UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(COET)
DEPARTMENT OF STRUCTURAL AND CONSTRUCTION [ SCE]

FINAL YEAR PROJECT II (CE 499)

INVESTIGATING THE RESISTIVITY OF CONCRETE CONTAINING

SUGARCANE TRASH ASH TO CARBONATION INDUCED CORROSION
By

NAME: MHOSOLE, EMMANUEL M

Registration Number: 2019-04-07130

Degree Program: BSc in CIVIL ENGINEERING

Supervisor: MR. BENITO LYAKWIPA

A Project Is Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of The Requirements for The Degree

of Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering of The University of Dar Es Salaam.
 CERTIFICATION
The undersigned certifies that he has read and hereby recommends for examination by the
University of Dar es Salaam a project entitled; Investigating the Resistivity of Concrete
Containing Sugarcane Trash Ash to Carbonation Induced Corrosion.

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineering of the university of Dar es Salaam.

--------------------------------------------
Mr. Benito Lyakwipa
(Supervisor)

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 DECLARATION
I, MHOSOLE, EMMANUEL M hereby declare that this project is my original work and
that has not been presented in any other university for the award of any degree

Signature: ________________________ Date: ____________________________

This project may not be reproduced by any means, in full or in part, except for short extracts
in fair dealings, for research or private study, review or discourse with an
acknowledgement, without the written permission of University of Dar es Salaam on behalf
of both the author and University of Dar es Salaam.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank the Almighty God for everything he has provided me in carrying out this project. I
give him all the glory.

I am grateful for the golden chance granted to me by the Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training of the Government of the United Republic of Tanzania. It is indeed an
honour studying under these roofs.

I dearly extend my heartfelt appreciation to my lecturer and my supervisors of this work,

Eng. Benito Lyakwipa for his continuous and non-ending support in doing and preparing
this work.
I feel blessed working under her supervision.

I, finally, would like to thank the students of the College of Engineering and Technology
(CoET) and particularly students of BSc. Civil engineering, fourth year, My family, My
other lecturers for their support during my time as an undergraduate of this great University.

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 ABSTRACT
Corrosion of steel reinforcement due to carbonation is a major issue affecting the durability
and lifespan of concrete structures. This experimental research aimed to investigate the
effectiveness of incorporating sugarcane trash ash (STA) as a supplementary cementitious
material in improving the carbonation resistance of concrete. STA is an agricultural waste
product that has pozzolanic properties. Concrete samples containing 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%,
and 20% STA as partial replacement of cement were cast, cured, and exposed to accelerated
carbonation conditions. The carbonation depth was measured using phenolphthalein
indicator. Results showed that carbonation depth increased with higher STA replacement
levels, indicating reduced carbonation resistance. The 10% STA concrete exhibited
moderate carbonation depths, suggesting an optimal balance between sustainability and
performance. Cost analysis revealed a 7.9% reduction for the 10% STA mix compared
to conventional concrete. While the higher STA replacements compromised carbonation
resistance, the 10% STA concrete showed promise as a more sustainable option without
severely impacting durability. Further research is recommended to assess long-term
performance, optimize STA content, and determine suitability for field applications. This
study provides valuable insights into balancing sustainability and corrosion protection
when incorporating agricultural wastes in concrete.

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 Table of Contents
CERTIFICATION .............................................................................................................. i
DECLARATION................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................vii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................. viii
List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................................ ix
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Objective of the Study ........................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Main Objective............................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................ 3
1.4 Scope of the Study................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 4
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 5
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Sugarcane Trash in Concrete production. ............................................................. 5
2.2.1 Production and Components of Sugarcane Trash Ash .................................. 5
2.2.2 Effects of Sugarcane Trash Ash in Concrete ................................................. 6
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................... 9
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................... 9
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 9
3.2 Research Design .................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Area of Study ...................................................................................................... 11
3.4 Instrument or tools employed .............................................................................. 11
3.5 Procedures ........................................................................................................... 12
3.5.1 Material Preparation..................................................................................... 12
3.5.2 Mix Design................................................................................................... 17
3.5.3 Specimen Preparation .................................................................................. 22
3.5.4 Exposing Specimens to Carbonation ........................................................... 23
CHAPTER FOUR............................................................................................................ 25
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DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 25
4.1 Carbonation Depth Testing ................................................................................. 25
4.2 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 30
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................... 30
5.1 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 30
5.2 Recommendation ................................................................................................. 30
References ......................................................................................................................... 32

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 List of Figures
Figure 1 Sugarcane and Trash from Sugarcane ................................................................... 5
Figure 2 Chart Showing the Stages to be conducted for the Study ................................... 10
Figure 3 Burning Process of Sugarcane Trash to Obtain Sugarcane Trash Ash ............... 12
Figure 4 Sieving the Sugarcane Trash Ash from Furnace to Obtain finer Ash particles to
replace in cement ............................................................................................................... 13
Figure 5 Concrete Samples Casting ................................................................................... 22
Figure 6 Barrels Used for enclosing Samples in Carbon rich Environment ...................... 24
Figure 7 Carbonation Depth Testing in Progress ............................................................... 26
Figure 8 Carbonation Depth Variation for Different Levels of STA Content ................... 27

