INTRODUCTION TO SQL

(Structural Query Language)

 Table of Content

Contents
1. Introduction to SQL .................................................................................................................... 4
History of SQL ................................................................................................................................. 4
1.1. What is Database? .............................................................................................................. 4
1.2. Relational Database ............................................................................................................ 5
1.3. SQL and Relational Databases ......................................................................................... 5
1.4. How to run SQL Query on the local system ................................................................... 5
2. Downloading and Installing MySQL ........................................................................................ 6
2.1 Downloading MySQL ............................................................................................................... 6
2.2. Installation of MySQL ............................................................................................................. 8
3. SQL QUERY ............................................................................................................................... 24
3.1. The SQL SELECT QUERY ................................................................................................ 25
3.2. The SQL SELECT DISTINCT ............................................................................................ 26
3.3. The SQL WHERE CLAUSE............................................................................................... 26
3.4. The SQL WHERE CLAUSE WITH AND, OR & NOT...................................................... 28
3.5. The SQL ORDER BY ......................................................................................................... 29
3.6. The SQL SELECT TOP CLAUSE ..................................................................................... 30
3.7. The SQL MIN() AND MAX() FUNCTIONS ....................................................................... 31
3.8. The SQL COUNT(), AVG() AND SUM() FUNCTIONS .................................................... 32
3.9. The SQL LIKE OPERATOR .............................................................................................. 33
3.10. The SQL IN AND NOT IN OPERATORS ..................................................................... 36
3.11. The SQL BETWEEN OPERATOR ................................................................................ 37
3.12. The SQL ALIASES ......................................................................................................... 38
3.13. The SQL GROUP BY STATEMENT ............................................................................. 39
3.14. The SQL HAVING CLAUSE .......................................................................................... 40
3.15. The SQL UNION ............................................................................................................. 41
3.16. The SQL STORED PROCEDURE ................................................................................ 42
4. SQL JOIN .................................................................................................................................... 42
4.1. INNER JOIN ........................................................................................................................ 43
4.2. LEFT JOIN ........................................................................................................................... 44
4.3. RIGHT JOIN ........................................................................................................................ 45
 4.4. Full OUTER JOIN ............................................................................................................... 46
4.5. SELF-JOIN .......................................................................................................................... 47
5. SQL DATABASE ........................................................................................................................ 48
5.1. The SQL CREATE DATABASE STATEMENT ............................................................... 48
5.2. The SQL DROP DATABASE STATEMENT .................................................................... 48
5.3. The SQL CREATE TABLE ................................................................................................ 49
5.4. The SQL DROP TABLE STATEMENT ............................................................................ 50
5.5. The SQL INSERT INTO STATEMENT ............................................................................. 51
5.6. The SQL NULL VALUES ................................................................................................... 52
5.7. The SQL UPDATE STATEMENT ..................................................................................... 54
5.8. The SQL DELETE STATEMENT ...................................................................................... 54
5.9. The SQL ALTER TABLE STATEMENT ........................................................................... 55
5.9.1. ALTER TABLE - ADD COLUMN IN EXISTING TABLE ......................................... 55
5.9.2. ALTER TABLE – MODIFY/ALTER COLUMN ......................................................... 56
5.9.3. ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN ............................................................................ 56
6. The SQL CONSTRAINTS.......................................................................................................... 57
6.1. NOT NULL CONSTRAINTS .............................................................................................. 58
6.2. SQL UNIQUE CONSTRAINT ............................................................................................ 59
6.3. DROP A UNIQUE CONSTRAINT ..................................................................................... 61
6.4. SQL PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS .............................................................................. 62
6.5. DROP PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS ........................................................................... 64
6.6. SQL FOREGIEN KEY CONSTRAINT .............................................................................. 65
6.7. DROP A FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT .......................................................................... 67
6.8. SQL CHECK CONSTRAINTS ........................................................................................... 67
6.9. DROP A CHECK CONSTRAINTS ................................................................................... 69
6.10. SQL DEFAULT CONSTRAINT ...................................................................................... 69
6.11. DROP A DEFAULT CONSTRAINT ............................................................................... 71
7. SQL CREATE INDEX STATEMENT ........................................................................................ 72
7.1. DROP INDEX STATEMENT .............................................................................................. 73
8. SQL VIEWS STATEMENT ........................................................................................................ 74
8.1. The WITH CHECK OPTION .............................................................................................. 75
8.2. DELETING ROWS INTO A VIEW ..................................................................................... 76
8.3. DROPPING VIEWS............................................................................................................. 76
 1. Introduction to SQL

