(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

AND
ENGINEERING

LECTURER NOTES

CS3691 – EMBEDDED SYSTEMS AND IOT

VI SEMESTER
 SYLLABUS

Course Code
L T P C
CS3691 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS AND IOT
3 0 2 4

COURSE OBJECTIVES:

 To learn the internal architecture and programming of an embedded processor.

 To introduce interfacing I/O devices to the processor.
 To introduce the evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT).
 To build a small low-cost embedded and IoT system using
Arduino/Raspberry Pi/ openplatform.
 To apply the concept of Internet of Things in real world scenario.

UNIT I 8-BIT EMBEDDED PROCESSOR 9

8- Bit Microcontroller – Architecture – Instruction Set and Programming –
Programming Parallel Ports – Timers and Serial Port – Interrupt Handling.

UNIT II EMBEDDED C PROGRAMMING 9

Memory And I/O Devices Interfacing – Programming Embedded Systems in C –
Need For RTOS – Multiple Tasks and Processes – Context Switching – Priority
Based Scheduling Policies.

UNIT III IOT AND ARDUINO PROGRAMMING 9

Introduction to the Concept of IoT Devices – IoT Devices Versus Computers – IoT
Configurations– Basic Components – Introduction to Arduino – Types of Arduino – Arduino
Toolchain – Arduino Programming Structure – Sketches – Pins – Input/Output From Pins
Using Sketches – Introduction to Arduino Shields – Integration of Sensors and Actuators
with Arduino.

UNIT IV IOT COMMUNICATION AND OPEN PLATFORMS 9

IoT Communication Models and APIs – IoT Communication Protocols – Bluetooth – WiFi –
ZigBee– GPS – GSM modules – Open Platform (like Raspberry Pi) – Architecture –
Programming – Interfacing – Accessing GPIO Pins – Sending and Receiving Signals Using
GPIO Pins – Connecting to the Cloud.

UNIT V APPLICATIONS DEVELOPMENT 9

Complete Design of Embedded Systems – Development of IoT Applications – Home
Automation –Smart Agriculture – Smart Cities – Smart Healthcare. 45
PERIODS
PRACTICAL EXERCISES: 30 PERIODS
1. Write 8051 Assembly Language experiments using simulator.
2. Test data transfer between registers and memory.
3. Perform ALU operations.
4. Write Basic and arithmetic Programs Using Embedded C.
5. Introduction to Arduino platform and programming
6. Explore different communication methods with IoT
devices (Zigbee, GSM,Bluetooth)
7. Introduction to Raspberry PI platform and python programming
8. Interfacing sensors with Raspberry PI
9. Communicate between Arduino and Raspberry PI using any wireless medium
10. Setup a cloud platform to log the data
11. Log Data using Raspberry PI and upload to the cloud platform
12. Design an IOT based system

COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO1: Explain the architecture of embedded processors.
CO2: Write embedded C programs.
CO3: Design simple embedded applications.
CO4: Compare the communication models in IOT
CO5: Design IoT applications using Arduino/Raspberry Pi /open platform.

TEXTBOOKS TOTAL:75 PERIODS

1. Muhammed Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi,Rolin D.McKinlay“The8051
Microcontroller and Embedded Systems”, Pearson Education, Second Edition, 2014

2. Robert Barton, Patrick Grossetete, David Hanes, Jerome Henry, Gonzalo

Salgueiro, “IoT Fundamentals: Networking Technologies, Protocols, and
Use Cases for the Internet of Things”, CISCO Press, 2017.

REFERENCES

1. Michael J. Pont, “Embedded C”, Pearson Education, 2007.

2. Wayne Wolf, “Computers as Components: Principles of Embedded

Computer SystemDesign”, Elsevier, 2006.

3. Andrew N Sloss, D. Symes, C. Wright, “Arm System Developer's Guide”,

MorganKauffman/ Elsevier, 2006.

4. Arshdeep Bahga, Vijay Madisetti, “Internet of Things – A hands-on

approach”, UniversitiesPress, 2015
 UNIT – 1

8-BIT EMBEDDED PROCESSOR

What is a Microprocessor?
Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC) is called
a microprocessor.

A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU is called microcomputer.

It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock -driven, register-based electronic device that reads binary
instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts binary data as input and processes data
according to those instructions and provides results as output.

The microprocessor contains millions of tiny components like transistors, registers, and diodes that
work together.

Evolution of Microprocessors

We can categorize the microprocessor according to the generations or according to the size of the
microprocessor:

First Generation (4 - bit Microprocessors)

The first generation microprocessors were introduced in the year 1971-1972 by Intel Corporation. It
was named Intel 4004 since it was a 4-bit processor.

It was a processor on a single chip. It could perform simple arithmetic and logical operations such as
addition, subtraction, Boolean OR and Boolean AND.

I had a control unit capable of performing control functions like fetching an instruction from storage
memory, decoding it, and then generating control pulses to execute it.

Second Generation (8 - bit Microprocessor)

The second generation microprocessors were introduced in 1973 again by Intel. It was a first 8
- bit microprocessor which could perform arithmetic and logic operations on 8-bit words. It was Intel
8008, and another improved version was Intel 8088.

Third Generation (16 - bit Microprocessor)

The third generation microprocessors, introduced in 1978 were represented by Intel's 8086, Zilog Z800
and 80286, which were 16 - bit processors with a performance like minicomputers.

Fourth Generation (32 - bit Microprocessors)

Several different companies introduced the 32-bit microprocessors, but the most popular one is
the Intel 80386.
Fifth Generation (64 - bit Microprocessors)
From 1995 to now we are in the fifth generation. After 80856, Intel came out with a new processor
namely Pentium processor followed by Pentium Pro CPU, which allows multiple CPUs in a single
system to achieve multiprocessing.

