C0tTFtTS

1. Jntrodnction -6
a. Jntrodnction to internal piezo gage

2. Piezoelectricit, -9
a. Jntrodnction
I. Hechanism
c. Piezoelectric sensors

8. Pressnre and its measnrement nsing pressnre sensors 9-11
a. Jntrodnction
I. Piezoelectric sensors

1. Jnternal piezo gage(JPC) 12-18
a. Jntrodnction
I. The s,stem
c. Operation of JPC
d. Applications
e. Jeatnres and adantages
f. Specification

. Description and worLing of different parts of JPC 19-2
a. Jntrodnction
I. Pressnre sensors in JPC

6. onclnsion and fntnre worLs 26

. LiIliograph, 2

ltTR00uCTl0t
1.1 InIroducIion Io InIernal Piezo Cage (IPC)

t is important for us to determine pressure of a firearm with various types and
brands of ammunition, because some ammunition may produce too much pressure
and therefore cause the firearm to explode. A system that enables one to determine
the pressure is therefore very useful to determine which ammunition types may be
safely used by a firearm. The maximum pressure is exerted at the breech end in the
firing chamber and decreases further down the barrel tube. That's why published
numbers usually only list the chamber pressure.

The classic method of measuring pressures goes back to the 1800s and early
1900s. t was the method most in use until about the 1960s. t uses crusher gauges
to determine pressures.
t consists of a device that allows mounting of a gun barrel. The gun barrel is drilled
at various points where pressure measurements are desired. To each of these holes
is pushed a tight fitting stopper and the other end of the stopper is held in place by a
precisely machined cylindrical piece, which in turn is supported by a steel screw. The
precisely machined cylindrical piece is of uniform density and made of copper or
lead, depending on the firearm type. For lower pressure weapons such as shotguns
or smaller pistols, a lead cylinder is used, whereas copper cylinders are used for
higher pressure applications such as rifle or most handgun cartridges. When the
cartridge is fired, some of the gas pushes upwards and drives the stoppers out of
their holes. This has the effect of squeezing the copper (or lead) cylindrical pieces
against the steel screws holding them in position. The amount of deformation of the
copper or lead cylinders is measured very precisely and compared with a chart of
similar cylinders which were deformed previously under known pressures and the
corresponding value is called the Copper Unit of Pressure (CUP) or Lead Unit of
Pressure (LUP) value.

While CUP or LUP values are meant to be compared with the crushing power of a
known pressure, this is not always the case. For example, the same amount of
deformation can occur from a short duration high-pressure pulse as from a longer
duration, but lower pressure pulse. Also, these numbers tend to be a bit lower than
peak pressures measured using transducers.
Using a transducer is less expensive than using crusher gauges because the same
transducer can be reused over and over again, as long as the cartridges used are
the same type. So if a tester wants to repeat the test multiple times to get an average
pressure reading, he or she only needs one transducer, if using the piezo method.
Compare this to the crusher gauge method where each test needs a new copper
cylinder and the costs begin to add up.

Another method involves using a strain gauge. This is a thin, flat piece of wire whose
electrical resistance changes as it is stretched or strained. The strain gauge is
attached on the outside of the barrel near the front of the chamber. When the firearm
is discharged, the barrel expands slightly, which stretches the strain gauge and the
change in the electrical resistance can be measured and the pressure calculated.
This method is fairly accurate, but not a reliable one.
t must be noted that no test can give a truly accurate pressure reading because
there is no way to know what the actual pressure should be. Even if the tester uses
100 identical cartridges with equal amounts of propellant and using the same firearm
and test setup, the tester can expect up to a 5% variance in pressure values from
cartridge to cartridge, when using the crusher gauge method to measure pressure.
But with the latest methods, the variance is up to 1% from cartridge to cartridge. This
method is the measurement through "NTERNAL PRESSURE GAGES {PG}. The
details of this highly accurate and sophisticated instrument are described in the
following pages.

