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IPG
IPG
1. Jntrodnction -6
a. Jntrodnction to internal piezo gage
2. Piezoelectricit, -9
a. Jntrodnction
I. Hechanism
c. Piezoelectric sensors
8. Pressnre and its measnrement nsing pressnre sensors 9-11
a. Jntrodnction
I. Piezoelectric sensors
1. Jnternal piezo gage(JPC) 12-18
a. Jntrodnction
I. The s,stem
c. Operation of JPC
d. Applications
e. Jeatnres and adantages
f. Specification
. Description and worLing of different parts of JPC 19-2
a. Jntrodnction
I. Pressnre sensors in JPC
6. onclnsion and fntnre worLs 26
. LiIliograph, 2
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1.1 InIroducIion Io InIernal Piezo Cage (IPC)
t is important for us to determine pressure of a firearm with various types and
brands of ammunition, because some ammunition may produce too much pressure
and therefore cause the firearm to explode. A system that enables one to determine
the pressure is therefore very useful to determine which ammunition types may be
safely used by a firearm. The maximum pressure is exerted at the breech end in the
firing chamber and decreases further down the barrel tube. That's why published
numbers usually only list the chamber pressure.
The classic method of measuring pressures goes back to the 1800s and early
1900s. t was the method most in use until about the 1960s. t uses crusher gauges
to determine pressures.
t consists of a device that allows mounting of a gun barrel. The gun barrel is drilled
at various points where pressure measurements are desired. To each of these holes
is pushed a tight fitting stopper and the other end of the stopper is held in place by a
precisely machined cylindrical piece, which in turn is supported by a steel screw. The
precisely machined cylindrical piece is of uniform density and made of copper or
lead, depending on the firearm type. For lower pressure weapons such as shotguns
or smaller pistols, a lead cylinder is used, whereas copper cylinders are used for
higher pressure applications such as rifle or most handgun cartridges. When the
cartridge is fired, some of the gas pushes upwards and drives the stoppers out of
their holes. This has the effect of squeezing the copper (or lead) cylindrical pieces
against the steel screws holding them in position. The amount of deformation of the
copper or lead cylinders is measured very precisely and compared with a chart of
similar cylinders which were deformed previously under known pressures and the
corresponding value is called the Copper Unit of Pressure (CUP) or Lead Unit of
Pressure (LUP) value.
While CUP or LUP values are meant to be compared with the crushing power of a
known pressure, this is not always the case. For example, the same amount of
deformation can occur from a short duration high-pressure pulse as from a longer
duration, but lower pressure pulse. Also, these numbers tend to be a bit lower than
peak pressures measured using transducers.
Using a transducer is less expensive than using crusher gauges because the same
transducer can be reused over and over again, as long as the cartridges used are
the same type. So if a tester wants to repeat the test multiple times to get an average
pressure reading, he or she only needs one transducer, if using the piezo method.
Compare this to the crusher gauge method where each test needs a new copper
cylinder and the costs begin to add up.
Another method involves using a strain gauge. This is a thin, flat piece of wire whose
electrical resistance changes as it is stretched or strained. The strain gauge is
attached on the outside of the barrel near the front of the chamber. When the firearm
is discharged, the barrel expands slightly, which stretches the strain gauge and the
change in the electrical resistance can be measured and the pressure calculated.
This method is fairly accurate, but not a reliable one.
t must be noted that no test can give a truly accurate pressure reading because
there is no way to know what the actual pressure should be. Even if the tester uses
100 identical cartridges with equal amounts of propellant and using the same firearm
and test setup, the tester can expect up to a 5% variance in pressure values from
cartridge to cartridge, when using the crusher gauge method to measure pressure.
But with the latest methods, the variance is up to 1% from cartridge to cartridge. This
method is the measurement through "NTERNAL PRESSURE GAGES {PG}. The
details of this highly accurate and sophisticated instrument are described in the
following pages.
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.1 InIroducIion
Piezoelectricity is the charge which accumulates in certain solid materials in
response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity
resulting from pressure. Piezoelectricity is the direct result of the piezoelectric effect.
The piezoelectric effect is understood as the linear electromechanical interaction
between the mechanical and the electrical state in crystalline materials with
no inversion symmetry. The piezoelectric effect is a reversible process in that
materials exhibiting the direct piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of electrical
charge resulting from an applied mechanical force) also exhibit the reverse
piezoelectric effect (the internal generation of a mechanical force resulting from an
applied electrical field).
. Mechanism
The nature of the piezoelectric effect is closely related to the occurrence of electric
dipole moments in solids. Of decisive importance for the piezoelectric effect is the
change of polarization P when applying a mechanical stress. This might either be
caused by a re-configuration of the dipole-inducing surrounding or by re-orientation
of molecular dipole moments under the influence of the external stress.
