all elements of the act transcended borders. The victims,
perpetrators, and audience of the acts were from and in many different states, and the
hijackings themselves took advantage of the new normal of high-speed international air
travel (Hoffman, 2002).
Typically, transnational threats or challenges arrive in the host state because of
their intrinsic nature (e.g., air pollution that crosses an international border due to
prevailing winds) or because of porous borders resulting from government policies that
reflect either an unwillingness or inability to restrict or regulate cross-border flows.
Examples of key transnational threats include, among others:
1. transnational crime
2. terrorism
3. arms trafficking
4. human trafficking
5. illegal drugs trafficking
6. internal displacement
7. infectious disease
8. environmental degradation

It is important to emphasize that these threats do not necessarily pose direct

challenges to ‘territorial’ sovereignty, but rather to ‘state authority’ and ‘effective
government’. There may be an exhaustive list of what so-called transnational threats to
security are. Causes vary, such as uneven distribution of wealth, depletion of natural
resources, boundary eroding, pan-ideology and politics of identity, and failing states.
These all threaten distinct consequences for their primary targets, which could be
individual safety, state authority (legitimacy), and/or (internationally recognized) territorial
boundaries.
Moreover, transnational security challenges are distinguished from more
traditional security threats by their tendency not to manifest within a single defining event
or period of time. In contrast with traditional security threats--such as a nuclear standoff
between India and Pakistan, or Serbia's military campaign in Kosovo--transnational
security challenges often do not have a crisis "focal point" where policymakers and
government leaders can direct their attention and energy.
The rise of transnational security challenges reflects numerous economic, social,
and political changes that have occurred throughout the world since the ending of the
Cold War. These are the factors contributing to Transnational Challenges:
1. Non-State Actors: Transnational issues are often driven by non-state actors,
such as international criminals, terrorists, or alien smugglers. These actors have
little regard for international governance or legal norms and actively try to evade
government officials, hindering traditional negotiations.
2. Subtle Emergence: Transnational challenges often emerge gradually over an
extended period, making them challenging for governments focused on short-
term problems. Issues like environmental degradation and the spread of
infectious diseases develop subtly over several decades, potentially leading
governments to overlook or ignore the signs.
3. Globalization: The rise of transnational security challenges is a reflection of
economic, social, and political changes that have occurred worldwide since the
end of the Cold War. Globalization has brought economic growth, trade, and
international migration, but it has also opened opportunities for cyber-criminals,
terrorists, narcotics smugglers, and organized crime.
4. Demographic Trends: Global demographic changes contribute to the growth of
many transnational issues. Large-scale urbanization can contribute to the
genesis of infectious disease epidemics and worsen environmental problems.
International migration, driven by economic factors, can create social and
economic challenges for both the countries of origin and destination.

'TRANSNATIONAL SECURITY', also referred to by some scholars as 'trans state

security', has not attracted a clear and unambiguous definition as to its nature. Some

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

scholars have gone as far as to suggest that the term 'transnational' should become
redundant and replaced with what is considered a more accurate description: 'trans
sovereign'. For these scholars, in view of the fact that the term 'nation' is not
synonymous with the term 'sovereign state', the word 'transnational' is argued to simply
add needless confusion to what is an already complicated idea. However, a workable
definition has been provided in a 1997 outline of the emerging field, Security Studies for
the 21st Century, written by Richard Shultz, Roy Godson, and George Quester. In the
text, the term 'Transnational security' was referred to as a 'paradigm for
understanding the ways in which governments and non-state actors—functioning
within and across state borders—interact and affect the defense of states and
their citizens.'

B. Transnational Threats on Global Security

The primary challenge of analyzing transnational security threats is determining
which ones are most critical to international security. Many transnational issues reach
into a number of academic and professional fields, such as sociology, law enforcement,
medicine, and demography. Drawing distinctions between what is and what is not a
transnational challenge can be a daunting and perhaps insurmountable task.
Generally, however, five broad categories of transnational challenges pose the
greatest threats to human security, national governance, and, ultimately, international
stability. These include transnational crime, transnational terrorism, international
migration flows, disease and international pandemics, and global environmental
degradation and climate change.
1. Transnational crime is a term used to describe criminal activities that occur
across national borders and are organized by criminal syndicates or networks.
These crimes include drug trafficking, human smuggling, arms trafficking, money
laundering, cybercrime, and more. Organized crime groups take advantage of
globalization, using advancements in communication and transportation to
operate in multiple countries. The pursuit of profit drives these criminal
enterprises, often resulting in violence, corruption, and destabilization of
societies. Examples of transnational crime include the global reach of Russian,
Chinese, and Colombian criminal organizations, which engage in illicit activities
in various regions.
2. Transnational terrorism refers to acts of violence and terror carried out by
extremist groups that transcend national boundaries. These groups are
motivated by political, ideological, or religious agendas and seek to instill fear
and achieve their objectives through mass casualties and destruction.
Globalization has facilitated their operations by providing access to technology,
funding, and recruits across borders. Terrorist attacks pose significant threats to
infrastructure, civil order, and international stability. Examples of transnational
terrorism include the 9/11 World Trade Center bombing and the use of chemical
weapons by extremist groups.
3. International migration flows involve the movement of people across borders in
search of better opportunities, safety, or asylum. Factors driving migration
include economic disparities, political instability, conflict, and environmental
degradation. Due to limited legal avenues for migration, many individuals’ resorts
to illegal means or rely on human smugglers, leading to humanitarian crises and
tensions between countries. Mass migration can strain resources, disrupt social
cohesion, and fuel political tensions. Examples of international migration flows
include the refugee crisis in Europe and the influx of migrants from Central
America to the United States.
4. Disease and pandemics refer to the spread of infectious diseases on a global
scale, beyond national borders. Factors such as urbanization, population growth,
and increased travel contribute to the rapid transmission of diseases. Pandemics
like HIV/AIDS, Ebola, SARS, and COVID-19 have highlighted the
interconnectedness of global health and the need for coordinated responses.
Infectious diseases not only pose significant public health threats but also have
economic and security implications. Examples of disease and international