Other improved 64-bit processors are Celeron, Dual, Quad, Octa Core processors.

Basic Terms used in Microprocessor

Here is a list of some basic terms used in microprocessor:

Instruction Set - The group of commands that the microprocessor can understand is called Instruction
set. It is an interface between hardware and software.

Bus - Set of conductors intended to transmit data, address or control information to different elements
in a microprocessor. A microprocessor will have three types of buses, i.e., data bus, address bus, and
control bus.

IPC (Instructions Per Cycle) - It is a measure of how many instructions a CPU is capable of executing
in a single clock.

Clock Speed - It is the number of operations per second the processor can perform. It can be expressed
in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also called the Clock Rate.

Bandwidth - The number of bits processed in a single instruction is called Bandwidth.

Word Length - The number of bits the processor can process at a time is called the word length of the
processor. 8-bit Microprocessor may process 8 -bit data at a time. The range of word length is from 4
bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.

Data Types - The microprocessor supports multiple data type formats like binary, ASCII, signed and
unsigned numbers.

Working of Microprocessor
The microprocessor follows a sequence to execute the instruction: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.
Initially, the instructions are stored in the storage memory of the computer in sequential order. The
microprocessor fetches those instructions from the stored area (memory), then decodes it and executes
those instructions till STOP instruction is met. Then, it sends the result in binary form to the output
port. Between these processes, the register stores the temporary data and ALU (Arithmetic and Logic
Unit) performs the computing functions.
MICROCONTROLLERS – Overview

In 1981, Intel introduced an 8-bit microcontroller called the 8051. It was referred as system on a
chip because it had 128 bytes of RAM, 4K byte of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port, and 4
ports (8-bit wide), all on a single chip.

What is a Microcontroller?
o A microcontroller is a small and low-cost microcomputer, which is designed to perform
the specific tasks of embedded systems like displaying microwave’s information,
receiving remote signals, etc.
o The general microcontroller consists of the processor, the memory (RAM, ROM,
EPROM), Serial ports, peripherals (timers, counters), etc.

Criteria for Choosing Microcontroller

While choosing a microcontroller, make sure it meets the task at hand and that it is cost effective. We
must see whether an 8-bit, 16-bit or 32-bit microcontroller can best handle the computing needs of a
task. In addition, the following points should be kept in mind while choosing a microcontroller −

 Speed − What is the highest speed the microcontroller can support?

 Packaging − Is it 40-pin DIP (Dual-inline-package) or QFP (Quad flat package)? This is
important in terms of space, assembling, and prototyping the end-product.
 Power Consumption − This is an important criteria for battery-powered products.
 Amount of RAM and ROM on the chip.
 Count of I/O pins and Timers on the chip.
 Cost per Unit − This is important in terms of final cost of the product in which the
microcontroller is to be used.

Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller

The following table highlights the differences between a microprocessor and a microcontroller –

Microcontroller Microprocessor

Microcontrollers are used to execute a single task Microprocessors are used for big applications.
within an application.

Its designing and hardware cost is low. Its designing and hardware cost is high.

Easy to replace. Not so easy to replace.

 It is built with CMOS technology, which requires Its power consumption is high because it has to
less power to operate. control the entire system.

It consists of CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O ports. It doesn’t consist of RAM, ROM, I/O ports. It
uses its pins to interface to peripheral devices.

Features of 8051:
 4KB on-chip program memory (ROM/EPROM).
 128 bytes on-chip data memory.
 Four register banks.
 64KB each program and external RAM addressability.
 One microsecond instruction cycle with 12MHz crystal.
 32 bidirectional I/O lines organized as four 8-bit ports.
 Multiple modes, high-speed programmable serial port (UART).
 16-bit Timers/Counters.
 Direct byte and bit addressability.

Applications of 8051 Microcontroller

Some of the applications of 8051 is mainly used in daily life & industrial applications also some of that
applications are shown below

 Light sensing and controlling devices

 Temperature sensing and controlling devices
 Fire detections and safety devices
 Automobile applications
 Defense applications

8051 Microcontroller Applications in Embedded Systems

The applications of 8051 microcontroller involves in 8051 based projects. The list of 8051 projects is
listed below.

 Arduino Managed High Sensitive LDR based Power Saver for Street Light Control System
 The Temperature Humidity Monitoring System of Soil Based on Wireless Sensor Networks
using Arduino
 RFID based Electronic Passport System for Easy Governance using Arduino 
 Arduino based RFID Sensed Device Access
 Arduino based DC Motor Speed Control
 Arduino Based Line Following Robot
 Zigbee based Automatic Meter Reading System
Block Diagram of 8051:

Registers

Registers in microcontrollers are mainly used to store data and short-term instructions which are mainly
used to process addresses to fetch data. This microcontroller includes 8-bit registers which have 8-bit
start from D0 to D7. Here, D0 to D7 is LSB (least significant bit) and D7 is the most significant bit
(MSB).

To make the data process better than 8-bit, then it must be separated into eight different bit parts. It
includes several registers however general-purpose type registers are frequently available to
programmers. There are classified into two types like General purpose & Special purpose. So, most of
the general-purpose registers are listed below.

 An accumulator is mainly used to execute arithmetic & logic instructions.

 Registers like B, R0 toR7 are used for storing instruction addresses & data.
 Data Pointers or DPTR is used to allow & process data in dissimilar addressing modes. This register
includes DPH (high byte) & a DPL (low byte) which is mainly used to hold a 16-bit address. So, it
 can be used as a base register within not direct jumps, lookup table instructions & external data
transfer.
 Program counter or PC is a 16-bit register used to store the next instruction’s address to be
performed
 These registers are 8-bits other than program counter & data pointer registers.

