1 s2.0 S0141118723000664 Main

Applied Ocean Research 134 (2023) 103525
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Ocean Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apor
A review of research on tether-type submerged floating tunnels

Wanhai Xu a, Yexuan Ma b, *, Guangjun Liu a, Mingliu Li a, Ang Li a, Menglei Jia a, Ziqi He a,
Zunfeng Du a, *
a
State Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Simulation and Safety, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR. China
b
Institute of Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, PR. China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Submerged floating tunnels (SFTs) offer many advantages over bridges and immersed tunnels, and they are
Submerged floating tunnel regarded as the most promising form of architecture for future transportation across bodies of water. However,
Tether-type an SFT has not been built because there are many critical technical difficulties in its design and construction. The
Environmental load
tether-type SFT is one of the forms with the potential for transportation applications. This paper provides a
Traffic load
review of the progress of research on tethered SFTs and discusses the critical issues and solutions involved in
Impact load
Safety evaluation their design, dynamic characteristics, safety evaluation and vibration control. Although the design and the safety
Vibration control evaluation of SFTs can partially refer to guidelines for floating marine structures and pipes, it is essential to
establish guidelines specifically for SFTs as soon as possible. The hydrodynamic and dynamic characteristics of
SFTs are usually investigated based on the segmental model, which ignores longitudinal effects. To study the
complete dynamic behaviour of the SFT in the longitudinal direction, it is important to establish an overall model
that considers the effects of segment joints. Tests on large-scale models of SFTs under the combined effects of
waves, currents and earthquakes are rare, and much is unknown about the progressive collapse and failure
mechanisms of these structures. Vibration control of an SFT could be achieved by hydrodynamic methods and
mechanical methods. To further improve safety, it is essential to propose an adaptive control system for the
vibration control of SFTs under the combined effects of various external loads.
1. Introduction engineering communities.

Many engineers and scholars have proposed preliminary designs for
As needs for transportation have developed in modern society, rapid SFTs (Ingerslev, 2010). In 1860, a railway engineer proposed the con
means to travel by land and air have been established, and attention now struction of an SFT across the Bosphorus Strait in Turkey. The SFT, with
focuses on methods to safely cross vast distances across bodies of water. spans of 150 m supported on piers, was designed to allow trains to pass
During the past century, humans have relied on bridges and immersed 20 m below the surface of the water. In 1882, a plan was proposed to
tunnels to cross bodies of water (Li et al., 2019; Lin et al., 2022; Thomas construct an SFT across the English Channel. The plan was rejected by
and O’Donoghue, 2013; Tuchiya et al., 2009; Westendorp et al., 2022; the Parliaments in England out of concern for invasion. In 1940, a design
Yanaka and Kitagawa, 2002). Considering the limitations of safety, of an SFT with spans of 250 m was proposed for construction in Puget
economic efficiency and technical challenges, bridges and immersed Sound, Washington (Andrew, 1950). In 1984~1996, a series of studies
tunnels are not the preferred way to cross deeper and wider bodies of were conducted on a scheme for the construction of an SFT in the
water. A submerged floating tunnel (SFT), also known as an Archimedes Messina Strait (Ahrens, 1997). The design depth of the SFT was 40 m to
bridge, is a new type of structure to transport traffic across bodies of ensure the safe passage of ships. The SFT was moored by tethers to
water. Compared to bridges and immersed tunnels, the SFT has better successfully traverse a distance of 4680 m. In 1985~1994, a construc
environmental adaptability, lower construction cost, greater spanning tion project for an SFT across the Høgsfjord Strait in Norway was pro
capacity, all-weather operation and no blocking at the water surface. posed (Indridason, 2013). The design length of the SFT was 1400 m, and
The SFT is considered the best way to cross wide and deep bodies of the design depth was 25 m. Two types of SFTs, namely, tether-type SFT
water and has received extensive attention from academic and and pontoon-type SFT, were considered in the preliminary design. In
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: mayexuan@tju.edu.cn (Y. Ma), dzf@tju.edu.cn (Z. Du).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2023.103525
Received 15 December 2022; Received in revised form 21 February 2023; Accepted 1 March 2023
Available online 11 March 2023
0141-1187/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
W. Xu et al. Applied Ocean Research 134 (2023) 103525
1990~1995, Japan planned to construct two SFTs with spans of 1600 m Table 1
and 3000 m in Uchiura Bay (Xiang et al., 2018). Researchers investi Potential application conditions for the pontoon-type SFT and tether-type SFT
gated the influence of SFTs on the ecological environment and driving (Østlid, 2010).
experience. In 1999, the construction of an SFT with a span of 3300 m Description Limitation of length
across the Jintang Strait in China was proposed. Subsequently, a con pontoon-type SFT with a single tube 1500 ~2000 m
struction project for an SFT across Qiandao Lake in China was developed pontoon-type SFT with two tubes and anchor systems 4000 m or more
in 2004 (Mazzolani et al., 2008). tether-type SFT with a single tube, H (water depth) <200 m no limitation
In present design schemes, SFTs are classified into four categories tether-type SFT with a single tube, H = 200 m ~ 600 m 4000 m or more
tether-typed SFT with two tubes, H >600 m 4000 m or more
according to the anchorage pattern, namely, pier-type, pontoon-type,
tether-type and un-anchored-type SFTs (Ingerslev, 1998), as shown in
Fig. 1. The pier-type SFT is supported on columns, and it is similar to an tether-type SFT. When the water depth is less than 200 m, the length of
underwater bridge with foundations on the ground at the bottom of the the tether-type SFT has no limitation. Even if the water depth exceeds
body of water. Since the construction of columns in water is expensive 600 m, then the length of the tether-type SFT with two tubes can exceed
and technically difficult, pier-type SFTs are not suitable for deep-water 4000 m. From this perspective, the tether-type SFT may have better
conditions. The pontoon-type SFT is suspended from pontoons floating engineering application potential than the pontoon-type SFT. Hence, the
on the surface of the water. The force of gravity on the tube is greater tether-type SFT received more attention than the pontoon-type SFT in
than its buoyancy, and the pontoon provides an external force to balance previous studies.
the tunnel. Water depth is not an important influencing factor for The engineering and academic communities have conducted exten
pontoon-type SFT. However, the stability and reliability of the sive investigations on SFTs, including fundamental research and devel
pontoon-type SFT are sensitive to wind, waves, currents and possible opment of detailed design and construction standards. However, no SFT
collisions with ships because the pontoons are exposed to the surface of has been built. Critical technical difficulties in the design and con
the water. The tether-type SFT is moored by tethers that are connected struction of SFTs have prevented their widespread use in engineering.
to the ground at the bottom of the body of water. The buoyancy of the These difficulties include how to design the SFT, the behaviours of the
tube is greater than the force of gravity, and the tethers are stretched to SFT under environmental loads such as waves, currents and earth
provide a mooring force for the tunnel. All parts of the tether-type SFT quakes, the response of the SFT to traffic and explosive loads, whether
are located 20~30 m below the surface of the water, which leads to environmental and operating loads could destroy an SFT and how to
fewer adverse effects caused by wind, waves and ship navigation protect the SFT from damage. In this paper, previous research on tether-
compared to the pontoon-type SFT. In addition to anchoring on land, the type SFTs is reviewed. For convenience, “SFT” refers to tether-type SFT
un-anchored-type SFT has no anchoring at other locations. This type of in the following text. The design, dynamic characteristics under envi
SFT is not limited by water depth conditions. ronmental loads, behaviours under traffic and accidental loads, security
Table 1 shows potential application conditions for pontoon-type and evaluation and vibration control of the SFT are included to provide a
tether-type SFTs (Østlid, 2010). Although the pontoon-type SFT is not comprehensive understanding of SFTs.
limited by water depth, its maximum length is less than that of the
Fig. 1. Three types of SFTs.
2
2. Structural designs of the SFT 2.1.2. Cross-sectional shape of the tube

