F.Y.B.

Com (Semester – I)
Subject - Environmental Studies – I
UNIT - II
Ecosystem and Biodiversity

ECOSYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS

An ecosystem is a complex network of organisms, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi,
interacting with each other and their physical environment. It comprises both biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) elements, and each organism has its role to play, contributing to the balance and
sustainability of the ecosystem.

Ecosystems are critical because they provide essential goods and services, often referred to as 'ecosystem
services.' These include provisioning services like food, water, timber, and fiber; regulating services that
affect climate, floods, disease, wastes, and water quality; cultural services that provide recreational,
aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and
nutrient cycling.

Understanding ecosystems is fundamental to environmental studies because it provides insights into

how the natural world functions and how human activities can impact these crucial systems. By studying
ecosystems, students can learn to develop sustainable solutions that both benefit human societies and
preserve the natural world for future generations.

Components of the Ecosystem:

An ecosystem is made up of different parts, or components, that work together like parts of a machine.
These components include both living things (called "biotic" components) and non-living things (called
"abiotic" components). Here's a little more about each:

1. Biotic Components: These are the living things in an ecosystem.

 Producers: These are usually plants. They produce food using sunlight, water, and carbon
dioxide in a process called photosynthesis. For example, in a forest, the trees are the main
producers.
 Consumers: These are the animals that eat the producers or other animals. They can be:

Page 1 of 11
  Primary Consumers (Herbivores): They eat the producers. For instance, in a forest,
deer might eat leaves from the trees.
 Secondary Consumers (Carnivores): They eat the primary consumers. In the forest
example, wolves might eat the deer.
 Tertiary Consumers (Top Carnivores): They eat secondary consumers. An eagle,
which might eat a wolf's leftovers in the forest, is an example.
 Decomposers: These are organisms like bacteria and fungi that break down dead plants and
animals and recycle their nutrients back into the soil. For example, in the forest, fungi might
help decompose fallen leaves or dead animals.
2. Abiotic Components: These are the non-living parts of an ecosystem.
 Sunlight: It's the primary source of energy for all ecosystems. In the forest example, trees
use sunlight for photosynthesis.
 Water: It's essential for all forms of life. Plants need water for photosynthesis, and animals
need it to drink. In the forest, there may be a stream or a pond that provides water.
 Air: It provides oxygen, which most living things need to breathe, and carbon dioxide, which
plants need for photosynthesis.
 Soil: It gives plants a place to grow and provides them with nutrients. Different ecosystems
have different types of soil. In a forest, the soil is rich with nutrients from decomposed leaves
and animals.
 Temperature and Climate: The local temperature and weather conditions affect what types
of plants and animals can live in an ecosystem. For example, a forest might be home to bears
and wolves, which can handle cold winters, but not to alligators, which prefer warmer
climates.
 Minerals: These are found in the soil and water and are used by plants to help them grow.
For instance, in a forest, trees need minerals like nitrogen and phosphorus from the soil.

All these components are closely interconnected, and a change in any one of them can influence the
entire ecosystem. This is why it's crucial to understand and protect all components of our ecosystems.

MAIN TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a community of living and non-living things interacting in a particular area. We usually
categorize ecosystems into two main types: terrestrial (land-based) ecosystems and aquatic (water-
based) ecosystems.

Page 2 of 11
1. Terrestrial Ecosystems: These are land-based ecosystems. They're found where there is solid
ground, and the kinds of plants and animals in each one can vary depending on things like the climate
and soil. Here are a few examples:
 Forests: Forests are places with lots of trees and are usually full of different types of plants,
birds, mammals, and insects. A good example is the Amazon Rainforest, home to a massive
variety of species.
 Grasslands: These are areas where grasses are the main plant life. They can be home to
animals like lions, zebras, and elephants, like the African savannah, or bison and prairie dogs,
like the North American prairies.
 Deserts: Deserts are places with very little rainfall. But even with harsh conditions, some
plants (like cacti) and animals (like lizards and snakes) can survive, like in the Sahara Desert.
 Tundra: Tundra is found in very cold climates, like in the Arctic, where the ground can be
frozen. Few types of plants, like mosses and shrubs, and animals, like polar bears and Arctic
foxes, can live in these conditions.
2. Aquatic Ecosystems: These are water-based ecosystems. They can be salty (marine) or fresh
(freshwater), and they are filled with different kinds of plants and animals.
 Marine Ecosystems: These are in the ocean, which is salty. There's a huge variety of life in
marine ecosystems, from tiny plankton to the largest animal on earth, the blue whale. Coral
reefs, like the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, are particularly diverse marine ecosystems.
 Freshwater Ecosystems: These are found in places with fresh water, like rivers, lakes, and
ponds. They are home to a variety of fish, birds, insects, and plants. For instance, the Lake
District in England has many different freshwater ecosystems, each with its unique set of
species.

