Introduction

Next to oxygen, water is most important essential to all

living creatures. It is also essential for all types of
vegetation. Water is most abundant compound in the
biosphere. The total global water supply is estimated
roughly equal to 1.4×10^9 km^3. Out of this, about 97.3%
is held by oceans and inland saline water bodies. The
fresh water amount to only 2.7% of the total global
supply. Unfortunately, most of the fresh water is not
readily accessible to us because a large portion of it is
locked up in frozen lakes, glaciers or under the ground.
The fraction of water available to us is only 0.003% of the
total global water supply. Water is a unique substance
from chemical point of view. It shows very interesting
and unique properties. It is an oxide of hydrogen and
consists of one part of hydrogen and eight parts of
oxygen by weight and possesses molecular formula H,0.
In the forthcoming discussion, we shall study some
important topics related to water.

Structure of Water Molecules and it’s

Aggregate
The formula of a single molecule of water is H20. The
molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms joined to taupe
an oxygen atom by covalent bonds (Fig. 9.2 a). As we
have already studied earlier, the water molecule assumes
by inter a tetrahedral shape as suggested by VSEPR
theory. The two bond pairs and the two non-bonding
pairs (lone pairs of electrons) present on the central
oxygen atom orient themselves in a tetrahedral geometry
as shown n Fig. 9.2 (b), Consequently, the water molecule
has an angular or bent structure. The repulsive
interaction of one pairs and bond pairs decrease the
bond angle from 109° 28' to 104.5". The two OH bonds are
equal in length and the 0-H bond length is 95.7 pm.
Oxygen is highly electronegative and has a strong
tendency to pull the shared pairs of electrons towards its
own side. This results in the development of a partial
negative charge on oxygen atom and partial charge on
the two hydrogen atoms as in the liquid state, water
consists of aggregates of varying number of H,0
molecules held together by hydrogen bonds. Some free
H,0 molecules also exist. In fact, there P is a dynamic
equilibrium between the aggregates of molecules and
free molecules. The free water molecules continuously
form aggregates which continuously collapse a and
change into free molecules. The presence of aggregates I
of molecules due to hydrogen bonding affects several
properties of water to a considerable extent. The
existence of water in the liquid state, its exceptionally
high boiling point as compared to other hydrides of the
elements of group 16 and many more unique properties
of water may be attributed to the presence of hydrogen
bonding in it. In the solid state, the water molecules
come still closer and get arranged tetrahedrally as
already discussed earlier. The solid form of water, i.e., ice
exists in different crystalline forms depending upon the
conditions used for freezing water. The structure of
normal hexagonal ice is shown in Fig. 9.4. In this type of
ice, each oxygen atom is tetrahedrally surrounded by
four other oxygen atoms through a hydrogen atom. Each
hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to one oxygen atom
and is linked to another oxygen atom by a hydrogen
bond. This type of packing leads to an open cage
structure with large open spaces. This is why the density
of ice is less than that of water and it floats on water.
This property is very helpful for the animals living in
water. The floating ice prevents or delays the freezing of
underlying water. Therefore, sea animals can survive
even in severe winter.

Properties of Water
• Physical properties
Many of the physical properties of Water are peculiar
and unexpected. Some properties of ordinary water
(H2O) and heavy water (D2O) are given in table.
The freezing point, boiling point, heat of fusion and hear
of vaporization of water are much higher as compared to
the hydrides of other elements of group 16 (the group to
which oxygen belongs) such as H S, H-Se, H, Te, etc. The
abnormality in these properties is due to the presence of
inter molecular hydrogen bonds in water. Due to inter-
molecular hydrogen bonding, the H, O molecules get
clustered and form aggregates as discussed above. This
modifies the physical properties of water This is why
water shows very deferent physical properties as
compared to H2S, H2Se etc., which do not possess
hydrogen bonding.
The abnormal physical properties of water play a withal
role in the biosphere. The high heat of vaporization and
the high heat capacity of water are responsible for the
moderating influence of water on the climate and on the
body temperature of living organisms. The higher
boiling point of water is helpful to keep it in the liquid
state at ordinary temperature, otherwise there would
have been no water left in the liquid state on earth.
Water is an excellent solvent. Even the covalent organic
compounds such as alcohol and carbohydrates dissolve
to a Considerable extent in water due to their ability to
form hydrogen bonds with water molecules due to its
greater saw salute realizing action It provides a excellent
means to transport ions and molecules to plants and
animals needed for their metabolism.