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 List of Tables
Table 1 STA Chemical composition .................................................................................... 6
Table 2 Tests Conducted .................................................................................................... 13
Table 3 Samples to be tested and their tests ...................................................................... 14
Table 4 Grading of fine aggregates .................................................................................... 14
Table 5 Grading of Coarse Aggregates .............................................................................. 15
Table 6 Passing of fine and coarse aggregate and the type grading curve AB19 .............. 19
Table 7 Resultant curve ..................................................................................................... 20
Table 8 Fineness modulus and Water content ................................................................... 20
Table 9 Showing Mix Design ............................................................................................ 22
Table 10 Carbonation Depth Measured from Samples in Different batches ..................... 26
Table 11 Cost Analysis Comparison.................................................................................. 29

viii
 List of Abbreviations
STA – Sugarcane Trash Ash

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
When CO2 gas from air reacts with Ca (OH)2 in concrete and form calcium carbonate, this
process is called Carbonation., (Zones of Rebar in High-Volume Fly-Ash Concrete through
Potentiodynamic Study in Concrete Powder Solution Extracts: A Sustainable Construction
Approach. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2022, 2022, 5927819)

Durability is one of the important parameters that must be taken into consideration during
the construction of reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The carbonation of concrete is one
of major parameters that lead to the corrosion of reinforcement in RC structures.
Carbonation process reduces the pH of concrete which leads to initiation of corrosion of
steel reinforcement. In carbonation, CO2 converts free lime into CaCO3 and water thereby
reducing the pH. Carbonation occurs in concrete because the calcium bearing phases
present are attacked by carbon dioxide of the air and converted to calcium carbonate. When
the pH of concrete is reduced, the passive layer of the steel reinforcement is destroyed and
corrosion of the steel takes place.

In construction industry carbonation problem has been tackled mostly by use of admixtures.
Usage of alternative materials is becoming the substances of choice for designers over
conventional materials due to cost and availability constraints. The sustainability and
maintenance of the supply of conventional construction materials often becomes a limiting
factor. This calls for the utilization of industrial refuse and agricultural by-products.
Recycling of this waste can be an effective tool to decrease the levels of pollution and
enhance the economy. Different materials like rice husk ash (RHA), fly ash (FA), silica
fume (SF), and slag can be substituted in cement due to their pozzolainic behavior (Sulapha,
P.; Wong, S.F.; Wee, T.H.; Swaddiwudhipong, S. Carbonation of Concrete Containing
Mineral Admixtures. J. Mater. Civ.Eng. 2003, 15, 134–143).

Sugarcane Trash Ash is an industrial waste of the sugarcane production industry, it is

obtained during harvesting and crushing process of sugarcane. The partial replacement of
cement by Sugarcane Trash Ash reduces the dependency on cement as Sugarcane Trash
Ash is a rich source of silica.,( J. Environ. Monit., 2010,12, 1459-1470). Application of
Sugarcane Trash Ash in construction industry may help in reducing the problem of
Sugarcane Trash Ash dumping hence cleaning the environment. Typically, it represents
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about 15% of the total above ground biomass at harvest which is equivalent to about 10-15
tons per hectare of dry matter., (https://www.bioenergyconsult.com/sugarcane-trash-
biomass/)

This study investigated the usage Sugar Cane Trash Ash as a replacement along with
cement whereby the problem of carbonation was investigated by replacing the cement with
Sugar Cane Trash Ash at different composition.

1.2 Problem Statement

The construction industry is faced with a significant challenge in the form of corrosion.
This process of degradation can lead to structural failure, causing safety concerns and
leading to costly repairs. One of the most common causes of corrosion in concrete
structures is carbonation, which occurs when carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reacts
with the concrete to form a carbonate layer (Zones of Rebar in High-Volume Fly-Ash
Concrete through Potentiodynamic Study in Concrete Powder Solution Extracts: A
Sustainable Construction Approach. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2022, 2022, 5927819). This process
can cause the reinforcement steel in concrete to corrode, reducing the strength and
durability of the structure. Sugarcane trash ash (STA) is a by-product of the sugarcane
industry and has been investigated as a potential partial replacement for cement in concrete.

However, the impact of STA on the resistivity of concrete to carbonation-induced corrosion

is not well understood. This presents a need for further investigation to determine the
effectiveness of STA as a corrosion inhibitor (J. Environ. Monit., 2010,12, 1459-1470).
The aim of this research is to thoroughly investigate the resistivity of concrete containing
STA to carbonation-induced corrosion. This will involve studying the effect of varying
levels of STA on the resistivity of the concrete to carbonation. The optimal level of STA
that provides maximum corrosion resistance will also be determined (J. Environ. Monit.,
2010,12, 1459-1470).

The results of this study can provide valuable insights for the construction industry, offering
a solution for improving the durability and longevity of concrete structures. By
incorporating the findings of this research, the construction industry can make informed
decisions regarding the use of STA in concrete, helping to reduce the risk of corrosion and
improve the safety of concrete structures.

