12 Physics Full Guide

PHYSICS - VOL 1 UNIT - 1
NAME :
STANDARD : 12 SECTION :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
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victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 1 (VOLUME I) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
PART - II 2 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS  Thus The ratio of permittivity of the medium to 14. Two electric field lines never intersect each other.
1. What is Electrostatics? the permittivity of free space is called relative Why?
𝜺  If two lines cross at a point, then there will be two
 The branch of electricity which deals with permittivity or dielectric constant. [𝜺𝒓 = ] .
𝜺𝟎 different electric field vectors at the same point.
stationary charges is called electrostatics.
2. What is called triboelectric charging?  It has no unit and for air 𝜀𝑟 = 1 and for other  If some charge is placed at the intersection point,
 Charging the objects through rubbing is called dielectric medium 𝜀𝑟 > 1 then it has to move in two different directions at
triboelectric charging. 9. Give the vector form of Coulomb’s law. the same time, which is physically impossible.
3. Like charges repels. Unlike charges attracts. Prove.  The force on the point charge 𝒒𝟐 exerted by  Hence electric field lines do not intersect.
 A negatively charged rubber rod is repeled by another point charge 𝒒𝟏 is 15. What is called electric dipole. Give an example.
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐  Two equal and opposite charges separated by a
another negatively charged rubber rod. ⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐
 But a negatively charged rubber rod is attracted 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝟐 small distance constitute an electric dipole.
by a positively charged glass rod.  Simillarly the force on the point charge 𝒒𝟏 exerted (e.g) CO, HCl, NH4, H2O
 This proves like charges repels and unlike charges by another point charge 𝒒𝟐 is 16. Define electric dipole moment. Give its unit.
attracts. 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐  The magnitude of the electric dipole moment (𝒑)
⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓̂𝟐𝟏
4. State conservation of electric charges. 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝟐 is equal to the product of the magnitude of one of
 The total electric charge in the universe is constant  Here, 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 → unit vector directed from 𝒒𝟏 to 𝒒𝟐 the charges (q) and the distance (2a) between
and charge can neither be created nor be destroyed 𝒓̂𝟐𝟏 → unit vector directed from 𝒒𝟐 to 𝒒𝟏 them. (i.e) |𝒑⃗ | = 𝒒. 𝟐𝒂
 In any physical process, the net change in charge 10. Distinguish between Coulomb force and  Its unit is C m
will be zero. This is called conservation of charges. Gravitational force. 17. Define potential difference. Give its unit.
5. State quantisation of electric charge. Coulomb force Gravitational force  The electric potential difference is defined as the
 The charge ‘q’ of any object is equal to an integral It acts between two charges It acts between two masses workdone by an external force to bring unit
multiple of this fundamental unit of charge ‘e’ It can be attractive or It is always attractive positive charge from one point to another point
(i.e) 𝒒 = 𝒏 𝒆 repulsive against the electric field.
 where, n  integer and 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 It is always greater in It is always lesser in  Its unit is volt (V)
6. State Coulomb’s law in electrostatics. magnitude magnitude 18. Define electrostatic potential. Give its unit.
 According to Coulomb law, the force on the point It depends on the nature of It is independent of the  The electric potential at a point is equal to the
charge 𝒒𝟐 exerted by another point charge 𝒒𝟏 is the medium medium work done by an external force to bring a unit
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 If charges are in motion, Gravitional force is the positive charge with constant velocity from
⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒌 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐
𝒓𝟐 another force called Lorentz same whether two masses infinity to the point in the region of the external
 where, k → constant force come in to play in are at rest or in motion electric field.
𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 → unit vector directed from 𝒒𝟏 to 𝒒𝟐 addition to Coulomb force  Its unit is volt (V)
7. Define one coulomb (1 C) 11. Define superposition principle. 19. Obtain the relation between electric field and
 The S.I unit of charge is coulomb (C)  According to Superposition principle, the total electric potential.
 One Coulomb is that charge which when placed in force acting on a given charge is equal to the  The work done in moving a unit charge through a
free space or air at a distance 1 m from an equal vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the other distance ‘dx’ in an electric field ‘E’ is 𝑑𝑊 = − 𝐸 𝑑𝑥
and similar charge repels with a force of 9 X 109 N charges.  Here negative sign indicates work done is against
8. Define relative permittivity. 12. Define electric field. the electric field.
 From Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force is  The electric field at a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ from  This work done is equal to the potential difference
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 the point charge ‘q’ is the force experienced by a and hence,
⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒓𝟐 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 𝒓 𝟐 unit charge. Its S.I unit is N C-1 𝒅𝑽
𝑑𝑉 = − 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑬= −
 Here 𝜀 = 𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 is called permittivity of any 13. Define electric field lines. 𝒅𝒙
medium  A set of continuous lines which are the visual  Thus the electric field is the negative gradient of
 𝜺𝟎 is called permittivity of free space or vacuum representation of the electric field in some region electric potential.
and 𝜺𝒓 is called relative permittivity. of space is calle electric field lines.
victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc., M.Phil., B.Ed PG ASST [PHYSICS], GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
20. Define equi potential surface. 26. Define electrostatic induction.  The dielectric strength of air is 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑽 𝒎−𝟏
 An equipotential surface is a surface on which all  The phenomenom of charging without actual  If the applied electric field is increases beyond
the points are at the same potential. contact of charged body is called electrostatic this, a spark is produced in the air (i.e) it becomes
1) For a point charge the equipotential surfaces induction. a conductor
are concentric spherical surfaces. 27. Define dielectrics or insulators. 34. What is called a capacitor?
2) For a uniform electric field, the equipotential  A dielectric is a non- conducting material and has  Capacitor is a device used to store electric charge
surfaces form a set of planes normal to the no free electrons. The electrons in a dielectric are and electric energy.
electric field. bound within the atoms.  It consists of two conducting plates or sheets
21. Define electrostatic potential energy. (e.g) Ebonite. glass and mica separated by some distance.
 The electric potential energy of two point charges 28. What are called non-polar molecules. Give  Capacitors are widely used in many electronic
is equal to the amount of workdone to assemble examples. circuits and in many area of science and
the charges or workdone in bringing a charge  A non-polar molecule is one in which centres of technology.
from infinite distance. (i.e) U = W = q V positive and negative charges coincide. 35. Define capacitance of a capacitor.
22. Define electric flux.  It has no permanent dipole moment.  The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the
 The number of electric field lines crossing a given (e.g) H2, O2, CO2 ratio of the magnitude of charge (Q) on either of
area kept normal to the electric field lines is called 29. What are called polar molecules. Give examples. the conductor plates to the potential difference
electric flux (𝐸 ).  A polar molecule is one in which the positive and (V) existing between the conductors. (i.e) C = Q/V
 Its S.I unit is 𝑵 𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟏 . It is a scalar quantity. negative charges are separated even in the  Its unit is farad (F) or C V-1
23. State Gauss law. absence of an external electric field. 36. Define energy density of a capacitor.
Gauss law states that if a charge ‘Q’ is enclosed by  They have a permanent dipole moment.  The energy stored per unit volume of space is
an arbitrary closed surface, then the total electric (e.g) H2O, N2O, HCl, NH4 defined as energy density and it is derived as,
flux through the closed surface is equal to
1
times 30. Define dielectric polarization. 𝑼 𝟏
𝜀𝑂 𝒖𝑬 = = 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝟐
 In the presence of external electric field, dipole 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝟐
the net charge enclosed by the surface. 37. Define action of point or corona discharge.
𝑸 moment is induced in the dielectric along the
𝑬 = ∮ 𝑬 ⃗⃗ = 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆
⃗ . 𝒅𝑨 direction of the field.  Smaller the radius of curvature, larger the charge
𝜺𝟎  Polarisation (𝑝) is defined as the total dipole density. Hence charges are accumulated at the
24. Define electrostatic shielding . moment per unit volume of the dielectric. sharp points.
 By Gauss law, we conclude that the electric field 31. Define electric susceptibility.  Due to this, the electric field near this sharp edge
inside the charged spherical shell is zero.  For dielectrics, the polarization is directly is very high and it ionized the surrounding air.
 If a conductor has cavity, then whatever the proportional to the strength of the external  The positive ions are repelled and negative ions
charges at the surfaces or whatever the electrical
electric field. (i.e) ⃗𝑷
⃗ = 𝝌𝒆 𝑬
⃗ 𝒆𝒙𝒕 are attracted towards the sharp edge.
diesturbances outside, the electric field inside the  This reduces the total charge of the conductor
 where 𝝌𝒆 is a constant called the electric
cavity is zero. near the sharp edge. This is called action of points
susceptibility which is defined as polarization per
 A sensitive electrical instrument which is to be or corona discharge
unit electric field.
protected from external electrical disturnance is
 Its unit is 𝑪𝟐 𝑵−𝟏 𝒎
kept inside this cavity. This is called electrostatic
32. Define dielectric breakdown.
shielding. (e.g) Faraday cage
25. During lightning, it is safer to sit inside bus than in an  When the external electric field applied to
open ground or under tree. Why? dielectric is very large, it tears the atoms apart so
that the nound charges become free charges. Then
 The metal body of the bus provides electrostatic
the dielectric starts to conduct electricity. This is
shielding, where the electric field is zero.
called dielectric breakdown.
 During lightning the electric discharge passes
33. Define dielectric strength.
through the body of the bus.
 The maximum electric field the dielectric can
withstand before it breakdowns is called dielectric
strength.
3. Explain Electric field at a point dueto system of 5. Derive an expression for torque experienced by an
PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS charges (or) Superposition of electric fields. electric dipole placed in the uniform electric field.
ANSWERS
1. Discuss the basic properties of electric charge. Superposition of electric field : Torque experienced by the dipole in electric field :
(i) Electric charge :  The electric field at an arbitrary point due to
 Like mass, the electric charge is also an system of point charges is simply equal to the
intrinsic and fundamental property of vector sum of the electric fields created by the
particles. individual point charges. This is called
 The unit of electric charge is coulomb superposition of electric fields.
(ii) Conservation of electric charge : Explanation :
 The total electric charge in the universe is  Consider a system of ‘n’ charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑛
constant and charge can neither be created  The electric field at ‘P’ due to ‘n’ charges
nor be destroyed. 1 𝑞1
⃗⃗⃗𝐸1 =
 In any physical process, the nte change in 2 𝑟̂1𝑃
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟1𝑃
charge will be zero. This is called conservation 1 𝑞2
⃗⃗⃗𝐸2 =
of charges 2 𝑟̂2𝑃  Let a dipole of moment ⃗⃗⃗𝒑 is placed in an uniform
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟2𝑃
(iii) Quanisation of charge : 1 𝑞𝑛 electric field ⃗⃗⃗𝑬
 The chage ‘q’ of any object is equal to an finally, ⃗⃗⃗𝐸𝑛 = 2 𝑟̂𝑛𝑃  The force on ‘+q’ = +𝒒⃗⃗⃗𝑬
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝑛𝑃
integral multiple of this fundamental unit of  The total electric field at ‘P’ due to all these ‘n’ The force on ‘-q’ = − 𝒒⃗⃗⃗𝑬
charge ‘e’ (i.e) 𝒒 = 𝒏 𝒆 charges will be,  Then the total force acts on the dipole is zero.
 where n  integer and 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐸1 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐸2 + … … + ⃗⃗⃗𝐸𝑛  But these two forces constitute a couple and the
2. Define superposition principle. Explain how dipole experience a torque which tend to rotate
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝒏
superposition principle explans the interaction ⃗⃗⃗𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒕 = [ 𝟐 𝒓̂𝟏𝑷 + 𝟐 𝒓̂𝟐𝑷 + ⋯ + 𝟐 𝒓̂𝒏𝑷 ] the dipole along the field.
between multiple charges. 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝑷 𝒓𝟐𝑷 𝒓𝒏𝑷
4. List the properties of electric field lines.  The total torque on the dipole about the point ‘O’
Superposition principle : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 (− 𝒒⃗⃗⃗𝑬) + 𝑂𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 (+𝒒⃗⃗⃗𝑬)
Electric field lines : ⃗⃗𝜏 = 𝑂𝐴
 According to Superposition principle, the total
 A set of continuous lines which are the visual ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|⃗⃗𝜏| = |𝑂𝐴| |− 𝒒⃗⃗⃗𝑬| sin 𝜃 + |𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | |𝒒⃗⃗⃗𝑬| sin 𝜃
force acting on a given charge is equal to the
vector sum of forces exerted on it by all the other representation of the electric field in some region 𝜏 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵)𝑞 𝐸 sin 𝜃
charges. of space. 𝜏 = 2 𝑎 𝑞 𝐸 sin 𝜃 ∵ [𝑂𝐴 = 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑎]
Explanation : Properties of electric field lines : 𝝉 = 𝒑 𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 Consider a system of ‘n’ charges 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑛 1) They starts from positive charge and end at  where, 2 𝑎 𝑞 = 𝑝 → dipole moment
 By Coulomb’s law, force on 𝑞1 by 𝑞2 , … , 𝑞𝑛 are negative charge or at infinity.  In vector notation, ⃗⃗𝝉 = ⃗⃗⃗𝒑 𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗𝑬
𝑞1 𝑞2 2) The electric field vector at a point in space is  The torque is maximum, when 𝜃 = 90
⃗⃗⃗𝐹12 = 𝑘 𝑟̂21
2
𝑟21 tangential to the electric field line at that point. 6. Obtain an expression electric potential at a point
𝑞 𝑞 3) The electric field lines are denser in a region due to a point charge.