SQL stands for Structural Query Language, and SQL is used for storing, manipulation, and retrieving
data from the database.
History of SQL

The SQL(Structural Query language) was first created in the 1970s by IBM researchers Raymond
Boyce and Donald Chamberlin. The Query language, known then as SEQUEL, was created following
the publishing of Edgar Frank Todd's paper, In 1970, A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared
Data Banks.

In his paper, Todd proposed that all the data in a database be represented in the form of relations. It was
based on this theory that Chamberlin and Boyce came up with SQL. The original SQL version was
designed to retrieve and manipulate data stored in IBM's original RDBMS known as "System R." It
wasn't until several years later, however, that the Structural Query language was made available
publicly. In 1979, a company named as Relational Software, which later became Oracle, commercially
released its version of the SQL language called Oracle V2.

Since that time, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Standards
Organization have deemed the SQL language as the standard language in relational database
communication. While major SQL vendors do modify the language to their desires, most base their
SQL programs off of the ANSI approved version.

1.1. What is Database?

A database is a well-ordered collection of data. A database is an electronic system that permits data to
be easily manipulated, accessed, and updated, or an organization uses a database as a method of
managing, storing, and retrieving information. Modern databases are handled using a database
management system (DBMS).
 1.2. Relational Database

Relational Databases are used to store data in tables (rows and columns). Some common
relational database management systems that use SQL are Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server,
Access, Ingres, etc.

Row

Column

1.3. SQL and Relational Databases

A Relational Database contains tables that store the data that is related in some way. SQL is the query
language that allows retrieval and manipulation of table data in the relational database. The database
below has two tables: one with data on Users and another with data on Products.

1.4. How to run SQL Query on the local system

To run the SQL query on the local system, we need to install the MYSQL community server on the
system. We have given step by step installation process below.
 2. Downloading and Installing MySQL

2.1 Downloading MySQL

Step 1: Open Google and type Download MySQL and Click on MySQL Community Downloads

Step 2: Click on MySQL Community Server

Step 3: Click on the MySQL installer MSI Go to Download Page >

Step 4: Select the OS and click on MSI Installer community

Step 5: Click on start my download

Note: Once the Downloading is completed, then double-click on that and install it on the local system.

2.2. Installation of MySQL

Step 1: Double-Click on Downloaded Application.

Step 2: After clicking on the application we will get a window like below
Step 3: Choosing the Setup type and click Next.

Setup 4: Click Next.

Step 5: Click Yes.

Step 6: Click Execute.

Step 7: After Execution, click on the Next.

Step 8: Click Next.

Step 9: Click Next.

Step 10: Leave it as default and click Next.

Step 11: Click Next

Step 12: Choose the root password

Step 13: Click on Add User and give the username and password.

Step 14: After inserting the name and password click OK

Step 15: After adding the user click Next

Step 16: Click Next

Step 17: Click on Execute

Step 18: After Clicking on execute, click Finish

Step 19: Click Next

Step 20: Click on Finish

Step 21: Click Next.

Step 22: Check the password and Click Next

Step 23: Click Execute

Step 24: After clicking on Execute

Step 25: Click Next

Step 26: Click Finish

Step 27: After the successful installation of MySQL, two windows will open.

 MySQL Shell
 MySQL WorkBench

MySQL WorkBench will tell about database connectivity and other features of MySQL.
Step 28: Click on window Button and search for Open MySQL Command.

Step 29: Open MySQL Command-line Client and enter the password.
Step 29: After entering the password, your MySQL client will get connected with MySQL.