• Chemical properties
Water shows a variety of chemical reaction. It behaves
as an acid as a base as in oxidizing agent answer
reducing and as a ligand to metal. Does what are exhibits
a versatile range of chemical behavior the important
chemical reactions of water are as follows.
1. Stability: Water molecule has a very high thermal
stability as it indicated from its high negative high
heat of formation. At 1500 K it dissociates only to an
extent of less than 0.02% add 2270 K and one Atom
pressure its dissociation is only 0.6%.
2. Ionization: The ionization of water is not much it has
a small but measurable electrical conductivity due to
following equilibrium.
H2O(l) + H2O(l)= H3O^+(aq)+OH^-(aq)
3. Amphoteric nature: Although water is natural toward
litmus yet it acts both as an acid and base and thus
shows amphoteric nature it acts as a base towards
acid stronger than itself and as an acid in the
presence of a base stronger than itself. For example,
H20 (l) HCL =h3o+ cl
 H2O + NH3= nh4+ oh
4 . Oxidizing and reducing nature. water can act both
as oxidizing and reducing agent it acts as in
oxidizing agent in its reactions with active metals for
example,
5 . Hydrolysing nature: Water can hydrolyses several
halides, hydrides, carbide, nitride, phosphides, etc. For
example,
SiCl4 +2H2O ---+ H4SiO4+ 4HCl
6. Formation of hydrates: Water reacts with certain metal
salts to form compound known as hydrates. Depending
upon the mode of linkage of water molecules we have
following three types of hydrates.
(i) In some hydrates, water molecules act as ligand and
get attached to a metal ion by coordinate bond thus
forming complex ion
(ii) In some hydrates, water molecules get attached to
certain oxygen containing anions through hydrogen
bonds, e.g., CuSO4 5H20. In this hydrate, four water
molecules are coordinated to central Cut ion while the
fifth water molecule is attached to the sulphate group by
hydrogen bonds.
(iii) In some hydrates, water molecules occupy the
interstitial sites (voids) in the crystal lattice. BaCl2 2H20
is an example of this type of hydrate.
 Hard and Soft Water- Water Softening
Water obtained from natural sources is largely used for
washing purpose. Water obtained from particular source
may or may not produce a rich lather with soap generally
used for washing purpose. Hence, it is important to study
the behavior of water towards soap solutions. On this
basis, water can be classified into following two
categories: (I) Soft Water: water which produces lather
with soap solutions readily is called soft water. Distilled
water, rainwater, etc., Some examples.
(II)Hard water: water which doesn’t produce lather with
soap solutions readily is hard water. Sea water, water of
some rivers, water from some wells, etc., Are some
examples of hard water.

[A] Cause of Hardness

Natural water contains many salts dissolve in it when it
passes over rocks or through the various underlying layer
of earth. The most common salts that in water are
bicarbonate, chloride, and sulphate of calcium and
magnesium. the presence of this salts make water hard.
Thus, hard water may define as the water which contains
bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphate of calcium or
magnesium. water containing any of this salt does not
produce lather with soap readily.

[B] Types of Hardness

The hardness of water is of following two types:
1. Temporary hardness: This is due to the presence of
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium dissolve in
water. the hardness due to the bicarbonates of calcium
and magnesium is term as temporary because it can
very easily be removed by simply boiling the hard
water.
2. Permanent hardness: This type of hardness is due to
the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and
magnesium dissolved in water. This cannot be
removed easily, i.e., just by boiling the hard water and
hence is called permanent hardness.
Heavy Water (Deuterium Oxide, D2O)
Heavy water is the oxide of deuterium. It was discovered
by Urey, an American scientist. It occurs to an extent of
one part in 6000 parts of ordinary water.
(A)Preparation of Heavy Water
Heavy water is usually prepared by the exhaustive
electrolysis of water containing alkali. The method was
developed by Taylor, Eyring and Frost in 1933. It involves
the electrolysis of N/2 NaOH solution in seven stages
using steel cathode and nickel anode.
The electrolytic cell used in the method. It
consists of cylindrical steel container about 45 cm
long and 10 cm in diameter which act as cathode. A
perforated cylindrical sheet of nickel acts as the
anode. In actual practice, a number of such cell are
generally used. In the first stage, electrolysis is
carried out for about 74 hr. when the volume of the
electrolyte reduces to about one- sixth of the original
volume. The alkali present in it partially neutralized
by passing carbon dioxide into it and the contents
are distilled. Now, it is taken to another cell for the
second stage of electroless. the prosses is repeated
seven time. At the end of the seventh stage, the
residue consists of 99% D2O. from the third stage
onwards, the gases involved during electrolysis of
consist of considerable amount of deuterium. These
gases are burnt and the mixture of H2O and D2O thus
obtained is added to the electrolyte present in the
cell.
(B) Properties of Heavy Water
Physical properties: Heavy water is colorless, odorless and
tasteless mobile liquid.
Almost all the physical constants e.g. specific
gravity, melting point, boiling point of heavy water is
higher than ordinary water.
Chemical properties: the chemical properties of heavy water
are almost similar to those of ordinary water. However,
in general D2O reacts slightly less than H2O.
(C) Use of Heavy Water
Some important uses of heavy water are as follow.
1. Heavy water is used as a moderator in nuclear
reactions involving the fission of uranium, where it
slows down the speed of neutrons ejected in the
fission process.
2.It is used as a tracer in the study of reaction occurring
in living organisms.