Piezoelectricity may then manifest in a variation of the polarization strength, its
direction or both, with the details depending on 1. the orientation of P within the
crystal, 2. crystal symmetry and 3. the applied mechanical stress. The change
in P appears as a variation of surface charge density upon the crystal faces, i.e. as a
variation of the electrical field extending between the faces, since the units of surface
charge density and polarization are the same, [C/m
2
] = [Cm/m
3
]. However,
piezoelectricity is not caused by a change in charge density on the surface, but by
dipole density in the bulk.
Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called converse piezoelectric
effect, where the application of an electrical field creates mechanical deformation in
the crystal.
Fig 2.1 Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor
Any spatially separated charge will result in an electric field, and therefore an electric
potential. Shown here is a standard dielectric in a capacitor. n a piezoelectric
device, mechanical stress, instead of an externally applied voltage, causes the
charge separation in the individual atoms of the material.The piezoelectric effect
occurs only in non conductive materials
.3 Piezo elecIric sensors
A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to
measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to
an electrical charge.
Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of
various processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for
research and development in many different industries. The rise of piezoelectric
technology is directly related to a set of inherent advantages. The high modulus of
elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is comparable to that of many metals.
Even
though piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical systems that react
to compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This is the
reason why piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural
frequency and an excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally,
piezoelectric technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation,
measure. n terms of pressure type, pressure sensors can be divided into five
categories:
O Absolute pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum pressure (0 PS or no
pressure). Atmospheric pressure, is 101.325 kPa (14.7 PS) at sea level with
reference to vacuum.
O Gauge pressure sensor
This sensor is used in different applications because it can be calibrated to measure
the pressure relative to a given atmospheric pressure at a given location. A tire
pressure gauge is an example of gauge pressure indication. When the tire pressure
gauge reads 0 PS, there is really 14.7 PS (atmospheric pressure) in the tire.
O Vacuum pressure sensor
This sensor is used to measure pressure less than the atmospheric pressure at a
given location. This has the potential to cause some confusion as industry may refer
to a vacuum sensor as one which is referenced to either atmospheric pressure (i.e.
measure Negative gauge pressure) or relative to absolute vacuum.
O Differential pressure sensor
This sensor measures the difference between two or more pressures introduced as
inputs to the sensing unit, for example, measuring the pressure drop across an oil
filter. Differential pressure is also used to measure flow or level in pressurized
vessels.
O Sealed pressure sensor
This sensor is the same as the gauge pressure sensor except that it is previously
calibrated by manufacturers to measure pressure relative to sea level pressure.
reference capacitor and produces an output voltage equal to the voltage across the
reference capacitor. The voltage which is being generated is an analogue data which
is being converted into the digital format by a 8-bit flash ADC. This digitalised data is
stored in a micro module. This data can be recovered using a computer and the
results can be observed.
. The sysIem
The system based on STANAG basically consists of a rugged steel housing dimensions
surviving in harsh environments, containing built-in piezoelectric transducer, micro-
module(data acquisition) with battery. The influence of the extremely small volume of about
22 ccm to measuring result is negligible. This cannot be guaranteed for gages of larger
volumes.
Fig 4.2- Parts of a commercially used PG
A special task oriented software serves for programming and data read out. The
software offers a number of features such as:
- Administration of several PG`s
- Creation of measuring plans
- Data handling and evaluation
Fig-4.5- Diagram showing measurement procedure
.6 SpecificaIions
Pressure range: 600 M Pascal tested,800 M Pascal calculated
Length of steel housing: 55 mm
Dia. Of steel housing: 22 mm
Volume: 22ccm
Temperature range: -40 to 65C
Charge input: 0 to -12000 pC
Offset Correction: automatically
Sampling rate: 100 kHz to 100 Hz
Resolution: 12 bit
Memory capacity: 8 k words
Trigger level: 1 to 99% FSR
Pre-trigger period: 5 to 99%
Standby time: 0 to 48 h
Measurement readiness: 2 h
Read-out readiness: 1 h
This force must be resisted by the force in the walls of the cylinder which in turn
creates a tensile stress in the walls. The stress is
o = F
r
/Aw ---------------------(2)
assuming that the walls are thin,
A
W
= *D
m
*t -----------------------(3)
where t is the wall thickness.
Combining equations 1,2 & 3,
o=F
r
/A
w
=P(*D
2
m
/4)/ *D
m
*t
= P*D
m
/4t
Hoop stress:-
The presence of the tangential or Hoop stress can be visualized by isolating a ring
from the cylinder.
The internal pressure pushes outward evenly all round the ring. The ring must
develop a tensile stress in a direction tangential to the circumference of the ring of
the ring to resist the tendency of the pressure to burst the ring.