Program Status Word

The term PSW stands for Program status word and it is one kind of register in the microcontroller. It is
also called a flag register, used to demonstrate the position of arithmetic logic instructions such as zero
carry bit, carry bit, etc. PSW or flag register is an 8-bit register where 6-bits are used. This register
includes 8-flags where these flags are known as conditional flags. These flags will perform instruction
simply if the condition is satisfied.

These conditional flags are overflow, parity, auxiliary carry & carry. The Program status word registers
bit numbers like 3 & 4 are used to alter the bank registers whereas 1 & 5 are not used but they can be
used by the programmer for executing a specific task.
Stack Pointer
In the 8051 microcontrollers, the stack is 8-bit wide and it can hold data from 00 – FFH. The stack
pointer can be used through the CPU to allow the stack. This microcontroller includes an 8-bit stack
pointer that means it can allow values from 00H to FFH. Once it is activated, then the stack pointer
includes the 07 value.

Ports 0 to 3

P0, P1, P2, and P3 are the SFR latches of Ports 0, 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Writing a one to a
bit of a port SFR (P0, P1, P2, or P3) causes the corresponding port output pin to switch high. Writing
a zero causes the port output pin to switch low. When used as an input, the external state of a port pin
will be held in the port SFR (i.e., if the external state of a pin is low, the corresponding port SFR bit
will contain a 0; if it is high, the bit will contain a 1).

Serial Data Buffer

The Serial Buffer is actually two separate registers, a transmit buffer and a receive buffer.
When data is moved to SBUF, it goes to the transmit buffer and is held for serial transmission.
(Moving a byte to SBUF is what initiates the transmission.) When data is moved from SBUF, it comes
from the receive buffer.

Timer Registers Basic to 8051

Register pairs (TH0, TL0), and (TH1, TL1) are the 16-bit Counting registers for
Timer/Counters 0 and 1, respectively.

Control Register for the 8051

Special Function Registers IP, IE, TMOD, TCON, SCON, and PCON contain control and
status bits for the interrupt system, the Timer/Counters, and the serial port.

PSEN (Program Store Enable)

The 8051 has four dedicated bus control signals. It is a control signal that enables external
program (code) memory. It usually connects to an EPROM's Output Enable (OE) pin to permit
reading of program bytes.

The PSEN signal pulses low during the fetch stage of an instruction. When executing a
program from internal ROM (8051/8052), PSEN remains in the inactive (high) state.
ALE (Address Latch Enable)

The 8051 similarly uses ALE for demultiplexing the address and data bus. When Port 0 is used
in its alternate mode—as the data bus and the low-byte of the address bus—ALE is the signal that
latches the address into an external register during the first half of a memory cycle.

EA (External Access)

The EA input signal is generally tied high (+5 V) or low (ground). If high, the 8051 executes
programs from internal ROM when executing in the lower 4K of memory. If low, programs execute
from external memory only (and PSEN pulses low accordingly).

RST (Reset)

The RST input is the master reset for the 8051. When this signal is brought high for at least
two machinecycles, the 8051 internal registers are loaded with appropriate values for an orderly system
start- up.

Timers/Counters

8051 microcontroller has two 16 bit timers and counters. These counters are again divided into a 8 bit
register. The timers are used for measurement of intervals to determine the pulse width of pulses.

On-chip Oscillator Inputs

The 8051 features an on-chip oscillator. The nominal crystal frequency is 12 MHz for most ICs
in the MCS-51™ family.

Memory Organization

Most microprocessors implement a shared memory space for data and programs. This is
reasonable, since programs are usually stored on a disk and loaded into RAM for execution; thus both
the data and programs reside in the system RAM. Microcontrollers have limited memory, and there is
no disk drive or disk operating system. The control program must reside in. For this reason, the 8051
implements a separate memory space for programs (code) and data. Both the code and data may be
internal; however, both expand using external components to a maximum of 64K code memory and
64K data memory.
The internal memory consists of on-chip ROM and on-chip data RAM. The on-chip RAM
contains a rich arrangement of general-purpose storage, bit-addressable storage, register banks,
and special function registers.
ADDRESSING MODES

The way in which an operand is given to an instruction is known as addressing modes in 8051
microcontroller.

8051 has four addressing modes.

1. Immediate Addressing
Data is immediately available in the instruction.
For example -
ADD A, #77; Adds 77 (decimal) to A and stores in A
ADD A, #4DH; Adds 4D (hexadecimal) to A and stores in A
MOV DPTR, #1000H; Moves 1000 (hexadecimal) to data pointer

2. Register Addressing
This way of addressing accesses the bytes in the current register bank. Data is available in the
register specified in the instruction. The register bank is decided by 2 bits of Processor Status
Word (PSW).
For example-
ADD A, R0; Adds content of R0 to A and stores in A

3. Direct Addressing
The address of the data is available in the instruction.
For example -
MOV A, 088H; Moves content of SFR TCON (address 088H)to A

4. Register Indirect Addressing

The address of data is available in the R0 or R1 registers as specified in theinstruction.

For example -
MOV A, @R0 moves content of address pointed by R0 to A
8051 PIN DESCRIPTION

The pin diagram of 8051 microcontroller looks as follows −

 Pins 1 to 8 − These pins are known as Port 1. This port doesn’t serve any other functions. It is
internally pulled up, bi-directional I/O port.
 Pin 9 − It is a RESET pin, which is used to reset the microcontroller to its initial values.
 Pins 10 to 17 − These pins are known as Port 3. This port serves some functions like interrupts,
timer input, control signals, serial communication signals RxD and TxD, etc.
 Pins 18 & 19 − These pins are used for interfacing an external crystal to get the system clock.
 Pin 20 − This pin provides the power supply to the circuit.
 Pins 21 to 28 − These pins are known as Port 2. It serves as I/O port. Higher order address bus
signals are also multiplexed using this port.
 Pin 29 − This is PSEN pin which stands for Program Store Enable. It is used to read a signal
from the external program memory.
 Pin 30 − This is EA pin which stands for External Access input. It is used to enable/disable the
external memory interfacing.
 Pin 31 − This is ALE pin which stands for Address Latch Enable. It is used to demultiplex the
address-data signal of port.
  Pins 32 to 39 − These pins are known as Port 0. It serves as I/O port. Lower order address and
data bus signals are multiplexed using this port.
 Pin 40 − This pin is used to provide power supply to the circuit.