The cross-section shape design of the tube is based on consideration
The SFT is composed of three parts, namely, the tube, tether system of finances, construction costs, mechanical and hydrodynamical prop
and segment joints. Preliminary designs of SFTs refer to current design erties. Many cross-sectional shapes have been proposed in previous
experience for immersed tunnels and other floating structures in ocean concept designs of SFTs, such as rectangular, circular, elliptical, polyg
engineering. Engineers have conducted much design work on the tube, onal, Bezier curves and double circular shapes, as shown in Fig. 2.
tether system and segment joints of the SFT. It is easy to prefabricate and control the weight of tubes with rect
angular shapes, but their hydrodynamical properties are poor because
rectangular shapes are not streamlined. The circular shape is the most
2.1. Tube common cross-sectional shape of the tube due to its relatively good
resistance to internal explosions and external water pressure and its low
2.1.1. Material of the tube drag force coefficient (Kristoffersen et al., 2019). A tube with an ellip
The SFT is different from traditional structures such as immersed tical shape has better hydrodynamic properties and impact resistance
tunnels and bridges. The materials used in the tube structure must be than that with a circular cross section (Luo et al., 2018; Oh and Park,
more waterproof, crack resistant and durable than those in traditional 2021). The pressure difference around the elliptical shape is less than
structures. However, no SFT has yet been built. According to the concept that around the rectangular shape (Li et al., 2018). The horizontal
designs available thus far, the constituent materials of the tube structure displacement and overall resistance of the elliptical shape are less than
can be classified into three categories, namely, reinforced concrete, those of the circular shape (Mandara et al., 2016). Tubes with a polyg
metal, a mixture of reinforced concrete and metal. onal shape are widely used for immersed tunnels, and they can also be
Reinforced concrete, which is the most common material, is used in used for SFTs. Polygonal-shaped tubes have some advantages, such as
many concept designs of SFTs, such as those in the Høgsfjord strait in good space utilization and easy processing and transport. Some scholars
Norway and Lake Lugano in Switzerland (Haugerud et al., 2001). In have also investigated the influence of the cross-sectional shape of the
most concept designs, the tube was constructed from ordinary concrete tube on the force characteristics under wave loads. The wave loading on
(grade C60) reinforced with prestressed steel. Double-layered steel tubes tubes with polygonal cross sections is larger than that on tubes with
with stiffening ribs are one of the choices for SFTs, such as the SFT elliptical cross sections but much smaller than for cases with circular
designed for the Strait of Messina, Italy (Faggiano et al., 2009). The tube cross sections (Lee et al., 2016; Li et al., 2018).
consisted of two concentric steel pipes that were connected by stiffening The shape of the Bezier curve is the result of the optimization of the
ribs. Two sidewalls were constructed inside the tube to strengthen and hydrodynamic properties of the tube. Zou et al. (2020a, 2020b, 2021)
reinforce its cross section. Mixtures of reinforced concrete and metal can proposed a method based on parametric Bezier curves to describe the
make full use of the mechanical advantages of the constitutive materials. tube cross section. Considering the response of the tube under uniform
Some concept designs, such as those for the SFTs in Funka Bay (Kanie flow, extreme conditions and internal wave conditions, the parameters
et al., 2010) and Qiandao Lake (Mazzolani et al., 2010), recommended of the Bezier curve were optimized using the hybrid
using a mixture of reinforced concrete and metal to construct the tube. backpropagation-genetic algorithm (BP-GA) optimization algorithm.
The tube of the SFT in Qiandao Lake was composed of three materials. The Bezier curve shape had better hydrodynamic properties than the
The inner layer was made of steel, and the outer layer was made of circular and elliptical shapes. To improve space utilization and buoy
aluminium alloy. The gap between the inner and outer layers was filled ancy, a tube with a double circular shape was proposed. The double
with reinforced concrete. circular shape tube was composed of two bodies with identical circular
Tubes made of reinforced concrete are easy to manufacture, but they cross sections that were rigidly connected. The security of the double
have a low resistance to corrosion in seawater. Tubes made of reinforced circular cross section is better than that of the single circular cross sec
concrete and metal have better mechanical properties and corrosion tion because one of the two tubes can be used as an escape route when
resistance than tubes made of only reinforced concrete. Despite the great the other tube is damaged. Otherwise, the two tubes can disturb the
difficulty in manufacturing, the mixture of reinforced concrete and wake flow and increase turbulence. As a result, the drag force is less on
metal is still the better choice for the construction of SFT tubes in the tubes with double circular cross sections than those with single circular
future.
Fig. 2. Cross-sectional shapes of SFTs.
3
cross sections (Kim et al., 2022; Deng et al., 2020; Won et al., 2021a). Therefore, the vertical-type tether system is only suitable for SFTs that
are short and located in inland lakes where waters are calm. To enhance
the horizontal mooring stiffness, an inclined-type tether system has been
2.2. Tether system proposed for SFTs (Lin et al., 2016). The horizontal motion of the tube is
better constrained by increasing the length and tilting the tether.
The design of the mooring system of marine structures, such as However, the vertical stiffness and the torsional stiffness are less than
floating oil production platforms and floating wind turbines, provides those of the vertical-type tether system (Lin et al., 2019). To further
much inspiration for the design of the tether systems of SFTs. improve the stability of the tether systems, hybrid-type tethers were
proposed, as shown in Table 3. The vertical force on the tube is balanced
2.2.1. Material of the tether by the tension of the vertical tether and the vertical component of the
The wire ropes, tension legs and composite fibre ropes commonly tension of the inclined tether. Hybrid-type tethers are not limited in the
used for mooring lines of floating marine structures are also recom manner of vertical tethers that cannot bear horizontal forces, and so the
mended for the tethers of SFTs. former enables a safer inclined tether.
Wire rope, usually made of high-strength steel, has great impact
resistance and strength (Yan et al., 2016). The most widely used wire
rope is manufactured in two stages (Chaplin, 1999). First, wires are 2.3. Segment joints
twisted together into strands, and then six strands are twisted together
over a core to make a rope. This structure enables wire rope to withstand The construction process of SFT is similar to that of immersed tunnel.
sudden impacts without breaking. The main failure modes of wire rope The design of the segment joints of SFT is mainly based on the design of
in ocean engineering are wear and fatigue. It is important to enhance the joints applied in immersed tunnel.
corrosion resistance of wire rope by galvanizing or aluminizing it when According to the location and construction sequence of SFT joints,
it is used for tethers of SFTs. they can be divided into final joints and intermediate joints. The final
Inspired by the tension legs used for platforms, the tension leg was joint refers to the joint between the two ends of the SFT and the shore.
proposed for tethers of SFTs (Jeong et al., 2022; Kim and Won, 2017). The structural form of the final joint can be divided according to the soil
Tension legs composed of multiple welded steel pipes connect the tube conditions. Under hard rock geological conditions, a rock drilling tunnel
of the SFT with the seabed foundation by a vertical or inclined mooring, is built on the bank side first, until the last stone wall remains. Final
which provides vertical and horizontal stiffness to ensure the stability blasting and connection are carried out after completion of joint con
and safety of the SFT. Similar to wire rope, seawater corrosion is one of struction. The joint details are similar to those of immersed tunnels
the key factors threatening safety. Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) coatings, (Tveit., 2010), as shown in Fig. 4(a). Under soft soil geological condi
polyethylene (PE) coatings and thermal sprayed aluminium coatings tions, the receiving end of the concrete structure is prefabricated at the
(TSA) are widely employed to prevent the corrosion of tension legs. shore end. Then, the pipe body is inserted, and concrete is poured at the
Composite fibre rope is a new kind of mooring material for offshore connection part to complete the permanent water stop and connection
floating platforms and SFTs. Compared to wire rope, composite fibre (Pöllth K and G1ückert J, 2012), as shown in Fig. 4(b).
rope has the advantages of more stiffness and smaller deadweight and Intermediate joints can be divided according to their stiffness into
diameter, greater ease of transport and installation and resistance to two types, namely, rigid and flexible joints (Zhang et al., 2010a), as
corrosion by seawater, which makes composite fibre rope suitable for shown in Fig. 5. The rigid joint has a simple structure that consists of an
deep-sea moorings (Lian et al., 2015; Lin et al., 2016). Table 2 shows the end shell, GINA waterstop, joint plate and reinforced concrete with joint
performance of different fibres, such as nylon, aramid, polyester, high slots. The end shell, welded by steel plate and section steel, is set on the
modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and carbon fibre-reinforced polymer outer wall of the end of the tube segment. The end shell is the supporting
(CFRP). However, the disadvantages of composite fibre rope, such as structure for the installation of the GINA waterstop. The flexible joint
strong nonlinearity, easy creep, expense and intolerance to sunlight, consists of an end shell, GINA waterstop, OMEGA waterstop, shear
should also be considered. connector and axial limit device. The GINA waterstop is the first
waterproof line and the OMEGA waterstop is the second waterproof line.
2.2.2. Layout of the tether system The shear connector withstands nearly all the shear forces at the joints
In the previous concept designs of SFTs, there were three main types and limits the lateral and vertical relative displacements between the
of layouts of the tether system, vertical, inclined, abd hybrid, depending tube segments. The axial limit device, made of wire tendons, is used to
on the design parameters of the SFT and the environment, as shown in limit the axial deformation of the joint. Compared to the rigid joint, the
Fig. 3. flexible joint has better deformation adaptability and a waterproofing
The vertical-type tether system, consisting of vertical taut legs, has effect.
been widely used in tension leg platforms (TLPs) for offshore oil and gas The rigid joint, with steel plates inside and outside held in place by
extraction. Because of the simple configuration, the vertical-type tether bolts and concrete placed in the middle, was proposed in the concept
system has been proposed for SFTs. The vertical motion of the tube is design of an SFT in Korea (Seo et al., 2015a). Mazzolani et al. (2010)
balanced by the tension of the vertical-type tether system. However, the proposed a rigid joint for the design of an SFT in Qiandao Lake. The
horizontal motion of the tube cannot be well constrained by only vertical inside of the joint was an annular steel plate connected with bolts, and
taut legs, which permit large horizontal displacements of the tube under the outside was an aluminium plate with a waterstop. The flexible joint,
the influences of waves and currents (Oh et al., 2013; Seo et al., 2015a). with two waterstops and one baffle to ensure watertightness, were
Table 2
Comparison of the performance of different fibres.
Composite Fibre Strength Density Price Disadvantages Advantages Water depth
(MPa) (g/cm3) (US$/kg)
Nylon 960 1.14 2 Poor tensile strength Low price Shallow water
Polyester 500 0.95 3 Easily creeps Low price Shallow water
Aramid 2900 1.45 25 Poor compression resistance Hight creep resistance Deep water
HMPE 3400 0.97 25 / High strength Deep water
CFRP 5700 / 2200 High price High strength Deep water
4
Fig. 3. Layouts of the tether system.
recommended for the design of an SFT in Japan. To improve the per load acting on the unit cylinder height at any height z of a moving
formance of the joint, some researchers have designed innovative joints vertical cylinder is shown as Eq. (1).
based on the classical joint form. During the design of an SFT in the ( )
1 πD2 ∂uz πD2 ∂uz
Mexican Strait, a hydraulic and pneumatic damping device was installed fH = CD ρD(uz − ẋ)|uz − ẋ| + ρ + Cm ρ − ẍ (1)
2 4 ∂t 4 ∂t
on the joint, which could effectively transfer the load (Gursoy, 1996).
Won et al. (2021b) proposed a composite hollow reinforced concrete
where uz and ∂∂utz are respectively the horizontal velocity and acceleration
joint with shear connectors. This kind of joint had two layers of water
stops, which significantly improved the water tightness. The shear of the wave water particle at any height at the centre of the cylinder axis
connectors had intaglio and embossed shapes that could provide better when the cylinder is not inserted into the wave; D is the diameter of the
resistance than other connectors to bending, shear and torsional forces. cylinder, and it is assumed that the movement direction of the moving
cylinder is the same as that of the wave. The horizontal displacement of
the cylinder at z is x, the velocity isẋ, the acceleration is ẍ,ρis the density
2.4. Design criteria of SFT of the fluid, CD is the drag coefficient perpendicular to the axis of the
cylinder, and Cm is the added mass coefficient.
As no SFT has yet been built worldwide, there are no customized Keulegan-Carpenter proposed that whenKC ≥ 15, the transverse
codes for SFT design. At present, SFT design can only refer to other force caused by vortex discharge in waves occurs. The KC number is also
structures, such as offshore floating platforms, highways and bridges. called the wave period parameter, as shown in Eq. (2). The formula for
Table 4 provides the list of the codes, standards and recommended calculating the transverse force on a single column proposed by Chak
practices that are relevant to SFT design. rabarti is given in Eq. (3).
3. Dynamic characteristics of SFTs under environmental loads KC =

um T
(2)
D
The SFT is frequently exposed to complex and variable environ
1 ∑N
mental loads, such as waves, currents and seismic loads. To ensure the fL (z, t) = ρDu2m CLn cos(nωt + ψ n ) (3)
safety of SFTs, it is necessary to accurately understand their dynamic 2 n=1
response characteristics under complex environmental loads. In this

section, recent research on the dynamic response of SFTs under envi where um = (uwater − ẋ) is the maximum horizontal relative velocity,
ronmental loads is briefly summarized. To obtain the dynamic charac uwater is the maximum velocity of the water particle, ẋis the velocity of
teristics of the system composed of a tube and mooring line under a the moving cylinder, T is the wave period, ω is the circular frequency of
dynamic load, static analysis of the system is usually required first. the wave, and ψ n is the nth harmonic force. CnL is the transverse force
Generally, this analysis is carried out by taking the environmental load coefficient of the nth harmonic force, which is a function of KC.
as the static load, and the initial mooring tension is obtained according For the inclined cylinder, the general form of the Morison equation
to the overall force analysis and local force analysis of the mooring should be written as shown in Eq. (4).
system. 1 πD2
f = CD ρDUn |Un | + CM ρ U̇ n (4)
2 4
3.1. Effects of wave loads
where f is the wave load vector acting on the unit cylinder length at any
Slender cylinders, such as those with D/L < 0.2 (D is the diameter of height z of the inclined cylinder, Un = (Uwater − ẋ) and U̇n = (U̇water −
the cylinder, and L is the length of the spanwise direction), have no ẍ)are the velocity and acceleration of the water particle relative to the
significant influence on wave motion compared with the wavelength. cylinder, Uwater and U̇water are the velocity and acceleration of the water
The main effects of waves on structures are viscous effects and addi particle, ẋ and ẍ are the velocity and acceleration of the cylinder,
tional mass effects. The Morison equation is still widely used in engi respectively.
neering design to calculate wave forces. For marine structures with a The inertia force and towing force are calculated using the Morison
relative scale greater than 0.2, the existence of the structure itself has a equation based on linear wave theory (Seo et al., 2015a). The theoretical
significant influence on wave motion. The scattering effect of incident method was verified by comparing the results with those of an experi
waves and the free surface effect must be considered. Wave forces are ment that was conducted with a model in a water tank. The mooring
calculated by using the potential current theory. The Morison equation system had a great influence on the movement of suspended tunnels in
is widely used for calculating wave forces on marine structures on a the presence of waves. Ge et al. (2008) investigated the dynamic
relatively small scale because it can obtain satisfactory results (Morison response of an SFT under a regular wave load. The wave loads on the
et al., 1950). The key to the application of this equation is the selection tube were calculated using Airy linear wave theory and the Morison
of a suitable wave theory and hydrodynamic coefficients, such as the equation. The simulated results showed that the surge response was
drag coefficient and inertia force coefficient. The equation can be used to much greater than the responses of the other degrees of freedom under
calculate the wave load acting on small-scale components of SFTs, such wave loads. The decrease in the wave frequency and the tether preten
as the tether system. The formula for calculating the horizontal wave sion caused large response amplitudes. If the coupled effects of SFT
5
Table 3 the tube can be regarded as a large structure. At present, diffraction