These are just examples, and there are many more types of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Each
ecosystem has its unique set of plants, animals, and environmental conditions, but they all work in a
similar way, with living things depending on each other and their environment to survive.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystems serve several key functions related to the food chain, food web, energy transfer, and
biogeochemical cycles. Each of these concepts represents a different aspect of how ecosystems operate:

1. Food Chain: A food chain shows the direct path of energy and nutrients as they move from one
organism to another in an ecosystem. For example, in a grassland ecosystem, a simple food chain

Page 3 of 11
 might be: grass (producer) - rabbit (primary consumer) - fox (secondary consumer). This function
of the ecosystem shows how energy and nutrients are transferred directly from one organism to
another.
2. Food Web: In reality, most organisms eat and are eaten by more than one species, which makes the
situation more complex than a simple food chain. This is where the concept of a food web comes in.
It shows all the interconnected food chains in an ecosystem. For example, in an ocean ecosystem, a
shrimp might eat plankton, but then be eaten by several different animals like fish, crabs, or even
humans. This interconnection forms a web-like network of feeding relationships.
3. Energy Transfer: Every step along the food chain or within the food web represents a transfer of
energy. The primary source of this energy is the sun. Plants (producers) capture the sun's energy
through photosynthesis and convert it into a form that can be used by other organisms. When a
herbivore like a rabbit eats plants, it absorbs the energy stored in the plant. When a carnivore like a
fox eats the rabbit, it absorbs the energy stored in the rabbit. However, at each step, most of the
energy is lost as heat (following the Second Law of Thermodynamics), which is why there are
usually fewer organisms at the top of a food chain or web.
4. Biogeochemical Cycle: These cycles refer to the way that elements (like carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus) move between living things and the environment. This includes processes like eating,
breathing, and decomposing. For instance, consider the water cycle in a forest ecosystem. Trees
absorb water from the soil and release it into the air (transpiration). The water vapour in the air then
condenses into clouds and falls back to the ground as rain (precipitation), replenishing the water in
the soil and completing the cycle.

These functions are all vital for the health and stability of ecosystems. They ensure the flow of
energy and the recycling of nutrients, both of which are necessary for life to exist and thrive in an
ecosystem.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

Biogeochemical cycles refer to the way elements move between living things and the environment.
They're like nature's recycling system. Here are some examples:

1. Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle): This cycle describes how water evaporates from the surface of
the earth, rises into the atmosphere, cools and condenses into clouds, and falls back to the surface as
precipitation. The water that falls to the earth evaporates again and the cycle continues. Here's an
example:

Page 4 of 11
  In a lake, the sun's
heat causes water to
evaporate from the
surface.
 The water vapour
rises and cools in the
atmosphere,
condensing to form
clouds.
 When the clouds get
heavy, the water falls
back to the earth as rain (or snow).
 Some of this water is taken up by plants, which release it back into the atmosphere through
transpiration.
 The rest of the water flows back into the lake, and the cycle starts again.

2. Carbon Cycle: The carbon cycle

describes how carbon moves between
the atmosphere, oceans, and land.
Here's an example:
 Plants take in carbon dioxide
(CO2) from the atmosphere
and use it to make food
through photosynthesis.
 Animals eat the plants, taking
in the carbon, and then breathe
out CO2 back into the
atmosphere when they respire.
 When plants and animals die,
their bodies, soils, and peat are used to store carbon – this is known as 'carbon sequestration'.
 Over many years, the bodies of plants and animals can form fossil fuels like coal and oil,
which store the carbon underground.
 If humans burn these fossil fuels, the carbon is released back into the atmosphere as CO2.

Page 5 of 11
3. Nitrogen Cycle: The nitrogen cycle
describes how nitrogen moves between
the atmosphere, the soil, and living
things. Nitrogen is a crucial element for
living organisms as it is a main
component of amino acids, proteins,
and DNA. Here's an example:
 Nitrogen in the atmosphere
cannot be used directly by
plants or animals. It must first
be 'fixed,' or converted into a
usable form. This can happen in
several ways, including
lightning strikes or with the help of certain bacteria in the soil or the roots of some plants
(like legumes).
 The fixed nitrogen (in the form of ammonium or nitrate) is taken up by plants and used to
build proteins.
 Animals eat the plants, taking the nitrogen into their own bodies to build their own proteins.
 When plants and animals die or when animals excrete waste, the nitrogen in their bodies is
returned to the soil where it can be used by plants again.
 Some of this nitrogen is converted back into nitrogen gas by bacteria in a process called
denitrification, completing the cycle.