8051 microcontrollers have 4 I/O ports each of 8-bit, which can be configured as input or output.
Hence, total 32 input/output pins allow the microcontroller to be connected with the peripheral devices.

 Pin configuration, i.e. the pin can be configured as 1 for input and 0 for output as per the logic
state.
o Input/Output (I/O) pin − All the circuits within the microcontroller must be connected
to one of its pins except P0 port because it does not have pull-up resistors built-in.
o Input pin − Logic 1 is applied to a bit of the P register. The output FE transistor is turned
off and the other pin remains connected to the power supply voltage over a pull-up
resistor of high resistance.
 Port 0 − The P0 (zero) port is characterized by two functions −
o When the external memory is used then the lower address byte (addresses A0A7) is
applied on it, else all bits of this port are configured as input/output.
o When P0 port is configured as an output then other ports consisting of pins with built-in
pull-up resistor connected by its end to 5V power supply, the pins of this port have this
resistor left out.

Input Configuration

If any pin of this port is configured as an input, then it acts as if it “floats”, i.e. the input has
unlimited input resistance and in-determined potential.

Output Configuration

When the pin is configured as an output, then it acts as an “open drain”. By applying logic 0 to a
port bit, the appropriate pin will be connected to ground (0V), and applying logic 1, the external output
will keep on “floating”.

In order to apply logic 1 (5V) on this output pin, it is necessary to build an external pull up
resistor.

Port 1

P1 is a true I/O port as it doesn’t have any alternative functions as in P0, but this port can be
configured as general I/O only. It has a built-in pull-up resistor and is completely compatible with TTL
circuits.
Port 2
P2 is similar to P0 when the external memory is used. Pins of this port occupy addresses
intended for the external memory chip. This port can be used for higher address byte with addresses
A8-A15. When no memory is added then this port can be used as a general input/output port similar to
Port 1.

Port 3
In this port, functions are similar to other ports except that the logic 1 must be applied to
appropriate bit of the P3 register.

Instruction Set
8051 Microcontroller have set of instruction to perform different operations. There arefive group
of instruction which are listed below.
 Arithmetic Instructions
 Logic Instructions
 Data Transfer Instructions
 Branch Instructions
 Bit-oriented Instructions

Data Transfer Instructions

Operation : MOV
Syntax : MOV destination, source

Description: MOV copies the value of source into destination. The value of source is not affected.
Both destination and source must be in Internal RAM. No flags are affected unless the instruction is
moving the value of a bit into the carry bit in which case the carry bit is affected or unless the
instruction is moving a value into the PSW register (which contains all the program flags).

Operation : MOVC
Function : Move Code Byte to Accumulator
Syntax : MOVC A,@A+register

Description: MOVC moves a byte from Code Memory into the Accumulator. The Code Memory
address from which the byte will be moved is calculated by summing the value of the Accumulator
with either DPTR or the Program Counter (PC). In the case of the Program Counter, PC is first
incremented by 1 before being summed with the Accumulator.

Operation : MOVX
Function : Move Data To/From External Memory (XRAM)
Syntax : MOVX operand1,operand2

Description: MOVX moves a byte to or from External Memory into or from theAccumulator.

If operand1 is @DPTR, the Accumulator is moved to the 16-bit External Memory address indicated
by DPTR. This instruction uses both P0 (port 0) and P2 (port 2) to output the 16-bit address and
data. If operand2 is DPTR then the byte is moved from External Memory into the Accumulator.

If operand1 is @R0 or @R1, the Accumulator is moved to the 8-bit External Memory address
indicated by the specified Register. This instruction uses only P0 (port 0) to output the 8-bit address
and data. P2 (port 2) is not affected. If operand2 is @R0 or @R1 then the byte is moved from
External Memory into the Accumulator.

Operation : SWAP
Function : Swap Accumulator Nibbles
Syntax : SWAP A

Description: SWAP swaps bits 0-3 of the Accumulator with bits 4-7 of theAccumulator. This
instruction is identical to executing "RR A" or "RL A" four times.

Operation : XCH
Function : Exchange Bytes
Syntax : XCH A,register

Description: Exchanges the value of the Accumulator with the value contained inregister.
Ex: XCH A, R1

Operation : PUSH
Function : Push Value Onto Stack
Syntax : PUSH

Description: PUSH "pushes" the value of the specified iram addr onto the stack. PUSH first
increments the value of the Stack Pointer by 1, then takes the value stored in iram addr and stores it
in Internal RAM at the location pointed to by the incremented Stack Pointer.
Operation : POP
Function : Pop Value From Stack
Syntax : POP

Description: POP "pops" the last value placed on the stack into the iram addr specified. In other
words, POP will load iram addr with the value of the InternalRAM address pointed to by the
current Stack Pointer. The stack pointer is then decremented by 1.

Arithmetic Instructions
Operation: ADD, ADDC
Function: Add Accumulator, Add Accumulator With Carry

Description: Description: ADD and ADDC both add the value operand to the value of the
Accumulator, leaving the resulting value in the Accumulator. The value operand is not affected.
ADD and ADDC function identically except that ADDC adds the value of operand as well as the
value of the Carry flag whereas ADD does not add the Carry flag to the result.