PlFZ0FlFCTRlClTY
.1 InIroducIion
Piezoelectricity is the charge which accumulates in certain solid materials in
response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity
resulting from pressure. Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction
between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with
no inversion symmetry. The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that
materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical
charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse
piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical force resulting from an
applied electrical field).
. Mechanism
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the occurrence of electric
dipole moments in solids. Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the
change of polarization P when applying a mechanical stress. This might either be
caused by a re-configuration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by re-orientation
of molecular dipole moments under the influence of the external stress.
Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a variation of the polarization strength, its
direction or both, with the details depending on 1. the orientation of P within the
crystal, 2. crystal symmetry and 3. the applied mechanical stress. The change
in P appears as a variation of surface charge density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a
variation of the electrical field extending between the faces, since the units of surface
charge density and polarization are the same, [C/m
2
] = [Cm/m
3
]. However,
piezoelectricity is not caused by a change in charge density on the surface, but by
dipole density in the bulk.
Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called converse piezoelectric
effect, where the application of an electrical field creates mechanical deformation in
the crystal.

Fig 2.1 Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor
Any spatially separated charge will result in an electric field, and therefore an electric
potential. Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor. n a piezoelectric
device, mechanical stress, instead of an externally applied voltage, causes the
charge separation in the individual atoms of the material.The piezoelectric effect
occurs only in non conductive materials
.3 Piezo elecIric sensors
A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to
measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to
an electrical charge.
Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of
various processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for
research and development in many different industries. The rise of piezoelectric
technology is directly related to a set of inherent advantages. The high modulus of
elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is comparable to that of many metals.

Even
though piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react
to compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the
reason why piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural
frequency and an excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally,
piezoelectric technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation,

enabling measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used

(especially gallium phosphate or tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at high
temperature, enabling sensors to have a working range of up to 1000C. Tourmaline
shows pyroelectricity in addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is the ability to
generate an electrical signal when the temperature of the crystal changes. This
effect is also common to piezoceramic materials.
Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric
ceramics and single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such as PZT ceramic)
have a piezoelectric constant sensitivity that is roughly two orders of
magnitude higher than those of the natural single crystal materials and can be
produced by inexpensive sintering processes.
PRFSSuRF & lTS HFASuRFHFtT uSlt6 PRFSSuRFSFtS0RS
3.1 InIroducIion
Pressure is defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its surroundings. For
example, pressure, P, is a function of force, F, and area, A.
P = F/A----------- (1)
A container full of gas contains innumerable atoms and molecules that are constantly
bouncing of its walls. The pressure would be the average force of these atoms and
molecules on its walls per unit of area of the container. Moreover, pressure does not
have to be measured along the wall of a container but rather can be measured as
the force per unit area along any plane
The S unit for pressure is the Pascal (N/m
2
), but other common units of pressure
include pounds per square inch (PS), atmospheres (atm), bars, inches of mercury
(in Hg), and millimetres of mercury (mm Hg).
Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of pressure ranges they measure,
temperature ranges of operation, and most importantly the type of pressure they

measure. n terms of pressure type, pressure sensors can be divided into five
categories:
O Absolute pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum pressure (0 PS or no
pressure). Atmospheric pressure, is 101.325 kPa (14.7 PS) at sea level with
reference to vacuum.
O Gauge pressure sensor
This sensor is used in different applications because it can be calibrated to measure
the pressure relative to a given atmospheric pressure at a given location. A tire
pressure gauge is an example of gauge pressure indication. When the tire pressure
gauge reads 0 PS, there is really 14.7 PS (atmospheric pressure) in the tire.
O Vacuum pressure sensor
This sensor is used to measure pressure less than the atmospheric pressure at a
given location. This has the potential to cause some confusion as industry may refer
to a vacuum sensor as one which is referenced to either atmospheric pressure (i.e.
measure Negative gauge pressure) or relative to absolute vacuum.
O Differential pressure sensor
This sensor measures the difference between two or more pressures introduced as
inputs to the sensing unit, for example, measuring the pressure drop across an oil
filter. Differential pressure is also used to measure flow or level in pressurized
vessels.
O Sealed pressure sensor
This sensor is the same as the gauge pressure sensor except that it is previously
calibrated by manufacturers to measure pressure relative to sea level pressure.