Research on hybrid-type tether systems. theory is widely used for calculating wave loads on large structures.
Ref. Study theme Pictorial Representation Kunisu (2010) calculated the wave load acting on an SFT based on
diffraction theory using a boundary element method. The results of the
(Jin et al., Dynamic response
2020a) under wave loads calculation showed good agreement with experimental results. Mai
(Jeong et al., Feasibility analyses et al. (2007) used wave diffraction theory and the source sink method to
2022) solve the wave load on the tube of an SFT. The effects of the wave
incidence angle, tube placement depth and surface velocity on the wave
load were analysed. Furthermore, some researchers have used other
theoretical methods to analyse the dynamic response of SFTs under
wave loads. For example, Wu et al. (2017) proposed a theoretical study
(Jin and Dynamic response of the dynamic response of the tether in an SFT under the influence of
Kim., under extreme random wave excitations. The mathematical method used to represent
2017) wave conditions the dynamic motion of the tether was established using the virtual
(Lee et al., Influence of the excitation and Galerkin methods, and the nonlinear motion equation
2017) SFT by waves and
seismic excitations
was solved by an equivalent linear method. The effects of waves and
structural parameters on the dynamic response of the tether system
under the influence of stationary and nonstationary random excitations
were analysed. Jin et al. (2023) used a fully coupled time-domain
(Kanie., Crossing plan in hydro-elastic model based on the discrete-module-beam (DMB)
2010) Funka Bay method to investigate the hydro-elastic behaviour of an SFT under
regular and random wave excitations. Many influencing factors were
studied, such as the immersion depth, buoyancy-weight ratio (BWR),
wave conditions, effects of nonlinear snap loadings and the first- and
second-order wave forces.
Although there are some mature theoretical calculations of wave
loads, the experimental method is still one of the most effective methods
(Jakobsen., Crossing plan in to investigate the dynamic characteristics of SFTs undergoing wave
2010) Høgsfjord, Norway
loads. Experiments can not only verify the correctness of a theoretical
method but also provide hydrodynamic coefficients for some theoretical
calculations. Yang et al. (2020) studied the 2D motion characteristics
(heave, sway and roll) of an SFT under regular waves through systematic
experiments. The SFT model with a diameter of 0.16 m and length of
0.987 m was made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and steel. Lead blocks
were placed inside the model SFT to obtain different
(Faggiano Crossing plan in buoyancy-to-weight ratios (BWRs). The model SFT was moored by wires
et al., the Gulf of linked to the front and rear sides of the model to fix it above the bottom
2016) California of a tank. Three standard colour blocks (i.e., red, green and blue) were
stuck on the surface of the section to track the movement, as shown in
Fig. 6. The effects of wave height, wave period, water depth, BWR and
mooring line angle were analysed. The displacement amplitude
increased with wave height. The sway, heave and roll of the SFT sub
merged beneath the water’s surface were much smaller than those of the
SFT on the water’s surface. Oh et al. (2013) experimentally studied the
(Seo et al., Dynamic response effect of depths and BWR on the hydrodynamic response of an SFT under
2015a) under wave loads
regular wave loads with different wavelengths and periods. The sway
and heave of the SFT increased linearly with increasing wave height and
period, while the roll was insensitive to changes in wavelength and
period unless the wave height and period were significantly larger than
the period of the designed wave height. Mou et al. (2022) performed
model tests on a tube section of an SFT to study the dynamic response of
an SFT with different types of tether systems. A better and safer type of
(Won et al., Dynamic response tether system with good performance in the presence of sway, pitch, roll
2021a) under irregular
motion and tether tension was proposed. Kim et al. (2022) experimen
wave loads
tally investigated the dynamic response of single and dual-type SFTs by
using a 2-D wave flume and found that the SFT behaviour is affected by
the wave height, period and characteristic dimension.
With the improvement in computer performance and the develop
ment of calculation methods, the numerical simulation of wave loads
acting on the SFT was achieved. Numerical methods are not only
economical; they can simulate complex wave loads that are difficult to
motions with different degrees of freedom were ignored, then the reproduce in physical experiments. Many researchers have used nu
calculated heave amplitude was less than the true value. merical methods to study the dynamic characteristics of SFTs under
The effect of structures on waves should be considered when calcu wave loads. Chen et al. (2020) numerically investigated the dynamic
lating the load on structures with relatively large dimensions. For SFTs, response of an SFT driven by surface waves and found that the estab
lished numerical calculation method can accurately simulate the SFT
6
Fig. 4. Final joints of the SFT.
Fig. 5. Intermediate joints of the SFT.
SFT to a regular wave. The validity of the numerical method was verified
Table 4
based on experimental results. The effects of tether length, BWR, wave
Codes, standards and recommended practices that are relevant to SFT design.
period, wave height and water depth on the displacement amplitude of
Requirements Codes, standards and recommended practices the SFT were considered, and the results showed that the tube
Environmental DNV-RP-O205-Environmental Conditions and Environmental displacement and tether tension increased with increasing wave height
loads Loads (DET NORSKE VERITASDNV, G.L.(DNV), 2019) and wave period and decreased with increasing water depth. Lee et al.
Traffic loads AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (2020)
(2017) employed the commercial software program OrcaFlex and an
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures (2003)
Accidental loads DNV-RP-C204 Design against Accidental Loads (2021) in-house CHARM3D program to solve for the dynamic response of an
Tube design DNV-OS-C502 Offshore Concrete Structures (2012) SFT under regular and irregular wave actions. The numerical results
API RP 2FPS Planning, Designing, and Constructing Floating were in good agreement with the experimental results. Zou et al. (2021)
Production Systems (2011) studied the dynamic characteristics of SFTs with different
Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
(2005)
cross-sectional shapes in the presence of internal solitary waves. The
Tether system DNV-RP-E304 Damage Assessment of Fibre Ropes for Offshore parametric SFT cross section (instead of circular or elliptical cross sec
design Mooring (2021) tions) significantly reduced loads of individual solitary waves on the
DNV-OS-E301 Position Mooring (2021) tube. The effect of the relative distance of the SFT from the inner solitary
Joint design JTG-3371 Specifications for Design of Highway Underwater
wave was very significant because it could change the vertical force and
Tunnel (Ministry of Transport of the People’s Republic of
China (MOT of China), 2022) BWR of the SFT during the propagation of the inner solitary wave. Dong
Safety evaluation DNV-RP-O401 Safety and Reliability of Subsea System (2017) et al. (2012) employed computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to investi
gate the effect of emergency escape devices on the wave load on an SFT.
The horizontal and vertical wave loads on the SFT were magnified to
dynamic response and provide guidance for the choice of inclined some extent by emergency escape devices. The dynamic response of the
mooring angle in engineering design. SFT under a random wave load can also be obtained based on the ma
Luo et al. (2022a) numerically studied the dynamic response of an chine learning method. Kwon et al. (2020) presented a machine-learning
7
Fig. 6. Experimental tests on a model SFT under wave loads (Yang et al., 2020).
method for detecting SFT mooring failures based on a deep neural where CL is the lift coefficient, CD is the drag coefficient, ρ is the density
network (DNN) and found that the DNN model can effectively monitor of the fluid, U is the steady flow velocity. At present, much literature is
the mooring failures of SFTs utilizing real-time sensor signals. Later, available about mechanistic and engineering application research about
Kwon et al. (2022) proposed the application of a machine learning vortex-induced vibration (VIV) of SFTs.
method based on artificial neural networks (ANNs) and digital sensors to Semi-empirical models are widely used to investigate VIV due to
predict the dynamic behaviour of an SFT. Training and testing data were their simplicity and convenience. The wake oscillator model is one of the
generated by numerical simulations under the influence of various most widely used semi-empirical models. The wake behind the structure
random wave excitations. The results showed that the dynamic response is regarded as a nonlinear oscillator, which is called a wake oscillator.
of an SFT could be successfully predicted by the machine learning The vibration of the structure is caused by the vibration of the wake
method. oscillator and the structural vibration feedback to the wake oscillator,
In addition, some scholars have studied the dynamic response of which describes the coupling between the wake and the structure Har
SFTs under extreme wave loads, for example, internal solitary waves and tlen and Currie, 1970). Hartlen and Currie (1970) proposed a mathe
tsunamis. Zou et al. (2021) investigated the impacts of internal solitary matical expression for a wake oscillator model and used the van der Pol
waves (ISWs) on an SFT. The numerical results showed that the equation to simulate the dynamic characteristics of a wake. Considering
ISW-induced force can be effectively reduced by adopting a parametric only the transverse vibration of the structure, the governing equation
SFT cross section and that the relative distance of the SFT to the ISW and wake vibrator equation in the dimensionless form are written as
pycnocline can remarkably alter the vertical force and BWR of the SFT. shown in Eqs. (8) and ((9).
In addition, Zou et al. (2020b) also used the CFD method to study the
response of the Qiongzhou Strait under a tsunami and severe storm surge η̈y + 2ξη̇y + ηy = aΩCL (8)
and found that the typhoon had a greater impact on an SFT than the
γ
tsunami. In addition, the selection of the parameterized section shape of C̈L − aΩĊL + (ĊL )3 + Ω2 CL = bηy (9)
the SFT could reduce the in-line force and postpone vortex shedding. Ω
where ηy is the dimensionless displacement in the crossflow direction, ξ

3.2. Effects of the current load is the structural damping ratio, Ω is the frequency ratio, and a, b, α, γ are
dimensionless constants determined from experimental data. The wake
When water flows through the main structure of the SFT at a certain oscillator model proposed by Hartlen and Currie (1970) was subse
speed, periodic vortex shedding may occur behind the tube or tether, quently improved and can quantitatively predict the VIV response when
causing periodic lift forces perpendicular to the direction of the lock-in occurs (Skop and Griffin, 1973; Iwan and Blevins, 1974). To
incoming flow and drag forces that periodically vary along the direction better realize the coupling between structure and fluid, Facchinetti et al.
of flow. The vortex shedding frequency follows Strouhal’s law, as shown (2004) studied the forms of coupling of displacement, velocity and ac
in Eq. (5). celeration. The displacement coupling terms and velocity coupling
fv D terms cannot effectively predict the lift phase relationship. In addition,
St = (5) the displacement coupling term cannot predict the lift force in the
U
lock-in region. The model based on the acceleration coupling term can
where St is the Strouhal number, fv is the vortex shedding frequency, and predict the basic characteristics of VIV. To further expand the applica
U is the velocity of the fluid. Vortex-induced resonance may occur when tion scope of the wake oscillator model, Xu et al. (2011, 2012) proposed
the vortex shedding frequency is close to a certain natural frequency of a parameter calibration method for the model. Based on the calibrated
the tube or tether. Within a certain range of flow velocities, the vortex parameters, the wake oscillator model can quantitatively predict the
shedding frequency no longer satisfies Strouhal’s law but is locked near vibrations in the pure in-line direction. Gao et al. (2018) considered the
the natural frequency of the structure. When resonance occurs, vortex influence of the Reynolds number on the wake oscillator model, further
shedding causes the cross-flow amplitude of the structureincreases improving the accuracy of prediction of VIV. Ge et al. (2007) used the
sharply. The periodic lift and drag force can be written as Eqs. (6) and wake oscillator model to investigate the VIV of an SFT tether under shear
(7), respectively. flow. The BWR of the tube could change the lock-on region of the tether,
1 which made the vibration of the tether more complex. With increasing
FL = ρU 2 DCL (6) steepness parameter of shear flow, the vibration amplitude of the tether
2
decreased. If the effect of shear flow was ignored, then the vibration
1 amplitude of the tether was overestimated.
FD = ρU 2 DCD (7)
2 Some researchers have studied the dynamic response of SFTs under
8
current loads based on model tests. Qin and Zhou (2009) obtained the velocities and water depths. The results showed that the displacement of
dynamic behaviour of an SFT by measuring the strain of a tube section the tube increased with the increasing flow velocity. The SFT structure
under different currents. In the tests, groups of two and three model was more stable when the water depth was smaller. Mandara et al.
tether supports were considered. Increasing the number of tethers could (2016) numerically investigated the dynamic behaviour of an SFT
reduce the load on the tube and the tension of the tether. The axial strain exposed to currents using ABAQUS software. The implicit large eddy
and annular strain of the tube linearly increased with the flow velocity. simulation and RANS-based Spalart–Allmaras model were used to
The tension of the tether upstream of the tube showed different features accurately model turbulence. The results verified that the large eddy
compared to that of the tether downstream of the tube. With increasing simulation method could be employed for the design and optimization of
flow velocity, the tension of the tether upstream of the tube linearly SFTs. Shao et al. (2022) applied the smoothed particle hydrodynamics
increased, while the behaviour was the opposite for the tension of the (SPH) method to investigate the dynamic characteristics of both the tube
tether downstream of the tube. Chao et al. (2016) performed tests on the and the tether of an SFT under a current load. Considering the tube
tether of a model SFT under the influence of a current load in a water motion and tether force, a novel sensitive damage detection approach
channel. The acceleration, velocity and displacement of the model tether was proposed to identify damage to the SFT caused by current-induced
were acquired during the tests. The vibration amplitude in the crossflow vibrations.
direction could reach a large value when the tether oscillation was
resonant with vortex shedding behind the tether. The mean displace
3.3. Combined effects of wave and current loads
ment in the in-line flow direction increased with the flow velocity, while
the vibration amplitude in the in-line flow direction was slightly affected
In practical engineering, waves and currents always act simulta
by the flow velocity. Deng et al. (2020) experimentally investigated the
neously on the SFT. Some researchers believe that the coupling effect
VIV features of an SFT composed of two rigidly connected tubes in a
may not be obvious in some cases. It is feasible to adopt the method of
tandem configuration. The spacing ratio between the two tubes had a
separately considering wave and current forces on the structure (Mai
significant effect on the lift coefficients of the tubes. When the spacing
et al., 2005; Gao et al., 2014a). However, the coupling between waves
ratio was small, the lift coefficient of the upstream tube was almost 40
and currents in the flow field makes the dynamic characteristics of the
times that of a stationary tube. When the two tubes were subject to VIV,
structure more complex in some cases. The structural response to
the upstream tube had a larger lift coefficient than the downstream tube.
wave-current coupling can naturally give a more realistic result. For
The difference in the lift coefficients of the two tubes decreased with an
simplicity, the coupling of waves and currents can be considered by
increasing spacing ratio.
linearly superimposing the velocity of the water, particularly under the
Numerical methods are also used by many researchers to solve for
influence of currents and waves, in the Morison equation, as shown in
the dynamic response of an SFT under the influence of a current load.
Eq. (10).
Jin et al. (2020b) studied the VIV response of an SFT using the
Reynolds-averaged Navier‒Stokes (RANS) method. The Reynolds ρD ⃒⃒√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ⃒⃒ (√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ √̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ )
Ftotal = ⃒ CDW Uw + CDC UC ⃒⋅ CDW Uw + CDC UC
number had a large influence on the vibration amplitude and fluid force 2
on the SFT under the influence of the current. Zou et al. (2022) πD2 dUw
+ CM ρ (10)
employed the CFD‒FEM unidirectional coupling method to solve for the 4 dt
dynamic response of an SFT with two types of cross sections under
current loads. The tube with a parameterized section shape could sup where Ftotal is the hydrodynamic load induced by the wave and current,
press vortex shedding behind the tube, which significantly reduced the CDW is the drag coefficient under the influence of the wave, CDC is the
lift and drag forces acting on the tube, as shown in Fig. 7. Hence, the drag coefficient under the influence of the current, Uw is the velocity of
vibration amplitude was much smaller for the tube with the parame the water under the influence of the wave, and Uc is the velocity of the
terized cross-sectional shape than the tube with the circular cross sec current. In addition to the direct superimposition of the velocity of
tion. Jiang et al. (2018) used the commercial CFD software package water, another method is to calculate the water velocity based on the
Fluent to study the dynamic response of an SFT at various current velocity potential function, which considers the effect of coupled waves
and currents. Assuming that only waves are present, the velocity po
tential function of the flow field is ϕw. Considering the coupling of waves
and currents, the velocity potential function of the flow field ϕwc can be
written as Eq. (11).
ϕwc = ϕc + ϕw (11)
where ϕc is the velocity potential function of the current. Considering