Operation: SUBB
Function: Subtract from Accumulator With Borrow

Description: SUBB subtract the value of operand from the value of the Accumulator, leaving the
resulting value in the Accumulator. The value operand is not affected.

The Carry Bit (C) is set if a borrow was required for bit 7, otherwise it is cleared. In other words, if
the unsigned value being subtracted is greater than the Accumulatorthe Carry Flag is set.

Operation : MUL
Function : Multiply Accumulator by B
Syntax : MUL AB

Description: Multiples the unsigned value of the Accumulator by the unsigned value of the "B"
register. The least significant byte of the result is placed in the Accumulator and the most-
significant-byte is placed in the "B" register.

The Carry Flag (C) is always cleared.

Operation: DIV
Function: Divide Accumulator by B
Syntax: DIV AB
 Description: Divides the unsigned value of the Accumulator by the unsigned value of the "B"
register. The resulting quotient is placed in the Accumulator and the remainder is placed in the "B"
register.

The Carry flag (C) is always cleared.

Operation: INC
Function: Increment Register
Syntax: INC register

Description: INC increments the value of register by 1. If the initial value of register is 255 (0xFF
Hex), incrementing the value will cause it to reset to 0. Note: The Carry Flag is NOT set when the
value "rolls over" from 255 to 0.
In the case of "INC DPTR", the value two-byte unsigned integer value of DPTR is incremented. If
the initial value of DPTR is 65535 (0xFFFF Hex), incrementing the value will cause it to reset to 0.
Again, the Carry Flag is NOT set when the value of DPTR "rolls over" from 65535 to 0.

Operation : DEC
Function : Decrement Register
Syntax : DEC register

Description: DEC decrements the value of register by 1. If the initial value of register is 0,
decrementing the value will cause it to reset to 255 (0xFF Hex). Note: The Carry Flag is NOT set
when the value "rolls over" from 0 to 255.

Logical Instructions

Operation : ORL
Function : Bitwise OR
Syntax : ORL operand1,operand2

Description: ORL does a bitwise "OR" operation between operand1 and operand2, leaving the
resulting value in operand1. The value of operand2 is not affected. A logical "OR" compares the
bits of each operand and sets the corresponding bit in the resulting byte if the bit was set in either of
the original operands, otherwise the resulting bit is cleared.

Operation : ANL
Function : Bitwise AND
Syntax : ANL operand1, operand2
Description: ANL does a bitwise "AND" operation between operand1 and operand2, leaving the
resulting value in operand1. The value of operand2 is not affected. A logical "AND" compares the
bits of each operand and sets the corresponding bit in theresulting byte only if the bit was set in both
of the original operands, otherwise the resulting bit is cleared.

Operation : XRL
Function : Bitwise Exclusive OR
Syntax : XRL operand1,operand2

Description: XRL does a bitwise "EXCLUSIVE OR" operation between operand1 and operand2,
leaving the resulting value in operand1. The value of operand2 is not affected. A logical
"EXCLUSIVE OR" compares the bits of each operand and sets thecorresponding bit in the resulting
byte if the bit was set in either (but not both) of the original operands, otherwise the bit is cleared.

Operation : CPL
Function : Complement Register
Syntax : CPL operand

Description: CPL complements operand, leaving the result in operand. If operand is a single bit
then the state of the bit will be reversed. If operand is the Accumulator then all the bits in the
Accumulator will be reversed. This can be thought of as "Accumulator Logical Exclusive OR 255" or
as "255-Accumulator." If the operand refers to a bit of an output Port, the value that will be
complemented is based on the last value written to that bit, not the last value read from it.

Operation : CLR
Function : Clear Register
Syntax : CLR register

Description: CLR clears (sets to 0) all the bit(s) of the indicated register. If the register is a
bit (including the carry bit), only the specified bit is affected. Clearing the Accumulator sets the
Accumulator's value to 0.

Operation : RL
Function : Rotate Accumulator Left
Syntax : RL A

Description: Shifts the bits of the Accumulator to the left. The left-most bit (bit 7) of the
Accumulator is loaded into bit 0.
Operation : RR
Function : Rotate Accumulator Right
Syntax : RR A

Description: Shifts the bits of the Accumulator to the right. The right-most bit (bit 0) of the
Accumulator is loaded into bit 7.

Operation : RLC
Function : Rotate Accumulator Left Through Carry
Syntax : RLC A

Description: Shifts the bits of the Accumulator to the left. The left-most bit (bit 7) of the
Accumulator is loaded into the Carry Flag, and the original Carry Flag is loaded into bit 0 of the
Accumulator. This function can be used to quickly multiply a byte by 2.

Operation : RRC
Function : Rotate Accumulator Right Through Carry
Syntax : RRC A

Description: Shifts the bits of the Accumulator to the right. The right-most bit (bit 0) of the
Accumulator is loaded into the Carry Flag, and the original Carry Flag is loaded into bit 7. This
function can be used to quickly divide a byte by 2.

Branching Instructions

Operation : JMP
Function : Jump to Data Pointer + Accumulator
Syntax : JMP @A+DPTR

Description: JMP jumps unconditionally to the address represented by the sum of thevalue of
DPTR and the value of the Accumulator.

Operation : JC
Function : Jump if Carry Set
Syntax : JC reladdr

Description: JC will branch to the address indicated by reladdr if the Carry Bit is set. If the Carry
Bit is not set program execution continues with the instruction following the JC instruction.

Operation : JNC
Function : Jump if Carry Not Set
Syntax : JNC reladdr

Description: JNC branches to the address indicated by reladdr if the carry bit is not set. If the carry
bit is set program execution continues with the instruction following the JNB instruction.
Operation : JZ
Function : Jump if Accumulator Zero
Syntax : JNZ reladdr

Description: JZ branches to the address indicated by reladdr if the Accumulator contains the value
0. If the value of the Accumulator is non-zero program execution continues with the instruction
following the JNZ instruction.