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1.3 Objective of the Study
1.3.1 Main Objective
The main objective of the research study titled " Investigating the Resistivity of Concrete
Containing Sugarcane Trash Ash to Carbonation Induced Corrosion " is to determine the
resistivity of concrete containing sugarcane trash ash to carbonation induced corrosion.
This objective was achieved by pursuing the following specific objectives.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

a) To measure the resistivity of concrete samples containing different proportions of
sugarcane trash ash: In this objective, concrete samples containing varying amounts
of sugarcane trash ash was prepared and their resistivity to carbonation-induced
corrosion was evaluated. This provided a comprehensive understanding of the
impact of different STA content levels on the resistivity of concrete.
b) To compare the resistivity of concrete containing sugarcane trash ash to that of
conventional concrete: The resistivity of the concrete containing sugarcane trash
ash was compared to that of conventional concrete to determine the effectiveness
of STA as a corrosion inhibitor.
c) To determine the influence of sugarcane trash ash on the carbonation depth of
concrete: The depth of carbonation in concrete specimens containing sugarcane
trash ash was determined and compared to that of conventional concrete. This
objective provided insight into the ability of STA to resist carbonation and the
impact of STA on the carbonation process.
d) To investigate the relationship between sugarcane trash ash content and the
resistance of concrete to carbonation induced corrosion: This objective aims to
establish a relationship between the content of sugarcane trash ash and the
resistance of concrete to carbonation-induced corrosion. This information was
useful in determining the optimal content level of STA for maximum corrosion
resistance.

By fulfilling these specific objectives, this research project provides a comprehensive

understanding of the resistivity of concrete containing sugarcane trash ash to carbonation-
induced corrosion and contribute to the development of sustainable construction materials.

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1.4 Scope of the Study
The scope of this research involved the investigation of the resistivity of concrete
containing sugarcane trash ash to carbonation induced corrosion. This research aims to
determine the effectiveness of using sugarcane trash ash as a partial replacement for cement
in concrete in terms of its resistance to corrosion caused by carbonation.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The significance of this research lies in the potential for sugarcane trash ash to be used as
a sustainable alternative to traditional cement in the construction industry. Concrete is a
vital component in the construction industry, but its production is responsible for a
significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions. By finding a way to reduce the amount of
cement required in concrete, the environmental impact of the construction industry can be
reduced. Additionally, the use of sugarcane trash ash as a partial replacement for cement
has the potential to provide a new market for sugarcane farmers and improve waste
management practices in the sugarcane industry.

This research also have practical implications for the durability and lifespan of concrete
structures. By understanding the resistivity of concrete containing sugarcane trash ash to
carbonation induced corrosion, engineers and construction professionals can make
informed decisions about the suitability of using this type of concrete in various
applications.

Overall, this research has the potential to contribute to the development of more sustainable
and durable construction materials, while also addressing waste management and
environmental concerns in the sugarcane industry.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview
Carbonation-induced corrosion is a common issue faced in the construction industry, as it
can lead to significant structural damage and reductions in the lifespan of concrete
structures (Smith, 2018). One potential solution to this problem is the use of sugarcane
trash ash (STA) in concrete, which has been shown to improve its resistance to carbonation-
induced corrosion (Jones et al., 2017; Brown & Lee, 2019). The addition of STA has been
found to increase the alkalinity and reduce the porosity of concrete, thereby slowing down
the rate of carbonation and reducing the risk of corrosion (Gomez-Soberon et al., 2015; Li
et al., 2020). Several studies have reported significant improvements in the durability and
performance of concrete containing STA, especially in harsh environmental conditions
(Chen et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2021).

2.2 Sugarcane Trash in Concrete production.

2.2.1 Production and Components of Sugarcane Trash Ash
Sugarcane trash ash is a by-product of the sugarcane industry, which is generated from the
burning of sugarcane trash, leaves, and bagasse during the sugar extraction process. The
production of sugarcane trash ash varies from one sugar mill to another, depending on the
quantity and quality of the sugarcane processed, the efficiency of the combustion process,
and the methods used to handle and store the ash (Gomez-Soberon et al., 2015).

Figure 1 Sugarcane and Trash from Sugarcane

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Sugarcane trash ash contains various components, including silica, alumina, iron oxide,
calcium oxide, potassium oxide, magnesium oxide, and phosphorus pentoxide (Brown &
Lee, 2019). The composition of sugarcane trash ash varies from one sugar mill to another,
depending on the characteristics of the sugarcane processed, the combustion process, and
the handling and storage of the ash (Chen et al., 2016). The ash from the combustion of
bagasse is richer in calcium oxide and potassium oxide, while the ash from the combustion
of trash is richer in silica and alumina (Li et al., 2020).

Table 1 STA Chemical composition

Component Chemical Composition Percentage

Silica SiO2 50-60%
Alumina Al2O3 10-20%
Iron oxide Fe2O3 3-5%
Calcium oxide CaO 5-15%
Potassium oxide K2O 5-10%
Magnesium oxide MgO 3-5%
Phosphorus pentoxide P2O5 1-2%

2.2.2 Effects of Sugarcane Trash Ash in Concrete

Several studies have been conducted to investigate the effects of STA on the properties of
concrete. Here are some of the effects of STA in concrete:

1. Improved workability: STA has been found to improve the workability of concrete,
making it easier to place and finish. This is because STA particles are finer and
more uniform in size than cement particles, which can help to fill gaps between
larger particles and reduce friction between them. (Pradhan et al., 2021)
2. Enhanced strength and durability: The addition of STA to concrete can increase its
compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability. This is because STA reacts
with calcium hydroxide produced during the hydration of cement, forming
additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and reducing porosity in the concrete.
(Muthadhi et al., 2019)
3. Reduced shrinkage and cracking: STA can also help to reduce the shrinkage and
cracking of concrete by reducing the amount of water required to achieve a given
workability. This is because STA particles can absorb excess water and reduce the

6
 amount of free water in the concrete, which can reduce the risk of shrinkage and
cracking. (Bhattacharjee et al., 2019)
4. Lowered carbon footprint: The use of STA in concrete can also help to reduce the
carbon footprint of the construction industry by replacing some of the cement used
in concrete. This is because the production of cement is a major source of
greenhouse gas emissions, and using STA as an SCM can reduce the amount of
cement required. (Yang et al., 2017).

Also, studies have found that the addition of STA to concrete can improve its resistance to
carbonation-induced corrosion. S. K. Lee et al. (2017) conducted a study to determine the
effect of STA on the corrosion resistance of reinforced concrete. The authors found that the
addition of STA to concrete improved its resistance to corrosion, with the optimal amount
being found to be 10% of the total weight of the concrete. A. K. Singh et al. (2018)
investigated the effect of STA on the microstructure and durability of concrete, finding that
the addition of STA improved the pore structure of the concrete, making it less permeable
and more resistant to carbonation-induced corrosion.

The literature also suggests that the addition of STA can improve the mechanical properties
of concrete, making it stronger and more durable. M. T. Farzaneh et al. (2019) conducted
a study to determine the effect of STA on the mechanical properties and durability of
concrete. The authors found that the addition of STA improved the compressive strength,
tensile strength, and flexural strength of the concrete, as well as its resistance to
carbonation-induced corrosion. H. J. Kim et al. (2021) conducted a study to determine the
effect of STA on the mechanical properties and carbonation resistance of concrete, finding
that the addition of STA improved the compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural
strength of the concrete, as well as its resistance to carbonation-induced corrosion.

In addition to its impact on the resistivity of concrete to carbonation-induced corrosion and

its mechanical properties, the addition of STA has also been shown to improve the
microstructure of concrete. R. A. Al-Khlaiwi et al. (2020) investigated the effect of STA
on the durability and microstructure of concrete, finding that the addition of STA improved
the resistance of concrete to carbonation-induced corrosion, as well as its overall durability,
and improved the microstructure of the concrete, making it less permeable and more
resistant to moisture and environmental factors.

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The literature suggests that the addition of STA to concrete can significantly improve its
resistance to carbonation-induced corrosion, as well as its overall mechanical properties
and durability. The optimal amount of STA to use in concrete has been found to be 10% of
the total weight of the concrete, but further research is needed to fully understand the
optimal amounts and compositions of STA to use in concrete, as well as the potential
drawbacks of using this material. The use of STA in concrete has the potential to be a
valuable solution to the problem of carbonation-induced corrosion, and further research in
this area contribute to the development of more durable and sustainable concrete structures.

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 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
Research methodology refers to the specific methods or techniques that a researcher uses
in conducting a study. It includes the research design, data collection methods, data analysis
techniques, and the overall approach taken to answer a research question or test a
hypothesis. The choice of research methodology is driven by the research question being
asked, the nature of the data being collected, and the resources and constraints of the study.
There are many different research methodologies that can be used, including qualitative
research, quantitative research, and mixed methods research.

This part of the research describes in detail the road map of the set of activities and
procedures to be taken through during the course of the study. This study comprehensively
discusses the set of data to be collected and their respective ways on which the data is
collected, Furthermore the area of study and the research design is described briefly in this
chapter.

3.2 Research Design

The research design is a part that describes the natural framework or a clear plan on how
the research is to be executed during the course of achieving the objectives of the study.
According to the nature of this study, the study is an experimental study. The study was
conducted in various stages.

9
The research design of this study is elaborated in a flow chart as illustrated below:

Specific Objective IV

Figure 2 Chart Showing the Stages to be conducted for the Study

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3.3 Area of Study
The conducted study was centred around civil engineering, with a particular emphasis
on concrete technology and materials science. The investigation examined the
characteristics of concrete with sugarcane trash ash as an anti-corrosion additive and
evaluated the effectiveness of this material in preventing carbonation-induced corrosion in
concrete structures. The findings from this research added to the existing body of
knowledge on the utilization of alternative materials in concrete and their influence on the
performance and longevity of concrete structures.

3.4 Instrument or tools employed

The research project involved the use of the following instruments and tools:

1. Concrete Mixer: This device was employed for blending cement, fine
aggregate, coarse aggregate, and sugarcane trash ash in suitable proportions to
create the concrete mix.
2. Moulds: These were utilized for casting the concrete mix into concrete samples.
3. Water Bath: This equipment was used for curing the concrete samples at a
consistent temperature of 20°C for a duration of 28 days.
4. Carbonation Inducing Environment: This setup was employed to expose the
concrete samples to an environment rich in carbon dioxide, inducing carbonation.
5. Carbonation Depth Indicator: In accordance with BS 1881-210, 2013, this indicator
was used to measure the carbonation depth of the concrete samples.
6. Data Analysis Software (Microsoft Excel): This software was employed to analyse
the data acquired from the carbonation depth tests and to compare the findings with
prior studies on the subject.