3. Piezo elecIric sensors

This technology is commonly employed for the measurement of highly dynamic
pressures.
When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to a quartz crystal, a charge is
developed across the crystal that is proportional to the force applied. The
fundamental difference between these crystal sensors and static-force devices such
as strain gages is that the electric signal generated by the crystal decays rapidly.
This characteristic makes these sensors unsuitable for the measurement of static
forces or pressures but useful for dynamic measurements.

Piezoelectric devices can further be classified according to whether the crystal's
electrostatic charge, its resistivity, or its resonant frequency is measured. Depending
on which phenomenon is used, the crystal sensor can be called electrostatic,
piezoresistive, or resonant. When pressure is applied to a crystal, it is elastically
deformed. This deformation results in a flow of electric charge (which lasts for a
period of a few seconds). The resulting electric signal can be measured as an
indication of the pressure which was applied to the crystal. These sensors cannot
detect static pressures, but are used to measure rapidly changing pressures
resulting from blasts, explosions, pressure pulsations (in rocket motors, engines,
compressors) or other sources of shock or vibration. Some of these rugged sensors
can detect pressure events having "rise times" on the order of a millionth of a
second.
The desirable features of piezoelectric sensors include their rugged construction,
small size, high speed, and self-generated signal. On the other hand, they are
sensitive to temperature variations and require special cabling and amplification.

ltTFRtAl PlFZ0 6A6F (lP6)

.1 InIroducIion
One major requirement by manufacturers and users of large calibre ammunition
across the world is to accurately measure the gas pressure without any adaptation to
the gun. The classical methods for pressure measurements of large calibre
ammunition are still either by means of copper crushers or by piezoelectric
transducers mounted in breech or barrel or with cartridge case adapters. n addition
external charge amplifiers, sensitive Piezo -cables and data processing are needed.
The third generation PG meets the new requirement and features simpler, faster,
and autonomous operation with integrated charge amplifier, onboard memory
combined with high accuracy and safety. t serves for autonomous recording of high
pressure curves and they occur during firing of large calibre guns directly inside the
cartridge case or propellant chamber by means of high quality piezoelectric
measuring methods.


Fig 4.1-Block diagram of an PG

The PG is placed in the barrel of the gun in the most suitable position so that it can
measure the pressure effectively. But before placing the PG in the barrel of the gun
it is suitably programmed so that we can set a stand by time after which it starts
sensing pressure. When the gun is fired a huge amount of pressure is developed in
the barrel of the gun. The amount of pressure developed is being sensed by a
pressure sensor. When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to a quartz crystal,
a charge is developed across the crystal that is proportional to the force applied. This
conversion of the pressure into charge is done by the transducer. The charge
amplifier is a current integrator and just transfers the input charge to another

reference capacitor and produces an output voltage equal to the voltage across the
reference capacitor. The voltage which is being generated is an analogue data which
is being converted into the digital format by a 8-bit flash ADC. This digitalised data is
stored in a micro module. This data can be recovered using a computer and the
results can be observed.
. The sysIem
The system based on STANAG basically consists of a rugged steel housing dimensions
surviving in harsh environments, containing built-in piezoelectric transducer, micro-
module(data acquisition) with battery. The influence of the extremely small volume of about
22 ccm to measuring result is negligible. This cannot be guaranteed for gages of larger
volumes.

Fig 4.2- Parts of a commercially used PG
A special task oriented software serves for programming and data read out. The
software offers a number of features such as:
- Administration of several PG`s
- Creation of measuring plans
- Data handling and evaluation

- Reports on screen and printer

- Data storage on disc
- Statistical evaluation
- Comparison of gas pressure curves
.3 OperaIion of IPC
O Preparing the gage for measurement using a Notebook and the required
software. nserting the gage in the powder chamber of the weapon or in
cartridge case.
O Loading and firing the weapon.
O Removing the gage from the powder chamber or cartridge case.
O Measurement data will be read out, evaluated, displayed and stored using the
Notebook.

Fig 4.3- Diagram showing the measurement procedure

The complete measuring procedure is divided into three parts as shown :

Standby time: PG is in a sleeping mode to reduce power consumption.
Measuring time: The PG is ready for measurement. Whenever the pressure
surpasses the preset trigger level, the pressure time profile and the defined
prehistory will be recorded and stored for data transfer to a notebook.
Time for evaluation: During period of one hour data can be evaluated.