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

pandemics include the global spread of COVID-19 and the devastating impact of
HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa.
5. Global environmental degradation and climate change involve the
deterioration of ecosystems and the Earth's climate system on a planetary scale.
Human activities such as deforestation, pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions
contribute to climate change, leading to rising temperatures, sea-level rise,
extreme weather events, and loss of biodiversity. Climate change poses
existential threats to human societies, exacerbating existing vulnerabilities and
contributing to conflicts over resources. Addressing environmental degradation
and climate change requires international cooperation and concerted efforts to
mitigate emissions and adapt to changing conditions. Examples of global
environmental degradation and climate change include deforestation in the
Amazon rainforest and the melting of polar ice caps due to global warming.

Transnational threats have a significant impact on global security. These threats

pose challenges that transcend national borders and require international cooperation
and collaborative efforts to address effectively. Here are some key impacts of
transnational threats on global security:
1. Destabilization of Societies: Transnational threats, such as organized crime and
terrorism, can destabilize societies by destabilizing governance, promoting
corruption, and eroding trust in institutions. These threats can weaken the rule of
law, hinder economic development, and create environments conducive to
violence and conflict.
2. Spread of Violence and Extremism: Transnational threats often involve the use of
violence and extremism to achieve their objectives. This can lead to the spread
of violence across borders, as extremist ideologies and tactics are shared and
adopted by different groups. The global reach of these threats can result in the
proliferation of conflicts and acts of terrorism.
3. Disruption of International Trade and Economy: Transnational threats, such as
cybercrime and illicit trade, can disrupt international trade and economic stability.
Cyberattacks targeting critical infrastructure or financial systems can cause
significant disruptions and financial losses. Illicit trade, such as drug trafficking
and counterfeit goods, can undermine legitimate businesses and economies.
4. Humanitarian and Refugee Crises: Transnational threats, including conflict and
persecution, can lead to humanitarian and refugee crises. Mass displacement of
people across borders puts a strain on resources and creates challenges for host
countries in providing humanitarian assistance and managing the influx of
refugees. These crises have implications for regional stability and can create
tensions between countries.
5. Erosion of Sovereignty and Governance: Transnational threats challenge the
sovereignty and governance of nations. Criminal networks and terrorist
organizations operate across borders, exploiting gaps in law enforcement and
jurisdictional boundaries. This undermines the ability of individual states to
effectively combat these threats and maintain control over their territories.
6. Cybersecurity Risks: The rise of cybercrime and cyberattacks poses significant
risks to global security. Transnational cyber threats can target critical
infrastructure, government systems, and private companies, leading to data
breaches, economic losses, and potential disruptions to essential services.
Cooperation and information sharing among countries are crucial in addressing
these cybersecurity challenges.

C. Challenges in Addressing Transnational Threats

Addressing transnational threats is a complicated endeavor that demands subtle and
sophisticated approaches. The challenges linked to countering these threats are diverse
and interconnected. These are some of the primary challenges:
1. Sovereignty vs. State Authority: Transnational threats don't directly challenge
sovereignty but rather pose a threat to state authority and effective governance.
This makes it difficult to address these threats with only military and law
enforcement actions.

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

2. Interconnectedness with Global Networks: Transnational threats like organized

crime, terrorism, and illegal migration are connected to global criminal networks.
This makes it harder to effectively disrupt these threats.
3. Gradual Emergence and Policy Response: Transnational threats often emerge
slowly, leading to a delayed or inadequate policy response from governments.
These threats span both domestic and foreign realms, making it even more
challenging to develop effective strategies.
4. Inadequacy of Military and Law Enforcement: Dispersed and networked threats
like transnational criminal organizations are not well-suited for the military to
handle alone. Similarly, relying solely on law enforcement may not be sufficient in
addressing these threats adequately.
5. Corruption's Role in Facilitating Threats: Corruption within government at
different levels can facilitate and worsen transnational threats. Criminal
organizations and terrorists take advantage of corruption to undermine state
sovereignty and advance their illegal activities.
6. Need for Prompt Responses: Rapid and unforeseen developments in the nature
of transnational threats, such as the merging between state and non-state actors,
require flexible and adaptable responses to effectively counter them.
7. Holistic Approach Beyond Security Sector Reform: Focusing solely on security
sector reform and capacity building without addressing the underlying political
and economic factors that enable transnational threats can prove ineffective in
combating these threats.
8. Conflict-sensitive Responses: Counteracting organized crime and terrorism with
heavy-handed or discriminatory responses can aggravate existing grievances
and weaken fragile political deals, especially in stabilization contexts. It is crucial
to adopt approaches that are sensitive to conflicts, prioritize human rights, and
address underlying grievances.

II. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN GLOBAL SECURITY

A. Role of United Nations in Promoting Global Security

The United Nations (UN) plays a crucial role in promoting global security through
various mechanisms and initiatives. Some key aspects of the UN's role include:
1. Peacekeeping Operations: The UN deploys peacekeeping missions to conflict
zones around the world. These missions aim to maintain peace, protect civilians,
and facilitate political processes to resolve conflicts peacefully.
2. Conflict Prevention and Mediation: The UN engages in conflict prevention efforts
by identifying and addressing underlying causes of conflicts, facilitating dialogue,
and mediating between conflicting parties to prevent the escalation of violence.
3. Arms Control and Disarmament: The UN promotes arms control and
disarmament through treaties and conventions, such as the Treaty on the Non-
Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT).
These efforts aim to prevent the proliferation of weapons and reduce the risk of
armed conflicts.
4. Counterterrorism: The UN coordinates global efforts to combat terrorism through
the adoption of resolutions, the establishment of specialized agencies, such as
the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), and the implementation
of counterterrorism measures.

B. Contributions of Interpol in Combating Transnational Crimes

Interpol, the International Criminal Police Organization, plays a vital role in
combating transnational crimes. Its contributions include:
1. Information Sharing: Interpol facilitates the exchange of information and
intelligence among its member countries, enabling law enforcement agencies to
collaborate and coordinate their efforts in combating transnational crimes.
2. Operational Support: Interpol provides operational support to member countries
in various areas, including fugitive investigations, border security, and combating
cybercrime. It assists in locating and apprehending criminals involved in
transnational activities.

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

3. Capacity Building: Interpol offers training and capacity-building programs to

enhance the capabilities of law enforcement agencies in member countries.
These programs focus on specialized areas, such as counterterrorism,
cybercrime, and combating organized crime.
4. Global Databases: Interpol maintains global databases on wanted persons,
stolen and lost travel documents, stolen vehicles, and other relevant information.
These databases enable member countries to access and share critical data for
law enforcement purposes.

C. Other Key International Organizations and Their Initiatives

Several other international organizations contribute to global security through
various initiatives. Some notable organizations and their initiatives include:
1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): NATO is a military alliance that
promotes collective defense and security among its member countries. It
conducts joint military exercises, provides mutual defense, and supports stability
in the Euro-Atlantic region.
2. World Health Organization (WHO): The WHO plays a crucial role in global health
security by monitoring and responding to public health emergencies, coordinating
international efforts to combat pandemics, and promoting health system
resilience.
3. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA): The IAEA safeguards the peaceful
use of nuclear energy, verifies compliance with non-proliferation treaties, and
supports nuclear security measures to prevent the illicit trafficking of nuclear
materials.
4. Financial Action Task Force (FATF): The FATF sets global standards and
promotes the implementation of measures to combat money laundering, terrorist
financing, and other illicit financial activities. It conducts evaluations and provides
guidance to member countries.
5. World Trade Organization (WTO): The WTO focuses on regulating international
trade relations and promoting economic cooperation among member countries. It
contributes to global security by fostering stability and predictability in
international trade, which can help prevent conflicts arising from economic
disputes.
6. G20 (Group of Twenty): The G20 is an international forum consisting of major
advanced and emerging economies. It focuses on economic coordination,
discussing policies related to trade, investment, fiscal and monetary issues, and
financial regulation. The G20 also promotes inclusive and sustainable
development, addresses climate change and energy transition, and supports
infrastructure investment and financial inclusion in developing countries.
7. International Criminal Court (ICC): The ICC is a permanent international tribunal
that prosecutes individuals for serious international crimes such as genocide, war
crimes, crimes against humanity, and the crime of aggression. Its key initiatives
include investigating and prosecuting perpetrators of international crimes,
contributing to prevention and deterrence, and ensuring outreach and victims'
participation in the legal proceedings. The ICC aims to provide accountability and
justice for victims and send a strong message that these crimes will not go
unpunished.
8. Universal Postal Union (UPU): The UPU facilitates cooperation among postal
services worldwide. It plays a role in ensuring the secure and efficient exchange
of mail, including addressing security concerns related to the movement of goods
and information through postal networks.
9. International Hydrographic Organization (IHO): The IHO works on issues related
to hydrography and nautical charting. It contributes to maritime security by
promoting the development and use of accurate and up-to-date nautical charts,
which are essential for safe navigation and the prevention of maritime incidents.
10. European Union (EU): The EU, as mentioned earlier, promotes peace, security,
and stability through diplomatic efforts, conflict prevention, crisis management,
and addressing security challenges such as terrorism, cyber threats, and
organized crime through cooperation among member states.

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

11. African Union (AU): The AU, also mentioned earlier, works to promote peace,
security, and stability in Africa through conflict prevention, peacekeeping
operations, mediation efforts, and addressing various security challenges,
including armed conflicts, terrorism, and transnational crime.
12. Organization of American States (OAS): The OAS is an organization that
promotes cooperation and dialogue among countries in the Americas. It
addresses various security challenges in the region, including promoting
democracy, human rights, and addressing transnational threats such as drug
trafficking and organized crime.

These international organizations, along with regional bodies, contribute to global

security through their specialized mandates, cooperation among member states, and the
implementation of initiatives aimed at addressing transnational challenges.