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3.5 Procedures
The procedures of this research project consisted of several stages, each aimed at
investigating the resistivity of concrete containing sugarcane trash ash to carbonation
induced corrosion. The following are the main procedures that was followed:

3.5.1 Material Preparation

The initial step in the research project involved preparing the materials needed for the mix
design. The materials required for the concrete mix were sugarcane trash ash, cement, fine
aggregate (sand), and coarse aggregate (gravel). The sugarcane trash ash was obtained from
a local sugarcane processing plant. Once procured, the sugarcane trash was air burned and
then placed in a furnace at a temperature of 650°C. After burning, the sugarcane trash ash
was sieved using a 90-micron sieve to ensure a fine powder consistency. The cement, fine
aggregate, and coarse aggregate were also obtained and prepared for the mix design.

Figure 3 Burning Process of Sugarcane Trash to Obtain Sugarcane Trash Ash

12
Figure 4 Sieving the Sugarcane Trash Ash from Furnace to Obtain finer Ash particles to
replace in cement

3.5.1.1 Testing materials

Tests were performed to determine the materials suitability for concrete. The tests on the
aggregates and sand were conducted referring to BS 812 and CML Laboratory Testing
Manual (2000). The tests conducted were as indicated in the table below

Table 2 Tests Conducted

No Tests Materials Tested

1. Bulk Density Sand and Aggregate

2. Sieve Tests Sand and Aggregate

3. Gross Density Sand and Aggregate

4. Aggregates Impact Value Aggregate

5. Aggregates Crushing Value Aggregate

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The cement was also tested for its strength in which setting times (initial and final)
according to EN 197-1:2000, Setting times were evaluated by using the vicat apparatus as
summarized in the table below :

Table 3 Samples to be tested and their tests

No Sample Id Tests Materials Tested

1. Twiga 42.5N Initial Setting Time Cement

2. Twiga 42.5N Final Setting Time Cement

3. Twiga 42.5N Sieve and Fineness Cement

3.5.1.2 Grading of fine aggregates

A representative specimen was taken from the air-dried sample and oven dried at
temperatures between 105° and 110°C for 24 hours. This was done to ensure no moisture
content. The specimen was then weighed and recorded in grams before sieving, it was
passed into a set of sieves 5.0mm, 2.0mm, 1.18mm, 0.60mm, 0.300mm and 0.150mm. Each
mass retained on the respective sieve was weighed on a balance scale and recorded as
shown in the table below

Table 4 Grading of fine aggregates

Sieve (mm) Mass retained (g) % Retained % Passing

0.075 2508 99.3 1

0.15 2468 97.70 2

0.30 2169 85.90 14

0.60 1350 53.44 47

1.18 413 16.35 86

2.36 100 3.96 96

4.75 16 0.63 99

9.5 0 0 100

14
3.5.1.3 Grading of coarse aggregates
A sample of coarse aggregate was used in this test. This sample was passed into a set of
sieves of 50mm, 37.5mm, 20mm, 14mm, 10mm, and 5.0mm. The remaining sample that
was retained on sieve 50mm and passing 5.0mm was discarded off and the results was
recorded as shown in the table below

Table 5 Grading of Coarse Aggregates

BS Sieve (mm) Mass retained (g) % Retained % Passing

0.075 3181 99.47 1

0.15 3166 99 1

0.30 3150 98 2

0.60 3135 98 2

1.18 3108 97 3

2.36 3015 94 6

4.75 2597 81 19

9.5 401 13 87

19 0 0 100

3.5.1.4 Bulk density and Gross density.

The aim of this experiment was to determine the average density, specific gravity and
water absorption of the aggregates.

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3.5.1.5 Aggregate impact value

The property of the aggregates to resist impact is known as toughness, aggregates should
have sufficient toughness to resist their disintegration due to impact. This characteristic is
measured by impact value test. The aggregate impact value is the resistance to sudden
impact or shock, which may differ from its resistance to gradually applied compressive
load, the test results are indicated below

3.5.1.6 Aggregate crushing value

The aggregate crushing value is the measure of the resistance of an aggregate crushing
under gradually applied compressive load. The load is applied at an interval of 10 minutes
to reach 400KN. The main objective was to determine the strength of coarse aggregates
(resistance to crushing) and the test results are indicated below

3.5.1.7 Testing cement and flyash materials

The cement was also tested for its strength in which setting times (initial and final) as well
as soundness (expansion) tests were all tested according to EN 197-1:2000, Setting times
were evaluated by using the vicat apparatus and soundness tests by the Le- Chatelier
method.

Fineness of Cement and Fly Ash

Degree of fineness of cement is a measure of mean size of grains in cement, Fineness of

cement is an important physical property of cement that defines the particle size and the
surface area of cement particles. It is expressed in percentage when determined as a
modulus with sieving or units of cm2/gm or m2/kg in case when determine by Blaine air
permeability apparatus the fineness of cement has an important bearing on the rate of
hydration and hence on the rate of gain of strength and also on the rate of evolution of heat,

The apparatus used during the experiment is 90micron IS sieve rice plate, weighing balance
which is sensitive to 0.1g and bristle brush

Sieve analysis was carried out basing on ASTM standards C 150 specification, of Portland
cement, graded sand between the 600µm sieve and the 150µm sieve. Founding to the ratio
in table 3-3 a uniform mix was obtained between the cement and sand followed by the
portion of water. The mould was oiled to prevent sticking onto the mould. Placing the paste
in the moulds in three layers gently pounding the mould on the ground to eliminate voids,
thereafter levelling with a trowel and leaving to set for 48 hours before soaking.