Fig 4.4- An ideal pressure- time curve
. ApplicaIion
The B251 PG is mainly designed for gas measurements in large calibre guns and
howitzers but also for calibre sizes where the PG can be inserted in the cartridge
case or powder chamber. t can be used for development work, inspection or
routine testing. Other application may be pressure measurements in endangered
harsh environments.

.5 FeaIures and advanIages

- Data communication via wireless infrared interface.
- Temperature measurement
- Measurement of batter voltage
- Small volume<22ccm
- Onboard memory
- No cable connection
- No barrel or breech adaptation
- Fast and easy handling.
- No special guns required- any gun in service can be used.
- Cost effective

Fig-4.5- Diagram showing measurement procedure
.6 SpecificaIions
Pressure range: 600 M Pascal tested,800 M Pascal calculated
Length of steel housing: 55 mm
Dia. Of steel housing: 22 mm
Volume: 22ccm
Temperature range: -40 to 65C
Charge input: 0 to -12000 pC
Offset Correction: automatically
Sampling rate: 100 kHz to 100 Hz

Resolution: 12 bit
Memory capacity: 8 k words
Trigger level: 1 to 99% FSR
Pre-trigger period: 5 to 99%
Standby time: 0 to 48 h
Measurement readiness: 2 h
Read-out readiness: 1 h

5 0FSCRlPTl0t At0 w0RKlt6 0F 0lFFFRFtT PARTS 0F lP6

Fig 5.1-Photograph of a B 251 PG showing individual components
5.1 InIroducIion
Cylinders are frequently used for pressure vessels. The stresses in the walls of
cylinders are similar to those found for spheres although the maximum value is
greater.
LONGTUDNAL STRESS: it is the tendency for the internal pressure to pull the
cylinder apart in a direction parallel to its axis is found. The fig. shows a part of a
cylinder which is subjected to an internal pressure cut perpendicular to its axis to
create a free body. Assuming that the end of the cylinder is closed , the pressure
acting on the circular area of the end would produce a resultant force of
F
r
=P.A= P (( *D
m
*D
m
)/4) -------------------(1)

Fig 5.2- cross section of a cylinder

This force must be resisted by the force in the walls of the cylinder which in turn
creates a tensile stress in the walls. The stress is
o = F
r
/Aw ---------------------(2)
assuming that the walls are thin,
A
W
= *D
m
*t -----------------------(3)
where t is the wall thickness.
Combining equations 1,2 & 3,

o=F
r
/A
w
=P(*D
2
m
/4)/ *D
m
*t
= P*D
m
/4t
Hoop stress:-
The presence of the tangential or Hoop stress can be visualized by isolating a ring
from the cylinder.
The internal pressure pushes outward evenly all round the ring. The ring must
develop a tensile stress in a direction tangential to the circumference of the ring of
the ring to resist the tendency of the pressure to burst the ring.

Fig-5.3-Cross section of a cylinder
The magnitude of the stress can be determined by using half of the ring as a free
body.

The resultant of the forces due to the internal pressure must be determined in the
horizontal direction and balanced with the forces in the walls of the ring.
For a ring with a mean diameter (D
m
) and a length (L),
F
r
= P*A
p
=P*(D
m
*L)------------ (1)
A
w
=2tL---------------------------- (2)

Then the stress is
o=F
r
/A
w
=F
r
/2tL--------------------------------------- (3)

combining (1) and (3) gives,
o=PD
m
L/2tL= PD
m
/2t------------------------------ (4)

equation (4) gives the Hoop stress in thin cylinder subjected to internal pressure.
The magnitude for the Hoop stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress. The Hoop
stress is twice that of the stress in a spherical container. Hence, cylindrical shape is
preferred over spherical shape for manufacturing of an PG.
5. Pressure sensors in IPC
This sensor is designed for monitoring dynamic pressure and quasistatic pressure up
to 250bar. Due to its active acceleration compensation, the sensor delivers a very
clean signal even at highly vibrating systems.
The exceptional small size (M5x0.5 thread) and the high temperature resistance up
to 400C make the sensor suitable for a wide range of applications.