the combined effects of waves and currents, the velocity can be obtained
from the velocity potential function of the flow field ϕwc. Some re
searchers have studied the coupling mechanism of waves and currents.
Zou et al. (2013) established the Boussinesq equation of wave-current
interaction by using the perturbation expansion method and analysed
the nonlinear characteristics of wave-current interactions in finite water
depths. The presence of a current changes the average water depth,
which has a significant effect on the wave pattern. Ning et al. (2010)
established a fully nonlinear numerical model of a water tank with
wave-current coupling by the high-order boundary element method in
the time domain. The model can simulate the strong nonlinear problem
of the wave-current coupling according to comparisons of the results of
the Boussinesq equation model.
Some theoretical research has been conducted on the dynamic
characteristics of SFTs under the combined effects of wave and current
Fig. 7. Comparison of the cross-sectional shapes of the tube under current loads loads. Tian et al. (2014) and Dong et al. (2016) established a stratified
(Zou et al., 2022). ocean internal wave flow field based on the potential flow function
9
theory. The Morison equation was employed to consider the combined acceleration is directly input. The accuracy of the time-history analysis
forces of internal waves and ocean currents. A mathematical and phys method mainly depends on the selection of seismic waves. Jin and Kim.
ical model was established to describe the nonlinear fluid interaction (2021) established a coupled time-domain simulation model for an SFT
vibration of the SFT. The results showed that the effects of ocean internal to evaluate the hydro-elastic behaviour under the design of random
waves cannot be ignored because they made the vibration amplitude of wave and earthquake excitations. Different BWRs, submergence depths
the first- and third-order modes increase significantly and reflected and tunnel lengths (and mooring intervals) were chosen to establish a
strong nonlinearity. Chen et al. (2018) proposed a theoretical model to design strategy for reducing the maximum mooring tension. It was found
investigate the nonlinear dynamic response of the SFT. The combined that the BWR plays a crucial role in preventing snap loading and that the
effects of waves and currents were considered using the Morrison corresponding static tension is a primary factor if the environmental
equation. If the vibration of the tether was dominated by a conditions are mild. Pilato et al. (2008) and Martire et al. (2010)
vortex-induced force, then the wave force had limited influence on the employed the time-history analysis method to solve for the seismic
vibration amplitude of the tether due to the difference between the response of an SFT according to the plans for its future construction in
periods of the wave and VIV. However, the vertical motion of the tube the Strait of Messina. The response spectrum method is also used to
induced by the wave could excite the parametric vibration of the tether, calculate the maximum seismic response of structures by inputting the
and the resonance between the parametric vibration and VIV would curve that contains the relationship between the seismic acceleration
significantly increase the vibration amplitude of the tether. The vertical and the vibration period of the structure. However, the response spec
motion of the tube increased with the wave height when the water depth trum method cannot present the time-history response of the structure
was not more than 40 m. during the earthquake process, and it is difficult to use the response
Few researchers have conducted model tests on the SFT under the spectrum method to investigate the nonlinear characteristics of the
combined effect of waves and currents. Wu et al. (2022a) experimentally structure during a strong earthquake. Martinelli et al. (2010) studied the
investigated the hydrodynamic behaviour and progressive collapse of seismic response of the Qiandao Lake SFT using the response spectrum
the SFT under the combined action of regular waves and uniform flow. method. The virtual excitation method is an efficient and accurate
Owing to the combined effect of wave-current coupling and impact load random analysis method that can provide a statistical means to solve the
induced by tether breakage, the vibration amplitude of the tube was structural response, but it is commonly used to solve problems associ
significantly greater, which led to the irregular and unstable motion of ated with linear structure systems. Dong et al. (2013, 2014) employed
the tube. The increased vibration amplitude was larger than the sum of the virtual excitation method to study the dynamic response of the tether
the other two loading states, meaning that there was a nonlinear su and tube under seismic action.
perposed amplification effect for the vibration amplitude of the SFT The SFT is immersed in water, and seismic excitation not only
under the combined effect of wave and current, as shown in Fig. 8. directly acts on the tether base but also produces hydrodynamic pressure
Some researchers have numerically studied the dynamic response of that propagates in water and indirectly acts on the SFT. Most studies on
an SFT under the combined action of wave and current loads. Yang et al. the seismic response of SFT ignored the hydrodynamic pressure caused
(2021a) established a finite element model of an SFT in ANSYS/AQWA by earthquakes and only considered the motion of the tether base
software and investigated the dynamic response of the SFT under induced by ground motion (Chen and Huang, 2010; Dong et al., 2013,
combined wave and current conditions. Two significant frequency 2014; Dong and Li, 2016; Foti et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2017; Martire et al.,
components were observed in the vibration of the tube. The 2010; Pilato et al., 2008; Su and Sun, 2013; Xiao and Huang, 2010).
low-frequency component was induced by the current flow, while the However, the hydrodynamic pressure has a significant effect on the SFT.
high-frequency component was associated with the wave load. The The main methods for solving the hydrodynamic pressure generated by
tension of the tether under the combined effects of waves and current earthquakes can be divided into two categories, namely, the Morison
was not significantly increased, which meant that the coupling effect equalization method and the potential flow theory method. Considering
was not a simple superposition. the hydrodynamic pressure caused by earthquakes, Wu and Mei (2017)
employed the Morison equation to investigate the dynamic response of
3.4. Effects of earthquakes SFT tethers. The coupling of seismic excitation and hydrodynamic force
enhanced the vibration amplitude of the tethers, and significant
Earthquakes are a very great threat to the safety of SFTs. To ensure high-frequency components were observed in the spectrum.
safety, it is necessary to investigate the dynamic characteristics of SFTs Some researchers have investigated the effect of hydrodynamic
under the influence of earthquakes. pressure based on potential flow theory (Akbarzadeh et al., 2021; Mir
When an earthquake occurs, the tether base moves with the ground, zapour et al., 2017; Xie and Chen, 2021). According to potential flow
resulting in changes in the tether tension and motion of the tube. The theory, the Laplace equation in a cylindrical coordinate system can be
simulation of seismic loads is mainly achieved by three methods, written as shown in Eq. (12).
namely, time-history analysis, response spectrum and virtual excitation ∂2 φ 1 ∂φ 1 ∂2 φ
methods. The time-history analysis method is recognized as an accurate ∇2 φ = + + =0 (12)
∂r2 r ∂r r2 ∂θ2
method that can fully describe the dynamic response of the structure
during earthquakes when the time history of the earthquake Considering the boundary conditions, the velocity potential function
of the flow field φ can be solved, as shown in Eq. (13).
( )
R2
φ = vw (x, t) r + 2 cosθ (13)
r
where R is the diameter of the cylindrical structure, r ≥ R, and

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.vw is the velocity of the water particle. Assuming that the
water is incompressible, the speeds of the movement of water and
ground are the same. The pressure on the surface of the structure can be
obtained based on the Bernoulli equation, as shown in Eq. (14).
( )
∂φ
p=− ρ (14)
Fig. 8. Vibration amplitude of the SFT under the combined effects of waves and ∂t
current (Wu et al., 2022a).
10
The hydrodynamic pressure per unit length acting on the structure is seismic excitation on an SFT. The spatial variation in ground motion
written as shown in Eq. (15). could change the location of the extreme displacement of the tube, and
∫ the displacement increased significantly when the tube span was long.
P=− pnds = 2ρπ R2 v̇w (x, t) (15) Akbarzadeh et al. (2021) linearized the propagation of ground motion
S
and considered the influence of all three spatial variation effects on the
Mirzapour et al. (2017) investigated the dynamic response of SFTs seismic response of an SFT. The results showed that multipoint seismic
under seismic loads using potential flow theory. The fluid field was excitation could significantly change the vibration mode, displacement
described using 2D and 3D velocity potential functions. The 2D and 3D amplitude and distribution of internal force.
fluid fields had a significant effect on the displacement pattern and Conducting tests with a shaking table is an essential way to study the
magnitude along the tube length. Xie and Chen (2021) employed po seismic response of an SFT. The tests can simulate ground motion similar
tential flow theory to solve for the hydrodynamic pressure on SFTs. The to an actual earthquake, which provides an accurate evaluation of the
built depth and tether stiffness were the most important factors that overall seismic capacity of the SFT. Chen et al. (2012) studied the dy
influenced the maximum displacement of the SFT under hydrodynamic namic response of a model SFT that underwent a seismic load on an
pressure. The maximum displacement decreased with increasing built underwater shaking table. The experimental system was composed of an
depth. When the tether stiffness was large, the maximum displacement underwater shaking table, a driving system, a central controlling system
decreased with increasing tether stiffness. The maximum displacement and a pool of water (15 m long and 7.4 m wide), as shown in Fig. 9. The
of the mid-span fluctuated when the tether stiffness was small. Shekari experimental results showed that the dynamic response was larger for a
et al. (2022) investigated the seismic response of SFTs using a coupled vertical than a horizontal excitation force. The vibration amplitude was
2D fluid-structure interaction approach. The acceleration response of an larger for a model SFT with a tether inclination of 60◦ than with a tether
SFT was much larger under vertical than horizontal seismic excitation inclination of 45◦ for sinusoidal and random excitations. However, the
due to the horizontal constraint of the tube. However, horizontal seismic tether inclination showed a slight effect on the hydrodynamic pressure
excitation with long periods could have adverse effects on the SFT. Lee on the tube subjected to vertical excitation.
et al. (2016) numerically studied the hydrodynamic pressure and found Seaquakes, which arise from the longitudinal wave generated by an
that the compressibility of seawater, water depth and energy absorption earthquake propagating upwards in the form of a vertical compression
by an elastic seabed had significant effects on the vibration of the tube. wave in seawater, also affect SFT safety. Some scholars have addressed
Therefore, the effect of hydrodynamic pressure caused by earthquakes the SFT response under a seaquake. Martinelli et al. (2016) compared
should be considered when solving for the seismic response of an SFT. the SFT response under the action of earthquakes and seaquakes and
Due to the large span of the SFT, the spatial variation effects of found that the seaquake force is an important excitation force for SFTs.
seismic waves should be considered in the investigation of the dynamic Jin et al. (2021a) found that earthquakes cause transient SFT responses,
response. Influence by spatial variation mainly includes travelling especially at their lowest wet natural frequencies, while high-frequency
waves, partial coherence and local field effects. Martire et al. (2010) motions are induced by the seaquake effect.
employed the finite element method to investigate the multipoint
seismic response of SFTs. Various vibration modes with high frequencies 3.5. Combined effects of waves, currents, and earthquakes
were excited by multipoint seismic excitation considering spatial vari
ation. Chen and Huang (2010) used a time delay method to apply a In cases of extreme environment conditions, the environmental loads
multipoint seismic excitation to an SFT tube to simulate the passage of caused by earthquakes, waves and currents act simultaneously on an
horizontal seismic waves along the axial direction of the tube. The vi SFT. The coupled effects of waves, currents and earthquakes make the
bration amplitude of the tube was larger than the result under the dynamic characteristics of SFTs very complicated.
condition of multipoint simultaneous excitation. Considering the spatial Some researchers have studied the dynamic response of the SFT
variation effect of seismic waves, Martinelli et al. (2011) constructed a under the combined effects of waves, currents and earthquakes based on
finite element model of an SFT by simulating the tether as a three-node theoretical and numerical methods. Kim and Kwak (2021) numerically
parameter element. The spatial variation effect of seismic waves could studied the dynamic response of an SFT under wave and earthquake
slightly increase the values of the internal forces of the SFT when excitations. The wave load and seismic load were equivalent to static
compared to the case of synchronous seismic excitation. Jin et al. loads on the SFT. The reaction force of the tether system was evaluated
(2021a) and Mirzapour et al. (2017) employed a coherence function to when the SFT was subjected to wave and earthquake excitations. Kim
consider the partial coherence effect but ignored the local field effect of et al. (2021) proposed a 3D equivalent static method to evaluate the
Fig. 9. Underwater shaking table and model SFT (Chen et al., 2012).
11
mechanical properties of the tube section of an SFT under the influence