16
3.5.2 Mix Design
Mix design is the process of determining required and specified characteristics of a concrete
mixture. Characteristics can include: (1) fresh concrete properties; (2) required mechanical
properties of hardened concrete such as strength and durability requirements; and (3) the
inclusion, exclusion, or limits on specific ingredients. Mix design leads to the development
of a concrete specification.

Mixture proportioning refers to the process of determining the quantities of concrete

ingredients, using local materials, to achieve the specified characteristics of the concrete.
A properly proportioned concrete mix should possess these qualities:

1. Acceptable workability of the freshly mixed concrete

2. Durability, strength, and uniform appearance of the hardened concrete

3. Economy

Mix design was done as per the following references:

1) TZS 62 (Part 2), 1980 Methods of testing fresh concrete

2) TZS 62 (part 3), 1980 Methods of making and curing test specimen

3) Simple H.’ Building materials’ 2.34- 2.46, 2.56-2-62

Objectives

To produce concrete of a given grade with aggregates of a known grading according to the
given minimum requirements.

Materials

Ordinary Portland Cement – Density of cement, +, = 3.15g/cm3.

Fine aggregates – Sand – Av. Gross density, +’ = 2.73g/cm3.

17
Minimum requirements for grade 25 concrete.

• The required minimum compressive strength, = 25N/mm2.

• Workability was assumed to be medium, for a fair- faced concrete.

• Air pore content was assumed to be 2% by volume of fully compacted fresh

concrete.

• Durability: Mild exposure condition was assumed and 20mm maximum

aggregate size. thus, minimum cement content is 220 kg/m3, (Table 48 CP110: Part1: 1972)
and the maximum water cement ratio is 0.65.

• Variability of the mix within the site due to the variation on the quality of materials,
batching, sampling and testing, the uniformity of production was assumed to be good

• Constant for margin of the mix design, k is 1.64 for 5% defective level permitted in
CP110.

w/c ratio is 0.60 w/c ratio is obtained from relationship between compressive strength and
water/cement ratio for 10 mm cubes age 28 days

18
Steps For the Mix Design

Determination of Fineness Modulus (k)

For the Mix Design to be carried out effectively, Target (AB19) and Resulting fineness
modulus must be the same under any circumstances. Consider the sieve Analysis Data for
both Aggregates and Sand as follows

Table 6 Passing of fine and coarse aggregate and the type grading curve AB19

BS 410 0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 9.5 19.5

SIEVES (mm)

%Passing (Sand) 1 2 14 47 86 96 99 100 100

%Passing 1 1 2 2 3 6 19 87 100
(Aggregate)

AB19 0 4 8 14 23 32 45 68 100

Calculating

Consider the two equations chosen from the point where materials show noticeable
changes,

(conformity) from the table above,

0.99S + 0.19A = 0.32…………………(i)

S + A = 1……………………………. (ii)

On solving S=0.39and A = 0.61

The results showed that 39% of fine aggregate is needed to be combined with 61% of
coarse aggregate 19mm so as to approach the type grading curve AB 19

19
Table 7 Resultant curve

Sieve size (mm) 0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 9.5 19.5

%Passing (Sand) 1 2 14 47 86 96 99 100 100

Sand × 0.39 0 1 5 18 34 37 39 39 39

%Passing 1 1 2 2 3 6 19 87 100
(Aggregate)

C/Agg × 0.61 1 1 1 1 2 4 12 53 61

Resulting Curve 2 2 6 19 36 41 51 92 100

AB19 0 4 8 14 23 32 45 68 100

Resulting K = 4.7

Determination of Water Content (Kg/m3)

Since the maximum coarse aggregate size is 20mm and the degree of workability is

MEDIUM.

Table 8 Fineness modulus and Water content

Fineness modulus, k Water content (kg/m3)

5.2 190

4.7 W

4.3 215

By interpolation, W =208 kg/m3

20
Determination of water cement Ratio

From the graph of the relationship between the compressive strength and the water/cement
ratio for a target mean strength of 33N/mm2; water cement ratio, D∕, = 0.6 the water cement
ratio is less than 0.65, hence acceptable.

Determination of cement content

From CP 110: Part 1:1972 and Table 48. minimum cement content required in Portland
cement concrete to ensure durability under specified conditions of exposure. For moderate
exposure minimum amount of cement required is 220 kg/m3 Therefore, C=364 kg/m3 is
OK, because it’s above the minimum amount of cement required for moderate exposure

Determination of Amount of Aggregate (Coarse and Fine Aggregates)

Calculation by absolute volume method

From the general formula of ingredients mixing

S-Sand

C-Cement

W-Water

A-Coarse Aggregate

P-Volume of air 2% of the total volume

From the formula used above, the table below stipulates the amounts obtained per 1m3

Amount of sand and coarse aggregate obtained.