5.2.1 Description
Pressure that is applied to the membrane of the sensor introduces force to the four
transversally arranged high sensitive piezo crystal elements. An internal

accelerometer with a tuned mass is mounted in line with the sensing elements and
suppresses vibration signals introduced from shaking the sensor. This additional
measure in combination with the unique crystal material (GaPO4) guarantees the
very stable operation.

5.2.2 Mounting and sensor dimensions

The sensors can be screwed directly to the measuring object. The sensor shoulder
(8.45mm) seals the sensor in the mounting bore. High frequent pressure changes
can be measured best, when the additional volume in front of the membrane is kept
small.

PiezoelecIric pressure Iransducer
The piezoelectric effect was discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880. t
remained a mere curiosity until the 1940s. The properties of certain crystals to
exhibit electrical charges under mechanical loading was of no practical use until very
high input impedance amplifiers enabled engineers to amplify their signals. n the
1950's, electrometer tubes of sufficient quality became available and the
piezoelectric effect was commercialized. Piezoelectric Effect, appearance of an
electric potential across certain faces of a crystal when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure. Conversely, when an electric field is applied on certain faces of the crystal,
the crystal undergoes mechanical distortion. Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques
discovered the phenomenon in quartz and Rochelle salt in 1880 and named the
effect piezoelectricity (from Greek piezein,"to press").
The piezoelectric effect occurs in several crystalline substances, such as barium
titanate and tourmaline. The effect is explained by the displacement of ions in
crystals that have a non symmetrical unit cell, the simplest polyhedron that makes up
the crystal structure. When the crystal is compressed, the ions in each unit cell are
displaced, causing the electric polarization of the unit cell. Because of the regularity
of crystalline structure, these effects accumulate, causing the appearance of an
electric potential difference between certain faces of the crystal. When an external
electric field is applied to the crystal, the ions in each unit cell are displaced by

electrostatic forces, resulting in the mechanical deformation of the whole crystal.

Because of their capacity to convert mechanical deformation into electric voltages,
and electric voltages into mechanical motion, piezoelectric crystals are used in such
devices as the transducer, record-playing pickup elements, and the microphone.
Piezoelectric crystals are also used as resonators in electronic oscillators and high-
frequency amplifiers, because the mechanical resonance frequency of adequately
cut crystals is stable and well defined.
n piezoelectric gauge the pressure exerts mechanical force on the crystal and a
voltage which can be measured appears as result. Because the crystal can be
deformated by fluctuations of the room temperature as well, the lower limit of this
gauge is ~ 1 torr.

harge amplifier

A charge amplifier is a current integrator driven by an electrical source with
capacitive nature such as a piezoelectric sensor. Contrary to what its name may
suggest, a charge amplifier does not amplify the electric charge present at its input (it
can amplify only the exciting input voltage). The charge amplifier just transfers the
input charge to another reference capacitor and produces an output voltage equal to
the voltage across the reference capacitor. Thus the output voltage is proportional to
the charge of the reference capacitor and, respectively, to the input charge; hence
the circuit acts as a charge-to-voltage converter. The input impedance of the circuit
is almost zero because of the Miller effect. Hence all the stray capacitances (the
cable capacitance, the amplifier input capacitance, etc) are virtually grounded and
they have no influence on the output signal.
Common applications include piezoelectric sensors and photodiodes, in which the
charge output from the transducer is converted into a voltage
Charge amplifiers are usually constructed using op-amps with a feedback capacitor.
Since the transducer acts in a similar manner to a differentiator, the two transfer
functions cancel and the output voltage is proportional to the charge produced by the

transducer. Stray capacitance at the input to the amplifier is not detrimental to

operation because this capacitance is always at a virtual ground (looking from the
side of the input source, the circuit has zero input resistance).

dvantages incIude:
O Enables quasi-static measurements in certain situations, such as constant
pressures on a piezo lasting several minutes.
O Piezo element transducer can be used in much hotter environments than
those with internal electronics.
O Gain is dependent only on the feedback capacitor, unlike voltage amplifiers,
which are affected greatly by the input capacitance of the amplifier and the
parallel capacitance of the cable.