In all these cycles, human activities can have a big impact. For instance, burning fossil fuels adds more
CO2 to the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. Similarly, the excessive use of nitrogen
fertilizers in agriculture can disrupt the nitrogen cycle and harm ecosystems. Understanding these cycles
is crucial for managing and protecting our environment.

BIODIVERSITY AND ITS TYPES

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth. It encompasses the differences in genes, species, and
ecosystems, and the complex processes they are part of. Biodiversity is not evenly distributed on Earth
but varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions. Here are the main types of biodiversity:

Page 6 of 11
 1. Genetic Diversity: This refers to the variation of genes within a species. It's the reason why, for
example, no two humans are exactly alike (except for identical twins). Each individual has a
unique combination of genes that influences their traits, like height, eye colour, and susceptibility
to certain diseases.
 Example: Consider the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris). It is a single species, but due to
selective breeding by humans over thousands of years, dogs exhibit enormous genetic diversity.
This is seen in the multitude of dog breeds, each with unique traits like size, coat color and
texture, and temperament.
2. Species Diversity: This refers to the variety of species within a certain region. It's often
measured by the total number of species (species richness) and the evenness of the species
(species evenness).
 Example: Tropical rainforests, like the Amazon, have very high species diversity. They are home
to millions of different species of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms. In contrast, a
monoculture crop field, such as a cornfield, has very low species diversity, as it's predominantly
made up of a single species.
3. Ecosystem Diversity: This refers to the variety of ecosystems in a given place. An ecosystem is
a community of interacting organisms and their physical environment. Ecosystem diversity can
be considered at various scales – it could refer to the number of different habitats within a local
landscape or the number of biomes on the whole planet.
 Example: Australia is a country with high ecosystem diversity. It has a wide range of ecosystems,
from the tropical rainforests of Queensland, to the arid deserts in the center, to the temperate
forests in Tasmania.

Biodiversity is vital because it contributes to the health and resilience of ecosystems, provides us with
many resources (like food, medicine, and materials), and enriches our lives with beauty and inspiration.
Maintaining biodiversity is therefore a critical task for humanity.

IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity, or biological diversity, refers to the variety of life on Earth. It's important for several
reasons, including ecological, economic, and intrinsic value. Here's why:

1. Ecological Importance:
 Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity provides crucial ecosystem services, which are the
benefits that humans get from nature. These include provision services like food, timber, and

Page 7 of 11
 medicine; regulation services like pollination, climate regulation, and pest control; cultural
services like recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and supporting services like
nutrient cycling and soil formation.
Example: Forests, which are highly diverse ecosystems, provide timber for construction,
sequester carbon to regulate climate, offer habitat for pollinators that benefit agriculture, and
inspire recreational activities like hiking and bird watching.
 Resilience: Biodiversity can contribute to the resilience of ecosystems, helping them to
withstand stress, recover from disturbances, and adapt to change.
Example: Coral reefs with high biodiversity are more likely to withstand events like
bleaching, as different species have different sensitivities to temperature. If one species
declines, others may be able to survive and help the reef recover.
2. Economic Importance:
 Resources: Many industries, including agriculture, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and tourism,
rely on biodiversity for their products and services. A wide variety of plant and animal
species means a larger pool of resources to draw from for existing and new products.
Example: The rosy periwinkle plant, native to Madagascar, produces compounds that are
used in drugs to treat cancer. This illustrates the importance of protecting biodiversity as we
never know where the next medical breakthrough may come from.
 Bioprospecting: This refers to the exploration of biodiversity for new resources that could
have economic value, particularly genetic and biochemical resources. These could lead to
the development of new crops, pharmaceuticals, and industrial products.
Example: Bacteria found in Yellowstone National Park's hot springs have been used to
develop PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) technology, a critical tool in biology and
medicine.
3. Intrinsic Importance:
 Ethical and Aesthetic: Many people believe that every species has an inherent right to exist
and that biodiversity has aesthetic value that enhances the quality of human life. This belief
can be tied to religious, philosophical, or personal views.
Example: National parks and protected areas like the Grand Canyon in the U.S. or the Great
Barrier Reef in Australia are appreciated for their stunning natural beauty and the incredible
diversity of life they contain.
 Scientific: Biodiversity is a source of significant scientific information. It helps us
understand evolutionary processes, ecological relationships, and the impacts of human
activities on the natural world.
Example: Studying the diversity of finches in the Galapagos Islands helped Charles Darwin
develop his theory of evolution by natural selection.
Page 8 of 11
MAJOR BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT IN INDIA

In environmental science, a biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region characterized by significant

levels of biodiversity that is threatened with human disturbance or destruction. Two major hotspots in
India stand out:

A biodiversity hotspot is a region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened
with destruction. The criteria for a region to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot are:

1. It must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics, meaning species that
are found nowhere else on Earth.
2. It must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.