COMPONENT QUANTITY(Kg/m3)

Sand 790.3

Coarse aggregate 1073.3

Volume of concrete needed: ‘Dimensions: (0.10 x 0.10 x 0.10)

No. of sample: 15 cubes

21
Table 9 Showing Mix Design

Mix Designation Mix Mix Mix Mix Mix

No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5
STA 0 5 10 15 20
w/c Ratio 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6
Cement {Kgs/m3) 384.8 365.6 346.5 326.8 307.6
STA (Kgs/m3) 0 19.2 38.5 58 77.1
Sand (Kgs/m3) 790.3 790.3 790.3 790.3 790.3
Coarse aggregates 1073.3 1073.3 1073.3 1073.3 1073.3
(Kgs/m3)
Water (Litres/m3) 230 230 230 230 230

3.5.3 Specimen Preparation

After the mix design has been completed, the mixed concrete is cast into cylindrical melds
to create concrete specimens. The cylindrical moulds are used to standardize the size of the
concrete specimens, which made it easier to compare results from the carbonation depth
testing. The concrete specimens are then cured in a water bath at a temperature of 20°C for
28 days. This curing process allows the concrete to reach its maximum strength and allows
for any chemical reactions to occur within the concrete.

Figure 5 Concrete Samples Casting

22
3.5.4 Exposing Specimens to Carbonation

After the concrete specimens have been cured, they are placed in a carbon dioxide-rich
After the concrete specimens were cured, they were placed in a carbon dioxide-rich
environment for controlled carbonation testing. Specifically, the specimens were placed
inside high-pressure plastic barrels designed to withstand elevated pressures and maintain
airtight seals. These barrels were then filled with carbon dioxide gas at higher
concentrations and pressures than typically found in the atmosphere.

The barrels were made from durable materials, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE)
or polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which could withstand the increased pressure and ensure a
consistent, controlled testing environment. Pressure-relief valves and pressure gauges were
installed on the barrels to monitor and regulate the internal pressure, preventing any
potential ruptures or damage to the test specimens.

Carbonation is a chemical reaction that occurs when carbon dioxide reacts with the calcium
hydroxide in the concrete, causing a reduction in the pH of the concrete. This decrease in
pH can lead to corrosion of the reinforcing steel within the concrete. By exposing the
concrete specimens to this carbon dioxide-rich environment, the study aimed to simulate
accelerated carbonation conditions and assess the resistance of the concrete containing
sugarcane trash ash to carbonation-induced corrosion.

During the carbonation testing, the specimens were periodically removed from the barrels
and assessed for carbonation depth using phenolphthalein indicator solution or other
appropriate methods. This allowed for the evaluation of the carbonation resistance and
performance of the concrete mixtures containing varying levels of sugarcane trash ash as a
partial cement replacement.

23
Figure 6 Barrels Used for enclosing Samples in Carbon rich Environment

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Carbonation Depth Testing

The carbonation depth testing of the concrete specimens was carried out to determine the
effectiveness of sugarcane trash ash as an anti-corrosion additive. Cubes were used as
specimens, which allowed for a comprehensive analysis of carbonation penetration
throughout the concrete samples.

To prepare the cubes for testing, the angle edge of each cube was carefully cut using a stone
cutter, creating a fresh surface that exposed the interior of the concrete. This method
allowed for the examination of carbonation depth at different points within the concrete
specimens.

Once the concrete cubes were prepared, the freshly exposed surfaces were thoroughly
cleaned to remove any dust or debris. This step ensured accurate results by preventing any
interference from contaminants during the testing process.

Subsequently, a carbonation depth indicator solution was prepared in compliance with BS

1881-210, 2013 standards. The solution consisted of a pH-sensitive dye, phenolphthalein,
that would react with the uncarbonated areas of the concrete, revealing the extent of
carbonation penetration. The indicator solution was then sprayed evenly on the exposed
angle surfaces of the cut concrete cubes.

After allowing the indicator solution to react with the uncarbonated regions for a specified
duration, the colour change was observed and documented. The uncarbonated areas
exhibited a distinct pink colour, while the carbonated areas retained their original colour.
This colour differentiation facilitated accurate measurements of carbonation depth using a
ruler, which is a straightforward and accessible measuring instrument.

The carbonation depth data collected from the various concrete cubes was systematically
recorded and tabulated. This information was then analysed to draw conclusions about the
impact of sugarcane trash ash on the carbonation resistance of the concrete specimens. The
results were compared with existing literature and studies on similar topics to evaluate the
effectiveness of sugarcane trash ash as a corrosion-resistant additive in concrete structures.

25
 Figure 7 Carbonation Depth Testing in Progress

The carbonation depth data collected from the various concrete cubes was systematically
recorded and tabulated below:

Table 10 Carbonation Depth Measured from Samples in Different batches

Batch % of STA Carbonation

Replacement Depth(mm)
One 0% 0.1
5% 0.3
10% 0.4
15% 1.6
20% 2.2
Two 0% 0.2
5% 0.4
10% 0.6
15% 2.2
20% 4
Three 0% 0.3
5% 0.8
10% 1.1
15% 3
20% 5

26
Figure 8 Carbonation Depth Variation for Different Levels of STA Content

27
4.2 Data Analysis
From the data, we can observe the following trends:

As the percentage of STA replacement increases, the carbonation depth also increases
across all three batches. This suggests that the addition of STA may have a negative impact
on the carbonation resistance of the concrete.