Operation : JNZ
Function : Jump if Accumulator Not Zero
Syntax : JNZ reladdr

Description: JNZ will branch to the address indicated by reladdr if the Accumulator contains any
value except 0. If the value of the Accumulator is zero program execution continues with the
instruction following the JNZ instruction.

Operation : LCALL
Function : Long Call
Syntax : LCALL code addr

Description: LCALL calls a program subroutine. LCALL increments the program counter by 3 (to
point to the instruction following LCALL) and pushes that value ontothe stack (low byte first, high
byte second). The Program Counter is then set to the 16-bit value which follows the LCALL opcode,
causing program execution to continue atthat address.

Operation : ACALL
Function : Absolute Call Within 2K Block
Syntax : ACALL code address

Description: ACALL unconditionally calls a subroutine at the indicated code address. ACALL
pushes the address of the instruction that follows ACALL onto the stack, least-significant-byte first,
most-significant-byte second. The Program Counter is then updated so that program execution
continues at the indicated address.

Operation : RET
Function : Return From Subroutine
Syntax : RET

Description: RET is used to return from a subroutine previously called by LCALL or ACALL.
Program execution continues at the address that is calculated by popping thetopmost 2 bytes off the
stack. The most-significant-byte is popped off the stack first, followed by the least-significant-byte.
 Bit-Wise Instructions

Operation : JB
Function : Jump if Bit Set
Syntax : JB bit addr, reladdr

Description: JB branches to the address indicated by reladdr if the bit indicated bybit addr is set.
If the bit is not set program execution continues with the instruction following the JB instruction.

Operation : JNB
Function : Jump if Bit Not Set
Syntax : JNB bit addr,reladdr

Description: JNB will branch to the address indicated by reladdress if the indicated bit is not set. If
the bit is set program execution continues with the instructionfollowing the JNB instruction.

INTERRUPTS
An interrupt is an internal or external event that interrupts the microcontroller to
inform it that a device needs its service. Whenever any device needs its service, the device
notifies the microcontroller by sending it as interrupt signal. Upon receiving an interrupt
signal, the microcontroller interrupts whatever it is doing and serves the device. The program
which is associated with the interrupt is called interrupt Service Routine (ISR). The
microcontroller can serve many devices based on the priority assigned to it.

Execution of an Interrupt
In order to use any interrupt, the following steps must be taken.
 It finishes the instruction it is executing and saves the address of the next instruction
(PC) on the stack.
 It also saves the current status of all the interrupts internally.
 It jumps to a fixed location in memory called the interrupt vector or table that holds the
address of the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).
 The microcontroller gets the address of the ISR from the interrupt vector table and
jumps to it. It starts to execute the interrupt service subroutine until it reaches the last
instruction of the subroutine which is RET 1.
 Upon executing RET 1 instruction, the microcontroller returns to the place where it was
interrupted. First it gets the program counter (PC) address from the stack by popping the
top two byes of the stack into the PC. Then it starts to execute from that address.
 Interrupt Structure
Interrupts in 8051
 Five interrupts are provided in the 805l.

 Three of these a regenerated by internal operations: Timer Flag 1 & 0, and the serial
port interrupt (RI or TI).

 Two interrupts are triggered by external signals provided by circuitry that is connected
to pin

INT0’ and INT1’(port pins P3.2 and P3.3)

 It also saves the current status of all the interrupts internally.

 It jumps to a fixed location in memory called the interrupt vector or table that holds the
address of the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).

 The microcontroller gets the address of the ISR from the interrupt vector table and
jumps to it. It starts to execute the interrupt service subroutine until it reaches the last
instruction of the subroutine which is RET 1.

 Upon executing RET 1 instruction, the microcontroller returns to the place where it was
interrupted. First it gets the program counter (PC) address from the stack by popping the
top two byes of the stack into the PC. Then it starts to execute from that address.
 Vector
Types Interrupt
Address

TF0 Timer flag 0 interrupt 000BH

Internal TF1 Timer flag 1 interrupt 001BH

RI/TI Serial port interrupt 0023H

INT0 External interrupt 0 0003H

External

INT1 External interrupt 1 0013H

Interrupt Vector
Timer flag interrupts
 When a timer / counter overflows, the corresponding timer flag TF0 or TFI
(location: 000B H or 001B H) is set to l.
 flag is cleared to 0 when the resulting interrupt generates aprogram call to the appropriate
timer subroutine in memory.
External interrupts
The external hardware interrupts INT0 and INT1 are located on pins P3.2 and P3.3.
Inputs on these pins can set the interrupt flags IE0 and IE1 in the TCON register to 1 by level
triggering or edge-triggering.
Fig. Shows the activation of INT0 and INT1
 Serial Port Interrupt
 In SCON, if RI = l, a data byte is received If TI = 1, a data byte has been transmitted.
 These are ORed together to provide a single interrupt to the processor.
 The interrupt bit in the IE register is used to both send and receive data.
 If IE.4 [ES- Enable serial port interrupt] is enabled, when RI or TI is raised and
8051gets interrupted and jumps to memory address location 0023H to execute the ISR.
 The Fig.6.Showsthe serial interrupt is invoke by TI or RI flags.

Serial Port Interrupt

INTERRUPT CONTROL
All interrupt functions are under the control of the program. The programmer is able to
alter control bits in the:
 Interrupt Enable Register (IE)
 Interrupt Priority Register (IP) and
 Timer Control Register (TCON)
Interrupt Enable Register (IE)
 The IE register holds the programmable bits that can enable or disable all the interrupts.
 Bit D7 of the IE register (EA) must be set high to allow the rest of the register to take
effect.
 If EA = l, interrupts are enabled and will be responded to if their corresponding bits in
IE are high.
  If EA = 0, no interrupt will be responded to, even if the associated bit in the EI registeris
high.