⃗⃗⃗𝐹13 = 𝑘 1 2 𝑟̂31 where the electric field has larger magnitude and
2
𝑟31 Potential due to a point charge :
𝑞1 𝑞2 less dense in region where the electric field is of
finally. ⃗⃗⃗𝐹1𝑛 = 𝑘 𝑟̂𝑛1 smaller magnitude. (i.e) the number of lines
2
𝑟𝑛1
passing through a given surface area
 Then total force action on 𝑞1 due to all charges,
perpendicular to the line is proportional to the
⃗⃗⃗𝐹1𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐹12 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐹13 + … … + ⃗⃗⃗𝐹1𝑛  Consider a point charge +𝒒 at origin.
magnitude of the electric field.
𝒒 𝟏 𝒒 𝟐 𝒒 𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒 𝟏 𝒒𝒏  ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from origin.
⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒕𝒐𝒕
𝟏 = 𝒌[ 𝟐 𝒓̂𝟐𝟏 + 𝟐 𝒓̂𝟑𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝟐 𝒓̂𝒏𝟏 ] 4) No two electric field lines intersect each other
𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝒓𝟑𝟏 𝒓𝒏𝟏 5) The number of electric field lines that emanate  By definition, the electric field at ‘P’ is
1 𝑞
from the positive charge or end at a negative ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝑟̂
charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟 2
the charges.
 Hence electric potential at ‘P’ is  The potential at ‘C’ due to charges 𝒒𝟏 & 𝒒𝟐 9. Explain the process of electrostatic induction.
𝑟 𝑟 1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
1 𝑞 Electrostatic induction:
𝑉1𝐶 = & 𝑉2𝐶 =
𝑉 = − ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = − ∫ 2
𝑟̂ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟13 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟23
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟
∞ ∞  To bring third charge 𝒒𝟑 to ‘C’ , work has to be
𝑟
1 𝑞 done against the electric field due to 𝒒𝟏 & 𝒒𝟐 .
𝑉= − ∫ 2
𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂ [∵ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂ ]  Thus work done on charge 𝒒𝟑 is,
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟
∞ 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑟 𝑊 = 𝑞3 (𝑉1𝐶 + 𝑉2𝐶 ) = 𝑞3 [ + ]
𝑞 1 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟13 𝑟23
𝑉= − ∫ 𝑑𝑟 [∵ 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ = 1] 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟 2 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑼 =
∞ [ + ] − − − −(𝟐)
𝑞 1𝑟 𝑞 1 1 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑
𝑉= − [− ] = [ − ]  Hence the the total electrostatic potential energy of
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟 ∞ 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟 ∞
system of three point charges is
𝟏 𝒒
𝑽= 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝑼 = [ + + ] − − − (𝟑)
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟏𝟑 𝒓𝟐𝟑
 If the source charge is negative (−𝑞) , then the 8. Obtain an expression for electrostatic potential  The type of charging without actual contact of
potential also negative and it is given by energy of a dipole in a uniform electric field. charged body is called electrostatic induction.
𝟏 𝒒
𝑽=− Potential energy of dipole in uniform electric field:  Let a negatively charged rubber rod is brought
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓 near to spherical conductor, the electrons in the
7. Obtain an expression for potential energy due to a conductor are repelled to farther side and hence
collection of three point charges which are positive charges are induced near the region of the
separated by finite distances. rod. So the distribution of charges are not uniform,
Potential energy of system of three charges : but the total charge is zero
 If the conducting sphere is connected to ground,
the electrons are flows to the ground, but the
positive charges will not flow to the ground,
 Let a dipole of moment ⃗⃗⃗𝒑 is placed in a uniform because they are attracted by the negative charges
electric field ⃗⃗⃗𝑬 of the rod.
 Here the dipole experience a torque, which rotate  When the grounding wire is removed from the
 Electrostatic potential energy of a system of the dipole along the field. sphere, the positive charges remain near the rod.
charges is defined as the work done to assemble  To rotate the dipole from 𝜃 to 𝜃 against this  If the charged rod is taken away, the positive
the charges torque, work has to be done by an external torque charges are distributed uniformly on the surface
 consider a point charge 𝒒𝟏 at ‘A’ (𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) and it is given by, of the sphere.
 Electric potential at ‘B’ due to 𝒒𝟏 is,    Thus the neutral conducting sphere becomes
1 𝑞1 positively charged without any contact.
𝑉1𝐵 = 𝑊 = ∫ 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑 = ∫ 𝑝 𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟12 10. Derive an expression for capacitance of parallel
 
 To bring second charge 𝒒𝟐 to ‘B’, work has to be 
𝑊 = 𝑝 𝐸 [− cos 𝜃] = −𝑝 𝐸 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ] plate capacitor.
done against the electric field created by 𝒒𝟏 𝑊 = 𝑝 𝐸 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃] Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor :
 The work done on the charge 𝒒𝟐 is,  This work done is stored as electrostatic potential
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑊 = 𝑞2 𝑉1𝐵 = energy of the dipole.
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟12  Let the initial angle be 𝜃 = 90 , then
 This work done is stored as electrostatic potential 𝑈 = 𝑊 = 𝑝 𝐸 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]
energy of system of two charges 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 𝑼 = − 𝒑 𝑬 𝐜𝐨𝐬  = − ⃗⃗⃗𝒑 . ⃗⃗⃗𝑬
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑼= − − − −(𝟏)  If 𝜃 = 180 , then potential energy is maximum
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟏𝟐
 If 𝜃 = 0 , then potential energy is mimimum
 Consider a capacitor consists of two parallel plates  The energy stored per unit volume of space is  Capacitors are used in the ignition system of
each of area ‘A’ separated by a distance ‘d’ defined as energy density ((𝒖𝑬 ). automobile engines to eliminate sparking.
 Let ‘𝝈′ be the surface charge density of the plates. 𝑼𝑬 𝟏  Capacitors are used to reduce power fluctuations
𝒖𝑬 = = 𝜺𝑶 𝑬𝟐 in power supplies and to increase the efficiency of
 The electric field between the plates, 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝟐
𝝈 𝑸 12. Explain the principle, construction and action of power transmission.
𝑬= = − − − − − − − (1) lightning conductor.
𝜺𝑶 𝑨 𝜺𝑶 Disadvantages :
 Since the field is uniform, the potential difference Lightning conductor :  Even after the battery or power supply is
between the plates,  This is a device used to removed, the capacitor stores charges and energy
𝑸 protect tall building from for some time. It caused unwanted shock.
𝑽=𝑬𝒅= [ ]𝒅 − − − − − (2) lightning strikes; 14. Define equipotential surface. Give its
𝑨 𝜺𝑶
 Then the capacitance of the capacitor,  It woks on the principle of properties.
𝑄 𝑄 acion of points or corona Equipotential surface:
𝐶= = discharge.  An equipotential surface is a surface on which all
𝑉 𝑄
[ ]𝑑  It consists of a long thick copper rod passing from the points are at the same potential.
𝐴 𝜀𝑂
𝜺𝑶 𝑨 top of the building to the ground. 1) For a point charge the equipotential surfaces
𝑪= − − − − − − − (𝟑)  The upper end of the rod has a sharp spike or a are concentric spherical surfaces.
𝒅
 Thus capacitance is, sharp needle. The lower end of the rod is 2) For a uniform electric field, the equipotential
(i) directly proportional to the Area (A) and connected to the copper plate which is buried surfaces form a set of planes normal to the
(ii) inversely proportional to the separation (d) deep in to the ground. electric field.
11. Derive an expression for energy stored in capacitor  When a negatively charged cloud is passing above Properties :
Energy stored in capacitor: the building, it induces a positive charge on the  The wor kdone to move a charge ‘q’ between any
 Capacitor is a device used to store charges and spike. two points A and B is 𝑊 = 𝑞 (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ). If A and B
energy.  Since the charge density is large at the spike, lie on the same equipotential surface then 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵
 When a battery is connected to the capacitor, action of point takes place. Hence work done is zero (𝑊 = 0)
electrons of total charge ‘-Q’ are transferred from  This positive charge ionizes the surrounding air  The electric field is always normal to an
one plate to other plate. For this work is done by which in turn neutralizes the negative charge in equipotential surface.
the battery. the cloud. 15. Write a note on microwave oven.
 This work done is strored as electrostatic energy  The negative charge pushed to the spikes passes Microwave oven :
in capacitor. through the copper rod and is safely diverted to  It works on the principle of torque acting on an
 To transfer ′𝑑𝑄′ for a potential difference ‘V’, the the Earth. electric dipole.
work done is  Thus the lighting arrester does not stop the  The food we consume has water molecules which
𝑄 𝑄 lightning, but it diverts the lightning to the ground are permanent electric dipoles. Oven produce
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑄 [∵ 𝑉 = ]
𝐶 𝐶 safely microwaves that are oscillating electromagnetic
 The total work done to charge a capacitor, 13. Give the applications and disadvantage of fields and produce torque on the water molecules.
𝑄
𝑄
𝑄 1 𝑄2 𝑄2 capacitors  Due to this torque on each water molecule, the
𝑊= ∫ 𝑑𝑄 = [ ] = Applications of capacitor: molecules rotate very fast and produce thermal
0 𝐶 𝐶 2 0 2𝐶
 Flash capacitors are used in digital camera to take energy.
 This work done is stored as electrostatic energy of photographs  Thus, heat generated is used to heat the food.
the capacitor, (i.e)
 During cardiac arrest, a device called heart
𝑸𝟐 𝟏 defibrillator is used to give a sudden surge of a
𝑼𝑬 = = 𝑪 𝑽𝟐 [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉]
𝟐𝑪 𝟐 large amount of electrical energy to the patient’s
𝜀 𝐴
 We know that, 𝑉 = 𝐸 𝑑 & 𝐶= 𝑂 chest to retrieve the normal heart function. This
𝑑
1 𝜀𝑂 𝐴 2
1 2 defibrillator uses a capacitor of 175 µF charged to
∴ 𝑈𝐸 = (𝐸 𝑑) = 𝜀𝑂 (𝐴 𝑑) 𝐸
2 𝑑 2 a high voltage of around 2000 V
 where, (𝐴 𝑑) → 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Since ‘k’ is much more greater than ‘G’, the 3. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS electrostatic force is always greater than axial line.
1. Explain in detail Coulomb’s law and its various gravitational force for smaller size objects Electric field due to dipole on its axial line :
aspects.  Electrostatic force between two point charges
Coulomb’s law : depends on the nature of the medium in which
two charges are kept at rest.
 Depending upon the nature of the charges, it may
either be attractive or repulsive
 Consider two point charges 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 separated  If the charges are in motion, another force called  Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole
by a distance ′𝒓′ Lorentz force come in to play in addition with moment be 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂 and its direction be along
 According to Coulomb law, the force on the point Coulomb force. − 𝒒 to + 𝒒 .
charge 𝒒𝟐 exerted by 𝒒𝟏 is  Electrostatic force obeys Newton’s third law. (i.e)  Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid
𝒒 𝒒 ⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = − ⃗𝑭𝟏𝟐 point ‘O’ on its axial line.
⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒌 𝟏 𝟐 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐
𝒓𝟐 2. Define electric field. Explain its various aspects.  Electric field at C due to +𝒒
 where, k → constant Electric field : 𝟏 𝒒
𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 → unit vector directed from 𝒒𝟏 to 𝒒𝟐 ⃗𝑬+ = ̂
𝒑
 The electric field at the point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’ 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒐 (𝒓 − 𝒂)𝟐
Important aspects :  Electric field at C due to −𝒒
from the point charge ‘q’ is the force experienced
 Coulomb law states that the electrostatic force is by a unit charge and is given by 𝟏 𝒒
1) directly proportional to the product of the ⃗𝑬− = − ̂
𝒑
⃗⃗⃗𝑭 𝟏 𝒒 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂)𝟐
magnitude of two point charges ⃗⃗⃗𝑬 = = 𝒓̂
𝒒𝒐 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟐  Since +𝒒 is located closer to pont ‘C’ than −𝒒 ,
2) inversely proportional to the square of the
Important aspects : ⃗+> 𝑬
𝑬 ⃗−
distance between them
 The force always lie along the line joining the two  If ‘q’ is positive, the electric field points away and  By superposition principle, the total electric field
charges. if ‘q’ is negative the electric field points towards at ‘C’ due to dipole is,
𝟏 the source charge. 𝐸⃗ = ⃗
𝐸 + ⃗
𝐸
 In S.I units, 𝒌 = = 𝟗 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵 𝒎𝟐 𝑪−𝟐 𝑡𝑜𝑡 + −
𝟒 𝝅𝜺𝟎 1 𝑞 1 𝑞
⃗𝐸𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑝̂ − 𝑝̂
 Here is the permittivity of free space or vacuum 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
and its value is 1 1 1
𝟏  The force experienced by the test charge 𝒒𝒐 placed 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ − ] 𝑝̂
𝜺𝟎 = = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟐 𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟐
𝑪 𝑵 𝒎 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
𝟒 𝝅𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
in electric field 𝐸 is , 𝑭 = 𝒒𝒐 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗
1 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑎)2
 The magnitude of electrostatic force between two  The electric field is independent of test charge 𝒒𝒐 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ ] 𝑝̂
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2
charges each of 1 C separated by a distance of 1 m and it depends only on souce charge 𝒒 2 2 2 2
is 𝟗 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝑵 1 𝑟 +𝑎 + 2𝑟𝑎− 𝑟 −𝑎 + 2𝑟𝑎
 Electric field is a vector quantity. So it has unique 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ ] 𝑝̂
 The Coulomb law in vacuum and in medium are, direction and magnitude at every point. 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 〈(𝑟 − 𝑎)(𝑟 + 𝑎)〉2
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐  Since electric field is inversely proportional to the 1 4𝑟𝑎
⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 & ⃗𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ 2 ] 𝑝̂
𝟒 𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓 𝟐 𝟒 𝝅𝜺 𝒓 𝟐 distance, as distance increases the field decreases. 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 〈𝑟 − 𝑎 2 〉2
where, 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 −→ permittivity of the medium  The test charge is made sufficiently small such  Here the direction of total electric field is the
Thus the relative permittivity of the given medium that it will not modify the electric field of the dipole moment ⃗⃗⃗𝒑.
𝜀
is defined as , 𝜀𝑟 = . For air or vacuum, 𝜀𝑟 = 1 source charge.  If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 , then neglecting 𝑎2 . We get
𝜀𝑜
 For continuous and finite size charge 1 4𝑟𝑎 1 4𝑎
and for all other media 𝜀𝑟 > 1 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑞 [ 4 ] 𝑝̂ = 𝑞 [ 3 ] 𝑝̂
distributions, integration techniques must bt used 4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑜 𝑟 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟
 Coulomb’s law has same structure as Newton’s law
 There are two kinds of electric field. They are 𝟏 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗
𝒑
of gravitation. (i.e) ⃗ 𝒕𝒐𝒕 =
𝑬 [ 𝑞 2𝑎 𝑝̂ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 ]
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑚1 𝑚2 (1) Uniform or constant field 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟑
𝐹𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑘 2 & 𝐹𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺 (2) Non uniform field
𝑟 𝑟2
9 2 −2
 Here 𝑘 = 9 𝑋 10 𝑁 𝑚 𝐶 and
𝐺 = 6.626 𝑋 10−11 𝑁 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2
2
4. Calculate the electric field due to a dipole on its  If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑎 then neglecting 𝑎  Apply cosine law in  AOP
equatorial line. 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗𝒑 r22 = r 2 + a2 − 2 r a cos (180 − θ)
⃗𝑬𝒕𝒐𝒕 = − [ 𝑞 2𝑎 𝑝̂ = 𝑝 𝑝̂ = ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 ]
Electric field due to dipole on its equatorial line : 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟑 a2 2 a
r22 = r 2 [1 + 2 + cos θ]
5. Derive an expression for electro static potential r r
due to electric dipole. 𝑎2
If 𝑎 ≪ 𝑟 then neglecting 2
Electrostatic potential due to dipole : 𝑟
2 2
2a
r2 = r [1 + cos θ]
r
1
2a 2
r2 = r [1 + cos θ]
r
1
−
1 1 2a 2
= [1 + cos θ]
r2 r r
 Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole 1 1 a
moment be 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂 and its direction be along = [1 − cos θ] – − − − (3)
r2 r r
− 𝒒 to + 𝒒 .  Consider a dipole AB along X - axis. Its diplole
 Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
 Let ‘C’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid moment be 𝒑 = 𝟐𝒒𝒂 and its direction be along 1 1 𝑎 1 𝑎
point ‘O’ on its equatorial plane. − 𝒒 to + 𝒒 𝑉 = 𝑞 { [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃] − [1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]}
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
 Electric field at C due to +𝒒 (along BC)  Let ‘P’ be the point at a distance ‘r’ from the mid
𝟏 𝒒 1 𝑞 𝑎 𝑎
⃗ +| = point ‘O’ 𝑉 = [1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 − 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃]
| 𝑬 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂𝟐 )
𝟐  Let ∠𝑃𝑂𝐴 = 𝜃, 𝐵𝑃 = 𝑟1 and 𝐴𝑃 = 𝑟2
1 𝑞 2𝑎 1 2𝑞𝑎
 Electric field at C due to −𝒒 (along CA)  Electric potential at P due to +𝒒 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝟏 𝒒 1 q 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
| 𝑬⃗ −| = V1 = 𝟏 𝒑
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 (𝒓 + 𝒂𝟐 )
𝟐 4 πε0 r1 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 [𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎]
 Here | 𝑬 ⃗ +| = | 𝑬 ⃗ −|  Electric potential at P due to −𝒒 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐
1 q 𝟏 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒑 . 𝒓̂
⃗ ⃗
 Resolve 𝑬+ and 𝑬− in to two components. V2 = − (𝒐𝒓) 𝑽 = [𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝 . 𝑟̂ ]
4 πε0 r2 𝟒𝝅𝝐 𝟎 𝒓𝟐
 Here the perpendicular components | 𝑬 ⃗ + | 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
 Then total potential at ‘P’ due to dipole is  Here 𝑟̂ is the unit vector along OP
⃗
and | 𝑬− | 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 are equal and opposite will cancel 1 1 1
each other V = V1 + 𝑉2 = q [ − ] − − − (1)
4 πε0 r1 r2
 But the horizontal components | 𝑬 ⃗ + | 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 and case -1 : If  = 0° ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠  = 1 then,
 Apply cosine law in  BOP
⃗
| 𝑬− | 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 are equal and in same direction (−𝒑 ̂) r12 = r 2 + a2 − 2 r a cos θ 𝟏 𝒑
2 𝑽 =
will added up to give total electric field. Hence a 2 a 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟎 𝒓
𝟐
r12 = r 2 [1 + 2 − cos θ] Case -2 : If  = 180° ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = −1 then,
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = | 𝐸⃗+ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (−𝑝̂ ) + | 𝐸⃗− | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 (−𝑝̂ ) r r
𝑎2 𝟏 𝒑
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 | 𝐸⃗+ | 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑝̂  If 𝑎 ≪ 𝑟 then neglecting 2 𝑽 =−
1 𝑞 𝑟 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 2 [ ] cos 𝜃 𝑝̂ 2a
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )
2
r1 = r [1 − 2
cos θ] Case -3 : If  = 90°; 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 0 then,
r 𝑽 = 𝟎
1 2𝑞 𝑎 1
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − [ ] 1 𝑝̂ 2d 2
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑎 ) (𝑟 2
2 2
r1 = r [1 − cos θ]
+ 𝑎 2 )2 r
1 2𝑞𝑎 1
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 3 𝑝̂ 1 1 2a −
2
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 = [1 − cos θ]
+ 𝑎 2 )2 r1 r r
1 𝑝 𝑝̂ 1 ⃗⃗⃗𝑝 1 1 a
𝐸⃗𝑡𝑜𝑡 = − 3 = − 3 = [1 + cos θ] – − − − (2)
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 (𝑟 2 r1 r r
+ 𝑎 2 )2 + 𝑎2 )2
6. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an 7. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an  Here ̂𝒏 → unit vector perpendicular to the plane
infinitely long charged wire. charged infinite plane sheet. sheet outwards.
Electric field due to infinitely long charged wire : Electric field due to charged infinite plane sheet :  If 𝜎 > 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points perpendicular outward
 Consider an infinitely (𝑛̂) from the plane sheet and if 𝜎 < 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸
long straight wire of points perpendicular inward (− 𝑛̂)
uniform linear charge 8. Obtain an expression for electric field due to an
density ‘’ uniformly charged spherical shell.
 Let ‘P’ be a point at a Electric field due to charged spherical shell :
distance ‘r’ from the  Consider an uniformly charged spherical shell of
wire. Let ‘E’ be the radius ‘R’ and charge ‘Q’
electric field at ‘P’ 1) At a point outside the shell (𝒓 > 𝑹) :
 Consider a cylindrical
Gaussian surface of  Consider an infinite plane sheet of uniform surface
length ‘L’ and radius charge density ‘𝜎’
‘r’  Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from the sheet.
 The electric flux through the top surface, Let ‘E’ be the electric field at ‘P’
Φ𝑡𝑜𝑝 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90 = 0  Here the direction of electric field is
perpendicularly outward from the sheet.
 The electric flux through the bottom surface,  Consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length
Φ𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90 = 0 ‘2r’ and area of cross section ‘A’  Let P be the point outside the shell at a distance ‘r’
 The electric flux through plane surface ‘P’ from its centre.
 The electric flux through the curved surface,
Φ𝑃 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴  Here electric field points radially outwards if Q >0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝐴
Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴 and radially inward if Q < 0.
 The electric flux through plane surface ‘P’  Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius ‘r’
Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐸 2 𝜋 𝑟 𝐿
𝚽 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0  = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 which encloses the total charge ‘Q’
 Then the total electric flux through the Gaussian 𝑷 
surface,  Since 𝐸⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 are along radially outwards, we
 The electric flux through the curved surface,
Φ𝐸 = Φ𝑡𝑜𝑝 + Φ𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 + Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 have 𝜃 = 0
𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬 (𝟐 𝝅 𝒓 𝑳) Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 90 = 0  The electric flux through the Gaussian surface,
 By Gauss law,  The total electric flux through through the Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0
𝑄𝑖𝑛 Gaussian surface,
Φ𝐸 =
𝜀𝑜 Φ𝐸 = Φ𝑃 + 𝚽𝑷 + Φ𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬 ∮ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝑬 (𝟒 𝝅 𝒓𝟐 )
𝜆𝐿
𝐸 (2 𝜋 𝑟 𝐿) = 𝚽𝑬 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 + ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 + 0 = 2 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝐴  By Gauss law,
𝜀𝑜 𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝝀 𝚽𝑬 = 𝟐 𝑬 𝑨 Φ𝐸 =
𝑬 =  By Gauss law, 𝜀𝑜
𝟐 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝑄
𝑄𝑖𝑛 2
𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 ) =
 In Vector notation, Φ𝐸 =
𝝀 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜
⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂ 𝜎𝐴 𝟏 𝑸
𝟐 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 2EA= 𝑬 =
𝜀𝑜 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝒓 𝟐
 Here ̂𝒓 → unit vector perpendicular to the curved
𝝈  In vector notation,
surface outwards. 𝐄 = 𝟏 𝑸
𝟐 𝜺𝒐 ⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝒓̂
 If 𝜆 > 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points perpendicular outward 𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒓 𝟐
 In vector notation, 𝒐
(𝑟̂ ) from the wire and if 𝜆 < 0 , then ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 points 𝝈  Here ̂𝒓 → unit vector acting radiallyh outward
perpendicular inward (− 𝑟̂ ) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 = 𝒏
̂
𝟐 𝜺𝒐 from the spherical surface.
2) At a point on the surface of the shell (𝒓 = 𝑹):  If a test charge ‘𝑞𝑜 ’ is placed on the Gaussian Property - 1 : The electric field is zero everywhere
 If the point lies on the surface of the charged shell, surface, by Coulomb law the force acting it is, inside the conductor. This is tre regardless of
then = 𝑹 . Then the electric field, 1 𝑄 𝑞𝑜 whether the conductor is solid or hollow.