III. TREATIES & AGREEMENTS

A. Importance of Treaties in Enhancing Global Security

International agreements are formal understandings or commitments between
two or more countries. An agreement between two countries is called “bilateral,” while an
agreement between several countries is “multilateral.” The countries bound by an
international agreement are generally referred to as “States Parties.”
Under international law, a treaty is any legally binding agreement between states
(countries). A treaty can be called a Convention, a Protocol, a Pact, an Accord, etc.; it is
the content of the agreement, not its name, which makes it a treaty. Thus, the Geneva
Protocol and the Biological Weapons Convention are both treaties even though neither
has the word “treaty” in its name. Under U.S. law, a treaty is specifically a legally binding
agreement between countries that requires ratification and the “advice and consent” of
the Senate. All other agreements (treaties in the international sense) are called
Executive Agreements, but are nonetheless legally binding for the U.S. under
international law.
Treaties play a crucial role in enhancing global security by establishing binding
agreements between nations. They provide a framework for cooperation and
collaboration in addressing transnational threats and promoting peace and stability.
Treaties enable countries to work together to address common challenges, such as
terrorism, organized crime, nuclear proliferation, and cyber threats. By setting out clear
obligations and commitments, treaties help to build trust and facilitate effective
coordination among nations. They also provide mechanisms for dispute resolution and
enforcement, ensuring that countries comply with their obligations and take appropriate
action to maintain global security.
A treaty is negotiated by a group of countries, either through an organization set
up for that specific purpose, or through an existing body such as the United Nations (UN)
Council for Disarmament. The negotiation process may take several years, depending
on the topic of the treaty and the number of countries participating. After negotiations are
finished, the treaty is signed by representatives of the governments involved. The terms
may require that the treaty be ratified as well as signed before it becomes legally
binding. A government ratifies a treaty by depositing an instrument of ratification at a
location specified in the treaty; the instrument of ratification is a document containing a
formal confirmation that the government consents to the terms of the treaty. The
ratification process varies according to the laws and Constitutions of each country. In the
U.S., the President can ratify a treaty only after getting the “advice and consent” of two
thirds of the Senate.
Unless a treaty contains provisions for further agreements or actions, only the
treaty text is legally binding. Generally, an amendment to a treaty is only binding to the
states that have ratified the amendment, and agreements reached at review
conferences, summits, or meetings of the state’s parties are politically but not legally
binding. An example of a treaty that does have provisions for further binding agreements
is the UN Charter. By signing and ratifying the Charter, countries agreed to be legally
bound by resolutions passed by UN bodies such as the General Assembly and the

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

Security Council. Thus, UN resolutions are legally binding on UN Member States, and no
signature or ratification is necessary.
In addition to treaties, there are other less formal international agreements.
These include such efforts as the Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) and the G7 Global
Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons of Mass Destruction. Although the PSI has
a “Statement of Interdiction Principles” and the G7 Global Partnership has several
statements by G7 leaders, neither has a legally binding document that lays out specific
obligations and that is signed or ratified by member countries.

B. Security Treaties and Agreements

There are several key security treaties and agreements that have contributed
significantly to global security. Some examples include:
1. Geneva Protocol – bans the use of biological weapons and toxic gasses in war
and formed the basis for both the Biological and Chemical Weapons
Conventions.
2. Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC) – prohibits the development,
stockpiling, acquisition, retention, and production of biological agents and toxins
"of types and in quantities that have no justification for prophylactic, protective or
other peaceful purposes," and weapons, equipment, and delivery vehicles
"designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict."
3. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 (UNSCR 1540) – outlines
obligations on all United Nations Member States to enforce effective measures
against or acquisition of chemical, nuclear or biological weapons, their means of
delivery or related materials by non-State actors. It also includes measures
intended to prevent the proliferation of chemical, nuclear, or biological weapons.
4. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) – prohibits the development, production,
acquisition, stockpiling, and transfer of chemical weapons, including some
biological toxins.
5. International Health Regulations (2005) (IHR (2005)) – are an international
agreement between 194 States Parties and the World Health Organization to
monitor, report on, and respond to any events that could pose a threat to
international public health. The purpose of the IHR (2005) is to prevent, protect
against, control and provide a public health response to the international spread
of disease in ways that are appropriate for and restricted to public health risks,
and which avoid unnecessary interference with international traffic and trade.
(International Health Regulations, Article 2).
6. Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) – is a global effort that aims to stop
trafficking of weapons of mass destruction, their delivery systems, and related
materials to and from States and non-State actors of proliferation concern.
Launched on May 31, 2003, U.S. involvement in the PSI stems from the U.S.
National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction issued in December
2002.
7. Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass
Destruction (GP) – Since its launch by G-8 Leaders at the June 2002 Kananaskis
G-8 Summit, the Global Partnership has worked to address nonproliferation,
disarmament, counterterrorism, and nuclear safety issues through cooperative
projects in such areas as destruction of chemical weapons; the dismantlement of
decommissioned nuclear submarines; the security and disposition of fissile
materials; and rechanneling employment of former weapons scientists to
peaceful civilian endeavors.

C. Compliance and Enforcement Mechanisms of Security Treaties

COMPLIANCE refers to the adherence of States Parties to the obligations set
out in a treaty. This includes both primary obligations, such as the prohibition of chemical
weapons, and secondary obligations, such as providing specified information within
certain timeframes. Treaties increasingly include mechanisms to induce compliance,
such as fact-finding procedures, dispute resolution mechanisms, and enforcement
measures.