Fig-5.3-Cross section of a cylinder
The magnitude of the stress can be determined by using half of the ring as a free
body.
The resultant of the forces due to the internal pressure must be determined in the
horizontal direction and balanced with the forces in the walls of the ring.
For a ring with a mean diameter (D
m
) and a length (L),
F
r
= P*A
p
=P*(D
m
*L)------------ (1)
A
w
=2tL---------------------------- (2)
Then the stress is
o=F
r
/A
w
=F
r
/2tL--------------------------------------- (3)
combining (1) and (3) gives,
o=PD
m
L/2tL= PD
m
/2t------------------------------ (4)
equation (4) gives the Hoop stress in thin cylinder subjected to internal pressure.
The magnitude for the Hoop stress is twice that of the longitudinal stress. The Hoop
stress is twice that of the stress in a spherical container. Hence, cylindrical shape is
preferred over spherical shape for manufacturing of an PG.
5. Pressure sensors in IPC
This sensor is designed for monitoring dynamic pressure and quasistatic pressure up
to 250bar. Due to its active acceleration compensation, the sensor delivers a very
clean signal even at highly vibrating systems.
The exceptional small size (M5x0.5 thread) and the high temperature resistance up
to 400C make the sensor suitable for a wide range of applications.
5.2.1 Description
Pressure that is applied to the membrane of the sensor introduces force to the four
transversally arranged high sensitive piezo crystal elements. An internal
accelerometer with a tuned mass is mounted in line with the sensing elements and
suppresses vibration signals introduced from shaking the sensor. This additional
measure in combination with the unique crystal material (GaPO4) guarantees the
very stable operation.
5.2.2 Mounting and sensor dimensions
The sensors can be screwed directly to the measuring object. The sensor shoulder
(8.45mm) seals the sensor in the mounting bore. High frequent pressure changes
can be measured best, when the additional volume in front of the membrane is kept
small.
PiezoelecIric pressure Iransducer
The piezoelectric effect was discovered by Pierre and Jacques Curie in 1880. t
remained a mere curiosity until the 1940s. The properties of certain crystals to
exhibit electrical charges under mechanical loading was of no practical use until very
high input impedance amplifiers enabled engineers to amplify their signals. n the
1950's, electrometer tubes of sufficient quality became available and the
piezoelectric effect was commercialized. Piezoelectric Effect, appearance of an
electric potential across certain faces of a crystal when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure. Conversely, when an electric field is applied on certain faces of the crystal,
the crystal undergoes mechanical distortion. Pierre Curie and his brother Jacques
discovered the phenomenon in quartz and Rochelle salt in 1880 and named the
effect piezoelectricity (from Greek piezein,"to press").
The piezoelectric effect occurs in several crystalline substances, such as barium
titanate and tourmaline. The effect is explained by the displacement of ions in
crystals that have a non symmetrical unit cell, the simplest polyhedron that makes up
the crystal structure. When the crystal is compressed, the ions in each unit cell are
displaced, causing the electric polarization of the unit cell. Because of the regularity
of crystalline structure, these effects accumulate, causing the appearance of an
electric potential difference between certain faces of the crystal. When an external
electric field is applied to the crystal, the ions in each unit cell are displaced by
But in PG, we use a special type of ADC ,that is a 8-bit flash ADC. Flash analog-to-
digital converters, also known as parallel ADCs, are the fastest way to convert an
analog signal to a digital signal. Flash ADCs are ideal for applications requiring very
large bandwidth, but they consume more power than other ADC architectures and
are generally limited to 8-bit resolution.
Flash analog-to-digital converters, also known as parallel ADCs, are the fastest way
to convert an analog signal to a digital signal. Flash ADCs are suitable for
applications requiring very large bandwidths. However, these converters consume
considerable power, have relatively low resolution, and can be quite expensive. This
limits them to high-frequency applications that typically cannot be addressed any
other way. Typical examples include data acquisition, satellite communication, radar
processing, sampling oscilloscopes, and high-density disk drives.
Micromodule
A highly sophisticated device like PG demands for higher functionality and technical
complexity, and the implementation of smaller device size and lower power
dissipation to store the digitalised data generated from the ADC. t is in the form of
the system-on-a-chip, ASC, fully capable of integrating microprocessor, memory,
and analog circuits and gate-array elements, all on a single chip. The main
characteristics of these highly flexible ASC products are value-added features like
highly functional performance and high operating speed. nnovation in ASC
technology is closely linked to the evolution of process technology.
lll06RAPHY.
Xin`e Li, Jing Zu, Life Senior Member, IEEE, Tiehua Ma, and Peng Xu,
'Research on novel capacitive pressure sensors to measure chamber
pressure oI diIIerent caliber artilleries, IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL,
VOL. 11, NO. 4, APRIL 2011
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