𝟏 𝑸 |⃗⃗⃗𝐹 | =
⃗⃗⃗ = 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2  The electric field is not zero inside the metal, then
𝑬 𝒓̂
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺 𝒐 𝑹𝟐  By definition, the electric field, there will be a force on the mobile charge carriers
3) At a point inside the shell (𝒓 < 𝑹) ∶ |⃗⃗⃗𝐹 | 1 𝑄 due to this electric field.
|⃗⃗⃗𝐸 | = = − − − −(1)  As a result, there will be a net motion of the
𝑞𝑜 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
mobile charges, which contradicts the conductors
 Since the area element 𝑑𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is along the electric
being in electrostatic equilibrium.
⃗
field 𝐸 , we have 𝜃 = 0. Hence the electric flux  Thus the electric field is zero every where inside
through the Gaussian surface is, the conductor.
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 0° = 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝐴 Property - 2 : Theer is no net charge inside the
conductors. The charges must reside only on the
 Let ‘P’ be the point inside the charged shell at a Here ∮ 𝑑𝐴 = 4 𝜋 𝑟 2 → area of Gaussian sphere surface of the conductors.
distance ‘r’ from its centre. Put in equation (1)  Form Gauss’s law, this implies that there is no net
 Consider the spherical Gaussian surface of radius 1 𝑄 charge inside the conductor. Even if some charge
Φ𝐸 = 𝑋 4 𝜋 𝑟2
‘r’ 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2 is introduced inside the conductor, it immediately
 Since there is no charge inside the Gaussian 𝑸 reaches the surface of the conductor.
∴ 𝚽𝑬 =
surface, Q = 0 𝜺𝒐 Property - 3 : The electric field outside the
 Then from Gauss law,  This is known as Gauss law. conductor is perpendicular to the surface of the
𝑄𝑖𝑛 Result : 𝝈
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = conductor and has a magnitude of , where 𝝈 is
𝜀𝑜  The total electric flux through the closed surface 𝜺𝒐
𝐸 (4 𝜋 𝑟 2 ) = 0 depends only on the charges enclosed by the the surface charge density at that point
𝑬 = 𝟎 surface and independent of charges outside the  If the electric field has components parallel to the
 Thus the electric field due to the uniform charged surface. surface of the conductor, then free electrons on
spherical shell is zero at all points inside the shell.  The total electric flux is independent of the the surface of the conductor would experience
9. Obtain Gauss law from Coulomb’s law. location of charges inside the closed surface and acceleration. This means that the conductor is not
Gauss law from Coulomb’s law : shape on the closed surface. in equilibrium.
 Gauss law is another form of Coulomb law and  Therefore at electrostactic equilibrium, the
also applicable to charges in motion. electric field must be perpendicular to the surface
10. Discuss the various properties of conductors in of the conductor.
electrostatic equilibrium.  For cylindrical Gaussian surface, the total electric
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium : flux is 𝚽𝑬 = 𝑬 𝑨 and the total charge inside the
 An electrical conductor has a large number of surface is 𝑸 = 𝝈 𝑨
mobile charges which are free to move in the  By Gauss law,
material. 𝑄
Φ𝐸 =
 The resultant motion is zero and it implies that the 𝜀𝑜
conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium. σA
∴ EA =
 Consider a charged particle of charge ‘+q’  Thus at electrostatic equilibrium, there is no net 𝜀𝑜
𝛔
 Draw a Gaussian spherical surface of radius ‘r’ current in the conductor. (or) 𝐄 =
around this charge.  A conductor at electrostatic equilibrium has the 𝜺𝒐
 ⃗⃗⃗
Due to symmentry, the electric field 𝐸 at all the following properties.  In vector notation,
𝛔
points on the spherical surface have same ⃗⃗⃗𝐄 = 𝐧̂
𝜺𝒐
magnitude and radially outward in direction.
Property - 4 : The electrostatic potential has the  Thus positive charges are induced on one side and  Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐶 > 𝐶𝑜 .
same value on the surface and inside of the negative charges are induced on the other side of  Thus insertion of dielectric slab increases the
conductor. the slab. capacitance.
 The conductor has no parallel electric component  So the dielectric in the external field is equivalent  We have, 𝑪𝒐 = 𝟎
𝜺 𝑨
𝒅
on the surface which means that charges can be to two oppositely charged sheets with the surface 𝜺 𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨
moved on the surface without doing any work. charge densities . These charges are called bound ∴ 𝑪 = =
𝒅 𝒅
 This is possible only if the electrostatic potential is charges. Where, 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 = 𝜺 → permitivity of the dielectric medium
constant at all points on the surface and there is  They are not free to move like free electrons in  The energy stored in the capacitor without
no potential difference between any two points on conductor. dielectric,
the surface. 12. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a 1 𝑄𝑜2
 Since the electric field is zero inside the conductor, parallel plate capacitor when the capacitor is 𝑈𝑜 =
the potential is the same as the surface of the disconnected from the battery. 2 𝐶𝑜
conductor. Effect of dielectrics when the capacitor is  After the dielectric is inserted,
 Thus at electro static equilibrium, the conductor is disconnected from the battery : 𝟏 𝑸𝒐𝟐 𝟏 𝑸𝒐𝟐 𝑼𝒐
𝑼= = =
always at equipotential. 𝟐 𝑪 𝟐 𝜺𝒓 𝑪𝒐 𝜺𝒓
11. Explain dielectrics in detail and how an electric  Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑈 < 𝑈𝑜
field is induced inside a dielectric.  There is a decrease in energy because, when the
Electric field induced inside a dielectric : dielectric is inserted, the capacitor spend some
energy to pulling the dielectric slab inside.
 Consider a parallel plate capacitor. 13. Explain in detail the effect of dielectric placed in a
 Area of each plates =A parallel plate capacitor when the battery remains
Distance between the plates =𝑑 connected to the capacitor.
Voltage of battery = 𝑉𝑜 Effect of dielectrics when the battery remains
Total charge on the capacitor = 𝑄𝑜 connected to the capacitor:
 So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,
𝑄𝑜
𝐶𝑜 =
𝑉𝑜
 When an external electric field is applied on a  The battery is then disconnected from the
conductor, the charges are aligned in such a way capacitor and the dielectric is inserted between
that an internal electric field is created which  Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
the plates. This decreases the electric field.
cancels the external electric field.  Area of each plates =A
 Electric field without dielectric = 𝐸𝑜
 But in dielectric, which has no free electrons, the Distance between the plates =𝑑
Electric field with dielectric = E
external electric field only realigns the charges so Voltage of battery = 𝑉𝑜
Relative permittivity or dielectric constant = 𝜀𝑟
that an internal electric field is produced. 𝐸𝑜 Total charge on the capacitor = 𝑄𝑜
 The magnitude of the internal electric field is ∴ 𝐸=  So the capacitance of capacitor without dielectric,
𝜀𝑟 𝑄𝑜
smaller than that of external electric field.
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐸 < 𝐸𝑜 𝐶𝑜 =
 Therefore the net electric field inside the dielectric 𝑉𝑜
 Hence electrostatic potential between the plates is
field is not zero, but is parallel to an external
reduced and at the same time the charge 𝑄𝑜  Dielectric is inserted between the plates and the
electric field with magnitude less than that of the battery is remains in connected with the capacitor.
remains constant.
external electric field. 𝐸𝑜 𝑉𝑜  So the charges stored in the capacitor is increased.
 For example, let a rectangular dielectric slab is 𝑉=𝐸𝑑= 𝑑=  Total charge without dielectric = 𝑄𝑜
𝜀𝑟 𝜀𝑟
placed between two oppositely charged plates. Total charge with dielectric = 𝑄
 Then the capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric,
 The uniform electric field between the plates acts 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑜 Relative permittivity (dielectric constat) = 𝜀𝑟
as the external electric field 𝐸⃗ 𝑒𝑥𝑡 which polarizes 𝐶= =
𝑉𝑜
= 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜 ∴ 𝑸 = 𝜺𝒓 𝑸𝒐
𝑉 [ ] 𝑉𝑜
the dielectric slab. 𝜀𝑟  Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑄 < 𝑄𝑜
 Here the potential difference between the plates  Let 𝐶𝑆 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor 15. Explain in detail how charges are distributed in a
remains constant. But the charges increases and in series connection, then conductor and the principle behind the lightning
the new capacitance will be 𝑄 conductor.
𝑄 𝜀𝑟 𝑄𝑜 𝑉= − − − − − (2)
𝐶𝑆 Distribution of charges in a conductor :
𝐶= = = 𝜀𝑟 𝐶𝑜
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜  From (1) and (2) , we have
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝐶 > 𝐶𝑜 𝑄 1 1 1
= 𝑄 [ + + ]
 Hence capacitance increases with the insertion of 𝐶𝑆 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
dielectric slab. 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝜺 𝑨 = + +
 We know that, 𝑪𝒐 = 𝟎 𝑪𝑺 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝒅
𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 𝑨 𝜺 𝑨  Thus the inverse of the equivalent capacitance of  Consider two conducting spheres ‘A’ and ‘B’ of
∴ 𝑪 = = capacitors connected in series is equal to the sum
𝒅 𝒅 radii 𝒓𝟏 and 𝒓𝟐 . Let 𝒓𝟏 > 𝒓𝟐
Where, 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎 = 𝜺 → permitivity of the dielectric medium of the inverses of each capacitance.  Let the two spheres are connected by a thin
 The energy stored in the capacitor without  This equivalent capacitance 𝑪𝑺 is always less than conducting wire.
dielectric, the smallest individual capacitance in the series  If a charge ‘Q’ is given to either A or B, this charge
1 Capacitors in parallel : is redistributed in both the spheres until their
𝑈𝑜 = 𝐶 𝑉2
2 𝑜 𝑜 potential becomes same.
 After the dielectric is inserted,  Now they are uniformly charged and attain
𝟏 𝟏 electrostatic equilibrium.
𝑼= 𝑪 𝑽𝒐𝟐 = 𝜺𝒓 𝑪𝒐 𝑽𝒐𝟐 = 𝜺𝒓 𝑼𝒐
𝟐 𝟐  At this stage, let the surface charge densities of
 Since 𝜀𝑟 > 1, we have 𝑈 > 𝑈𝑜 A and B are 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 respectively, then
 So there is increase in energy when the dielectric Charge residing on suface of A = 𝑞1 = 𝜎1 4 𝜋 𝑟12
is inserted Charge residing on suface of B = 𝑞2 = 𝜎2 4 𝜋 𝑟22
14. Derive the expression for resultant capacitance,  Consider three capacitors of capacitance  Then the total charge ; Q = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2
when capacitors are connected in series and in 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 connected in parallel with a battery  There is no net charge inside the conductors.
parallel. of voltage V .In parallel connection,  Electrostic potential on the surface of A and B is
Capacitors in series : 1) Each capacitor has same potential difference (V) 1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
2) But charges on each capacitor will be different 𝑉𝐴 = & 𝑉𝐵 =
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟1 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟2
 Let 𝑄1 , 𝑄2 , 𝑄3 be the charge on 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3  Under elecrostic equilibrium. 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵
respectively, then 1 𝑞1 1 𝑞2
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 ∴ =
4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟1 4 𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑄 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉 + 𝐶3 𝑉 [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉] 𝑞1 𝑞2
 Consider three capacitors of capacitance 𝑄 = 𝑉 [𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 ] − − − − − (1) =
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 connected in series with a battery of  Let 𝐶𝑃 be the equivalent capacitance of capacitor 𝜎1 4 𝜋 𝑟12
𝜎2 4 𝜋 𝑟22
voltage V . In series connection, in parallel connection, then =
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 − − − − − (2) 𝑟1 𝑟2
1) Each capacitor has same amount of charge (Q)
 From (1) and (2), 𝜎 𝑟
1 1 = 𝜎 𝑟
2 2
2) But potential difference across each capacitor
will be different. 𝐶𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑉 [𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 ] (𝑜𝑟) 𝝈 𝒓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across 𝑪𝑷 = 𝑪𝟏 + 𝑪𝟐 + 𝑪𝟑  Thus the surface charge density is inversely
𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 respectively, then  Thus the equivalent capacitance of capacitors proportional to the radius of the sphere.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the  Hence for smaller radius , the charge density will
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 individual capacitances. be larger and vice versa
𝑉= + + [∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑉]
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3  The equivalent capacitance 𝑪𝑷 in a parallel
1 1 1 connection is always greater than the largest
𝑉= 𝑄 [ + + ] − − − − − (1)
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 individual capacitance.