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General Luna Road, Baguio City Philippines 2600
Telefax No.: (074) 442-3071 Website: www.ubaguio.edu E-mail Address: ub@ubaguio.edu

There are two main explanations for treaty compliance. The rational actor
model suggests that States comply with their international obligations when it is directly
in their self-interest. On the other hand, the normative schools of thought argue that
compliance is influenced by long-term interests, including reputation, the functioning of
the international system, and internalized commitment to international regimes.
Understanding why States comply with their obligations is crucial for developing
strategies to promote compliance in various areas of international law, including WMD
treaties. Approaches can range from emphasizing sanctions and strong enforcement
powers to encouraging and facilitating compliance rather than focusing on punishments.

ENFORCEMENT refers to the actions taken to induce or compel compliance with

treaty obligations. It can be categorized along a spectrum from "soft" to "hard"
measures.
Soft enforcement measures involve positive inducements, such as providing
technical or legal assistance to states in achieving compliance. On the other hand, hard
enforcement measures include public naming and shaming, the suspension of
privileges, and the imposition of sanctions.
It is important to note that there is overlap between soft compliance measures
and harder enforcement measures. Rather than viewing them as separate categories, it
is more helpful to understand these concepts as existing along a continuum.

3 TREATY MECHANISMS FOR COMPLIANCE AND ENFORCEMENT

In the international system, unlike in domestic legal orders, there is no
overarching supreme decision-making or enforcement body with the authority to impose
sanctions for non-compliance. Each treaty regime is free to devise its own mechanisms
for compliance and enforcement, but these mechanisms must still adhere to the general
body of international law. For example, a treaty's enforcement provisions would need to
comply with the general rules of international law, such as prohibitions on the use of
force.
This section examines how different treaty regimes approach the issue of
compliance and enforcement.
1. National implementation involves making necessary changes in domestic
legislation to ensure compliance with treaty obligations. For example, the
Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) and the Chemical Weapons Convention
(CWC) require States Parties to enact domestic laws that prohibit activities
prohibited under these treaties. Domestic legislation becomes a compliance tool
for the treaty and establishes a division of labor between national agencies and
the international implementing body.
2. Technical and legal assistance involves providing support to States Parties in
fulfilling their obligations and ensuring compliance with the treaty. This assistance
can be in the form of training officials or helping with the drafting of domestic
legislation. While the provision of assistance is not mandatory, it is an effective
way of encouraging and supporting States to comply with their treaty obligations.
This assistance is necessary due to the increasing complexity and cost of
national implementation. Additionally, many States join treaties for reasons
unrelated to the weapons involved, and providing assistance helps strengthen
domestic measures without burdening the States involved.
3. Transparency mechanisms, such as information exchange and reporting,
are used to build trust, prevent misunderstandings, and strengthen norms. These
mechanisms have evolved over time, with declarations and confidence-building
measures being common. While some information is publicized, declarations are
generally kept confidential. However, non-WMD arms control treaties have more
open reporting. Transparency in human rights law goes further, with State reports
and civil society shadow reports. This demonstrates that rigorous transparency is
possible, but reporting systems can be challenging.

Verification procedures are essential for compliance and enforcement in arms

control and treaty regimes. They involve fact-checking and can be conducted through
national technical means (NTM) or multilateral observation. NTM, such as satellites and

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radar, ensure compliance through unilateral observations. Multilateral observation is

done through international bodies, like the International Monitoring System. On-site
inspections are common and vary in techniques and intrusiveness. Some regimes have
highly institutionalized processes, with international agencies conducting inspections.
Investigations of alleged use of chemical or biological weapons can be carried out by
organizations like the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW).
Verification procedures are crucial for detecting violations and ensuring compliance with
treaty obligations.

RESPONSES TO NON-COMPLIANCE
1. Treaty-based mechanisms are important for enforcing compliance and
resolving disputes related to non-compliance. Weapons of Mass Destruction
(WMD)-related treaties include provisions for dispute resolution, starting with soft
enforcement measures like consultations and fact-finding. If non-compliance
persists, more severe options such as sanctions can be imposed. Dispute
resolution aims to gradually escalate in intensity while maintaining momentum
and preventing escalation. However, complete resolution of disputes can be
difficult, and the focus may shift towards managing and preventing further
escalation.
2. The Security Council has authority over matters of international peace and
security, including cases of persistent non-compliance with WMD-related treaties.
It can act even in the absence of specific references in treaty regimes if non-
compliance poses a threat to international peace and security. Many treaties
explicitly mention the role of the Security Council, such as the Biological
Weapons Convention (BWC) which allows any State Party to lodge a complaint
with the Security Council regarding non-compliance.
3. The International Court of Justice. There is no centralized, automatic recourse
to judicial forms of dispute resolution in international law generally or in the area
of arms control and disarmament specifically. However, there are examples of
attempts by States to enforce compliance of WMD-treaties through the
International Court of Justice (ICJ).
a. Provisions in the treaty regimes. Negotiating states prefer to keep
disputes within the treaty regime rather than seeking external
adjudication. For example, in the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC),
the option to refer a dispute to the ICJ is available, but it has never been
pursued. The Conference of the States Parties and the Executive Council
of the OPCW can request advisory opinions from the ICJ, but no such
request has been made to date.
b. Routes to the ICJ outside treaty regimes. Recourse to the International
Court of Justice (ICJ) for compliance disputes can be achieved if states
have accepted the Court's jurisdiction independently of the treaty.
However, the Court's jurisdiction only applies if all parties to the dispute
have accepted it, which has proven to be a significant obstacle. Another
option is seeking an advisory opinion from the ICJ, which involves
obtaining the Court's opinion on a specific legal question. Examples of
this include advisory opinions sought regarding the use of nuclear
weapons.
4. Countermeasures are actions taken by one state in response to another state's
violation of international law. They are an enforcement measure recognized
under general international law. However, their permissibility in the context of
arms control treaties is unclear. Certain obligations, such as those for the
protection of human rights and prohibitions on reprisals, are not affected by
countermeasures. Disarmament obligations do not fall into these categories, but
arguments can be made based on provisions in relevant treaties. It is important
to note that while countermeasures may be lawful, their imposition can be
politically difficult without independent confirmation of non-compliance and
adherence to relevant treaty provisions.
5. Unilateral withdrawal or termination of a treaty can be a lawful enforcement
measure in response to another party's wrongful act. Many multilateral treaties