Step 30: There are many in-build Databases in MySQL; we can type show database.
Step 31: we can use any of the above databases by just typing use database_name

3. SQL QUERY

A database most often contains tables. Some name identifies each table. The table includes
records(rows) with Data. To access those records, we need SQL Syntax. Most of the action you need to
perform Database by using the SQL Statement.
Note: SQL keywords are not case-sensitive (e.g., select as SELECT)
o The syntax of the language describes the language element.
o SQL syntax is somewhat like simple English sentences.
o Keywords include SELECT, UPDATE, WHERE, ORDER BY ETC.
Four fundamental operations that can apply to any databases are:
1. Read the Data -- SELECT
2. Insert the new Data -- INSERT
3. Update existing Data -- UPDATE
4. Remove Data –DELETE
These operations are referred to as the CRUD (Create, Read, Update, Delete).
The SQL SELECT QUERY

The SELECT statement permits you to read data from one or more tables.
The general syntax is:
SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM customer;
Example: Read the first_name and last_name from table customer.

To select all columns, use *

SELECT *
FROM customer;
 3.1. The SQL SELECT DISTINCT

The SELECT DISTINCT statement is to return the different values.

SELECT DISTINCT first_name
FROM customer;

3.2. The SQL WHERE CLAUSE

The WHERE clause allows the user to filter the data from the table. The WHERE clause allows the
user to extract only those records that satisfy a specified condition.
When we access, the Text value
SQL requires single quotes around text values (many database systems will also use double quotes).
And numeric fields should not be enclosed in quotes.

SELECT first_name FROM customer

WHERE last_name = ‘perry’;

When we access the Numeric field
SELECT first_name , last_name FROM customer WHERE active = 0;

Operators in where clause

= Equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than equal
<= Less than equal
<> Not equal (also written as !=)
BETWEEN Between a range
LIKE Search for pattern
IN Specify multiple possible values for a column
 3.3. The SQL WHERE CLAUSE WITH AND, OR & NOT

A WHERE clause with AND:

SELECT first_name, email, address_id
FROM customer
WHERE fisrt_name = ‘IAN’ AND last_name = ‘STILL’

A WHERE clause with OR:

UPDATE customer
SET first_name = ‘jingle’
WHERE last_name = ‘ GREY’;

A WHERE clause with NOT:

Select store_id, first_name,last_name, email, address_id FROM customer
WHERE NOT store_id = 2;
 3.4. The SQL ORDER BY

Order by is used to print the values from the table in order(ascending or descending)

Order By in Descending order

SELECT first_name, last_name,email
FROM customer
ORDER BY first_name DESC;

Order By in Ascending order

SELECT first_name, last_name,email
FROM customer
ORDER BY first_name ASC;
 3.5. The SQL SELECT TOP CLAUSE

The SELECT TOP is used to specify the number of records from the to return. The SELECT TOP is
useful on large tables with millions of records. It is returning a large number of records that can impact
performance.
Note: Not all database systems support the SELECT TOP clause. MySQL supports the LIMIT clause
to select a limited number of records, while Oracle uses ROWNUM.

MySQL Syntax:
SELECT first_name, last_name,email
FROM customer WHERE first_name = ‘AUSTIN’
LIMIT 20;
 3.6. The SQL MIN() AND MAX() FUNCTION

The MIN() function in SQL returns the smallest value of the selected column from the table. The
MAX() function in SQL returns the largest value of the selected column from the table.
MIN() Syntax
SELECT MIN(address_id)
FROM customer;

MAX() Syntax
 SELECT MAX(address_id)
FROM customer;

3.7. The SQL COUNT(), AVG() AND SUM() FUNCTION

The COUNT() function gives the number of rows that matches specified conditions. And the AVG()
function in SQL returns the average value of a numeric column. The SUM() function in SQL returns
the total sum of a numeric column.
COUNT() Syntax
SELECT COUNT(email)
FROM customer;

AVG() Syntax
 SELECT AVG(active)
FROM customer;

SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(active)
FROM customer

3.8. The SQL LIKE-OPERATOR

The LIKE operator is used with the WHERE clause to find for a specified pattern in an attribute. The
two wildcards are used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
o % - it represents zero, one, or multiple characters
o _ - it represents a single character
Note: MS Access uses an asterisk (*) in place of the percent sign (%)and a question mark (?) in place
of the underscore (_).
The ‘%’ and the ‘_’ can also be used in combinations.