Principle of lightning conductor (Action of point) : Construction : Applications :
 Action of point is the principle behind the  It consists of large hollow spherical conductor ‘A’  The high voltage produced in this Van de Graff
lightning conductor. fixed on the insulating stand. generator is used to accelerate positive ions
 We know that smaller the radius of curvature, the  Pulley ‘B’ is mounted at the centre of the sphere (protons and deuterons) for nuclear
larger is the charge density. and another pulley ‘C’ is fixed at the bottom. disintegrations and other applications.
 If the conductor has sharp end which has larger  A belt made up of insulating material like silk or
curvature (smaller radius), it has a large charge rubber runs over the pulleys.
accumulation.  The pulley ‘C’ is driven continuously by the
 As a result, the electric field near this edge is very electric motor.
high and it ionizes the surrounding air.  Two comb shaped metallic conductor D and E are
 The positive ions are repelled at the sharp edge fixed near the pulleys.
and negative ions are attracted towards the  The comb ‘D’ is maintained at a positive potential
sharper edge. of 104 𝑉 by a power supply.
 This reduces the total charge of the conductor  The upper comb ‘E’ is connected to the inner side
near the sharp edge. This is called action of points of the hollow metal sphere.
or corona discharge. Working :
16. Explain in detail the construction and working of  Due to the high electgric field near comb ‘D’, air
Van de Graff generator. between the belt and comb ‘D’ gets ionized.
Van de Gralff generator :  The positive charges are pushed towards the belt
and negative charges are attracted towards the
comb ‘D’
 The positive charges stick to the belt and move up.
 When the positive charges reach the comb ‘E’ a
large amount of negative and positive charges are
induced on either side of comb ‘E’ due to
electrostatic induction.
 As a result. the positive charges are pushed away
from the comb ‘E’ and they reach the outer surface
of the sphere.
 These positive charges are distributed uniformly
on the outer surface of the hollow sphere.
 At the same time, the negative charges neutralize
the positive charges in the belt due to corona
discharge before it passes over the pulley.
 When the belt descends, it has almost no net
charge.
 This process continues until the outer surface
 It is designed by Robert Van de Graff. produces the potential difference of the order of
107 𝑉 which is the limiting value.
 It produce large electro static potential difference
of about 107 𝑉  Beyond this, the charges starts leaking to the
Principle : surroundings due to ionization of air.
 Electro static induction  It is prevented by enclosing the machine in a gas
filled steel chamber at very high pressure.
 Action of points
NAME :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
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PG ASST (PHYSICS)
8. Define current density. 13. Define resistance of the conductor.
PART - II 2 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  Current density (J) is defined as the current per  The ratio of potential difference (V) across the
1. Define current electricity. unit area of cross section of the conductor. given conductor to the current (I) passing through
 The branch of physics deals with moving charges 𝐼 the conductor is called resistance (R).
𝐽= 𝑽
is called current electricity. 𝐴 𝑹=
2. Define electric current.  Its unit is 𝑨 𝒎−𝟐 𝑰
 The electric current in a conductor is defined as 9. Give the microscopic form of Ohm’s law.  Its unit is ohm ( )
the rate of flow of charges through a given cross -  The current density is given by, 14. What are the factors that the resistance depend
sectional area. 𝑒𝜏 𝑛 𝑒2 𝜏 on?
⃗𝐽⃗ = 𝑛 𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗𝑑 = 𝑛 𝑒 [ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸] = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸
𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑚 𝑚  The resistance of the conductor is,
𝐼= (𝑜𝑟) 𝑖=
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (𝑜𝑟) ⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 1) directly proportional to its length (l)
 The S. I unit of current is ampere (A).  Thus Currnt density is directly proportional to the 2) inversely proportional to its area of cross
 It is a scalar quantity. applied electric field. This is known as section (A)
3. Define one ampere (1 A) microscopic form of Ohm’s law. 𝒍 𝝆𝒍
𝑹= =
 One ampere of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb 10. Current is a scalar quantity. Why? 𝝈𝑨 𝑨
of charge passing through a perpendicular cross  Current is defined as the scalar product of current where, 𝝈 → conductivity of the conductor
section in 1 second. [𝟏 𝑨 = 𝟏 𝑪 𝒔−𝟏 ] 𝝆 → resistivity of the conductor
density (⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐽) and area vector (⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴) in which charges
4. What is called conventional current? 15. Define resistivity of the material.
crosses. (i.e.) 𝐈 = ⃗𝑱⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨 = 𝑱 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽  The electrical resistivity of a material is defined as
 By convention, this flow in the circuit should be
 The current can be positive or negative depending the resistance offered to current flow by a
from the positive terminal of the battery to the
on the choice of unit vector normal to the surface conductor of unit length having unit area of cross
negative terminal. This is called the conventional
area A. section.
current or simply current. 11. Give the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.
 It is in the direction in which a positive test charge 𝟏 𝑹𝑨
 Let ‘V’ be the potential difference, ‘I’ be the 𝝆= =
would move. 𝝈 𝒍
current and ‘R’ be the resistance, then the  Its unit is ohm - metre ( m )
5. What are called free electrons and positive ions? macroscopic form of Ohm’s law is V = I R
 Any material is made up of neutral atoms with  It depends only the type of material and not the
12. What are called ohmic and non ohmic materials? dimension of the material.
equal number of electrons and protons. If the  Materials for which the current against voltage
outermost electrons leave the atoms, they become 16. Define conductivity of the material.
graph is a straight line through the orgin are said  The reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity
free electrons and are responsible for electric to obey Ohm’s law and they are called ohmic
current. and it is given by,
materials. 𝟏
 The atoms after losing their outer most electrons 𝝈=
 But materials for which the current against 𝝆
will have more positive charges and hence are voltage graph is non - linear and they do not have
called positive ions. They will not move freely and  Its unit is mho- metre-1 (-1 m-1)
a constant resistance are called non - ohmic. They
hence the positive ions will not give rise to  It depends only the type of material and not the
do not obey Ohm’s law.
current. dimension of the material.
6. Define drift velocity. 17. Reparing the electrical connection with the wet
 The average velocity acquired by the free skin is always dangerous. Why?
electrons inside the conductor when it is  The humam body contains a large amount of
subjected to an electric field is called water which has low resistance of around 200 
drift velocity (𝑣⃗𝑑 ). Its unit is 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 and the dry skin has high resistance of 500 k .
7. Define mobility.  But when the skin is wet, the resistance is reduced
 The magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the to 1000  .
free electrons per unit electric field is called 𝑉
 By Ohm’s law [𝑅 = ] if resistance decreses,
𝐼
mobility (𝜇). Its unit is 𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏
current increases. Hence reparing electric
connection with wet skin is dangerous.
18. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity. 23. What is called electric cell (battery) ?  The emf is considered positive when proceeding
 It is defined as the ratio of increase in resistivity  An electric cell is a device which converts from the negative to the positive terminal of the
per degree rise in temperature to its resistivity chemical energy in to electrical energy to produce cell and negative when proceeding from the
at 𝑇𝑜 . Its unit is 𝒑𝒆𝒓 ℃ electricity. positive to the negative terminal of the cell.
19. Define Superconductivity.  It contains two electrods (anode and cathode) 30. What is called Galvanometer?
 The resistance of certain material become zero immersed in an electrolyte.  A galvanometer is an instrument used for
below certain temperature called critical or 24. Define electromotive force. detecting and measuring even very small electric
transition temperature (TC)  The amount of work a battery or cell does to move currents.
 For mercury, TC = 4.2 K a certain amout of charge around the circuit is  It is extensively useful to compare the potential
 The materials which exhibit this property are called as electromotive force (𝜉). Its unit is volt (V) difference between various parts of the circuit.
known as super conductors.  The emf of a battery or a cell is the voltage 31. State the principle of potentiometer.
 The property of conducting current with zero provided by the battery when no current flows in  Let ‘I’ be the current, ′𝑟 ′ be the resistance per unit
resistance is called super conductivity. the external circuit. length and ′𝑙 ′ be the balancing length, then emf is
 It is discovered by Kammerlingh Onnes. 25. Define the internal resistance of the cell. 𝜺= 𝑰𝒓𝒍 (𝒐𝒓) 𝜺∝𝒍
20. Distinguish electric energy and electric power.  A real battery is made of electrodes and  The emf is directly proportional to the balancing
Electric energy Electric power electrolyte. length. This is the principle of potentiometer.
1) Work has to be done to 1) The rate at which the  There is resistance to the flow of charges within 32. What is called Joule’s heating effect of current?
move the charge from electrical potential the battery and this resistance is called internal  When current flows through a resistor, some of
one end to other end of energy is delivered is resistance (r) the electrical energy delivered to the resistor is
the conductor and this called electric power.  A freshly prepared cell has low internal resistance converted into heat energy and it is dissipated.
workdone is called 𝒅𝑼 and it increased with ageing. This heating effect of current is known as Joule’s
𝑷= = 𝑽𝑰 26. State Kirchoff’s first law (current rule or junction heating effect.
electric energy. 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝑾 = 𝒅𝑼 = 𝑽 𝒅𝑸 rule) 33. State Joule’s law of heating.
2) Its S.I unit is joule ( J ) 2) Its S.I unit is watt (W)  It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any  It states that the heat develop in an electrical
3) Its practical unit is 3) Its practical unit is junction in a circuit is zero (∑ 𝐼 = 0). circuit due to the flow, current varies directly as
kilowatt hour (kWh) horse power (H P)  It is a statement of conservation of electric charge. (i) the square of the current
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = 3.6 𝑋 106 𝐽 1 𝐻 𝑃 = 746 𝑊 27. State Kirchoff’s second law (voltage rule or loop (ii) the resistance of the circuit and
21. Prove that the expression for power in an rule) (iii) the time of flow
electrical circuit is 𝑷 = 𝑽 𝑰  It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum (𝑖. 𝑒) 𝑯 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 𝒕
 Electric energy is given by, 𝑑𝑈 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑄 of the products of the current and reistance of 34. What are the properties of the substance used as
each part of the circuit is equal to the total emf heating element?
 By definition, the rate at which electric potential
energy is delivered is called power. (i.e) included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝜺).  An alloy of nickel and chromium called Nicrome is
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 (𝑉 𝑑𝑄) 𝑑𝑄  It is a statement of conservation of energy for an used as heating element. It has
𝑃= = =𝑉 isolated system. (i) a high specific resistance
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝑸 28. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchoff’s (ii) high melting point
 But = 𝑰 → electric current
𝒅𝒕 current rule. (iii) heated to very high temperature without
∴ 𝑷= 𝑽𝑰 oxidation
 Current entering the junction is taken as positive
22. Write down the various equations for power.
and current leaving the junction is taken as 35. Write a note on electric fuses.
 The electric power is given by, negative.  Fuses are connected in series in a circuit to
𝑷=𝑽𝑰 protect the electric device from the heat
29. Give the sign convention followed by the Kirchoff’s
 By Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 and hence votage rule. developed by the passage of excessive current.
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹  The product of current and resistance is taken as  It melt and breaks the circuit if the current
 Also, 𝐼 = 𝑉/ 𝑅 and hence, positive when the direction of the current is exceeds certain value.
𝑽𝟐 followed and is taken as negative when the  It is a short length of a wire made of a low melting
𝑷=
𝑹 direction of current is opposite to the loop point material.
36. Write a note on circuit breakers (trippers) 41. Define Thomson’s effect.
 Now a days in housed, circuit breakers are used  If two points in a conductor are at different
instead of fuses. temperatures, the density of electrons at these
 Whenever there is an ecessive current produced points will differ and as a result the potential
due to faulty wire connection, the circuit breaker difference is created between these points.
switch opens.  Thomson effect is reversiable.
 After repairing the faulty connection, we can close
the circuit breaker switch.
37. Write a note on electric bulb or lamp.
 It consists of a tungsten filament kept inside a
glass bulb and heated to incandescence by
current.
 Melting point of tungsten is 3380 ℃
 In incandescent electric lamps, only 5% of electric
energy is converted into light and the rest is
wasted as heat.
38. Define Seebeck effect.
 In a closed circuit consisting of two dissimilar
metals, when the junctions are maintained at
different temperature an emf is developed. This
phenomenom is called Seebeck effect or
thermoelectric effect.
 The current that flows due to the emf developed is
called thermoelectric current.
 The two dissimilar metals connected to form two
junctions is known as thermocouple.
39. What are the applications of Seebeck effect?
 Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric
generators (Seebeck generators) which are used
in power plants to convert waste heat into
electricity.
 This effect is utilized in automobiles as
automotive thermoelectric generators for
increasing fuel efficiency
 Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and
thermopiles to measure the temperature
difference between the two objects.