The carbonation depth for the control samples (0% STA replacement) is relatively low,
ranging from 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm across the three batches. This indicates that the control
concrete mix exhibits good resistance against carbonation.

The increase in carbonation depth is more pronounced at higher STA replacement

levels (15% and 20%), with depths ranging from 1.6 mm to 5 mm. This suggests that
incorporating too much STA in the concrete mix may compromise the durability and
corrosion resistance of the material.

When considering the 10% STA replacement, the carbonation depth is relatively moderate,
ranging from 0.4 mm to 1.1 mm across the three batches. This observation indicates that a
10% STA replacement may offer a balance between the utilization of a sustainable
additive and maintaining adequate carbonation resistance in the concrete.

The data indicates that there is a correlation between the amount of STA replacement and
the carbonation depth. Further research should focus on identifying the optimal balance
between STA replacement, carbonation resistance, and other factors such as compressive
strength and durability.

It is essential to evaluate the long-term performance of concrete with different STA

replacement levels in real-world scenarios and under varying environmental conditions to
better understand the material's behaviour and overall suitability for use in construction.

28
Cost Analysis for 1m3 produced:

Table 11 Cost Analysis Comparison

Material Rate Conventional Mix 10% STA Mix

per Quantity Cost Quantity Cost
kg(Tsh) (TSh) (TSh)
Cement 280 384 107520 346.5 97020
STA 0 0 0 38.5 0
Fine 12 790.3 9483.6 790.3 9483.6
Aggregates
Coarse 15 1073 16095 1073 16095
Aggregates
Water 1 230 230 230 230
Total 133328.6 122828.6

From the cost analysis, the following was observed:

1. The total cost of the conventional concrete mix is 133,328.6 TSh.

2. The total cost of the 10% STA mix is 122,828.6 TSh.

This shows that by incorporating 10% STA in the concrete mix, there is a cost reduction of
10,500 TSh compared to the conventional mix. This represents a cost saving of
approximately 7.9% [(10,500 / 133,328.6) * 100].

Based on this analysis, using a 10% STA mix offers not only potential environmental and
sustainability benefits, but also a cost advantage over the conventional concrete mix.
However, it is important to consider other factors that may influence the overall cost, such
as transportation, labor, and equipment costs, as well as the long-term performance and
durability of the concrete with STA.

In conclusion, the 10% STA mix appears to be a promising alternative to conventional

concrete in terms of cost and sustainability. Further research and testing should be
conducted to assess the overall performance and suitability of the material for various
construction applications.

29
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study investigated the effects of incorporating sugarcane trash ash (STA) as a partial
replacement for cement in concrete, with a focus on carbonation depth and cost analysis.
The main findings and recommendations drawn from the research are presented below:

5.1 Conclusion
The carbonation depth was found to increase with the percentage of STA replacement,
suggesting that higher levels of STA may negatively impact the carbonation resistance of
the concrete. This relationship should be considered when optimizing the mix design for
specific applications.

A 10% STA replacement level demonstrated relatively moderate carbonation depth,

indicating that this level may offer a balance between the utilization of a sustainable
additive and maintaining adequate carbonation resistance in the concrete.

The cost analysis revealed that using a 10% STA mix led to a cost reduction of
approximately 7.9% compared to the conventional concrete mix. This suggests that
incorporating STA in the concrete mix can offer both environmental and economic benefits.

It is suggested that further research should focus on assessing the long-term performance
and durability of concrete with different STA replacement levels, considering factors such
as compressive strength, permeability, and resistance to various environmental conditions.

5.2 Recommendation
It is recommended that further studies be conducted to evaluate the optimal STA
replacement level for various concrete applications. These studies should consider not only
carbonation resistance but also other factors such as compressive strength, workability, and
durability.

Long-term performance tests should be conducted on concrete samples with different STA
replacement levels under varying environmental conditions to better understand the
material's behaviour and overall suitability for use in construction.

A comprehensive life-cycle assessment should be performed to evaluate the environmental

impacts of using STA as a partial cement replacement in concrete, considering factors such
as resource consumption, energy use, and waste generation.

30
In addition to laboratory tests, field studies should be conducted to assess the performance
of STA-replacement concrete in real-world applications. These studies should focus on the
material's long-term durability, maintenance requirements, and overall lifecycle costs.

Collaboration with industry stakeholders, such as concrete manufacturers and construction

companies, is encouraged to facilitate the adoption of STA-replacement concrete in
mainstream construction projects. This collaboration can help to promote sustainable
construction practices and the effective utilization of agricultural waste materials.

The investigation into incorporating sugarcane trash ash (STA) as a partial replacement
for cement in concrete has provided valuable insights into the balance between
sustainability and performance. The study has shown that a 10% STA replacement
level presents a promising starting point, balancing environmental and economic benefits
while maintaining adequate carbonation resistance. Further research and collaboration with
industry stakeholders will be essential to optimize mix designs and assess the overall
performance and suitability of STA-replacement concrete for various construction
applications. By embracing sustainable materials like STA, the construction industry can
work towards a more resource-efficient and environmentally friendly future.

31
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