of waves, currents and earthquakes. The entire time-history analysis of
the SFT was also conducted by OrcaFlex and ABAQUS to verify the
equivalent static method. Coupled dynamic loads, such as waves, cur
rents and earthquakes could be decomposed and regarded as indepen
dent loads when maximum forces were evaluated in the preliminary
design of an SFT section. Zhang et al. (2010b) employed a homogenized
equivalent single-layer tube model to investigate the strength of the
Qiandao Lake SFT under wave, current and earthquake excitations.
Using the principle of bending stiffness equivalence, the effective
bending stiffness and the corresponding Young’s modulus of the tube
were deduced. The SFT had a large allowance of strength under the
combined wave and current excitations, while the safety of the SFT was
not guaranteed when earthquakes occurred. Mazzolani et al. (2008)
found that the effect of seismic loads on the tether could make the tether
completely lose its initial tension and exhibit markedly nonlinear
behaviour, meaning that the effect of a seismic load was more significant
than those of waves and currents. Jin and Kim (2018) studied the dy
namic response of a 700 m-long SFT under extreme waves and seismic
excitations. The model tube and tether elements were constructed based
on rod theory finite elements. The dummy connection mass method was
employed to connect the tube sections and tether elements. The hy
drodynamic loads on the SFT were obtained by the modified Morison
equation, which could compute the hydrodynamic forces caused by
waves and seismic excitations at instantaneous positions at every time
step. In the case of irregular seismic excitations, the maximum tension of
the tether was much smaller than in the case of extreme wave excitation.
However, when the natural frequencies of the SFT were close to the
frequencies of seismic excitations, larger dynamic amplifications were
expected. Kang et al. (2016b)numerically investigated the dynamic re
Fig. 10. Overview of the experimental setup of tests using the model SFT (Wu
sponses of an SFT under the influence of currents and seismic excita
et al., 2021).
tions. The tube was regarded as an Euler‒Bernoulli beam, and the tether
was modelled by the hinged supports of the tube. The vibration
the responses of the SFT subjected to independent earthquake, wave and
behaviour of the SFT was nonlinear when the vortex-induced forces and
current loads was not exact.
seismic load acted simultaneously on the SFT, which meant that the
superposition method was not suitable for the solution of the response
under the combined action of currents and seismic excitations. Jin et al. 4. Dynamic characteristics of the SFT under traffic and
(2021a) proposed a theoretical model to investigate the coupled dy accidental loads
namic response of the tube-tether-train interaction in response to waves
and earthquake excitations. The traffic load caused by moving trains had 4.1. Effects of traffic loads
a much smaller effect on the dynamic response of the SFT compared to
the effects of the wave and seismic loads. Structural damping was The main function of the SFT is to allow vehicles and trains to quickly
important for dissipating the seismic transient responses but had a limit pass through a body of water. The movement of the vehicles and trains
effect on the wave-induced response. inside the SFT causes a traffic load, and it is important to consider this
Model tests are important methods to study the dynamic response of dynamic load. Although a traffic load is smaller than an extreme envi
SFTs under the combined effects of waves, currents and earthquakes. ronmental load, the long-term and periodic loads derived from traffic
However, there have been very few experimental research studies on will cause serious fatigue damage and affect driving safety. Thus, it is
this subject. Wu et al. (2021) performed tests on a model SFT subjected highly necessary to investigate the effect of traffic loads on the dynamic
to the combined actions of earthquakes, waves and currents in a characteristics of SFTs.
wave-current flume, shown in Fig. 10. An underwater shaking device The vehicle load can be considered a single-moving concentrated
was designed to simulate seismic excitation. Under the seismic load force load acting on the tube of the SFT. Some researchers have proposed
alone, multifrequency and high-frequency vibrations of the tether were theoretical models to describe the interaction between the vehicle and
excited, which generated alternate slack-taut behaviour and increased the tube (Lin et al., 2018, 2019; Yuan et al., 2016).
the possibility of tether breakage. Under the combined effect of seismic The SFT can be modelled as a simply supported elastic beam, and the
and wave loads, the wave parameters had a distinct influence on the vehicle can be modelled as a spring-mass block, as shown in Fig. 11.
dynamic characteristics of the SFT. Increasing wave height could in Based on the D’Alembert principle, the interaction between the vehicle
crease the tension on the tether and the roll of the tube and decrease the and the tube can be described by Eqs. (16) and (17).
horizontal acceleration. The wave period could increase the roll and [
∂w(x, t)
]
horizontal acceleration of the tube and make the tether tension first fv (x, t) = mv g + kv [u(t) − w(x, t)δ(x − vt)] + cv u̇(t) −
∂t
δ(x − vt)
increase and then decrease. Under the combined effects of the seismic, (16)
wave and current loads, the dynamic response of the SFT showed
[ ]
obvious features with large fluctuations and randomness. The current ∂w(x, t)
had a promoting effect on waves that could change the phase difference mv ü(t) + kv [u(t) − w(x, t)δ(x − vt)] + cv u̇(t) − δ(x − vt) = 0 (17)
∂t
between the peak wave load and earthquake acceleration. The tension
on the tether tension and the roll and horizontal acceleration of the tube where fv (x, t) is the vehicle load, mv is the mass of the vehicle system, kv
significantly increased, which indicated that the simple superposition of is the stiffness of the vehicle system, cv is the damping of the vehicle
12
Fig. 11. Analytical model of the SFT under the influence of a traffic load (Lin
et al., 2018).
system, u(t) is the vertical displacement of the vehicle, w(x, t) is the

vertical displacement of the vehicle, x is the axial coordinate of the tube
of the SFT, and δ denotes the Dirac delta function. The tube of the SFT is
mostly straight, which means that the lateral force generated by the
moving vehicle is much smaller than the vertical force. The effect of the Fig. 12. Analytical model of the SFT including the response of the tether sys
lateral force on the SFT in the theoretical model is ignored when the SFT tem (Lin et al., 2019).
is assumed to be straight, as shown in Eq. (18).
∂2 w ∂w ∂4 w amplification effect of the vehicle load, which is an effective way to

m +c + EI 4 + kw = fv (x, t) + fD (x, t) (18) improve the stability of an SFT.
∂t 2 ∂t ∂x
If the numbers of vehicles passing along the roads in both directions
where m is the mass of the tube, c is the damping of the tube, EI is the in the tube are not balanced, then the eccentric load of vehicles will
bending stiffness of the tube, k is the equivalent linear stiffness of the cause torsion of the tube. Regarding the vehicle load as a single moving
elastic foundation, and fD (x, t) is the hydrodynamic load. The theoret concentrated force is not exact when the torsion effect is considered in
ical results show that the interaction between the vehicle load and the the theoretical model. To investigate the eccentric vehicle load, the
tube vibration amplifies the dynamic response and the bending moment vehicle can be considered a complex mass-spring system in which each
of the SFT. With increasing flow velocity of the current, the amplifica vehicle wheel is a double-spring block (Yang et al., 2021b). The model of
tion effect is more significant. The effect of the vehicle load is sensitive to the eccentric vehicle load can be used to accurately calculate the force of
the intrinsic characteristics of the SFT, meaning that parameters such as each wheel on the tube. The eccentric vehicle loads had a significant
the buoyancy-weight ratio of the tube and the mooring stiffness of the effect on the vertical displacement and torsion angle of the tube.
tether system should be carefully considered in the SFT design. Increasing the distances amongst vehicles was beneficial for reducing
To further investigate the effect of the tether system on the dynamic the vertical displacement and torsion angle of the tube. The distribution
characteristics of the SFT under a vehicle load, a theoretical model of the of the vehicles and vehicle speeds were found to be the key parameters
tether system is established, as shown in Eq. (19) (Lin et al., 2019). that determined whether the vehicle load led to the resonance effect or
the vibration elimination effect.
∂2 vi (zi , t) ∂vi (zi , t) ∂2 Recently, some numerical simulation methods have been proposed
mi + ci − (Ti + ΔTi ) 2 = − fdi (zi , t) (19)
∂t2 ∂t ∂zi to study the dynamic characteristics of SFTs undergoing vehicle loads
The theoretical model of the tether system considers the angle and (Jiang et al., 2022; Liang and Jiang, 2016; Xiang et al., 2021). Jiang
number of tethers. mi is the mass of the tether at section i where the et al. (2022) numerically studied the dynamic response of the tube under
tether is located, ci is the damping of the tether, vi (zi, t) is the axial the combined effect of vehicle, wave and current loads. A finite element
displacement of the tether, fdi (zi, t) is the hydrodynamic load on the analysis model was established by using the ANSYS Workbench. The
tether, and zi is the axial coordinate of the tether. Ti is the initial tension Airy linear wave was considered, and the RNG k-ε turbulence model was
in static equilibrium, and ΔTi is the vibration tension increment of the employed to describe the effect of the current. The contact surface be
tether, as shown in Eq. (20). tween the vehicle wheels and the road surface was simulated by a single
∫ circle, and the vehicle loads were considered moving vibration loads.
Ei Ai li The dynamic response of the tube was enhanced with an increasing
ΔTi = εi dzi (20)
li 0 number of vehicles per unit distance. The vehicle loads had a significant
amplification influence on the transverse vibration displacement of the
where Ei is the elastic modulus, Ai is the cross-sectional area, li is the tube. Under extreme vehicle load conditions, the response of the tube
length, and εi is the dynamic strain, as shown in Eq. (21). was very sensitive to the distribution of the vehicles, and the two-way
(
w(xi , t)sinai 1 ∂ui (zi , t)
)2 reverse distribution reduced the increase in the dynamic response.
εi = + (21) Xiang et al. (2021) numerically investigated the dynamic response of the
li 2 ∂zi
tube under the combined effects of vehicle and current loads using
where ai is the angle of the tether and w (xi, t) is the vertical displace ABAQUS software. The vehicle-fluid-tube coupling analysis was realized
ment of the tube, as shown in Fig. 12. The result shows that the through the subroutine interface. The fluid force was described by the
amplification effect of the vehicle load on the dynamic response and the Morison equation, and the vehicle load was regarded as a spring-mass
bending moment would be undervalued if the coupling influence of the block acting on the tube. To verify the numerical simulation method,
tether system is ignored. Increasing the tether angle can enhance the model tests were conducted in a water flume, as shown in Fig. 13. The
fluctuation in the tension of the tether. The vibration of the tether has a working span of the model of the SFT tube made of aluminium was 10 m,
significant influence on the vehicle when the velocity is slow. A large and the velocity of the vehicle model was controlled by the traction
value of the buoyancy-weight ratio is beneficial to reducing the system. The displacement, acceleration and strain at the key points on
the tube model were acquired during the tests. The experimental results
13
Fig. 13. Tests of a model SFT under vehicle loads (Xiang et al., 2021).
and the numerical results agreed well and showed that the vehicle load energy conservation should be obeyed. Additionally, the added mass
enhanced the dynamic response of the SFT tube. effect, fluid damping and nonlinear deformation must be considered due
Unlike vehicles, a train often consists of multiple compartments and to the immersion of the SFT in a body of water. Some research studies
sets of wheels. The load of the train wheels does not act directly on the have used theoretical and numerical methods to investigate collisions of
SFT road but is transferred through the track (Jin and kim, 2020; Jin objects with SFTs.
et al., 2021a). The train element usually consists of a car body, two In the theoretical model, the tube is usually modelled as a beam or
bogies and four-wheel sets, which can be modelled by the rigid-body shell, and the tether is simplified as an elastic support. In earlier
dynamic method. The parts of the train element are regarded as rigid research, the impact load was applied directly above the tube, which
bodies connected by dampers and springs. The vibrations from the train meant that the tube vibrated only in the vertical direction (Zhang et al.,
due to track irregularity can be considered by the spectrum method. The 2016). The impact load was assumed to be a concentrated load such that
wheel sets of the train interact with the rail, which is installed in the SFT the impact force instantaneously reached the peak value and then
tube. The relative motion between the wheel and the rail is ignored decreased to zero. The velocity and mass of the impacting object
when solving the train-tube interaction in the vertical and torsional determined the magnitude of the impact load. With increasing velocity
directions. The lateral motion can be solved by using the simplified and mass of the impacting object, the vertical displacement of the tube
Kalker linear creep theory. Compared with waves and earthquakes, increased. Enhancing the vertical stiffness of the tether could reduce the
trains have little influence on the vertical displacement of the SFT tube vertical displacement of the tube under the impact load. Subsequently,
and almost no influence on the lateral displacement of the SFT straight the vertical, lateral and torsion motions of the tube were considered in
tube segment. However, derailment and offload factors and the theoretical model (Xiang and Yang, 2017). The governing equations
riding-comfort criteria at various train speeds should be evaluated in the of the tube were established based on Hamilton’s principle and
design of SFTs that are used for the passage of trains. consideration of the impact angle and the nonlinear hydraulic resis
tance. The results showed that the theoretical model used for solving the
response of the tube under impact load could be employed in the pri
4.2. Effects of impact loads mary design stage of an SFT. The impact load would lead to a significant
response of the tube and excite higher-order mode vibrations. The
The SFT may be struck by an object with mass and velocity, such as coupling between the torsion angle and the lateral motion was enhanced
an anchor or marine life. During the collision, the impact load acts on the by the reduction in the installation angle of the tether. The nonlinear
SFT, which may lead to significant vibration and deformation. To hydraulic resistance could reduce the maximum value of the vertical
describe the collision process, the laws of momentum conservation and
14
displacement by 20%, meaning that the nonlinear hydraulic resistance model impactor was assumed to be a submarine, as shown in Fig. 14. The
should be considered in the theoretical model. The dynamic response of SPH method was employed for the flow field simulation, and the FEM
the SFT is determined by various factors, and Wang et al. (2022) focused method was used for the structural analysis. In the numerical simula
on the coupled effects of various factors, such as end constraints, length tion, the force between the FEM meshes and water particles was trans
of the tube, structural damping and hydraulic resistance, on the response mitted by using the penalty function constraint, which achieved the
of the SFT under impact loading. The results showed that the effect of fluid-structure interaction. The initial kinetic energy of the impact ob
the end constraints on the maximum displacement of the tube could be ject was mainly converted into the internal energy of the tube and the
ignored when the dimensionless length exceeded 100. The maximum kinetic energy of the water. The kinematic parameters and the structural
displacement of the tube under impact load decreased linearly with an internal force at the impact point could reach peak values. Increasing the
increase in the structural damping ratio and hydraulic resistance tether stiffness would reduce the motion of the tube and prevent the
coefficient. expansion of the collision disaster.
Regarding the tube of the SFT as a beam is an effective way to
investigate its global dynamic behaviour under impact loading, but the 4.3. Effects of tether breakage
model beam cannot give more information about the local stress of the
tube under impact loading. To investigate the stress caused by an impact The tether systems maintain the balance of the SFT in water, and
load, the tube of the SFT can be modelled by a shell. Ge et al. (2008) they are regarded as the weakest components of the SFT. The sudden
established a simplified theoretical model of an SFT under an impact breakage of a tether leads to strong vibrations and large deformation of
load. The equivalent mass method was employed to convert the the SFT. The effect of the breakage of tethers on the stability of the SFT
distributed mass of the cylindrical shell into the concentrated mass at the has been investigated by theoretical, numerical and experimental
impact point. The effect of the fluid-added mass could reduce the methods.
displacement at the impact point, but it increased the von Mises stress. In theoretical models, the SFT is always considered an Euler beam on
The displacement and von Mises stress increased linearly with the ve discrete elastic supports, and the vibrations of the tether are neglected.
locity of the impact object. During the process of tether breakage, vibration is caused by a
Some researchers have studied the dynamic characteristics of the SFT geometrical mutation resulting from the failure of local components
under impact loading by numerical methods (Yang et al., 2019, 2021c; rather than external unequivocal dynamic loads (Xiang et al., 2020).
Luo et al., 2019). In the numerical simulation, there are two main ways How to properly simulate the failure of the local component is a key
to simulate the impact load. One approach is to directly apply an impact point. The alternate load path (AP) method (Ruiz-Teran and Aparicio,
load at a fixed position on the SFT, which is similar to the method used in 2009), which is widely used for calculations of progressive dynamic
the theoretical model. The other method is to establish a model impactor collapse of large-span spatial structures, is an effective method to
and endow the impactor with initial attributes; this method is usually simulate the breakage of tethers of SFTs. In the equilibrium state, the
employed in simulation software. Yang et al. (2019) studied the global fractured tether is replaced by the equivalent initial tension of the tether.
dynamic response of an SFT under impact loading by numerical simu Then, the tension decreases to zero during the process of tether
lation and tests with models. In both simulations and tests, the impact breakage. The equilibrium state is disrupted after tether breakage,
was regarded as an instantaneous concentrated load. The displacement causing the structure to vibrate. The redundant buoyancy of the tube
and acceleration of the tube in the numerical simulation were in good and the tensile forces of the residual tethers would make the system
agreement with those in the tests, which indicated that the numerical reach a new equilibrium state. Hence, the dynamic process of tether
simulation method could capture the dynamic features of the SFT under breakage can be equivalent to an instantaneous load acting on the
the influence of an impact load. remaining structure. The maximum value of the instantaneous load is
The effect of an impact can also be simulated by a model impactor. equal to the initial tension of the fractured tether, and the direction is
Yang et al. (2021c) studied the local response of a steel-concrete com opposite to the initial tension.
posite SFT during a collision using ABAQUS software. The model The AP method can also be used to describe the sudden fracture of
impactor was a ball with a diameter of 2.5 m. The impact strength was the tether in numerical simulations (Xiang et al., 2020). The birth-death
determined by the velocity of the impactor. Considering that the impact element is an alternative approach to simulate tether breakage in finite
load was larger than the fluid force, the hydraulic resistance was element software packages, such as ANSYS and ABAQUS. Xiang et al.
ignored, and only the fluid-added mass was considered. The concrete (2020) established a model of an SFT with beam and truss elements and
tube was prone to internal collapse and damage under collisions. The used ABAQUS to investigate the dynamic characteristics of the SFT after
exterior steel plate of the tube could increase the peak value of the tether breakage. The numerical results showed good agreement with
impact load, which enhanced the damage to the concrete. The internal theoretical results. The significant vibrations caused by tether breakage
steel plate of the tube could reduce the damage to the concrete and could spread over a long distance. The location of the fractured tether,
effectively prevent the collapse of the concrete inside the tube wall weight buoyance ratio and hydraulic resistance had obvious effects on
during the collision, which improved the airtightness and impact resis the dynamic response to tether breakage. The deformation of the tube
tance. Luo et al. (2019) proposed SPH-FEM (finite element method) was more unfavourable if tether breakage occurred at the middle span or
coupling methods to investigate the impact response of the SFT. The near the two ends of the tube than elsewhere. The increase in the weight
buoyancy ratio and the hydraulic resistance could reduce the vibration
amplitude of the tube at the breakage location.
Tests with models have also been conducted to study the dynamic
response of the SFT when the tether suddenly fractures (Xiang et al.,
2018; Wu et al., 2021). Xiang et al. (2018) experimentally investigated
the dynamic response of the SFT caused by tether breakage in still water.
Owing to the sufficient stability of the SFT model, progressive collapse
behaviour was not observed after the breakage of one of the tethers.
Tether breakage led to a large displacement of the tube, which caused
the tension of the adjacent tethers to significantly increase. Increasing
the number of tethers and reducing the initial tension of the tethers
could improve the safety reserve of the SFT against tether breakage
Fig. 14. Finite element method model (Luo et al., 2019). events. Wu et al. (2021) investigated the dynamic response caused by
15
the tether breakage of an SFT under the wave and current loads, as
shown in Fig. 15. The complicated effects of wave-current coupling had
a significant influence on the response induced by tether breakage,
which led to the irregular and unstable motion of the tube. Progressive
collapse behaviour was achieved by using a tether breakage device.
During a progressive collapse, the trajectory of the tube diverged, varied
dramatically, and was more random.
4.4. Effects of an explosion
An underwater explosion threatens the safety of an SFT during its