40. Define Peltier effect.
 When an electric current is passed through a
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This
is known as Peltier effect.
 Peltier effect is reversiable.
2. Derive the relation between the drift velocity and Coluur Tolerance
PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
the current. Gold 5%
ANSWERS
1. Obtain an expression for drift velocity. How it is Drift velocity and current - Relation : Silver 10 %
related with the mobility? No ring (colourless) 20 %
Drift velocity (⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒗𝒅 ) :  There is three coloured bands on its left and one
 If there is no electric field, all the free electrons in metallic coloured band on its right side.
a conductor are moves in random directions. As a  The first and second rings are the significant
result no net flow of electrons in any direction and  Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴 figures of the resistance and the third ring indicate
hence there will not be any current. Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛 the decimal multiplier after them. The fourth
 If the conductor is subjected toan electric field (⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸) Applied electric field = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 metallic ring shows the tolerance of the resistor.
free electrons experinces a force given by, Drift velocity of electrons = 𝒗𝒅 Example :
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = −𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐸 − − − − − (1) Charge of an electrons =𝑒
 So all the free electrons are accelerated in a  Let ‘𝑑𝑥’ be the distance travelled by the electron
direction opposite to the field. By Newton’s in time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then
second law 𝑑𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣𝑑 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡
𝐹 −𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎= = − − − − − −(2)  The number of electrons available in the volume
𝑚 𝑚
 But the positive ions scatter the electrons and of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛
change its direction of motion. So they move in  Then the total charge in this volume element is,
zig-zag path. 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒  For the given carbon resistor,
 In addition to the zig-zag motion due to collisions,  By definition, the current is given by First ring (Green) = 5
the electrons move slowly along the conductor in 𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 Second ring (Blue) = 6
𝐼= =
a direction opposite to that of ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Third ring (Orange) = 103
 This average velocity acquired by the free electrons 𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅 Fourth metallic ring (Gold) = 5%
inside the conductors, when it is subjected to the 3. Write a note on carbon resistors.  Value of the resistor = 𝟓𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎 𝟑
𝛀 = 𝟓𝟔 𝐤 𝛀
electric field is called drift velocity (⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗𝑑 ) Carbon resistors : Tolerance =5%
 The average time between successive collision is  Carbon resistors consists of a ceramic core on 4. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity.
called the mean free time or relaxation time (𝜏). which a thin layer of crystalline carbon is Obtain an expression for it.
 Hence the drift velocity is given by, deposited. Temperature coefficient of resistivity :
⃗⃗⃗⃗  They ar inexpensive, stable and compact in size.  Resistivity of the substance depends on the
−𝒆 𝑬
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒂𝝉= 𝝉 = − 𝝁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬  Colour rings drawn over it are used to indicate the temperature. Let
𝒎 value of the resistance according to the rules in
𝑒𝜏  Resistivity at 𝑇𝑜 ℃ = 𝜌𝑜
where , = 𝜇 → mobility of electrons the table.
𝑚 Resistivity at 𝑇℃ = 𝜌𝑇
 The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the Colour Number Multiplier ∴ 𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 [1 + 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )] − − − −(1)
free electron per unit electric field is called mobility. Black 0 1 Where, 𝛼 → Temperature coefficient of resistivity
|⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 | Brown 1 101  From equation (1)
𝝁=
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 Red 2 102 𝜌𝑇 = 𝜌𝑜 + 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )
 It unit is 𝒎𝟐 𝑽−𝟏 𝒔−𝟏 Orange 3 103 𝜌𝑇 − 𝜌𝑜 = 𝜌𝑜 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 )
Yellow 4 104 𝝆𝑻 − 𝝆𝒐 ∆𝝆
5 ∴ 𝜶= =
Green 5 10 𝝆𝒐 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 ) 𝝆𝒐 ∆𝑻
Blue 6 106 Where, ∆𝝆 = 𝝆𝑻 − 𝝆𝒐 → change in resistivity
Violet 7 107 ∆𝑻 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 → Change in temperature
Grey 8 108  It is defined as the ratio of increase in
White 9 109 resistivity per degree rise in temperature to
its resistivity at 𝑇𝑜 . Its unit is 𝒑𝒆𝒓 ℃
 For conductors 𝜶 is positive (i.e) if the 
Let contact be made at ‘J’ on the wire by jockey.
temperature of the conductor increases, its 
If the potential difference across CJ is equal to the
resistivity also increases. emf (𝜉) of the cell, then the galvanometer shows
 Thus resistance at 𝑇 ℃ zero deflection. Here ‘CJ’ is the balancing length 𝒍
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝒐 [𝟏 + 𝜶 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝒐 )]  If ‘r’ is the resistance per unit length of the wire,
 For semiconductor, 𝜶 is negative. (i.e.) if then by Ohm’s law,
temperature increases, resistance decreases. Potential difference across CJ = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙
 A semiconductor with a negative temperature Hence, 𝜀 = 𝑰 𝒓 𝒍
coefficient of resistance is called a thermistor.  Since I and r are constants, , 𝜀 ∝ 𝒍
5. Write a note on electric cells in series.  By Ohm’s law, 8. Explain Seebeck effect. Give its applications.
Cells in series : 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝜀 𝑛 𝜀
𝐼= = 𝑟 = − −(1) Seebeck effect :
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 +𝑅 𝑛 𝑟+𝑅
𝑛
 If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛 𝜀 𝜀
𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 [∵ = 𝐼1 ]
𝑅 𝑅
(i.e.) if ‘r’ is negligible compared to ‘R’ the current
supplied by the battery is ‘n’ times the that
supplied by the single cell
 Let ‘n’ cells each of emf 𝜀 and internal resistance  𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes,
𝑛 𝜀 𝜀  Seebeck discoved that in a closed circuit
‘r’ are connected in series with an external 𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1 consisting of two dissimilar metals, when the
resistance ‘R’. 𝑛 𝑟 𝑟
(i.e.) if ‘r’ is very very greater than ‘R’, current due juctions are maintained at different temperatures
 Total emf of the battery =𝑛𝜀 an emf (potential difference) is developed. This is
Total resistance of the circuit = 𝑛𝑟+𝑅 to the whole battery is same as due to single cell.
7. Explain the principle of potentiometer. called Seebeck effect.
 By Ohm’s law,  The current that flows due to the emf developed is
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑛𝜀 Principle of potentiometer:
𝐼= = − − − (1) called thermoelectric current.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛𝑟+𝑅  The two dissimilar metals connected to form two
 If 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes, junctions is known as thermocouple.
𝑛𝜀 𝜀
𝐼= ≈ 𝑛 𝐼1 [∵ = 𝐼1 ]  If hot and cold juntions are interchanged, the
𝑅 𝑅
(i.e.) if ‘r’ is negligible compared to ‘R’ the current direction of current also reversed. Hence Seebeck
supplied by the battery is ‘n’ times the that effect is reversiable.
supplied by the single cell  The magnitude of emf developed in thermocouple
 𝑟 ≪ 𝑅, equation (1) becomes, depends on,
𝑛𝜀 𝜀 (i) Nature of the metals forming thermocouple
𝐼= = ≈ 𝐼1 (ii) Temperature difference between the junctions
𝑛𝑟 𝑟
(i.e.) if ‘r’ is very very greater than ‘R’, current due Applications :
to the whole battery is same as due to single cell.  Seebeck effect is used in thermoelectric
6. Write a note on electric cells in parallel. generators (Seebeck generators).
 A battery (Bt), key (K) and potentiometer wire
Cells in parallel :  This effect is utilized in automobiles as
(CD) are connected in series forms the primary
 Let ‘n’ cells each of emf 𝜀 and internal resistance automotive thermoelectric generators.
circuit.
‘r’ are connected in parallel with an external  Seebeck effect is used in thermocouples and
 The positive terminal of primary cell of emf ′𝜉 ′ is
resistance ‘R’. thermopiles.
connected to the point C and negative terminal is
 Total emf of the battery =𝑛𝜀
𝑟 connected to the point D through galvanometer
Total resistance of the circuit = +𝑅 (G) and high resistance (HR). This forms the
𝑛
secondary circuit.
9. Explain Peltier effect.  If current passed through copper bar AB which is
Peltier effect : heated at its mid point C, the point C will be at
 When an electric current is passed through a higer potential. This indicates that the heat is
circuit of a thermocouple, heat is evolved at one absorbed along AC and evolved along CB. Thus
junction and absorbed at the other junction. This heat is transferred in the direction of the current.
is known as Peltier effect. It is called positive Thomson effect.
(e.g) Ag, Zn. Cd
 In Cu - Fe thermocouple, the junctions A and B are

maintained at the same temperature.
 Let a current flow through the thermocouple.
 At junction ‘A’, where the current flows from Cu to
Fe, heat is absorbed and it becomes cold.
 At juction ‘B’, where the current flows from Fe to
Cu, heat is liberated and it becomes hot.
 When the direction current is reversed, junction
‘A’ becomes hot and junction ‘B’ becomes cold.  When the copper bar is replaced by an iron bar,
Hence peltier effect is reversiable. heat is evolved along CA and absorbed along BC.
10. Distinguish between Peltier effect and Joule’s Thus heat is transferred in the direction opposite
effect. to the current. It is called negative Thomson
Peltier effect Joule’s effect effect.
1) Both heat liberated 1) Heat liberated only  (e.g.) Pt, Ni, Co, Hg
and absorbed occur occur
2) Occurs at junctions 2) Occurs all along the
conductor
3) Reversiable effect 3) Irreversiable effect
11. Explain Thomson effect.

Thomson effect :
 Thomson showed that, if two points in a
conductor are at different temperatures, the
density of electrons at these points will differ and
as a result the potential difference is created
between these points. This is known as Thomson
effect.
 Thomson effect is reversiable.
2. Obtain the macroscopic form of Ohm’s law from its  Materials that do not obey Ohm’s law are said to
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS microscopic form and discuss its limitation. be non - ohmic. These materials have more
ANSWERS
1. Describe the microscopic model of current and Macroscopic form of Ohm’s law : complex (non- linear) relationships between
obtain general form of Ohm’s law. voltage and current.
Microscopic model of current and Ohm’ law : 3. Explain the equivalent resistance of a series and
parallel resistor network.
Resistor in series :
 Consider a segment of wire of length ‘𝑙’ and area of
 Area of cross section of the conductor =𝐴 cross section ‘𝐴’.
Number of electrons per unit volume =𝑛  When a potential difference ‘V’ is applied across
Applied electric field along leftwads = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐸 the wire, a net electric field is created in the wire
Drift velocity of the electrons = 𝒗𝒅 which constitutes the current.
Charge of the electron = 𝒆  If we assume the electric field is uniform in the
 If ‘𝑑𝑥 ′ be the distance travelled by the electron in entire length, the potential difference is given by,  When two or more resistors are connected end to
time ‘𝑑𝑡’, then 𝑉 end, they are said to be in series.
𝑉=𝐸𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐸=
𝑑𝑥 𝑙  Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors
𝑣𝑑 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡  From the microscopic form of Ohm’s law,
𝑑𝑡 connected in series.
 The number of electrons available in the volume 𝑽
𝑱= 𝝈𝑬= 𝝈  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
of length ‘𝑑𝑥’ is = 𝐴 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑋 𝑛 𝒍 this combination.
 Then the total charge in this volume element is,  By definition, the current density is  In Series connection,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒 𝐈
𝑱= (i) Current through each resistor will be same (I)
 By definition, the current is given by 𝑨 (ii) But potential difference across different
𝑑𝑄 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑒  Hence, resistor will be different.
𝐼= = I 𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜎  Let 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 be the potential difference across
 𝑰 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝑨 𝒗𝒅 𝐴 𝑙 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law
𝑙
Current density (𝑱⃗) : ∴ 𝑉=I [ ] 𝑉1 = 𝐼 𝑅1
𝜎𝐴
 Current density (J) is defined as the current per 𝑽 = 𝐈𝑹 𝑉2 = 𝐼 𝑅2
unit area of cross section of the conductor. 𝒍 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅3
𝐼 𝑛 𝑒 𝐴 𝑣𝑑 Where,
𝝈𝑨
= 𝑅 → Resistance of the conductor  Total potential difference,
𝐽= =  This is called macroscopic form of Ohm’s law.