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also allow for withdrawal or termination under specific circumstances. However,

the threshold for termination is high and politically challenging in multilateral
treaties, as they are often seen as community interest agreements. States may
be hesitant to terminate such treaties, even if legally possible.
6. In addition to traditional responses to non-compliance, there are alternative
options available. "Naming and shaming" involve publicly identifying and
criticizing violators through litigation or shadow reports. National or regional tools,
such as targeted sanctions, can be utilized. National courts can also prosecute
violations. These measures provide a range of tools to address non-compliance,
although they may have challenges.

IV. BEST PRACTICES IN GLOBAL SECURITY

A. Implementing Effective Border Control Measures
Implementing effective border control measures is crucial for maintaining global
security. Some best practices in this area include:
1. Risk-Based Approach: Adopting a risk-based approach to border control allows
authorities to focus resources on high-risk individuals and goods. This involves
using intelligence and data analysis to identify potential threats and allocate
resources accordingly.
2. Advanced Passenger Information Systems (APIS): APIS requires airlines and
other transportation providers to submit passenger information before arrival or
departure. This information is then screened against security databases to
identify individuals of concern.
3. Biometric Technology: Utilizing biometric technology, such as fingerprint or facial
recognition systems, can enhance border security by verifying the identity of
travelers. This technology helps detect fraudulent documents and identify
individuals with criminal or terrorist connections.
4. Interagency Cooperation: Effective border control requires coordination and
cooperation among various agencies, including immigration, customs, law
enforcement, and intelligence agencies. Sharing information and collaborating on
joint operations can strengthen border security efforts.

B. Enhancing Cybersecurity to Counter Cyber Threats

Enhancing cybersecurity is crucial in countering the growing threat of cyber-
attacks. Some best practices in this area include:
1. Risk Assessment and Management: Conducting regular risk assessments helps
identify vulnerabilities and prioritize cybersecurity measures. This involves
identifying potential threats, assessing their potential impact, and implementing
appropriate safeguards.
2. Strong Authentication and Access Controls: Implementing strong authentication
measures, such as multi-factor authentication, and strict access controls can
prevent unauthorized access to systems and data.
3. Regular Updates and Patch Management: Keeping software and systems up to
date with the latest security patches helps protect against known vulnerabilities
and exploits.
4. Employee Training and Awareness: Educating employees about cybersecurity
best practices and raising awareness about common threats, such as phishing
and social engineering, can help prevent successful cyber-attacks.

C. Promoting Information Sharing and Intelligence Cooperation

Promoting information sharing and intelligence cooperation is essential for
effective global security. Some best practices in this area include:
1. International Information Sharing Networks: Establishing secure information
sharing networks among countries and relevant agencies can facilitate the
exchange of intelligence and timely response to threats.
2. Joint Exercises and Training: Conducting joint exercises and training programs
involving multiple countries and agencies can enhance cooperation,
interoperability, and the sharing of best practices.

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3. Standardization of Information Sharing Protocols: Developing standardized

protocols and frameworks for information sharing can streamline the process and
ensure compatibility between different systems and agencies.
4. Public-Private Partnerships: Collaborating with the private sector, including
technology companies and cybersecurity firms, can enhance information sharing
and leverage expertise to address emerging threats.

V. CASE STUDIES & SUCCESS STORIES

A. Examining Successful Collaborative Efforts in Global Security
Confronting piracy off the coast of Somalia is a notable example of a successful
collaborative effort in global security. In the early 2000s, piracy in the region had reached
alarming levels, with pirates hijacking commercial vessels and taking crew members as
hostages for ransom. This posed a significant threat to international maritime trade and
security.
To address this issue, a multinational coalition was formed, bringing together naval
forces from various countries to combat piracy in the region. The coalition included countries
such as the United States, European Union member states, NATO, and regional partners
like India and China.

The collaborative effort involved several key components:

1. Information sharing: Participating countries shared intelligence and information about
pirate activities, enabling coordinated responses and the effective tracking of pirate
groups.
2. Joint patrols and naval presence: Naval vessels from different countries conducted joint
patrols in the piracy-prone areas, increasing the presence and deterrence against pirate
attacks.
3. Maritime security operations: The coalition conducted coordinated operations to disrupt
pirate activities, including boarding and searching suspicious vessels and apprehending
pirates.
4. Capacity building and training: The coalition provided support and training to regional
states, helping them enhance their maritime security capabilities and develop their own
counter-piracy strategies.

The collaborative efforts of the multinational coalition yielded significant results. The
number of successful pirate attacks and hijackings off the coast of Somalia dramatically
decreased over time. This success can be attributed to the joint efforts, shared resources,
and coordinated actions of the participating countries.