whole life cycle. The power of an underwater explosion is enormous and
may directly destroy the SFT. Therefore, some researchers have studied
the dynamic responses of the SFT under the effect of an explosion.
There is a long history of using theoretical models to describe un
derwater explosions. The occurrence of an underwater explosion causes
a high pressure shock wave to propagate in water and generates a
spherical bubble. The shock wave produces an instantaneous and high Fig. 16. Time-varying pressure caused by an underwater explosion.
intensity impact load acting on the SFT, as shown in Fig. 16. The
spherical bubble sends out a long-duration pressure wave into the water, which might cause resonance that could lead to catastrophic accidents.
which leads to a secondary pressure pulse that acts on the SFT. It is Some researchers numerically investigated the dynamic character
necessary to consider the influence of both the impact load induced by istics of the SFT under the influence of an explosion (Luo et al., 2021b,
the shock wave and the bubble load induced by the secondary pressure. 2022b, 2022c, 2022d). Luo et al. (2018) employed the finite element
In the theoretical model, the SFT is usually equivalent to a beam sup software package LS-DYNA to simulate underwater explosions near the
ported by elastic mounting (Luo et al., 2021a; Seo et al., 2015b, 2014). SFT. The Arbitrary Lagrange Euler method (ALE) was used to address the
The impact load induced by the shock wave can be described by an fluid-structure coupling and simulation of the strongly discontinuous
empirical formula based on statistical data. The two stages of the shock flow. The bubble pressure and the water pressure during the explosive
wave and the secondary pressure pulse are regarded as the same phys were simulated by the Jones-Wilkins-Lee (JWL) equation and the
ical phenomenon. The bubble load can also be simplified by the Mie-Gruenisen (MG) equation, respectively. Three cross-sectional
empirical formula but must satisfy the initial conditions provided by the shapes, rectangular, circular and elliptical, were considered in the nu
stage of the shock wave. The solution of the dynamic response of the SFT merical simulation. For the three cross sections, the displacement peak
under the influence of an explosion includes the forced vibration showed a W-type distribution, and the velocity peak showed a V-type
response induced by the impact load and the bubble load and the distribution along the axial direction of the tube. The velocity peak of
attenuation of the vibration response after the explosion. The results the elliptical tube was much smaller than that of the circular tube. Hong
showed that the stiffness and damping of the SFT were the key param and Lee (2016) and Hong et al. (2018) compared the numerical and
eters influencing its dynamic responses to underwater explosions. theoretical results of the explosion load acting on an SFT. The pressure
Although increasing stiffness reduced the maximum displacement, the trends were similar in the numerical simulation and for the theoretical
increase in the natural frequency reduced the energy absorption and model. Although the maximum radius of the bubble in the simulation
shock resistance. Damping had a slight effect on suppressing displace was slightly larger than the theoretical value, the time to reach the
ments during the forced vibration response. The increase in stiffness maximum value was in good agreement with the theoretical prediction.
could weaken the effect of damping on the suppression of the attenua Kristoffersen et al. (2019) studied the response of SFTs with circular and
tion vibration response. Compared with the impact load induced by the rectangular cross sections under the influence of internal explosions.
shock wave, the peak value of the bubble load was smaller. However, the The explosion load was applied to the relevant surfaces of the tube by
frequency of the bubble load was near the natural frequencies of the SFT,
Fig. 15. Test of the effects of tether breakage on a model SFT (Wu et al., 2021).
16
the CONWEP module in ABAQUS. The explosion loads were obtained tunnel of the hong kong-zhuhai-macau bridge (HZMB) project, Guo
from a large amount of explosion test data. The internal explosion et al. (2016) studied thermal stress redistribution and fire damage of a
resistance was better for the circular than the rectangular cross section. twin-tube structure. A modified calculation method was proposed for
building a thermal-mechanical coupled model of the structure. The basic
5. Structural safety evaluation of SFTs fire temperature curve was selected as the thermal boundary input. The
combined effect of the heat and outer loads on the twin-tube structure
Few studies have focused on the structural safety evaluation of the was evaluated to solve the stress redistribution in the direction of the
SFT. tube depth. The rapid variation in the temperature inside the tube
caused the tube surface stress to exceed the concrete compressive
5.1. Tube strength and led to disruption. Thermal insulation was found to be
important to ensure the integrity of the tube structure; laying a fireproof
At present, safety evaluation criteria for SFT tubes have not been board significantly reduced the heat stress damage. Dong et al. (2023)
established. The safety evaluation of the tube mainly refers to criteria experimentally studied the fire resistance of a reduced-scale immersed
established for the construction of fluid-conveying pipes and immersed tunnel. The temperatures, deformations, cracking, spalling and other
tunnels. Few studies have focused on the safety evaluation of SFT tubes. behaviours of the tunnel were recorded during the fire test. Although the
The effects of environmental, traffic, impact and explosion loads should tube had a sufficient bearing capacity under fire exposure, the concrete
be considered in the analysis of safe evaluation indexes, such as crack cracking of the tube was very severe. The heated side and unheated side
strength, tensile strength and shear strength. of the tube alternately cracked, with the potential to induce
During the life cycle of the SFT, the tube is always under the effect of through-cracks inside the tube. Because concrete cracking can cause
water pressure (Kim et al., 2021), as shown in Fig. 17. If the tube is made disaster or reduce the durability of the tube, constraint measures should
of concrete, then it is necessary to be careful concerning the initiation be taken. De Silva et al. (2022) proposed an approach for fire design and
and propagation of cracks in the material. Xia et al. (2019) considered verification of reinforced concrete tubes. They found that over a short
the stress intensity factor of cracks, the size effect of the crack and the period when the temperature is less than a certain value, the fire does
fracture toughness of the material to evaluate the safety of the buried not cause damage to the concrete structure or causes minor damage
water supply tube. The theory of fracture mechanics was employed to only. Based on fire cases, when both temperatures and durations are
calculate the crack strength of the reinforced concrete pressure tube. The high, the structure tends to collapse.
relationship between the static and dynamic ultimate tensile strengths of The towing of SFTs is also an issue that needs attention, and the
materials was established to analyse the pressure on the inner side of the success of spar platform wet towing has led some scholars to address the
tube under the condition of filling with water. For long-span structures use of tugboats and towing lines for similar wet towing of SFTs (Wang
such as tubes, bridges and pipes, the shear strength is an important index et al., 2003; Sherman et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2022; Jin, 2022). Lee et al.
that should be cautiously evaluated. The evaluation of shear strength for (2022) carried out a case study for an SFT in wet tow conditions and
long-span structures based on criteria such as Eurocode 2 is conservative found that it is essential to check the roll stability with the given
(Huber et al., 2017). To improve the evaluation accuracy of shear configuration of towing lines. The effects of pre-tension resulting from
strength, it is necessary to consider the material composition of a tube, different line arrangements and tow speeds were investigated, and the
the number of distributions and the tilt angle of the tether. If the tube of numerical results showed that the towlines slightly increase the system’s
the SFT is made of concrete material, then the tensile strength should be stability. Even a small increase in the restoring force from towlines
considered to check whether shear and tensile cracks are present under might be able to resist the roll moment.
tensile stress.
Under fire scenarios, the structural strength of the tube degrades 5.2. Tether system
under high temperature. Some researchers have investigated the fire
resistance of tube-like structures, such as SFTs and immersed tunnels; for The destruction of the SFT tether system can be induced for a variety
example, Long and Guo. (2016) studied the fire resistance of SFT tubes. of reasons, such as fatigue, corrosion and accidental overload. Although
A three-dimensional coupled thermal-stress analysis model was devel an SFT has not yet been built, the safety evaluation of the SFT tether
oped to reveal the mechanical behaviour of concrete under high tem system can refer to that of offshore structures (Gordon et al., 2014).
peratures. The thermal-stress analysis model provided accurate Fatigue failure is one of the most critical failure modes, accounting
prediction of the compressive strength of concrete and yield strength of for more than one-third of mooring accidents (Fontaine et al., 2014). At
steel under fire conditions. The fire resistance time increased with present, most fatigue damage studies on engineering structures are
increasing concrete compressive strength and steel strength but conducted at the macroscopic level. There are two main methods of
decreased with increasing tube length. Relying on the subsea-immersed macroscale fatigue analysis. One is the fatigue accumulation injury
Fig. 17. Example of the wave pressure distribution generated in the SFT (Kim et al., 2021).
17
method based on the S‒N curve and miner linear cumulative damage (2020) proposed a method to predict fatigue in which the effects of
criterion, and the other is the method of the Paris equation for fatigue waves, climate change and marine corrosion were considered by intro
crack extension based on fracture mechanics. The S‒N curve method is ducing a rational model into the coupled hull and tether system. Lone
usually applied to the calculation of the whole life cycle of a structure by et al. (2022) developed a probabilistic model of fatigue damage in
blurring the concept of fatigue damage and artificially defining the state mooring chains based on the S‒N method. The effects of the average
of the structure when fatigue failure occurs. Xu and Soares (2020a) load and corrosion conditions on the chain fatigue capacity were
evaluated the fatigue damage of different tether systems under different considered by using the intercepts of the parametric S‒N curve to
conditions, and the short-term fatigue damage was estimated by the S‒N describe the uncertainties and time dependence of corrosion. The effects
curve method, while the load cycles were counted by a of uncertainties in fatigue capacity, corrosion development and fatigue
rainflow-counting algorithm based on the measured tension of the loading were discussed based on extensive post hoc simulations of an
tether. In addition, Xu and Soares (2020b) compared estimates of the actual mooring system. Wang et al. (2020) experimentally investigated
short-term tether fatigue damage obtained by using different broadband the corrosion fatigue of steel strands. The fractal theory was employed to
spectral methods and the rainflow-counting algorithm. The spectral quantitatively describe the complexity of the surfaces of abrasion marks.
methods for estimating fatigue damage included the Dirlik formulation The influences of the tensile stress ratio, crack extension rate and elec
(Dirlik., 1985), the Jiao-Moan method (Jiao and Moan., 1990) and the trochemical corrosion rate was investigated by introducing acceleration
Tovo-Benasciutti approach (Benasciutti and Tovo, 2005). The S‒N curve factors and establishing a model for estimating the tensile-torsional
method neglected the formation and expansion of cracks, while the micro-vibration corrosion fatigue life.
method based on fracture mechanics fully considered the process of Alternating increases and decreases in the tension of the tether may
crack expansion. Assuming that the initial crack was already present trigger an accidental overload (Qiao et al., 2020). Methods to describe
under the experimental conditions, the critical crack emergence time of the accidental overload of a tether have been investigated by some re
the structure was calculated. He et al. (2022) evaluated the fatigue searchers. Palm et al. (2017) proposed an intermittent Galerkin formu
performance of the tether system by combining a prediction of the hy lation that used a local Lax–Friedrichs Riemann solver to model abrupt
drodynamic response based on fracture mechanics, link stress analysis loads in the tether with great accuracy. The results for the propagation of
and fatigue crack expansion in an integrated procedure. The dynamic abrupt loads in the tether were similar to the experimental results. Hsu
response of the tether system was calculated by fully coupled hydro et al. (2017) proposed a composite Weibull probability distribution for
dynamic analysis in the time domain to investigate the effect of the the tether tension that incorporated the effects of abrupt events. The
initial crack state on fatigue crack expansion and remaining fatigue life. model fitted the measured tension data well, especially in the extreme
Bergara et al. (2022) employed the Paris law and the analytical stress range. An abrupt overload might damage the tether and even cause it to
intensity factor solution of the extended finite element method to fracture. Xu and Soares (2021) proposed a hybrid
simulate the expansion of a fatigue crack in an offshore tether system Rayleigh-gamma-Weibull distribution to study the ultimate tether ten
under the influence of simplified loading, as shown in Fig. 18. sion and fatigue damage based on experimental data. The parameters of
Corrosion of the tether is an important factor causing the failure of the model were fitted using the expectation maximization (EM) algo
the tether system. Some researchers have established a corrosion fatigue rithm. The performance of the hybrid model was compared with the
damage model to investigate the corrosion fatigue behaviour of tether results of other common models and showed good agreement. Xiang
systems. Yang et al. (2022) studied the monotonic tensile and hysteretic et al. (2020) conducted model tests to reveal the effects of tether fracture