LIKE Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE column LIKE pattern;
Selects all columns of the customer with a first_name starting with "D".
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE 'D%';

Selects all columns of the customer with a first_name Ending with "E":
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE '%E';

Selects all columns of the customer with a first_name that have "or" in any position.
 SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE '%or%';

Selects all columns of the customer with a first_name that starts with "a" and ends with "o":
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE 'a%o';

Selects all columns of the customer with a first_name that starts with "a" and are at least six characters
in length:
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE first_name LIKE 'a__%';
 3.9. The SQL IN AND NOT IN OPERATORS

The IN operator allows users to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause. The IN operator is a
shorthand for various OR conditions.
IN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);
OR:
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (SELECT STATEMENT);

Selects all the columns of customer whose customer_id in (1,2,3):

SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE cutomer_id IN (1,2,3);
Selects all the columns of customer whose customer_id in (1,2,3):
SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE cutomer_id NOT IN (1,2,3);

3.10. The SQL BETWEEN OPERATOR

The BETWEEN operator retrieves values within the given range. The values can be texts, numbers, or
dates. The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.
BETWEEN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
Select all the columns from the customer with customer_id between 1 to 20.
SELECT * FROM customer WHERE customer_id BETWEEN 1 AND 20;
Select all the columns from the customer with customer_id, not between 1 to 570.
SELECT * FROM customer WHERE customer_id NOT BETWEEN 1 AND 570;

3.11. The SQL ALIAS

Aliases are used to give a nickname to a column in a table, a temporary name. Aliases are used to
make column names more readable to the user.
Alias Column Syntax
SELECT first_name AS first, last_name AS last
FROM customer;
Creates two aliases, one for the first_name column and one for the last_name column:
Alias Table Syntax
SELECT c.first_name, c.last_name
FROM customer AS c
Create an alias for the customer table

3.12. The SQL GROUP BY STATEMENT

The GROUP BY used to group rows from the table. And it has the same values as summary rows. For
example, find the number of customers in each country, The GROUP BY is often used with aggregate
functions like (COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns.

GROUP BY Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
 WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);
Count the number of active and non-active customers
SELECT COUNT(customer_id) FROM customer GROUP BY active

3.13. The SQL HAVING CLAUSE

The HAVING clause is added to SQL because the WHERE keyword can not be used with aggregate
functions.

HAVING Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column_name(s);
List the number of continents which has a region more than 6.
SELECT * from country group by(continent) having count(region) >6;
 3.14. The SQL UNION

The UNION operator allows the user to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements in
SQL. Each SELECT statement within UNION should have the same number of columns. The columns
in each SELECT statement should also be in the same order. The columns should also have similar
data types.
The SQL UNION
Select column_name(s) from table1
UNION
Select column_name(s) from table2;

UNION ALL Query

The UNION operator selects only different values by default. To allow duplicate values, the user can
use UNION ALL operator.
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
Note: The column names in the output are usually equal to the column names in the first SELECT
statement in the UNION.

3.15. The SQL STORED PROCEDURE

What is a SQL Stored Procedure?

The stored procedure is a prepared SQL query that you can save so that the query can be reused over
and over again. So, if the user has an SQL query that you write over and over again, keep it as a stored
procedure and execute it. Users can also pass parameters to a stored procedure so that the stored
procedure can act based on the parameter value that is given.

Stored Procedure Syntax

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name
AS
sql_statement
GO;
Execute a Stored Procedure
EXEC procedure_name;

4. SQL JOIN

The SQL Join help in retrieving data from two or more database tables. The tables are mutually related
using primary keys and foreign keys.

Type of Join
 4.1. INNER JOIN

The INNER JOIN is used to print rows from both tables that satisfy the given condition. For example,
the user wants to get a list of users who have rented movies together with titles of movies rented by
them. Users can use an INNER JOIN for that, which returns rows from both tables that satisfy with
given conditions.

Fig. INNER JOIN

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching values in both the tables.
INNER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

SELECT city.city_id, country.country, city.last_update, country.last_update FROM city

INNER JOIN country ON city.country_id = country.country_id
 4.2. LEFT JOIN

The LEFT JOIN returns all the records from the table1 (left table) and the matched records from the
table2 (right table). The output is NULL from the right side if there is no match.

