How does control over environmental resources affect the international relations and the well-

being of people around the world?

Abstract:
In recent years the media have been persistently talking about the possibility of conflicts, even
wars, sparked by regional or international disputes over the control of and access to water. There
have been instances where the security of a state has been threatened and its people marginalized
because of the actions of the state. As we delve deeper into the consequences that have been
brought about, the nuances of controlling water as a tool for power shall be analyzed based on
the economic, political and personal viewpoint and the difficulties it brings for the security of the
state.

Introduction:
This paper would focus on two particulars. One is the Colorado, Tijuana and of the Rio Grande
paving of the All-American Canal (AAC) in California, right on the border with Mexico and near
the city of Mexicali that resulted in one of the most conspicuous forms of water dispute.
The other would be the water dispute between India and Pakistan over the sharing of the water of
the river The Indus, The Jhelum and The Chenab together that are called the western rivers. THis
rivalry is seen through various factors, a risk of factors, bitter territorial disputes and the rising
problems with the shared water basin of the Indus river. It is to be realized that the manner in
which the conflict over the lining of the AAC and the construction of dams in the western river
has been approached, has major repercussions for the future of water management along the
border between Mexico and the United States and that of India and Pakistan since it marks the
beginning of a tendency into controversies that would arises as a result of sharing the water of
the region and its management.
INDIA-PAKISTAN WATER DISPUTE

Water disputes between India and Pakistan are a testament to the complex and intertwined nature
of international relations and resource management between neighboring countries. India
recently announced the desire to modify the sixty two year old Indus Water Treaty (IWT) with
Pakistan. What is the Indus Water Treaty? India and Pakistan signed the IWT after 9 years of
negotiations with the World Bank, being a signatory to it. This treaty was regarded as one of the
most successful treaties of South Asia that ended various wars between India and
Pakistan.Through this treaty the main idea was to set out a mechanism of cooperation between
the two neighboring countries on the use of water of the Indus river and it’s five tributaries
namely Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Jhelum and Chenab. However the growing population, climate
change and changing geopolitical relations led to various changes and disagreements in this
treaty.

Historical Overview
As we know the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) is a sixty two year old treaty signed between the two
neighboring countries. The water disputes between these countries trace back to the British times
in 1947 during the partition of India. These disputes led to the countries signing a treaty with the
World Bank acting as a mediator. While this treaty prevented various great scale water related
tensions between the countries it also led to ongoing conflicts and continued disputes.

The various reasons of the disputes:

1) Increasing population: India and Pakistan have seen a rapid growth in population after the
partition and in the last six decades from the signing of the treaty this rapid growth in
populations led to more need for water in sectors like agriculture, industry and domestic
use. Water being the most important natural resource, used by everyone on a daily basis
needs to be supplied to the citizens of the nations and hence with growing population the
quantity of water required also grew dramatically.

2) Climate Change: River as an ecosystem is unidirectional flowing water with a state of

constant physical transformation. The change in climate directly affects the change in the
flow of rivers and the availability of water. The quantity of water shrinks as temperature
rises and with the change of precipitation patterns. The glacial melt in the Himalayas
makes the Indus river vulnerable to climate changes. The Himalayas are a major source
of the river.The Indus River basin has reported heavier rains which leads to more erratic
flow patterns and a greater danger of extremely devastating floods. This is a more
sensitive topic for Pakistan as according to the ND-Grain climate change vulnerability
index, it bears the highest risk of hazard compared to all its neighbors. So, due to these
changes of climate it became difficult to understand water availability.
 3) Geopolitical Tensions: Geopolitical tensions play a significant role in exacerbating water
disputes. Like in the case of India Pakistan, Pakistan is the downstream actor as it has
considerably more restrictions than ideal. For example it has only a 30 day water storing
capacity compared to India’s that is of 170 days. Both the countries face extreme water
stress due to the storing capacity as when compared to other nations for example egypt
that has a storing capacity of 700 days the capacity of these countries seem like nothing.
Due to the water storing capacity difference Pakistan fears that India will manipulate dam
storage levels this would lead in India intensifying downstream floods using drawdown
flushing method, which would be the worst case scenario for Pakistan. Whereas the Pak-
China strategic alliance raises questions in South Asia regarding the collaborative
hydropower projects. While these are the concerns Pakistan has, India too has some
concerns, it is concerned that Pakistan may falsely accuse them to gain the geopolitical
advantage by stating the floods brought on by climate change. India is subjected to
various limitations.

Marx introduced the metabolic rift theory which basically offers valuable insights into the after
effect of industrial capitalism. According to his theory, advancement in industrialisation leads to
creating an irreversible break which is called the metabolic rift. This rift results in environmental
degradation and socioeconomic inequalities. If we apply the rift theory to the case of India and
Pakistan we can argue that the above mentioned reasons which are growing population, climate
change and geopolitical tensions are the very reasons for the rise to this metabolic rift.