behaviour of wire ropes with different degrees of corrosion. Based on the on the dynamic characteristics of SFTs under different working condi
mechanical properties of corroded wire ropes and the influencing factors tions. Wu et al. (2021) experimentally studied the progressive collapse
of steady-state stress-strain cycles, a hysteresis mechanics model con of an SFT due to sudden breakage of the tether.
sisting of loading and unloading curves was proposed. The model could
accurately reflect the influence of the corrosion degree and load
amplitude on the hysteresis characteristics of the wire rope. Du et al.
Fig. 18. Crack shape during fatigue crack growth (Bergara et al., 2022).
18
5.3. Segment joints evaluation of the effects of extreme loads on marine structures, such as
SFTs, oil and gas production platforms, floating wind turbines, is a major
The segment joints are amongst the weak components of the SFT. challenge. Random wave theory is always employed to describe extreme
Since an SFT has not yet been built, the safety evaluation of the segment wind and wave loads (Wei et al., 2016). Based on the measurement data,
joints of an SFT can refer to that of immersed tunnels. a probabilistic model of the wind and waves can be established and used
There are two types of segment joints: rigid joints and flexible joints. to predict the failure probability of a structure. For many extreme en
Wu et al. (2022b) established theoretical and numerical models for the vironments and working condition data, machine learning or neural
stiffness of a rigid joint based on geometric deformation coordinates, network methods are employed to improve the efficiency of the analysis
mechanical equilibrium conditions and the infinitesimal method, as of probabilities, statistics and load conditions. In this way, structural
shown in Fig. 19. The effects of coupled axial forces and bending mo modelling, response prediction and reliability analysis can be achieved
ments on axial displacement, turning angle and stiffness were studied to based on experience and response theory for the structure under various
investigate the nonlinear characteristics of the segment joint under loads. Mazinani et al. (2016) proposed the extreme learning machine
complex load conditions. Gao et al. (2022) modelled the segment joint as (ELM) algorithm to solve for the tsunami load on a coastal structure. In
a bending spring connecting two adjacent tube sections. The inherent the ELM algorithm, the inputs were the height and velocity of a tsunami
characteristics of the SFT system were obtained by the transfer matrix wave, and the outputs were the horizontal force, vertical uplift and
method. The modal superposition method was employed to investigate overturning moment of the structure. The ELM algorithm had good
the dynamic response of the SFT under moving loads. Won et al. (2020, generalization performance in most cases and was used to develop
2021b) experimentally studied the bending behaviour of modular joints prediction strategies for extreme environmental loads. Zhao et al. (2020)
made of a concrete composite reinforced with hollow steel components employed neural networks to predict the dynamic response of structures
to assess the safety of the SFT undergoing bending deformation, as under extreme loads. Input variables were usually external excitations
shown in Fig. 20. The design of modular joints should simultaneously (such as environmental loads) or engineering structural parameters
allow ductile behaviour and control the bolted connections. The (such as geometric dimensions, material parameters and structure mo
torsional performance of the modular joints was evaluated experimen tion). The target outcomes were unknown, such as the stress range and
tally and numerically, and the results revealed the torsional resistance of damage level. The Bayesian network (BN) has always been used for
the modular joints. Huang et al. (2021) proposed three new types of targeted fault evaluation of marine structures. Based on the Bayesian
joints for assembling tunnels with rectangular cross sections, namely, network, the parameters of the prior distribution can be updated by the
self-weighted mortise and tenon joints, bolted mortise and tenon joints, fault process to obtain the posterior distribution. In the Bayesian
steel plate mortise and tenon joints. To explore the mechanical behav approach, the maximum likelihood estimation of parameters is usually
iour and damage characteristics of these new joints, a three-dimensional obtained by the maximum likelihood function, which is very compli
numerical model was established using a plastic damage model to reflect cated for integration in high-dimensional space. To improve the calcu
the nonlinear mechanical properties of the joint components. The nu lation accuracy and efficiency, many improved algorithms based on
merical results were validated by tests with models. Zou et al. (2020a, Bayesian networks have been proposed, such as the Markov chain Monte
2020b, 2021) conducted positive and negative shear tests to investigate Carlo (MCMC) algorithm (Galiatsatou et al., 2018; Lu et al., 2018) and
the mechanisms of joint misalignment, shear stiffness and shear damage point estimate method (PEM) (Przewlocki et al., 2019).
of segment joints. The stress state of the bent bolt and tenon was the key The reliability of the SFT system can also be investigated by the
factor affecting the shear performance of the joint. According to the methods used for the evaluation of the reliability of other marine
shear stress pattern of the bolts and tenons, vulnerable regions appeared structures. Some researchers have studied the reliability of the SFT
at different locations. system. Considering the size of the tube, traffic and wave force loads and
resistance parameters, the stress and axial force of the cross section,
Baravalle and Köhler (2016) proposed a theoretical model to evaluate
5.4. Reliability of SFT systems
the watertight reliability and load reliability of the tube section. Based
on the theoretical model, the limit state of the structural response can be
In ocean engineering, the reliability of a system is evaluated based on
calculated and used to determine whether the design requirements are
the failure probability of each component and correlations amongst
met. However, the random variable model in the theoretical model is
failures. Data acquisition is important for evaluating structural reli
uncertain, which might affect the result of the prediction. Some re
ability. The data required for the reliability evaluation of marine
searchers have employed the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to eval
structures usually include environmental loads, failure histories and
uate the reliability and risk of the SFT. Referring to the environmental
structural health.
conditions of the Qiongzhou Strait, Shuping et al. (2016) established a
Due to the randomness and uncertainty of extreme environments, the
Fig. 19. A rigid joint for SFTs (Wu et al., 2022b).
19
Fig. 20. Composite hollow reinforced concrete module joint for SFTs (Won et al., 2020; 2021b).
risk hierarchy structure model that considered risks associated with the conjunction with the first-order reliability method. The results showed
natural environment, design, construction, operation, economy and good agreement with those calculated by the Monte Carlo method. Lei
multiple subfactors. If fuzzy mapping is added to the weight and et al. (2010) evaluated the fatigue failure probability of the tether sys
membership of indicators, then a more comprehensive maximum value tem of an SFT based on the Monte Carlo method. The local stress, fric
screening can be conducted in the process of AHP. Based on the weight tional stress and inclusion size were assumed to be random variables.
estimation and sensitivity analysis, the proportion of each influence The SFT tethers endured a fluctuated stress of up to 107 cycles, so
factor on the SFT system was obtained to investigate the key points of metallic materials with fewer inclusions and high frictional stress would
risk protection in the processes of design and construction. Xiang et al. be suitable for the tethers considering the very high cycle fatigue
(2010) established a risk index system and risk assessment method for resistance of these materials. Kang et al. (2016) developed a
the SFT. The risk index system had a three-layer structure, and the reliability-based flaw assessment procedure using first-order and
evaluation set of each layer was obtained by fuzzy AHP. Considering second-order reliability methods. The limit state function obtained by
natural disasters such as deluges, typhoons, earthquakes, landslides, the first-order reliability method captured the true limit state function
fire, traffic accidents, water leaks and overloading, the reliability and with acceptable accuracy. The accuracy of the second-order reliability
risk of the SFT in Qiandao Lake were evaluated. According to the results method turned out to be far better than that of the first-order reliability
of the fuzzy evaluation set, risk control measures for a protective method. However, the second-order reliability method incurred a high
embankment, traffic environment and construction were proposed. computational cost because the Hessian matrix should be evaluated at
Traditional reliability analysis methods, such as the first-order reli every iteration step.
ability method, second-order reliability method, response surface
method and Monte Carlo method, can also be employed to study the 6. Vibration control of the SFT
reliability of SFTs. Khan and Ahmad (2007) used the response surface
method to study the fatigue and fracture reliability of risers under the The vibrations of the SFT are easily excited by environmental and
motion of vessels, which can be extended to investigate the reliability of working loads. To improve the safety and stability of an SFT, it is
the tether system of SFTs. The S-N curve approach and fracture me necessary to control the vibrations induced by external loads. Vibration
chanics approach was employed to solve the fatigue damage. The reli control methods can be classified as hydrodynamic and mechanical.
ability estimation was achieved by the response surface method in
20
6.1. Vibration control based on the hydrodynamic method allocates the flow around the space. Due to the drainage effect of the
spiral strake, the vortex around the cylinder does not fall off at the same
Vibration control based on the hydrodynamic method is usually height on both sides. There is a certain height difference that makes the
employed to suppress the vibration of the SFT induced by fluid loads vortex in the wake area messy and unable to form a stable vortex
such as waves and currents. The hydrodynamic method for vibration structure. In addition, the helical strake changes the flow on the sidewall
control is achieved by disturbing the flow field. According to whether of the structure, which alters the position of the separation point of the
there is an energy input, hydrodynamic methods can be classified as boundary layer. Sometimes the separation point is transferred to the
passive and active. helical strake, and sometimes boundary layer separation occurs at the
The passive control method destroys the flow field by changing the front of the helical strake. The pitch, height and shape of the edge of the
shape of the surface of the structure or installing ancillary devices. helical strake are important parameters that affect its suppression effect
Compared with the active control method, the passive control method is (Baarholm et al., 2005; Gao et al., 2014b; Xu et al., 2017a, 2017b,
simple, low-cost and widely used in engineering. There are three types of 2018a). Many studies have found that the response amplitude of a cy
passive control devices, namely, surface protrusions, shrouds and near- lindrical structure with a helical strake suppression device decreases
wake stabilizers (Zdravkovich, 1981), as shown in Fig. 21. Surface with increasing plate height. The vibration resonance region is directly
protrusion-type devices, such as helical strakes, fins and spheres, can controlled by the size of the pitch. At the same time, the control effect
affect the separation lines and separated shear layers. Shroud-type de tends to improve with increasing helical plate coverage (Quen et al.,
vices, such as control rods, axial slats and perforated devices, can affect 2014). However, the helical strakes can enhance the drag acting on the
the entrainment layers. Near wake stabilizer-type devices, such as structure. The parameters of helical strakes should be carefully
fairing and splitter plates, can prevent the interaction of entrainment designed. The drag increases with increasing plate height and helix
layers. Helical strakes, fairings and control rods are common passive number. The selection of the plate height and helix number involves a
suppression devices that can be used for the vibration control of the compromise between the drag and suppression efficiency. For marine
tether system of the SFT. structures, the plate height is usually below 25% of the tube diameter,
Helical strakes wind around the surface of the structure, destroying and the helix number is not more than 3 (Trim et al., 2005; Halkyard
the spatial consistency of the shape of the cross section of the structure et al., 2006). In engineering applications, the drag should be evaluated
(Lee and Bernitsas, 2011; Lu et al., 2020b; Raghavan et al., 2008). after the design of helical strakes to ensure that the drag coefficient does
Because the helical strake has a certain height, part of the flow around not exceed the allowable value.
the structure moves along the direction of the helical strake, which A fairing not only isolates the upper and lower entrainment layers
Fig. 21. Passive control devices for vibrations induced by fluids (Zdravkovich, 1981).
21
but also directly affects the separation point of the boundary layer. 6.2. Vibration control based on mechanical methods
While reducing the amplitude of vibration, the fairing suppression de
vice can also significantly reduce the hydrodynamic resistance acting on The vibrations of the SFT induced by the fluid load can be suppressed
the structure (Lee et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2015; Lou et al., 2017). by vibration control based on the hydrodynamic method. However, the
Therefore, fairing is a widely used vibration control device. However, vibrations of the SFT are also induced by other external loads, such as
the fairing is very sensitive to the direction of the incoming flow and has earthquakes, traffic loads and impact loads. In these cases, hydrody
a good inhibition effect only in the specific direction of the incoming namic methods are ineffective for the suppression of the vibrations, and
flow. There are stability problems with flows from other directions, so vibration control based on mechanical methods should be applied.
the engineering application of the fairing is limited to a certain extent. Mechanical methods can be classified as passive, active and semi-