Left Join

LEFT JOIN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
SELECT city.city_id, country.country, city.last_update, country.last_update FROM city
LEFT JOIN country ON city.country_id = country.country_id
 4.3. RIGHT JOIN

The RIGHT JOIN is the opposite of LEFT JOIN. The RIGHT JOIN prints all the columns from the
table2(right table) even if there no matching rows have been found in the table1 (left table). If there no
matches have been found in the table (left table), NULL is returned.

RIGHT JOIN
RIGHT JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2 ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;
SELECT city.city_id, country.country, city.last_update, country.last_update FROM city
RIGHT JOIN country ON city.country_id = country.country_id
 4.4. Full OUTER JOIN

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there are a match in left (table1) or right
(table2) table records.
Note: FULL OUTER JOIN can potentially return very large result-sets!

Full Join

Tip: FULL OUTER JOIN and FULL JOIN are the same.
FULL OUTER JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name WHERE condition;
Note: MySQL does not support the Full Join, so we can perform left join and right join separately then
take the union of them.
 SELECT * FROM t1
LEFT JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id
UNION
SELECT * FROM t1
RIGHT JOIN t2 ON t1.id = t2.id

4.5. SELF-JOIN

A self-JOIN is a regular join, but the table is joined with itself.

Self -JOIN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1 T1, table1 T2
WHERE condition;
 5. SQL DATABASE

5.1. The SQL CREATE DATABASE STATEMENT

The CREATE DATABASE statement in SQL is used to create a new SQL database.
Syntax
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
Let’s create a database and give name as testdb
CREATE database testdb;

Now, let’s check the databases in MySQL by using show databases query.
Show databases;

5.2. The SQL DROP DATABASE STATEMENT

The DROP DATABASE statement in SQL is used to drop an existing SQL database.
Syntax
DROP DATABASE database_name;
Let’s drop the created database by using drop database testdb.
DROP database testdb;

Now, let’s check the databases in MySQL by using show databases query after dropping the testdb.
SHOW databases;

The created database(testdb) has been dropped.

5.3. The SQL CREATE TABLE

The CREATE TABLE statement in SQL is used to create a new table in a database.
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 data_type,
column2 data_type,
column3 data_type,
....
);
The column1, column2, ….., specify the names of the columns of the table. The datatype parameter
specifies the type of data the column can hold (e.g., varchar, integer, date, etc.)
Let’s create a customer table
CREATE TABLE cutomer(id integer, first_name varchar(10), last_name varchar(10), city
varchar(10), country varchar(15), phone varchar(15));

To check the schema of the table, use desc table_name.

DESC customer;

5.4. The SQL DROP TABLE STATEMENT

The DROP TABLE statement in SQL is used to drop an existing table in a database.
DROP TABLE customer;

The table has dropped after running the query drop table table_name. As we can see, the table does not
exist after dropped.
Now we are going to create the same table again to insert the values in that table.
 5.5. The SQL INSERT INTO STATEMENT

The INSERT INTO statement in SQL is used to insert new records in a table.
INSERT INTO query
We can write the INSERT INTO statement in two ways. The first way is to specify both the column
names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO customer(id , first_name, last_name ,city ,country,phone)VALUES (2, ‘Ana’,
‘Trujillo’, ‘Mexico’, ‘Mexico’, (5) 555-4729);

If users are adding values for all the columns of the table, you don’t need to specify the particular
column names in the SQL query. However, ensure the order of the values is in the same order as the
columns in the table.
The INSERT INTO query would be as follows:
INSERT INTO customer
VALUES (3, ‘Antonio, ‘Moreno, ‘Mexico’, ‘Mexico’, (5) 555-3932);

We have inserted two rows yet. Similarly, we can insert many rows in the table. Finally, we have added
ten rows as we can see in the picture below.
 SELECT * FROM customer;

5.6. The SQL NULL VALUES

What is a NULL Value?