Analog Io DigiIal onverIer (AD)


An analog-to-digital converter, or ADC as it is more commonly called, is adevice that
converts analog signals into digital signals. Analog information is transmitted by
modulating a continuous transmission signal by amplifying a signal's strength or
varying its frequency to add or take away data. Digital information describes any
system based on discontinuous data or events. Computers, which handle data in
digital form, require analog-to-digital converters to turn signals from analog to digital
before it can be read. One example is a modem which turns signals from digital to
analog before transmitting those signals over communication lines such as
telephone lines that carry only analog signals. The signals are turned back into
digital form (demodulated) at the receiving end so that the computer can process
the detain its digital format.

But in PG, we use a special type of ADC ,that is a 8-bit flash ADC. Flash analog-to-
digital converters, also known as parallel ADCs, are the fastest way to convert an
analog signal to a digital signal. Flash ADCs are ideal for applications requiring very
large bandwidth, but they consume more power than other ADC architectures and
are generally limited to 8-bit resolution.

Flash analog-to-digital converters, also known as parallel ADCs, are the fastest way
to convert an analog signal to a digital signal. Flash ADCs are suitable for
applications requiring very large bandwidths. However, these converters consume
considerable power, have relatively low resolution, and can be quite expensive. This
limits them to high-frequency applications that typically cannot be addressed any
other way. Typical examples include data acquisition, satellite communication, radar
processing, sampling oscilloscopes, and high-density disk drives.

Micromodule

A highly sophisticated device like PG demands for higher functionality and technical
complexity, and the implementation of smaller device size and lower power
dissipation to store the digitalised data generated from the ADC. t is in the form of
the system-on-a-chip, ASC, fully capable of integrating microprocessor, memory,
and analog circuits and gate-array elements, all on a single chip. The main
characteristics of these highly flexible ASC products are value-added features like
highly functional performance and high operating speed. nnovation in ASC
technology is closely linked to the evolution of process technology.

C0tCluSl0t At0 FuTuRF w0RKS.

As we have seen throughout the course of this project that the PG is an excellent
device for measuring the high pressure generated inside the chamber of a gun
under torrid conditions. t has got an extremely rugged outer construction which
protects the delicate and sophisticated internal parts even under extreme
temperature and pressure. t has got high accuracy and precision because of which
it is preferred over its counterparts when it comes to measuring high pressure
accurately and effectively. But inspite of all this the PG has got some drawbacks
which are as follows:-
O PGS' cannot be used for truly dynamic measurements. A force will result in a
fixed amount of charges on the piezoelectric material. While working with
conventional readout electronics, imperfect insulating materials, and reduction
in internal sensor resistance will result in a constant loss of electrons, and
yield a decreasing signal. Elevated temperatures cause an additional drop
in internal resistance and sensitivity which is due to twin formation.
O The piezoeffect in piezoceramics is "trained", so unfortunately their high
sensitivity degrades over time. The degradation is highly correlated with
temperature. The less sensitive 'natural' single crystal materials have a much
higher when carefully handled, almost infinite long term stability.
O The PG can be programmed to be used only once.
But that's surely not the end of the road for the PG. For every problem there is a
solution and the above mentioned demerits have theirs too. So the following are
some of the proposed changes which, if applied ,can result in a more accurate and
versatile next generation PG :-
O Special types of crystals like GaPO4 gallium phosphate do not show any twin
formation up to the melting point of the material itself. So these can be
effectively used in the sensors of the PG.New single crystal materials
commercially available such as Lead Magnesium Niobate-Lead Titanate offer
greatly improved sensitivity. So these can be used to improve the sensitivity
and longevity of the sensors.

lll06RAPHY.
Xin`e Li, Jing Zu, Life Senior Member, IEEE, Tiehua Ma, and Peng Xu,
'Research on novel capacitive pressure sensors to measure chamber
pressure oI diIIerent caliber artilleries, IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL,
VOL. 11, NO. 4, APRIL 2011

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