When the angle of the tail end of the fairing is between 90◦ and 110◦ , it active control methods. Passive control devices do not require an
can show a good suppression effect. The characteristic length (chord external power source for operation and utilize the motion of the
length) of the fairing is an important geometric parameter that affects structure to generate control forces (Thenozhi and Yu, 2013). Martinelli
the suppression effect. If the chord length is too long, then the fairing et al. (2016) proposed a passive energy dissipation device for use at both
will show hydrodynamic instability. However, if the chord length is too ends of the SFT to reduce the vibration of the SFT under extreme envi
short, then the inhibition effect will not be good. ronmental conditions. A nonlinear elastic-plastic spring model was
The control rods around the cylindrical structure can interfere with employed to analyse the effects of the multi-support earthquake and
the development of the boundary layer around the flow. The control rod seaquake loads. The dissipation device at the end of the tube provided
at the leading edge of the structure can divide the flow into multiple good control of longitudinal vibration. The relative displacement be
strands in advance, thus reducing the energy of the boundary layer on tween the structure and the shore was reduced by limiting the axial
the surface of the cylinder. The control rod at the rear of the structure stress in the tube. The influence of energy dissipation due to material
can disturb the separation of the boundary layer and the development of hysteresis on the overall response was estimated by introducing the
the vortex in the wake area. There are two types of control rod sup properties of inelastic materials into the tether. The beneficial effect of
pression devices, fixed control rods and rotary control rods. The number, the nonlinear behaviour of the tether led to a reduction in the bending
size, space and arrangement of the control rods affect their suppression stress of the tube. Shi et al. (2012) used nonlinear elastoplastic springs at
effect on the vortex (Lu et al., 2019, 2020a; Wu et al., 2012; Xu et al., both ends of the SFT to simulate passive energy dissipation devices. Part
2018b; Zhu and Yao, 2015). With an increasing number of control rods, of the energy transferred by seismic motion was dissipated by the pas
the lift coefficient and the vibration amplitudes decrease, but the drag sive energy dissipation devices, which reduced the relative displacement
coefficient increases. By comparing the suppression effect and cost, the between the SFT and the shore without excessively increasing the axial
optimal choice was found to be 9 control rods, and a diameter ratio of force on the tube. Jin et al. (2021b; 2022) investigated the use of a TMD
0.15 was recommended. to dampen resonant motions of the SFT under the influences of waves
Active control methods mainly use real-time monitoring and com and earthquakes. To improve the control effect of the TMD, the harmony
puter control technology to introduce external interference to disturb search (HS), genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization
the flow field. Active control methods mainly include jet fluids and ro (PSO) algorithms were employed to iteratively optimize the mass,
tary controls, which can be used to control the vibration of an SFT tube. stiffness and damping of the TMD, as shown in Fig. 23. Within the limits
By actively jetting the fluid around the cylindrical structures, the hy of the model mass, increasing the mass, stiffness and damping could
drodynamic resistance around the structure, the velocity fluctuation and significantly improve the performance of the TMD. The optimized TMD
the amplitude of the lift force can be reduced, and the development of effectively attenuated the transient motion of the SFT at its lowest nat
the vortex along the structure can be inhibited, as shown in Fig. 22. The ural lateral frequency. Shi et al. (2017) proposed a negative stiffness
frequency and location of fluid injection have a significant influence on damper (NSD) to mitigate the vibration of the tether system. The NSD
vibration suppression (Wang et al., 2016). The rotary control rod sup improved the damping ratios of the tether system, which significantly
pression device injects momentum into the boundary layer to delay reduced the vibration amplitude of the tether for various loading cases.
boundary layer separation. The speed of the control rod can be adjusted Active control requires external energy to suppress vibrations based
during operation according to the specific marine environmental con on feedback from external excitations and structural responses. The
ditions. When the installation angle of the rotating control rod is 120◦ or application of active control is limited due to the large requirement for
150◦ , the wake width of the structure decreases, and the vibration is energy, the complexity of the technology, the high cost and poor sta
significantly inhibited. The rotary control rod actively transmits a bility. Hence, semi-active control methods have been proposed. Semi-
certain amount of flow momentum and energy from the wake flow into active control is a self-regulating passive control method, and only a
the outflow, which offsets part of the momentum flow around the small amount of energy is input into the control structure. The natural
structure, thus suppressing cylinder vibration (Zhu et al., 2015). characteristics of the structure can be adjusted by semi-active control
Fig. 22. Active control of flow injection (Wang et al., 2016). Fig. 23. Parameter optimization of the TMD for the SFT (Jin et al., 2021b).
22
methods, which is a compromise between active control and passive the tether system to provide lower deadweight, greater strength
control. The main semi-active control devices for tethers are shape- and better corrosion resistance than wire rope.
memory alloys (SMA), viscous inertia dampers (VID) and magneto (2) Under the sole effect of waves or currents, the segmental model of
rheological (MR) dampers. Mekki and Auricchio. (2011) investigated the SFT has been widely employed to investigate the hydrody
the performance of a new shape-memory alloy installed on stayed ca namic characteristics of the tube, the layout of the tether system
bles. The superelasticity and damping capability of the SMA were and the effects of buoyant weight and cross-sectional shape. Due
studied to develop a supplementary energy dissipation device. The to the difficulty of modelling the segment joint, the complete
maximum dissipated energy depended on the cross-sectional area, dynamic behaviour of the SFT in the longitudinal direction is still
length and location of the SMA. An energy criterion related to the unknown. The effects of coupled waves and currents make the
concept of optimal performance of the hysteretic connection was dynamic characteristics of SFT more complicated. Much attention
employed to optimize the energy dissipation device. Gao et al. (2021) should be given to solving the dynamic response of the SFT under
proposed a viscous inertia damper (VID) based on output feedback coupled wave-current loads. The survival ability of the SFT under
control theory. VID was considered a special case of output feedback extreme environmental conditions is the key issue that must be
control systems in which only the cable velocity at the damper position considered. Experiments with model SFTs will continue to be
was used as feedback. The optimal damping factor of the VID for a given irreplaceable in the future. There is an urgent need to conduct
inertia was obtained by minimizing the performance index. When the tests on large-scale models of SFTs under the combined effects of
minimum peak of the performance specification was satisfied, the waves, currents and earthquakes to provide reliable, direct and
optimal design parameters were obtained by varying the inertia of the observable results, discover new behaviours, explore and explain
VID. Compared with viscous dampers, the VID could achieve better the mechanisms.
control performance in mitigating the multimode vibration of the tether. (3) To solve for the dynamic response of an SFT under working and
Xu et al. (2022) developed a programmable intelligent control device accidental loads, the SFT is usually simplified as an elastically
based on MRs to control the vibration of tethers more effectively and supported beam, and external loads, such as those associated with
efficiently. The proposed programmable scheme has the advantages of traffic, impacts, tether breakage and explosions, are described by
low energy consumption, few real-time calculations and few dynamic theoretical models. The validity of the results of theoretical an
inputs. The linear quadratic regulator (LQR) algorithm for MR dampers alyses and numerical simulations must be verified by comparison
was proposed to approximate the optimal control force by equivalent with experimental results. Many efforts should be made to
stiffness and damping, which significantly reduced the computational investigate the progressive collapse and structural failure mech
effort for the optimal control force. MR dampers could significantly anisms of SFTs under impact and explosion loads.
decrease the vibration amplitude of tethers. These dampers have been (4) The accurate safety evaluation of the SFT is the key step in
applied in the vibration control of offshore platforms by some scholars. transforming the design scheme into an application. Although the
Guan et al. (2006) experimentally investigated the efficiency of MR fluid safety evaluation of tube and tether systems can refer to evalua
dampers on an offshore platform under strong external excitations such tions of pipe structures and other floating marine structures, it is
as windstorms, sea ice and earthquakes. Eight MRF dampers with a still necessary to establish safety evaluation guidelines for SFTs.
maximum damping force of 100 kN for vibration control of one offshore Especially for the segment joint, it is still necessary to improve the
platform with a total weight of 650 t were manufactured and tested. theoretical and numerical models used to evaluate the mechani
Manufacturing issues, powering, the range of variability of the me cal properties of the joint. The SFT is a complex system, meaning
chanical parameters and the response time were discussed in detail. that the evaluation of system reliability is essential. The chal
Leng et al. (2022) proposed a magnetorheological elastomer (MRE)- lenges of the evaluation of system reliability are modelling the
based isolation system to control jacket platform dynamic responses overall structure, describing the external loads and improving
under multiple loadings, namely, earthquakes and irregular waves. The computational efficiency.
control program was developed by the multi-objective optimization al (5) There are two ways to suppress the vibration of an SFT, namely,
gorithm, enabling the proposed MRE isolation system to mitigate hydrodynamic and mechanical methods. Hydrodynamic methods
offshore platform deck acceleration and ensure structural stability with can effectively suppress the vibration of the tube and tether sys
a small relative displacement of the isolation layer. tem under a fluid load by destroying the flow field. Mechanical
methods can reduce the vibration induced by all external loads.
7. Concluding remarks However, the application of vibration control methods to the SFT
requires further investigation. It is necessary to propose an
The SFT is considered to be the most promising form of architecture adaptive control system for the vibration control of SFTs under
for transportation across bodies of water in the future. This has led to the influence of the combined effects of various external loads.
extensive studies on the SFT, which include its design, dynamic char
acteristics under environmental, working and accidental loads, safety CRediT authorship contribution statement
evaluation and vibration control. A review of the progress of research on
tether-type SFTs, including the structure forms, dynamic behaviours, Wanhai Xu: Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. Yexuan Ma:
safety evaluation and vibration control methods is given, and the Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. Guangjun Liu: Conceptuali
following conclusions are drawn. zation, Methodology. Mingliu Li: Conceptualization, Methodology. Ang
Li: Investigation. Menglei Jia: Investigation. Ziqi He: Investigation,
(1) The tether-type SFT consists of a tube, tether system and segment Data curation. Zunfeng Du: Writing – review & editing.
joints. The design of the tube and segment joints can refer to those
of immersed tunnels, while the design of the tether system can Declaration of Competing Interest
refer to those of floating marine structures. However, the dy
namic response of the SFT is much more dramatic than that of All authors of this manuscript have directly participated in the
immersed tunnels. The optimization of the tube should consider planning, execution, and/or analysis of this study. The contents of this
the hydrodynamic performance and structural stability. The form manuscript have not been copyrighted or published previously. The
of the segment joint must have good water resistance and dura contents of this manuscript are not now under consideration for publi
bility. Composite fibre rope is recommended as the material of cation elsewhere. There are no directly related manuscripts or abstracts,
published or unpublished, by any authors of this manuscript.
23
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Applied Ocean Research 134 (2023) 103525

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Ocean Research

A review of research on tether-type submerged floating tunnels

1. Introduction engineering communities.

Fig. 1. Three types of SFTs.

2. Structural designs of the SFT 2.1.2. Cross-sectional shape of the tube

Fig. 2. Cross-sectional shapes of SFTs.

Fig. 3. Layouts of the tether system.

3. Dynamic characteristics of SFTs under environmental loads KC =

response characteristics under complex environmental loads. In this

Table 3 the tube can be regarded as a large structure. At present, diffraction

Fig. 4. Final joints of the SFT.

Fig. 5. Intermediate joints of the SFT.

where ηy is the dimensionless displacement in the crossflow direction, ξ

where ϕc is the velocity potential function of the current. Considering

where R is the diameter of the cylindrical structure, r ≥ R, and

mechanical properties of the tube section of an SFT under the influence

system, u(t) is the vertical displacement of the vehicle, w(x, t) is the

∂2 w ∂w ∂4 w amplification effect of the vehicle load, which is an effective way to

4.4. Effects of an explosion

An underwater explosion threatens the safety of an SFT during its

Fig. 19. A rigid joint for SFTs (Wu et al., 2022b).

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