The field with a NULL value is a field with no value. If the field in a table is optional, to insert new
data or update data without adding a value to this field and Then, the field will be saved as a NULL
value.
Note: A NULL value is not the same as a zero value, or we can say a field that holds spaces. The field
with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record creation!
Insert the NULL values in tables
INSERT INTO customer VALUES(11, ‘Victoria’, ‘Ashworth’, ‘London’, NULL, ‘(171) 555-1212’)

As we can able to see, the last row contains one NULL value.
How to check for NULL Values?
To test for NULL values in the table has to use the IS NULL and IS NOT NULL operators instead.
IS NULL Syntax
SELECT *
FROM customer WHERE country IS NULL;

IS NOT NULL Syntax

SELECT * FROM customer
WHERE country IS NOT NULL;

It will return those countries which have some values(expect Null values).
 5.7. The SQL UPDATE STATEMENT

The UPDATE statement in SQL is used to modify the existing records in a table.

UPDATE Syntax
UPDATE customer
SET country = ‘Mexico’ WHERE id = 11;

We have updated the null value of the country with Mexico.

5.8. The SQL DELETE STATEMENT

The DELETE statement in SQL is used to delete existing records in a table.

DELETE Syntax
DELETE FROM customer WHERE id = 11;
We have deleted one row, which contains id = 11.

5.9. The SQL ALTER TABLE STATEMENT

The ALTER TABLE statement in SQL is used to add, modify, or delete columns in an existing table.
And it also used to add and drop various constraints on a current table.
5.9.1. ALTER TABLE - ADD COLUMN IN EXISTING TABLE

To add a new column in a table, use the SQL query

ALTER TABLE customer
ADD email varchar(25);
 5.9.2. ALTER TABLE – MODIFY/ALTER COLUMN

To change the data type of column values in a table, use the following syntax:
ALTER TABLE customer ADD COLUMN dob date;

We have assigned the dob with the datatype date. But now we want to change the datatype from date to
year.
ALTER TABLE customer MODIFY dob year;

5.9.3. ALTER TABLE - DROP COLUMN

To delete a specific column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems
don't allow deleting a column):
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE customer
DROP COLUMN email;
 6. The SQL CONSTRAINTS

The Constraints in SQL can be specified when the table is created with the CREATE TABLE
statement, or after the table is altered with the ALTER TABLE statement.
Syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype constraint,
column2 datatype constraint,
column3 datatype constraint,
....
);

SQL Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify any rules for the records in a table. Constraints can be used to limit
the type of data that can go into a table. It ensures the accuracy and reliability of the records in the
table, and if there is any violation between the constraint and the record action, the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a column, and table-
level constraints apply to the whole table.
The constraints are commonly used in SQL
CONSTRAINTS DESCRIPTION
Not Null It Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.
Unique It Ensures that all the values in a column are unique.
Primary Key It is a combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies
each row in a table.
Foreign Key Uniquely identifies a record /row in another table
Check It checks that all values in a column satisfy a specific condition
Default It gives a default value for a column when no value is specified
Index It is Used to create and retrieve data from the database quickly.
 6.1. NOT NULL CONSTRAINTS

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column NOT to accept NULL values. This imposes a field
always to contain a value, which means that the user cannot insert a new record in a table or update a
record without adding a value to this field.
NOTE: By default, a column can hold NULL values.

Create a table using SQL not null constraints

The following SQL ensures that the "id", "First_name" and "Last_name" columns will NOT accept
NULL values when the "student" table is created:
Example
CREATE TABLE student(
id int NOT NULL,
first_name varchar(25) NOT NULL,
last_name varchar(25) NOT NULL,
age int
);

In the above table, it has specified the id, first_name, and last_name as not null and age as null.
SQL NOT NULL on ALTER table Statement
To make a NOT NULL constraint on the "age" column when the "student" table is already created, use
the following SQL:
Example:
ALTER TABLE student
MODIFY age int NOT NULL;

In the above table, it has specified the id, first_name,last_name, and age as not null.

6.2. SQL UNIQUE CONSTRAINT

The UNIQUE constraint in SQL ensures that all values in a column are distinct. UNIQUE and
PRIMARY KEY constraints both provides a guarantee for uniqueness for a column or group of
columns. A PRIMARY KEY constraint, by default, has a UNIQUE constraint. However, the user can
have many UNIQUE constraints per table, but only one PRIMARY KEY constraint per table.

Creates UNIQUE constraint on the "id" column when the "person" table is created
CREATE TABLE person (
id int NOT NULL,
 last_name varchar(255) NOT NULL,
first_name varchar(255),
age int,
UNIQUE (ID)
);

We have applied unique constraints on id, and as we can see, it is showing as the primary key.