The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) urgents needs to include new factors which cater to the growth in
society and the changing environmental factors so that the water storage capacity is also
propitiatingly managed which would lead to less disputes amongst the neighboring countries.

United States and Mexico

Introduction and Historical overview

It is critical to analyze and debate the problems that might arise in the management of shared
transboundary basins between the United States and Mexico, as well as the opportunities for
bilateral collaboration to solve the issue of water shortages in the face of rising demand for this
essential resource.

Water shortage has been a major topic of discussion for national governments, international
organizations, academic institutions, and the media in recent years. It has influenced laws and
strategies for managing water resources in a way that ensures this essential resource will be
available to and accessible to present and future generations. The management of water resources
in metropolitan areas has received a lot of attention, as market processes can help to increase
efficiency. Forecasts of possible disputes over managing water supplies and guaranteeing access
to water resources have received increasing attention in recent years.It has influenced policies
and practices aimed at guaranteeing the availability and accessibility of this critical resource for
current and future generations. There has been a strong emphasis on managing water resources in
metropolitan areas, where market processes might help to improve efficiency. There have been
predictions of future conflicts connected to regulating water supplies and assuring access to
water resources, emphasizing the critical significance of proper water management. Climate
change, which creates a significant degree of uncertainty regarding water supplies in both the
short and long term, is one crucial issue that demands prompt action. In terms of social and
institutional difficulties, this creates substantial hurdles in anticipating, coordinating, and making
wise and timely choices to provide availability to water, manage water shortages, and respond to
both floods and droughts. Water has always been a potential source of conflict owing to the
uneven geographical distribution of accessible sources across the planet. Even within countries,
certain places have more abundant water supplies than others, and demand for water does not
always match supply. Water shortage creates a restraint on future growth as the global
population and economic activity continue to rise, potentially leading to rivalry for access to and
control of water resources. However, it also provides opportunity for collaboration and the
formation of resource distribution agreements based on justice and fairness principles.Water
resource distribution across countries is important to take into account since water is a natural
resource with political and symbolic value. Many people believe that having control over water
is essential to being an independent nation. Government entities in charge of crafting national
water policy as well as society as a whole have a stake in efficient water management.
Transboundary river basins hold a significant amount of the world's water supply, with about 300
watersheds shared by two or more nations. In order to protect water supplies, maintain water
quality, and avert international disputes, managing these shared resources requires cooperation
between adjacent communities and governments. The complexity of water resource management
is increased by the establishment of institutional agreements and rules at the international,
national, regional, and local levels for the management of transboundary water resources.
Governments have been forced to take action to manage possible water shortages as a result of
the real consequences that climate change has on water supply. For more than a century, Mexico
and the United States have collaborated in the arid areas separating them to settle disputes and
strengthen bilateral collaboration in the management of transboundary watersheds. Due to its dry
and semi-arid regions, which have limited water supplies and little rainfall, Mexico, in particular,
confronts several difficulties. There is little water available in the semi-desert and desert regions
that separate the United States and Mexico. Institutional systems have been built to effectively
enforce water agreements and manage issues, notwithstanding the discrepancies that exist
between the two countries. Mexico and the United States share an international border that was
founded by the Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty in 1848. This treaty established a complicated
connection and provided the groundwork for the establishment of the institutional structure
needed to handle problems relating to borders and the management of natural resources in border
regions, with a focus on water resources in particular. The Treaty of 1944 for the Utilization of
Waters of the Colorado and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande was one of the crucial accords
established between the two nations. Water from the Colorado and Rio Grande rivers was
divided between Mexico and the United States under this treaty. In order to satisfy treaty
obligations, it also extended the International Boundary Commission's jurisdiction to encompass
the management and upkeep of water infrastructure. Ever since the 1944 Treaty was signed, It
has served the nations in both negotiations and addressing various issues related to water and
shared water resources. These agreements serve as essential reference points for resolving
conflicts and addressing concerns in border regions. Both nations have held many talks and
exchanged signatures on agreements to resolve a range of problems pertaining to the border and
shared water resources. In border regions, these agreements are crucial points of reference for
settling disputes and addressing issues.These agreements have placed a strong emphasis on
environmental preservation and water quality management, in light of the pollution problems
that arise from the fast industrial and urban expansion of border communities in Mexico.
Bilateral cooperation in environmental problems was made possible by the De La Paz Peace
Agreement and other agreements, and this trend was carried out when the North American Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was signed in 1994.