IE Register

EA: Enable interrupts bits.

 Set to 1 to permit individual interrupts to be enabled by their enable bits.

 Cleared to 0 by program to disable all interrupts.
ES: Enable serial port interrupt.

 Set to 1 to enable by program.

 Cleared to 0 to disable serial port interrupt.
ET1: Enable/ disable the Timer 1 overflow interrupt.
EX1: Enable external interrupt 1.
 Set to 1 by program to enable INT1’interrupt.
 Clearedto 0 to disable INT1’interrupt.
ET0: Enable / disable the Timer 0 overflow interrupt.
EX0: Enable/ disable the external interrupt 0.

 Set to 1 by program to enable INT0’ interrupt.

 Clearedto 0 to disableINT0’ interrupt.

Interrupt Priority Register (IP)

 Interrupt priority (IP) register determines the interrupt priority.
 Bits in IP registers set to 1 give the accompanying interrupt a high priority; a 0 assignsa
low priority.
 Interrupts with a high priority can interrupt another interrupt with a lower priority and
the lower priority continues after the higher is finished.
 If two interrupts with the same priority occur at the same time, then they have the
following ranking
 1. IE0
2. TF0
3. IE1
4. TF1
5. RI/TI
 The bit addressable IP register is shown inFig.9. If the bit is 0, the corresponding interrupts
has a lower priority, otherwise higher priority.

Parallel I /O Ports :

The 8051 microcontroller has four parallel I/O ports , each of 8-bits .So, it provides the user
32 I/O lines for connecting the microcontroller to the peripherals. The four ports are P0 (Port 0),
P1(Port1) ,P2(Port 2) and P3 (Port3). Upon reset all the ports are output ports. In order to make them
input, all the ports must be set i.e a high bit mustbe sent to all the port pins. This is normally done by
the instruction “SETB”.
Ex: MOV A,#0FFH ; A = FF
MOV P0,A ; make P0 an input port

PORT 0:
Port 0 is an 8-bit I/O port with dual purpose. If external memory is used, these port pins are
used for the lower address byte address/data (AD0-AD7), otherwise all bitsof the port are either input
or output.. Unlike other ports, Port 0 is not provided with pull- up resistors internally ,so for PORT0
pull-up resistors of nearly 10k are to be connected externally as shown.

Dual role of port 0:

Port 0 can also be used as address/data bus(AD0-AD7), allowing it to be used for both address
and data. When connecting the 8051 to an external memory, port 0 providesboth address and data. The
8051 multiplexes address and data through port 0 to save the pins. ALE indicates whether P0 has
address or data. When ALE = 0, it provides data D0- D7, and when ALE =1 it provides address and
data with the help of a 74LS373 latch.
 Dual role of port 0

PORT 1:
Port 1 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 1 through 8). It has no dual application and acts only as
input or output port. In contrast to port 0, this port does not need any pull-up resistors since pull-up
resistors connected internally. Upon reset, Port 1 is configured as an output port. To configure it as an
input port, port bits must be set i.e a high bit must
be sent to all the port pins. This is normally done by the instruction “SETB”.
Ex: MOV A, #0FFH; A=FF HEX
MOV P1, A; make P1 an input port by writing 1’s to all of its pins

PORT 2:
Port 2 is also an eight-bit parallel port. (pins 21- 28). It can be used as input or output port. As
this port is provided with internal pull-up resistors it does not need any external pull-up resistors.
Upon reset, Port 2 is configured as an output port. If the port isto be used as input port, all the port bits
must be made high by sending FF to the port. For
Ex: MOV A, #0FFH ; A=FF hex

MOV P2, A ; make P2 an input port by writing all 1’s to it

Dual role of port 2:

Port2 lines are also associated with the higher order address lines A8-A15. In systems based
on the 8751, 8951, and DS5000, Port2 is used as simple I/O port. But, in 8031-based systems, port 2
is used along with P0 to provide the 16-bit address for the external memory. Since an 8031 is capable
of accessing 64K bytes of external memory, it needs a path for the 16 bits of the address. While P0
provides the lower 8 bits via A0- A7, it is the job of P2 to provide bits A8-A15 of the address. In
 other words, when 8031is connected to external memory, Port 2 is used for the upper 8 bits of the 16-
bit address,and it cannot be used for I/O operations.

PORT 3:
Port3 is also an 8-bit parallel port with dual function. (pins 10 to 17). The port pins can be used
for I/O operations as well as for control operations. The details of these additional operations are
given below in the table. Port 3 also do not need any externalpull-up resistors as they are provided
internally similar to the case of Port2 & Port 1. Upon reset port 3 is configured as an output port. If
the port is to be used as input port, all the port bits must be made high by sending FF to the port.

Ex: MOV A, #0FFH ; A= FF hex

MOV P3, A ; make P3 an input port by writing all 1’s to it

Alternate Functions of Port 3 :

P3.0 and P3.1 are used for the RxD (Receive Data) and TxD (Transmit Data) serial
communications signals. Bits P3.2 and P3.3 are meant for external interrupts. Bits P3.4 and P3.5 are
used for Timers 0 and 1 and P3.6 and P3.7 are used to provide the write andread signals of external
memories connected in 8031 based systems

S.No Port 3 bit Pin No Function

1 P3.0 10 RxD

2 P3.1 11 TxD

3 P3.2 12

4 P3.3 13

5 P3.4 14 T0
6 P3.5 15 T1
7 P3.6 16

8 P3.7 17

Serial communication
Serial communication uses only one or two data lines to transfer data and is generally used for
long distance communication. In serial communication the data is sentas one bit at a time in a timed
sequence on a single wire. Serial Communication takes place in two methods, Asynchronous data
Transfer and Synchronous Data Transfer.