Create a UNIQUE constraint on the "first_name" column when the "persons" table already exists.
ALTER TABLE persons
ADD UNIQUE (first_name);

Now we have two unique constraints(id and first_name) in the person table.

To name the UNIQUE constraint, and to define a UNIQUE constraint on multiple columns, use the
following SQL syntax:
ALTER TABLE person
 ADD CONSTRAINT UC_person UNIQUE (age, last_name);

Here the age and last_name are converted as unique constraints.

6.3. DROP A UNIQUE CONSTRAINT

To drop a UNIQUE constraint, use the SQL query

ALTER TABLE person
DROP INDEX UC_Person;

As we can see in the person table The unique constraint(UC_Persons) has been dropped.
 6.4. SQL PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each of the records in a table. Only ONE primary
key can have in a table. And also, in the table, this primary key can consist of single or multiple
columns (fields). Primary keys should contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain NULL values.
CREATE TABLE person(ID int NOT NULL, last_name varchar(255) NOT NULL, first_name
varchar(255), age int, PRIMARY KEY(ID));

To allow the naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint
on multiple columns, use the SQL syntax.
CREATE TABLE person (
id int NOT NULL,
last_name varchar(255) NOT NULL,
first_name varchar(255),
age int,
CONSTRAINT PK_person PRIMARY KEY (id,last_name)
);
Note: In this example, there is only ONE PRIMARY KEY as PK_Person. And the VALUE of the
primary key is made up of two columns (id+ last_name).

SQL PRIMARY KEY on ALTER TABLE

Create a PRIMARY KEY constraint on the column_name "id" when the table_name(student) is already
created, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE student
ADD PRIMARY KEY (id);

Here we have assigned the primary key as “id” on the student table.

Allow the naming of a PRIMARY KEY constraint, and for defining a PRIMARY KEY constraint on
multiple columns, use the SQL query:
 ALTER TABLE student
ADD CONSTRAINT PK_student PRIMARY KEY (id,first_name);

6.5. DROP PRIMARY KEY CONSTRAINTS

To drop the PRIMARY KEY constraint from the table, use the SQL Query:
ALTER TABLE student
DROP PRIMARY KEY;

As we can see from the student table, the primary key has been dropped from the table.
 6.6. SQL FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT

A FOREIGN KEY is used to link two tables together. It is sometimes also called a referencing key.
Foreign Key is a combination of columns (can be single column) whose value matches a Primary Key
in the different tables. The relationship between two tables matches the Primary Key in one of the
tables with a Foreign Key in the second table. If the table contains a primary key defined on any field,
then the user should not have two records having the equal value of that field.
Let’s create two tables using the foreign key.

CUSTOMER table
CREATE TABLE customer(
Id int NOT NULL,
Name varchar(20) NOT NULL,
Age int NOT NULL,
Address varchar(25) ,
Salary decimal (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (id)
);
Order Table with Foreign key
CREATE TABLE Orders (OrderID int NOT NULL, OrderNumber int NOT NULL, Id int,
PRIMARY KEY(OrderID), CONSTRAINT FK_customerOrder FOREIGN KEY(Id));

Here the Id is the primary key for the customer table and foreign key for orders table.

FOREIGN KEY on ALTER TABLE

To create the FOREIGN KEY constraint on the "PersonID" column when the "Orders" table is already
created, use the SQL query:
ALTER TABLE Orders
ADD FOREIGN KEY (ID) REFERENCES customer(id);
 6.7. DROP A FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT

To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint from the table, use the SQL query:
ALTER TABLE Orders
DROP FOREIGN KEY FK_PersonOrder;

6.8. SQL CHECK CONSTRAINTS

The CHECK CONSTRAINTS is used to limit the range of value that can be placed in a column if the
user defines a CHECK constraint on a single column, it allows only specific values for the column. If
the user defines a CHECK constraint on a table, it can limit the values in particular columns based on
values in another column in the row.