India is home to several such biodiversity hotspots, given its diverse climate and geography. Here
are the most significant ones:

1. The Western Ghats

This mountain range runs parallel to the western coast of the Indian peninsula and is one of the eight
"hottest hotspots" of biological diversity globally. The reason for this is its high degree of species
diversity and endemism (species that are found nowhere else). About 1,800 plant species are
endemic to the Western Ghats.
The hotspot isn't just about plant life, though. Many animal species are unique to the Western Ghats,
including 330 butterfly species, 508 bird species, and 289 freshwater fish species. A notable animal
is the Nilgiri Tahr, a type of wild goat, and the Lion-tailed Macaque, a primate, both of which are
endemic to the region.
The Western Ghats' ecosystems range from tropical wet evergreen forests at lower elevations to
grasslands at higher elevations, leading to this wide biodiversity. However, these ecosystems face
threats due to deforestation, pollution, and human encroachment.
2. The Eastern Himalayas
The Eastern Himalayas stretch from the eastern part of Nepal through Northeast India, Bhutan to the
farthest reaches of Myanmar. This hotspot boasts of more than 10,000 plant species, 300 mammal
species, 977 bird species, and numerous reptiles and amphibian species. The high degree of variation
in altitude, precipitation, and soil in the region contributes to the area's immense biodiversity.

Page 9 of 11
 Iconic species such as the endangered Bengal Tiger and One-horned Rhinoceros, the vulnerable Red
Panda, and numerous bird species like the Himalayan Quail and White-winged Duck are found in
this region. It's also home to over 163 globally threatened species.
Despite its importance, this hotspot is under threat from activities like illegal logging, poaching, and
encroachment for agriculture and infrastructure development.

Both these hotspots are vital for their unique biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide,
including water purification, pollination, climate regulation, and more. Their conservation is critical for
maintaining global biodiversity and the well-being of the local communities that depend on them.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION MEASURES

Threats to Biodiversity

1. Habitat Loss and Degradation: This is the most significant threat to biodiversity. Activities like
deforestation, urbanization, agriculture, and infrastructure development lead to destruction or
fragmentation of habitats, which can reduce or eliminate species populations.
Example: Deforestation in the Amazon rainforest for cattle ranching and soybean production
threatens many species that rely on this habitat, including the jaguar and the Amazon river dolphin.
2. Climate Change: Changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea level can alter habitats and affect
species survival. Species that cannot adapt quickly enough may go extinct.
Example: Polar bears are threatened by shrinking sea ice due to global warming, as they depend on
sea ice to hunt seals.
3. Overexploitation: Overfishing, overhunting, and overharvesting can deplete species populations
and cause declines in biodiversity.
Example: Overfishing of Atlantic cod led to the collapse of the fishery in the 1990s.
4. Pollution: Pollution can harm or kill individual organisms and reduce biodiversity. This includes
air, water, and soil pollution.
Example: Pesticides used in agriculture can runoff into rivers and harm fish and other aquatic life.
5. Invasive Species: Non-native species introduced to an area can outcompete or prey on native
species, leading to declines in biodiversity.
Example: The introduction of brown tree snakes to Guam led to the extinction of many bird species
on the island.

Page 10 of 11
Conservation Measures
1. Protected Areas: Creating national parks, reserves, and wildlife sanctuaries can protect habitats and
species from human activities.
Example: The creation of Yellowstone National Park in the United States protects many species,
including the grizzly bear and the gray wolf.
2. Sustainable Use: Implementing sustainable practices in agriculture, fishing, hunting, and forestry
can prevent overexploitation and habitat destruction.
Example: The Marine Stewardship Council certifies sustainable fisheries to prevent overfishing.
3. Restoration: Damaged habitats can be restored to increase biodiversity. This can include activities
like reforestation or coral reef restoration.
Example: The restoration of the Loess Plateau in China transformed a degraded landscape into a
productive, biodiverse ecosystem.
4. Laws and Regulations: Laws and regulations can protect endangered species, regulate hunting and
fishing, and control pollution.
Example: The Endangered Species Act in the United States protects species at risk of extinction.
5. Education and Awareness: Increasing public knowledge about biodiversity and the threats it faces
can inspire action to protect it.
Example: Organizations like the World Wildlife Fund run campaigns to raise awareness about
endangered species and conservation issues.

Page 11 of 11