Asynchronous data transfer:

It allows data to be transmitted without the sender having to send a clock signal tothe receiver.
Instead, special bits will be added to each word in order to synchronize the sending and receiving of
the data. When a word is given to the UART for Asynchronoustransmissions, a bit called the "Start
Bit" is added to the beginning of each word that is to be transmitted. The Start Bit is used to alert the
receiver that a word of data is about to be sent, and to force the clock in the receiver into
synchronization with the clock in the transmitter.

After the Start Bit, the individual bits of the word of data are sent. Here each bit inthe word is
transmitted for exactly the same amount of time as all of the other bits. Whenthe entire data word has
been sent, the transmitter may add a Parity Bit that the transmitter generates. The Parity bit may be used
by the receiver to perform simple error checking. Then at least one Stop Bit is sent by the transmitter.
If the Stop Bit does not appear when it is supposed to, the UART considers the entire word to be
corrupted and will report aFraming Error.
Baud rate is a measurement of transmission speed in asynchronous communication, it
represents the number of bits/sec that are actually being sent over the serial link. The Baud count
includes the overhead bits Start, Stop and Parity that are generated by the sending UART and
removed by the receiving UART.

Synchronous data transfer:

In this method the receiver knows when to “read” the next bit coming from the sender. This is
achieved by sharing a clock between sender and receiver. In most forms of serial Synchronous
communication, if there is no data available at a given time to transmit, a fill character will be sent
instead so that data is always being transmitted. Synchronous communication is usually more
efficient because only data bits are transmitted between sender and receiver, however it will be
costlier because extra wiring and control circuits are required to share a clock signal between the
sender and receiver. Devices that use serial cables for their communication are split into two
categories.

1. DTE (Data Terminal Equipment). Examples of DTE are computers, printers & terminals.
2. DCE (Data Communication Equipment). Example of DCE is modems.
Parallel Data Transfer:
Parallel communication uses multiple wires (bus) running parallel to each other, and can
transmit data on all the wires simultaneously. i.e all the bits of the byte are transmitted at a time. So,
speed of the parallel data transfer is extremely high compared to serial data transfer. An 8-bit parallel
data transfer is 8-times faster than serial data transfer. Hence with in the computer all data transfer is
mainly based on Parallel data transfer. But only limitation is due to the high cost, this method is
limited to only short distance communications.

S.No Serial Communication Parallel Communication

1 Data is transmitted bit after the bit ina Data is transmitted simultaneously
single line through group of lines(Bus)

2 Data congestion takes place No, Data congestion

3 Low speed transmission High speed transmission

4 Implementation of serial links is not Parallel data links are

an easy task. easilyimplemented in hardware

5. In terms of transmission channel costs It is more expensive

such as data bus cable length, data bus
buffers, interface connectors, it is less
expensive
6 No , crosstalk problem Crosstalk creates interference
between the parallel lines.

7 No effect of intersymbol Parallel ports suffer extremely from

interference and noise inter-symbol interference (ISI) and
noise, and therefore the data can be
corrupted over long distances.
8 The bandwidth of serial wires ismuch The bandwidth of parallel wires is
higher. much lower.
9 Serial interface is more flexible to Parallel data transfer mechanismrely
upgrade , without changing the on hardware resources and hence not
hardware flexible to upgrade.
10 Serial communication workeffectively Parallel buses are hard to run at
even at high frequencies. high frequencies.
PIPELINING

To improve the performance of a processor we have two options: 1) Improve the

hardware by introducing faster circuits. 2) Arrange the hardware such that more than one
operation can be performed at the same time. Since there is a limit on the speed of hardware
and the cost of faster circuits is quite high, we have to adopt the 2nd option.

Pipelining is a process of arrangement of hardware elements of the processor such

that its overall performance is increased. Simultaneous execution of more than one instruction
takes place in a pipelined processor.

Design of a basic pipeline

 In a pipelined processor, a pipeline has two ends, the input end and the output end.
Between these ends, there are multiple stages/segments such that the output of one stage
is connected to the input of the next stage and each stage performs a specific operation.
 Interface registers are used to hold the intermediate output between two stages. These
interface registers are also called latch or buffer.
 All the stages in the pipeline along with the interface registers are controlled by a
common clock.

Execution in a pipelined processor Execution sequence of instructions in a pipelined

processor can be visualized using a space-time diagram. For example, consider a processor
having 4 stages and let there be 2 instructions to be executed. We can visualize the execution
sequence through the following space-time diagrams:
Non-overlapped execution:

Stage / Cycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

S1 I1 I2

S2 I1 I2

S3 I1 I2

S4 I1 I2

Total time = 8 Cycle

Overlapped execution:

Stage / Cycle 1 2 3 4 5

S1 I1 I2

S2 I1 I2

S3 I1 I2

S4 I1 I2

 Total time = 5 Cycle Pipeline Stages RISC processor has 5 stage instruction pipeline to
execute all the instructions in the RISC instruction set. Following are the 5 stages of the
RISC pipeline with their respective operations:
 Stage 1 (Instruction Fetch) In this stage the CPU reads instructions from the address in
the memory whose value is present in the program counter.
 Stage 2 (Instruction Decode) In this stage, instruction is decoded and the register file is
accessed to get the values from the registers used in the instruction.
 Stage 3 (Instruction Execute) In this stage, ALU operations are performed.
 Stage 4 (Memory Access) In this stage, memory operands are read and written from/to
the memory that is present in the instruction.
 Stage 5 (Write Back) In this stage, computed/fetched value is written back to the register
present in the instructions.