The All American-Canal (AAC) Dispute

The All American-Canal comes into the spotlight sporadically. The canal is based on the
Colorado river which is one of the main discussions in the treaty of 1944. The contention
between the two states was that of the lining of the AAC canal. Although the lining served the
benefit of reducing the seepage in water by covering the canal bed with impermeable material
such as concrete or synthetic liners resulting in water conservation since it would prevent the
water from percolating through the soil, it would also reduce the total volume available for
downstream users including Mexico. Mexico contended that under the 1944 treaty it was entitled
to a certain amount of water from River Colorado and upon the lining of the canal bed, those
obligations would not be met. The lining of the canal was also to be met with environmental
obligations that needed to be considered before the implementation of the project.
1) Habitat Disruption: The canal lining may disrupt local ecosystems and wildlife as the
water that seeped into the adjacent soil created a moist environment that supported
vegetation. The lining can cut this source of moisture that may in turn affect the health of
the flora and fauna negatively.
2) Impact on Riparian ecosystems: The riparian ecosystem that develops around the water
bodies would be particularly at risk since the lining may alter the natural flow patterns
that subsequently would lead to the deterioration of the plants and animals that have
adapted to this environment.
3) Water Quality concerns: The lining in the canal would tamper with the temperature,
sediment levels and chemical compositions of the water flowing which is harmful to the
environment.
Balancing the need for water conservation, environmental protection and treaty obligations
would be a complex task for it would require collaboration of the highest level among the
governments such that Mexico would receive appropriate compensation and ecological harms be
minimized.

Conclusion
The importance of fresh water is of absolute importance with the growing population and
industrialisation. The quality of water and quantity of freshwater is also deteriorating. Control
over environmental resources, such as water, has significant implications for international
relations and the well-being of people around the world. The rivalry between India and Pakistan
is an example to this and this creates a challenging scenario for both countries who should make
sure to develop strategies that will ensure adequate water needs for both countries.
The case of the India-Pakistan water dispute highlights the challenges of managing shared
resources, with growing populations, climate change, and geopolitical tensions creating a
metabolic rift that strains the existing Indus Water Treaty. To address these challenges, it is
essential to update the treaty to accommodate changing environmental factors, population
growth, and water storage capacity, promoting cooperation and reducing disputes between
neighboring countries.
In the context of the United States and Mexico, the management of shared transboundary basins
has been a critical issue, with water shortages and climate change impacting the availability of
this vital resource. However, both nations have a history of cooperation, demonstrated by various
agreements and treaties, including the 1944 Treaty for the Utilization of Waters of the Colorado
and Tijuana Rivers and of the Rio Grande. These agreements have set the stage for addressing
border and shared water resource issues, emphasizing environmental preservation and water
quality management. The dispute over the All American-Canal (AAC) lining on the Colorado
River serves as a notable example of the challenges in balancing the need for water conservation,
environmental protection, and treaty obligations. The project, while beneficial for reducing water
seepage, raises concerns about habitat disruption, riparian ecosystem impact, and water quality
concerns. Resolving this dispute requires collaboration between the governments of the United
States and Mexico to ensure appropriate compensation for Mexico and minimize ecological
harm.

References:

India Pakistan:

The impacts of climate change on Rivers (no date) The Impacts of Climate Change on
Rivers Comments. Available at: https://www.americanrivers.org/threats-solutions/clean-
water/impacts-rivers/#:~:text=Additional%20runoff%20will%20be%20compounded,less
%20water%20to%20dilute%20pollutants. (Accessed: 03 November 2023).
 India and Pakistan are playing a dangerous game in the Indus Basin (2023) United States
Institute of Peace. Available at: https://www.usip.org/publications/2023/02/india-and-
pakistan-are-playing-dangerous-game-indus-basin (Accessed: 03 November 2023).

Author links open overlay panelSwayam Siddha and AbstractAn ecosystem is the sum total
of interactions among plants (2022) Impact of climate change on the River Ecosystem,
Ecological Significance of River Ecosystems. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780323850452000145 (Accessed:
03 November 2023).

Author links open overlay panelShajara Ul-Durar a b, Highlights•South Asia is the highest
climate-affected region and AbstractThe exacerbation of the historical and geopolitical
tensions between India and Pakistan (2023) Metabolic rift theory and the complexities of
water conflict between India and Pakistan: A pathway to effective environmental
management, Journal of Environmental Management. Available at:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479723019527 (Accessed: 03
November 2023).

US Mexico Links

Rosson, C.P., Hobbs, A. and Adcock, F.J. (2003) The U.S./Mexico Water Dispute: Impacts of
Increased Irrigation in Chihuahua, Mexico, 2003 Annual Meeting, February 1-5, 2003, Mobile,
Alabama. doi:10.22004/ag.econ.35101.

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07900627.2011.594032?
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2PplouJpWTMMj34pTosZ9DyBYvlj1YVwow58jw

https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/35101/

https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/6439/Indus

https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/sanchezmunguiapdf.pdf