SQL CHECK on CREATE TABLE

SQL Query to creates a CHECK constraint on the column "Age" when the table "Persons" is created.
The CHECK constraint makes sure that the user can not have any person below 18 years:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
CHECK (Age>=18)
);
Here we have created the Persons table and given a check constraint on the Age column. If the
Age<18, then it will throw an error, as shown below.
INSERT INTO Persons VALUES(1, ‘abc’, ‘aaa’, 17);

For creating a CHECK constraint on multiple columns in the table, use the SQL syntax:

CHECK on ALTER TABLE

Create a CHECK constraint on the column "Age" when the table is already created, use the following
SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CHECK (Age >= 18)
Defining CHECK constraint on multiple columns of a table, use the SQL query:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD CONSTRAINT CHK_PersonAge CHECK (Age>=18 AND City='Sandnes');

6.9. DROP A CHECK CONSTRAINT

To drop a CHECK constraint from the table, use the following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP CHECK CHK_PersonAge;

Here we have dropped the CHK_PersonAge constraints by using the drop statement.

6.10. SQL DEFAULT CONSTRAINT

The DEFAULT constraint in SQL is used to provide a default value for a column of the table. The
default value will be added to every new record if no other value is mentioned.

SQL DEFAULT on CREATE TABLE

The SQL query to sets a DEFAULT value for the "City" column when the "Persons" table is created
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID int NOT NULL,
 LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Age int,
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
);

As we can see in the Persons table, the city name is written as Sandnes by Default.

SQL DEFAULT on ALTER TABLE

To create a DEFAULT constraint on the column "City" when the table is already created, use the
following SQL:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER Age SET DEFAULT 20;
 6.11. DROP A DEFAULT CONSTRAINT

To drop a DEFAULT constraint from the table, use the SQL query:
ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER City DROP DEFAULT;

As we can see in the Persons table, the default value of the city has been removed.
 7. SQL CREATE INDEX STATEMENT

CREATE INDEX statement in SQL is used to create indexes in tables. The indexes are used to retrieve
data from the database more quickly than others. The user can not see the indexes, and they are just
used to speed up queries /searches.
Note: Updating the table with indexes takes a lot of time than updating a table without indexes. It is
because the indexes also need an update. So, only create indexes on those columns that will be
frequently searched against.

CREATE INDEX Syntax

It creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Example:
Creates an index named "idex_lastname" on the "LastName" column in the "Persons" table:
CREATE INDEX idex_lastname
on Persons (LastName)
If a user wants to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names within
the parentheses, separated by commas:
CREATE INDEX idex_pname
ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX

It creates a unique index on a table and Duplicate values are not allowed.
Syntax:
Create UNIQUE INDEX index_name
on table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Note: The query for creating indexes varies among different databases. Therefore, Check the query for
creating indexes in your database.

7.1. DROP INDEX STATEMENT

The DROP INDEX statement in SQL is used to delete an index in a table.

ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;
 8. SQL VIEWS STATEMENT

In SQL, the view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. A view holds rows and
columns, similar to a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the
database. You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as
if the data were coming from one single table.
CREATE VIEW Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's
SQL statement, every time a user queries a view.

Create a table customer

Create a view on the table customers. Here, the view would be used to have a customer name and age
from the customers table.
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM customers;
 8.1. The WITH CHECK OPTION

The WITH CHECK OPTION in SQL is a CREATE VIEW statement option. The objective of the
WITH CHECK OPTION is to make sure that all UPDATE and INSERTs satisfy the condition(s) in the
view definition.
If they do not satisfy the condition(s), the UPDATE or INSERT returns an error.
The following code block has an example of creating the same view CUSTOMERS_VIEW with the
WITH CHECK OPTION.
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMER_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM customers
WHERE age IS NOT NULL
WITH CHECK OPTION;
Here we have created a view(CUSTOMER_VIEW) with the check option.

8.2. DELETING ROWS INTO A VIEW

Rows of data can be deleted from a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE and INSERT
commands apply to the DELETE command.
Example Delete a record having AGE = 25.
DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_VIEW
WHERE age = 25;

Here we have deleted the row, which contains the age = 25.

8.3. DROPPING VIEWS

Where the user has a view, you need a method to drop the view if it is no longer needed. The query is
straightforward and is given below:
DROP VIEW view_name;

It’s similar to the other dropping option, as we have done yet for tables. As we can see, the view is not
available in the database after dropping the view.