𝐴 𝐴 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝐼 𝑅2 + 𝐼 𝑅3
𝑱 = 𝒏 𝒆 𝒗𝒅 𝑽 = 𝑰 [𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ] − − − − (𝟏)
 Its unit is 𝑨 𝒎−𝟐  Let 𝑹𝑺 be the equivalent resistance in series
 In vector notation, connection, then
⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒗𝒅 𝑽 = 𝑰 𝑹𝑺 − − − − (2)
𝒆𝝉 𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉  From equation(1) and (2), we have,
⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝒏 𝒆 [− ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬] = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑬 𝐼 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐼 [𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ]
𝒎 𝒎
𝒏 𝒆𝟐 𝝉 ∴ 𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
 where, = 𝝈 → conductivity Limittations:  When resistances are connected in series, the
𝒎
∴ ⃗𝑱⃗ = − 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑬  From Ohm’s law, the graph between current versus equivalent resistance is the sum of the individual
voltage is straight line with a slope equal to the resistances.
 But conventionally, we take the dirction of current
inverse of resistance (R) of the conductor.
density as the direction of electric field. So the  The equivalent resistance in series connection will
above equation becomes,  Materials for which the current against voltage be greater than each individual resistance.
⃗𝑱⃗ = 𝝈 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ graph is a straight line through the origin are said
𝑬
to obey Ohm’s law and their behavior is said to be
 This is called microscopic form of Ohm’s law. Ohmic.
Resistors in parallel : 4. Explain the determination of the internal 5. Explain Kirchoff’s law.
resistance of a cell using voltmeter. Kirchoff first law (current law) :
Internal resistance of a cell :  It states that the algebraic sum of currents at any
junction in a circuit is zero (∑ 𝐼 = 0).
Explanation :
 It is a statement of
conservation of
electric charge.
 When two or more resistors are connected across  Thus all charges
the same potential difference, they are said to be that enter a given
in parallel. junction in a circuit
 Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 be the resistances of three resistors must leave that
connected in parallel.  A real battery is made of electrodes and junction.
electrolyte.  Current entering the junction is taken as positive
 Let ‘V’ be the potential difference applied across
this combination.  There is resistance to the flow of charges within and current leaving the junction is taken as
the battery and this resistance is called internal negative.
 In parallel connection,
(i) Potential difference across each resistance resistance (r)  Applying this law at junction ‘A’
 The emf of the cell is measured by connecting 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 − 𝐼5 = 0
will be the same (V)
high resistance voltmeter across it without (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼4 + 𝐼5
(ii) But current flows through different resistors
will be different. connecting the external resistance R Kirchoff second law (voltage law) :
 Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 be the currents flow through  This circuit may be considered as open, the  It states that in a closed circuit the algebraic sum
𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 respectively, then from Ohm’s law voltmeter reading gives the emf (𝜀) of the cell. of the products of the current and reistance of
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉  Then external resistance is included in the circuit each part of the circuit is equal to the total emf
𝐼1 = ; 𝐼2 = ; 𝐼3 = and current ‘I’ is established in the circuit. included in the circuit ( ∑ 𝑰 𝑹 = ∑ 𝜺)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
 This circuit is then considered as close, the Explanation :
 Hence the total current will be,
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 voltmeter reading gives the potential difference
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = + + (V) across ‘R’
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑉
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏  By Ohm’s law, 𝑉 = 𝐼 𝑅 (or) 𝐼 =
𝑰= 𝑽 [ + + ] − − − − (𝟏) 𝑅
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑  Due to internal resistance of the cell, the
 Let 𝑹𝑷 be the equivalent resistance in parallel voltmeter reads the value “V” which is less than
connection, then, the emf 𝜉
𝑽  It is because, certain amount of voltage (Ir) has
𝑰= − − − − (2) dropped across the internal resistance ‘r’. Hence
𝑹𝑷
 From equation (1) and (2), 𝑉 = 𝜀−𝐼𝑟 − − − − (2)  It is a statement of conservation of energy for an
𝑉 1 1 1 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼𝑟= 𝜀−𝑉 isolated system.
=𝑉 [ + + ] 𝜺−𝑽 𝜺−𝑽  The product ‘IR’ is taken as positive when we
𝑅𝑃 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 ∴ 𝒓= = [ ]𝑹
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑰 𝑽 proceed along the direction of current and taken
∴ = + +  Since 𝜉 , V and R are known, internal resistance as negative when we proceed opposite to the
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
‘r’ and total current ‘I’ can be determined. direction of current.
 When resistances are connected in parallel, the
 The power delivered to the circuit is,  Simillarly, the emf is considered as positive, when
reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝜀 = 𝐼 ( 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑟) = 𝐼 (𝐼 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑟) we proceed from negative to positive terminal of
sum of the reciprocal of the values of resistance of
𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 + 𝑰𝟐 𝒓 the cell and as negative, when we proceed from
the individual resistor.
where , 𝐼 2 𝑅 → power deliverd to R positive to negative terminal of the cell.
 The equivalent resistance in parallel connection
𝐼 2 𝑟 → power deliverd to 𝑟
will be lesser than each individual resistance.
6. Obtain the condition for bridge balance in  Put equation (5) and (6) in (4)  The lengths AJ and JB now replace the resistance
Wheatstone’s bridge. 𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼1 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼2 𝑆 = 0 R and S of the Wheatstone’s bridge. Then
Wheatstone’s bridge : 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) − 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) = 0 𝑃 𝑅 𝑅 𝐴𝐽
∴ 𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) = 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) − − − − (8) = = 
𝑄 𝑆 𝑅 𝐽𝐵
 Divide equation (8) by (7) Where 𝑅 → resistance per unit length
𝐼1 (𝑃 + 𝑄) 𝐼2 (𝑅 + 𝑆) 𝑷 𝑨𝑱 𝒍𝟏
= = = − − − −(𝟏)
𝐼1 𝑃 𝐼2 𝑅 𝑸 𝑱𝑩 𝒍𝟐
𝑃+𝑄 𝑅+𝑆 𝑄 𝑆 𝒍𝟏
= (𝑜𝑟) 1+ =1+ (𝒐𝒓) 𝑷= 𝑸 − − − −(𝟐)
𝑃 𝑅 𝑃 𝑅 𝒍𝟐
𝑄 𝑆 𝑷 𝑹
= (𝑜𝑟) = − − (𝟗)  Due to imperfect contace of wire at its ends, some
𝑃 𝑅 𝑸 𝑺 resistance might be introduced at the contact.
7. Explain the determination of unknown resistance These are called end resistances.
using meterbridge.  By interchange P and Q,tThis error can be
Meterbridge: eliminated, and the average value of P is found.
 Let 𝑙 be the length and r be the radius of wire, its
specific resistance (resistivity) is given be.
𝑷𝑨 𝑷 𝝅 𝒓𝟐
𝝆= = − − − −(𝟑)
𝒍 𝒍
8. How the emf of two cells are compared using
potentiometer?
 An important application of Kirchoff’s laws is the
Comparision of emf of two cells :
Wheatstone’s bridge.
 It is used to compare resistances and also helps in
determining the unknown resistance in the
electrical network
 The bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R, S
connected as shown.
 A galvanometer ‘G’ is connected between B and D
 A battery ‘𝜀 ′ is connected between A and C  Metrebridge is another form of Wheatstone’s
 Let 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 , 𝐼4 currents through various branches bridge
and 𝐼𝐺 be the current through the galvanometer.  It consists of uniform manganin wire AB of 1m
 Applying Kirchoff’s current law at B and D, length.
𝐼1 − 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼3 = 0 − − − − (1)  This wire is stretched along a metre scale between
𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐺 − 𝐼4 = 0 − − − − (2) two copper strips C and D
 Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law ABDA and ABCDA,  E is another copper strip mounted with two gaps  Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼𝐺 𝐺 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 − − − − (3) G1 and G2 (Bt) and a key (K) in series. This is the primary
𝐼1 𝑃 + 𝐼3 𝑄 − 𝐼2 𝑅 − 𝐼4 𝑆
 An unknown resistance P is connected in G1 and circuit.
=0 − − − − (4)
standard resistance connected in G2  The end C is connected to central terminal M of
 At balanced condition, the potential at B and D are
 A jockey J is connected from E through a DPDT switch and another central terminal N is
same, and hence the galvanometer shows zero galvanometer G and high resistance HR. connected to jockey through a galvanometer G
deflection. So 𝑰𝑮 = 𝟎
 A Lechlanche cell 𝜀 and key K is connected across and high reistance HR. This is the secondary
 Put this in equation (1), (2) and (3) the bridge wire. circuit.
𝐼1 − 𝐼3 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 = 𝐼3 − − − − (5)
 The position of jockey is adjusted so that the  The cell whose emf 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 to be compared are
𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼2 = 𝐼4 − − − − (6)
galvanometer shows zero deflection. Let the point connected to 𝑀1 𝑁1 and 𝑀2 𝑁2 of DPDT switch.
𝐼1 𝑃 − 𝐼2 𝑅 = 0 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 − − − − (7)
be ‘J’
 Initially the cell of emf 𝜀1 is included in the  The current flows through R and cell is,
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙1 is 𝜀
𝐼=
found by adjusting jockey for zero deflection. 𝑅+𝑟
 Simillarly the cell of emf 𝜀2 is included in the  Hence potential difference across R
𝜀
secondary circuit and the balancing length 𝑙2 is 𝑉 =𝐼𝑅= 𝑅
found. 𝑅+𝑟
 For this potential difference, again the balancing
 Let ‘r’ be the resistance per unit length and ‘I’ be
point J is found out and the balancing length
the primary current, then by the principle
CJ = 𝑙2 is measured.
𝜀1 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1 − − − − (1)
𝜀2 = 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 − − − − (2)  By the principle,
𝜀
 Divide equantion (1) by (2), 𝑅 ∝ 𝑙2 − − − −(2)
𝑅+𝑟
𝜀1 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙1
=  Divide equation (1) by (2)
𝜀2 𝐼 𝑟 𝑙2 𝜀 𝑙1
𝜺𝟏 𝒍𝟏 𝜀 =
= − − − −(𝟑) ( 𝑅) 𝑙2
𝜺𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝑅+𝑟
9. Explain the method of measurement of internal 𝑅+𝑟 𝑙1
=
resistance of a cell using potentio meter. 𝑅 𝑙2
Internal resistance by potentiometer : 𝑟 𝑙1
1+ =
 Potentiometer wire CD is connected to battery 𝑅 𝑙2
(Bt) and a key (K1) in series. This is the primary 𝑟 𝑙1 𝑙1 − 𝑙2
= −1=
circuit. 𝑅 𝑙2 𝑙2
 The cell 𝜀 whose internal resistance ‘r’ to be 𝒍𝟏 − 𝒍𝟐
measured is connected to the secondary circuit. 𝒓=𝑹 [ ] − − − (𝟑)
𝒍𝟐
 A resistance box R and a key K2 is connected  By substituting 𝑅, 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 in equation (3) the
across the cell 𝜀 internal resistance of the cell can be measured.
 Here the internal reistance is not constant, and it
increased with increase of external resistance R.
 With key K2 open, the balancing point J is found

out and balancing length CJ = 𝑙1 is measured.
 By the principle,
𝜀 ∝ 𝑙1 − − − −(1)
 A suitable resistance is included in R and key K2 is
closed.
f‰wtnu f©Qilat®fŸ Mdhš fšyhjtnuh Kf¤Âš Ïu©L ò©izna cilat®

12 PHYSICS UNIT - 3 MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
7.
Define magnetic inclination or dip. 13. What are the types of magnet?
PART - II 2 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  The angle subtended by the Earth’s total magnetic  Magnets are classified in to natural magnets and
1. Define magnetism. Give its applications. field 𝐵⃗ with the horizontal direction in the artificial magnets.
 The property of attracting iron is called magnetism. magnetic meridian is called dip or magnetic  Iron, cobalt, nickel etc are natural magnets.
 In olden days, magnets were used as magnetic inclination (I) Strength of natural magnets are very weak and the
compass for navigation, magnetic therapy for  For Chennai, angle of dip is 14°16 shape of the magnet are irregular.
treatment and magic shows. 8. Define horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic  Artificial magnets are made our desired shape and
 In modern days most of the things we use in daily field. strength. Bar magnets, cylindrical magnets, horse
life contains magnets. For example loud speaker,  The componenet of Earth’s magnetic field along the shoe magnets are some examples for artificial
motors, dynamo, cell phones, pendrive, CD, hard horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is magnets.
disc in laptop etc called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic 14. Define magnetic flux. Give its unit.