Lessons learned from this collaborative effort include the importance of:
1. Multilateral cooperation: Effective collaboration requires the participation of multiple
countries, each bringing their unique capabilities and resources to the table.
2. Information sharing and coordination: Timely and accurate sharing of intelligence is
crucial for tracking pirate activities and enabling coordinated responses.
3. Regional engagement: Involving regional partners and building their capacity is essential
for long-term sustainability and addressing the root causes of piracy.
4. Flexibility and adaptability: The collaborative effort demonstrated the need for flexibility in
adapting strategies and tactics based on evolving pirate tactics and the changing
security landscape.

The successful collaboration in confronting piracy off the coast of Somalia serves as a
valuable example of how international cooperation and joint efforts can effectively address
global security challenges. It highlights the importance of collective action and shared
responsibility in maintaining maritime security and safeguarding international trade routes.

B. Lessons Learned from Past Security Challenges

Lessons learned from past security challenges play a crucial role in shaping and
improving global security efforts. By analyzing and understanding the factors that
contributed to security challenges, policymakers and practitioners can develop more

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effective strategies and measures to prevent and address similar threats in the future.
Some key lessons learned from past security challenges include:
1. Importance of Intelligence and Information Sharing: Effective intelligence gathering
and sharing are essential for detecting and preventing security threats. Collaborative
efforts among intelligence agencies and international partners can enhance
situational awareness and enable timely response.
2. Need for Multilateral Cooperation: Addressing complex security challenges often
requires cooperation and coordination among multiple countries and international
organizations. Multilateral initiatives and partnerships can pool resources, expertise,
and capabilities to tackle common security threats more effectively.
3. Adaptability and Flexibility: Security challenges evolve over time, necessitating the
ability to adapt and respond to changing circumstances. Flexible strategies and
policies that can be adjusted based on emerging threats are crucial for maintaining
effective security measures.
4. Importance of Comprehensive Approaches: Addressing security challenges requires
a comprehensive approach that encompasses diplomatic, economic, legal, and
military components. Combining various tools and measures, such as diplomacy,
development assistance, law enforcement, and military operations, can yield more
sustainable and long-term solutions.
5. Focus on Addressing Root Causes: Addressing the underlying root causes of
security challenges is crucial for sustainable peace and stability. Efforts to address
socio-economic disparities, political instability, governance issues, and other
underlying factors can help prevent the emergence of security threats.
6. Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between the public and private sectors is
essential for addressing security challenges effectively. Private sector involvement,
particularly in areas such as cybersecurity and critical infrastructure protection, can
enhance resilience and response capabilities.
7. Continuous Evaluation and Learning: Regular evaluation, assessment, and learning
from past security challenges are vital for refining strategies and improving future
responses. Periodic reviews and lessons learned exercises can identify areas for
improvement and inform policy adjustments.

By incorporating these lessons learned into security policies and practices, decision-
makers can enhance their ability to prevent, mitigate, and respond to security challenges
effectively.

VI. FUTURE TRENDS & RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Emerging Trends in Transnational Threats
These are some key emerging trends in transnational threats include:
1. Expansion of Transnational Organized Crime: Globalization and increased flows
of people, goods, and services have created opportunities for transnational
organized crime to thrive. Criminals exploit gaps in global governance and blur
the lines between licit and illicit activities source.
2. Diversification of Threats: Transnational threats are no longer limited to
traditional security challenges like terrorism and arms trafficking. Emerging
threats include transnational crime, human trafficking, cybercrime, environmental
degradation, and the spread of infectious diseases source.
3. Increasing Complexity and Interconnectedness: Many transnational threats are
interconnected and have cascading effects. For example, issues like poverty,
lack of education, and poor governance can exacerbate intergroup tensions,
crime, and environmental degradation, creating more threats source.
4. Challenges in Data Collection and Monitoring: Obtaining comprehensive and
reliable data on the scale and nature of transnational threats is difficult. This
hinders the understanding of evolving trends and the development of effective
countermeasures source.
5. Shift in the Role of Military and Security Forces: Problems once considered law
enforcement or public health issues are now seen as security challenges,
requiring the involvement of military and security forces in addition to traditional
law enforcement source.

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B. Recommendations for Strengthening Global Security Cooperation

Here are some key recommendations for strengthening global security cooperation:
1. Enhance Multilateral Cooperation:
a. Strengthen international institutions and frameworks like the United
Nations to play a central role in global security governance.
b. Promote greater coordination and information sharing among countries,
international organizations, and non-governmental actors.
c. Encourage major powers to demonstrate leadership and responsibility in
advancing global security cooperation.
2. Expand Scope of Security Challenges:
a. Recognize the diversification of transnational threats beyond traditional
security issues like terrorism and arms trafficking.
b. Address emerging challenges such as transnational organized crime,
cybercrime, environmental degradation, and the spread of infectious
diseases.
c. Adopt a comprehensive approach that integrates diplomatic,
development, and security efforts to tackle these complex, interconnected
threats.
3. Strengthen Civil-Military Relations and Local Engagement:
a. Build and maintain strong civil-military relations to enhance the credibility
and professionalism of security partners.
b. Prioritize local engagement and cultivate ties with military decision-
makers to better understand the context and dynamics on the ground.
c. Emphasize the importance of protecting civilians and complying with
international humanitarian and human rights laws in security cooperation.
4. Leverage New Technologies and Innovative Approaches:
a. Promote the adoption of emerging technologies, such as cloud-based
solutions, artificial intelligence, and machine learning, to enhance public
safety and security capabilities.
b. Encourage strategic mergers and acquisitions in the security industry to
enable the development of integrated solutions and services.
c. Foster public-private partnerships to leverage the expertise and resources
of the private sector in addressing global security challenges.
5. Improve Data Collection and Monitoring:
a. Invest in robust data collection and monitoring mechanisms to better
understand the scale and nature of transnational threats.
b. Enhance information sharing and intelligence cooperation among
countries and agencies to improve situational awareness and enable
proactive responses.
c. Develop comprehensive and reliable data on emerging security
challenges, such as human trafficking and firearms trafficking, to inform
policy and decision-making.

By implementing these recommendations, the global community can strengthen

international cooperation, address the evolving security landscape, and enhance the
effectiveness of security efforts worldwide.

C. The Role of Technology in Enhancing Global Security Efforts

Technology plays a multifaceted role in enhancing global security efforts. Here
are some key ways in which technology contributes to strengthening security on a global
scale:
1. Surveillance and Monitoring: Advanced surveillance technologies, such as
satellites, drones, and sensors, enable authorities to monitor borders, coastlines,
and critical infrastructure for potential security threats. These technologies
provide real-time situational awareness and facilitate early detection of
unauthorized activities.
2. Intelligence Gathering and Analysis: Technology plays a crucial role in gathering,
processing, and analyzing vast amounts of data to generate actionable

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intelligence. Big data analytics, artificial intelligence (AI), and machine learning
algorithms enhance the efficiency and accuracy of intelligence analysis, enabling
security agencies to identify patterns, detect anomalies, and anticipate emerging
threats.
3. Cybersecurity: With the increasing digitization of critical infrastructure and
communication networks, cybersecurity has become a paramount concern for
global security. Technology solutions such as firewalls, encryption, intrusion
detection systems, and security protocols help defend against cyber threats,
including hacking, malware, and data breaches.
4. Biometric Identification: Biometric technologies, including fingerprint recognition,
facial recognition, and iris scanning, enhance identity verification and
authentication processes in border control, law enforcement, and access control
applications. Biometric databases enable authorities to accurately identify
individuals of interest and track their movements across borders.
5. Remote Sensing and Disaster Management: Remote sensing technologies, such
as satellites and aerial imaging, provide valuable data for assessing and
responding to natural disasters, environmental threats, and humanitarian crises.
Remote sensing capabilities enable authorities to monitor disaster-affected
areas, assess damage, and coordinate rescue and relief operations more
effectively.
6. Communication and Coordination: Technology facilitates seamless
communication and coordination among security agencies, emergency
responders, and international partners during security incidents and crisis
situations. Secure communication networks, interoperable systems, and
collaboration platforms enable real-time information sharing and coordinated
response efforts across borders.
7. Counterterrorism and Law Enforcement: Technology aids in counterterrorism and
law enforcement efforts through the development of tools and systems for
surveillance, data analysis, and forensic investigation. Automated facial
recognition, predictive analytics, and social media monitoring help identify and
track individuals involved in terrorist activities and criminal behavior.
8. Defense and Military Applications: Advanced military technologies, including
drones, unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), missile defense systems, and cyber
weapons, enhance national defense capabilities and deterrence strategies.
Technological innovation in defense systems enables militaries to maintain
strategic superiority and respond effectively to evolving security threats.

Overall, technology plays a crucial role in enhancing global security efforts by

providing innovative solutions for surveillance, intelligence gathering, cybersecurity,
disaster management, law enforcement, and military defense. However, it's essential to
address ethical, legal, and privacy concerns associated with the use of technology in
security applications and ensure responsible and accountable implementation to
safeguard human rights and civil liberties.

SUMMARY
In summary, the report emphasizes the importance of global cooperation and
collaboration to address transnational threats and ensure public safety and security. It discusses
the role of international organizations, such as the United Nations and Interpol, in countering
these threats through collaboration, intelligence sharing, and capacity building. Treaties and
agreements are highlighted as essential tools for enhancing global security by promoting
cooperation and establishing binding obligations.
The need for proactive measures to address emerging trends in transnational threats,
including enhancing cybersecurity, promoting information sharing, and leveraging new
technologies were also highlighted. It emphasizes the importance of comprehensive
approaches that involve multilateral collaboration, improved civil-military relations, and
innovative strategies. Learning from past security challenges and strengthening data collection
and monitoring are also identified as important factors.
Overall, the significance of coordinated efforts, international cooperation, and the
implementation of best practices in ensuring global public safety and security were identified. By

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adopting the recommendations and lessons learned, the global community can strengthen
security cooperation, adapt to emerging threats, and effectively address transnational
challenges.

CONCLUSION

To sum up, global public safety and security require a collective effort to address threats
that extend beyond national borders. The interconnected nature of our world necessitates
coordinated efforts and international cooperation to effectively mitigate these risks. Failing to
address these threats can have severe consequences, including vulnerability, economic losses,
and humanitarian crises.
Collaborative efforts in global security, such as joint intelligence sharing, diplomatic
negotiations, capacity-building initiatives, and the development of international legal
frameworks, play a crucial role in addressing these challenges. While collaboration may present
challenges, overcoming these obstacles presents opportunities to strengthen the global security
architecture and build resilience against emerging threats. Thus, fostering collaboration and
cooperation in addressing transnational threats is essential for promoting global safety and
security in an interconnected world.

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