2. Define Giomagnetism or Terrestrial magnetism. field (𝐵𝐻 )  the number of magnetic field lines crossing per unit
 The branch of physics which deals with the Earth’s 9. Calculate the tangent of magnetic inclination or area is called magnetic flux (Φ𝐵 )
magnetic field is called Geomagnetism . angle of dip. 𝚽𝑩 = 𝑩 ⃗⃗ . 𝑨
⃗⃗ = 𝑩 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
3. What are the elements of the Earth’s magnetic field?  Let 𝐵𝐸 be the net Earth’s magnetic field at a point  The S.I unit of magnetc flux is weber (Wb) and C.G.S
 To specify the Earth’s magnetic field, three ‘P’ and ‘I’ be the angle of dip, then unit is maxwell (1 Wb = 108 maxwell)
quantities must be requied. They are Horizontal component ; 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐸 cos 𝐼  Its dimentional formula is [ML2T-2A-1]
(i) Magnetic declination (D) Vertical componenet ; 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝐸 s𝑖𝑛 𝐼 15. Define magnetic flux density.
(ii) Magnetic dip or inclination (I) 𝐵𝐸 s𝑖𝑛 𝐼 𝐵𝐻  The magnetic flux density can be defined as the
(iii) The horizontal component of the Earth’s ∴ =
𝐵𝐸 cos 𝐼 𝐵𝑉 number of magnetic field lines crossing unit area
magnetic field (BH) 𝑩𝑯 kept normal to the direction of line of force.
4. Define geographic meridian and magnetic 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝑰 =  Its S.I unit is tesla or 𝑾𝒃 𝒎−𝟐
𝑩𝑽
meridian. 16. Distinguish between uniform and non-uniform
 A vertical plane passing through the geographic  Also, 𝑩𝑬 = √𝑩𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝑽𝟐 magnetic field.
axis is called geographic meridian and a great circle Non-uniform magnetic
10. Define pol strength of the magnet. Uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to Earth’s geographic axis is called field
 The attracting property of the magnet is
geographic equator.
concentrated at its poles only and this property is 1) Magnetic field is said to 1) Magnetic field is said to
 A vertical plane passing throuth magnetic axis is be uniorm If it has the be non-uniform If the
called pole strength (𝑞𝑚 ).
called magnetic meridian and a great circle same magnitude and magnitude or direction
 The S.I unit of pole strength is 𝑨 𝒎
perdicular to Earth’s magnetic axis is called direction at all the or both varies at all its
11. Define magnetic dipole moment.
magnetic equator. points in a given region. points.
 Manetic dipole moment ( 𝒑𝒎 ) is defined as the
5. Define magnetic declination. 2) (e.g) Locally Earth’s 2) (e.g) Magnetic field of a
product of the pole strength ( 𝑞𝑚 ) and magnetic
 The angle between magnetic meridian at a point magnetic field is bar magnet
length (2 𝑙). i.e 𝒑𝒎 = 𝒒𝒎 𝟐 𝒍
and geographical meridian is called the magnetic uniform
declination (D).  In vector notation ; ⃗⃗⃗𝒑𝒎 = 𝒒𝒎 ⃗⃗⃗𝒅 [∵ |⃗⃗⃗𝑑 | = 2 𝑙]
𝟐 17. Discuss the types of force between two magnetic
 At higher latitudes, the declination is greater  Its S.I unit is 𝐴 𝒎 . Its direction is from South pole
pole strength.
whereas near the equator, the declination is to North poke.
smaller. 12. Define magnetic field.
6. For Chennai, the magnetic declination angle is  The magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 at a point is defined as a force
− 𝟏°𝟖. Why it is negative? experienced by the bar magnet of unit pole
 The negative sign indicates, that the magnetic strength.
meridian lies west to the geographic meridian. ⃗𝑭
⃗⃗⃗𝑩 =  When north pole (N) of magnet A and north pole
𝒒𝒎 (N) of magnet B or south pole (S) of magnet A and
 Its S.I unit is 𝑵 𝑨−𝟏 𝒎−𝟏 south pole (S) of magnet B are brought close
together, they repels each other.
 On the other hand, when north pole of magnet A 24. Define intensity of magnetization. 30. Define curie temperature.
and south pole of magnet B or south pole of magnet  The net magnetic moment per unit volume of the  As temperature increases, the ferromagnetism
A and north pole of magnet B are brought close material or is known as intensity of magnetization decreases due to the inceased thermal agitation of
together they attracts each other. or magnetization vector or magnetization. the atomic dipoles.
 Thus like poles repels and unlike poles attracts.  For magnet the intensity of magnetization can be  At a particular temperature, ferromagnetic
18. State Coulomb’s inverse square law of magnetism. defined as the pole strength per unit area material becomes paramagnetic. This temperature
 The force of attraction or repulsion between two 𝑝𝑚 𝑞𝑚 is known as Curie temperature (𝑇𝐶 ).
𝑀= =
magnetic poles is directly proportional to the 𝑉 𝐴 31. State Curie - Weiss law.
product of their pole strengths and inversely  Its unit 𝑨 𝒎−𝟏 . It is a vector quantity  The susceptibility of the material above the Curie
proportional to the square of the distance between 25. Define magnetic induction or total magnetic field. temperature is given by
them.  The magnetic induction (⃗⃗⃗𝐵 ) inside the specimen is 𝐶
⃗𝑜 ) 𝜒𝑚 =
19. What happens when a bar magnet is freely equal to the sum of the magnetic field ( 𝐵 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜
suspended in uniform and non-uniform magnetic produced in vacuum due to magnetizing field and where, C  Curie law ; T  Kelvin temperature
field? the magnetic field ( 𝐵 ⃗ 𝑚 ) due to the induce  This relation is called Curie - Weiss law.
 Even though Earth has non- uniform magnetic field, magnetization of the substance, [⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗𝑜 +𝐵
⃗ 𝑚] 32. What is Hysteresis?
it is locally (at particular place) taken as uniform.  Hysterisis means ‘lagging behind’
26. Define magnetic susceptibility.
So bar magnet suspended freely in unifom magnetic  The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction
 Magnetic susceptibility (𝜒𝑚 ) is defined as the ratio
field experience only torque (rotational motion) (B) behind the magnetizing field (H) is called
of the intensity of magnetization (𝑀 ⃗⃗ ) induced in the
 When a bar magnet is freely suspended in non- hysteresis.
uniform magnetic field, it undergo translator material due to the magnetizing field (𝐻 ⃗)
33. Define hysteresis loss.
motion due to net force and rotational motion due  It is a dimensionless quantity.  During the magnetization of the specimen through
to torque. 27. What are the classification of magnetic materials? a cycle, there is loss of energy in the form of heat.
20. State tangent law.  Magnetic materials are generally classified in to This is known as hysteresis loss.
 When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely three types. They are  The energy lost per unit volume of the material
suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform (i) Diamagnetic material when it is carried through one cycle of
magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction (e.g.) bismuth, copper, water magnetization is equal to the area of the hysteresis
of the resultant of the two fields. (ii) Paramagnetic material loop.
21. Define magnetizing field. (e.g.) Aluminum, platinum, chromium 34. What are the types of ferromagnetic materials?
 The magnetic field which is used to magnetize a (iii) Ferro magnetic material  Based on the shape and size of the bysterisis loop,
sample or specimen is called the magnetizing field (e.g.) Iron, nickel, cobalt ferromagnetic materials are classified as two types.
(𝐻⃗ ). Its unit is 𝑨 𝒎−𝟏 28. Define Meissner effect. They are
22. Define magnetic permeability.  Super conductors are perfect diamagnetic (i) Hard magnetic material - (e.g) steel
 Magnetic permeability is defined as the measure of materials. (ii) Soft magnetic material - (e.g) soft irom
ability of the material to allow the passage of  The exclusion of magnetic flux from a super 35. State right hand thumb rule.
magnetic lines through it or measure of the capacity conductor during its transition to the  If we hold the current carrying conductor in our
of the substance to take magnetization or the superconducting state is known as Meisnner effect right hand such that the thumb points in the
degree of penetration of magnetic field through the 29. Define Curie’s law. direction of current flow, then the fingers encircling
substance.  The susceptibility of the material is inversely the wire points in the direction of the magnetic field
23. Define relative permeability. proportional to its kelvin temperature. (i.e.)the lines produced.
 The relative permeability ( 𝝁𝒓 ) is defined as the magnetic susceptibility decreases with increase in 36. State Maxwell’s right hand cork screw rule.
ratio between absolute permeability ( 𝝁 ) of the temperature.  This rule is used to determine the direction of the
𝟏 𝑪
medium to the permeability of free space (𝝁𝒐 ). 𝝌𝒎 ∝ (𝒐𝒓) 𝝌𝒎 = magnetic field.
𝝁 𝑻 𝑻  If we advance a right handed screw along the
𝝁𝒓 =  Where C  curie constant. This is called Curie law
𝝁𝒐 direction of current, then the direction of rotation
 It has no unit and it is dimensionless quantity. of the screw gives the direction of the magnetic
field.
37. Define magnetic dipole moment of current loop. 45. Write a note on fast-neutron cancer therapy. 52. Define voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer.
 The magnetic dipole moment of any current loop is  When a deuteron is bombarded with a beryllium  It is defined as the deflection produced per unit
equal to the product of the current and area of the target, a beam of high energy neutrons are voltage applied across it.
loop. [⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝑚 = 𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗𝐴] produced. 𝜽 𝑵𝑩𝑨 𝟏
𝑰𝑺 = = =
38. State right hand thumb rule.  These high energy neutrons are sent into the 𝑰 𝑲 𝑮
 This rule is used to determine the direction of patient’s cancerous region to break the bonds in the 53. How galvanometer can be converted in to ammeter?
magnetic moment. DNA of the cancer cells.  A galvanometer is converted in to an ammeter by
 If we curl the fingers of right hand in the direction  This is used in treatment of fast-neutron cancer connecting a low resistance (shunt) in parallel with
of current in the loop, then the stretched thumb therapy. the galvanometer.
gives the direction of the magnetic moment 46. State Flemming’s left hand rule (FLHR). 54. How galvanometer can be converted in to voltmeter?
associated with the loop.  Stretch fore finger, the middle finger and the  A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by
39. Define gyro-magnetic ratio. thrumb of the left hand in mutully perpendicular connecting high reistance in series with
 The ratio of magnetic moment (𝜇𝐿 ) of the electron directions. If, galvanometer.
to its angular momentum (L) is called gyro- (i) fore finger points the direction of magnetic 55. Why ammeter should always connected in series to
magnetic ratio. field, the circuit?
𝜇𝐿 𝑒 (ii) the middle finger points the direction of the  The ammeter must offer low resistance such that it
= = 8.78 𝑋 1010 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1 electric current, then will not change the current passing through it. So
𝐿 2𝑚
40. Define Bohr magneton. (iii) thumb will point the direction of the force ammeter is connected in series to measure the
 It is the unit of atomic magnetic moment. experienced by the conductor. circuit current.
 The minimum value of atomic magnetic moment is 47. Define one ampere.  An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
called Bohr magneton.  One ampere is defined as that current when it is 56. Why voltmeter should always connected in parallel
𝒆𝒉 passed through each of the two infinitely long to the circuit?
𝟏 𝒃𝒐𝒉𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒏 = 𝝁𝑩 = = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝑨 𝒎𝟐  The voltmeter must offer high resistance so that it
𝟒𝝅𝒎 parallel straight conductors kept at a distance of
41. State Ampere’s circuital law. one metre apart in vacuum caused each conductor will not draw appreciable current. So voltmeter is
 It state that the line integral of magnetic field over to experience a force of 2 𝑋 10−7 newton per connected in paralle to measure the potential
a closed loop is 𝝁𝒐 times net current enclosed by metre length of conductor. difference.
the loop. 48. Define figure of merit of a galvanometer.  An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝒐  It is defined as the current which produces a
deflection of one scale division in the galvanometer.
42. Define Lorentz force. 49. Define current sensitivity of a galvanometer.
 If the charge is moving in the electric field (𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗ ) and  It is defined as the deflection produced per unit
magnetic field (𝐵⃗ ), the total force experienced by current flowing through it.
𝜽 𝑵𝑩𝑨 𝟏
the charge is given by ⃗⃗⃗𝑭 = 𝒒 [⃗⃗⃗𝑬 + (⃗⃗⃗𝒗 𝑿 ⃗⃗⃗𝑩)] 𝑰𝑺 = = =
 It is known as Lorentz forec. 𝑰 𝑲 𝑮
50. How the current sensitivity of galvanometer can be
43. Define one tesla.
increased?
 The strength of the magnetic field is one tesla if unit
 By increasing the number of turns N
charge moving in it with unit velocity experiences
 By increasing the magnetic induction B
unit force.
 By increasing the area of the coil A
44. What are the limitations of cyclotron?
 By decreasing the couple per unit twist of the
 The speed of the ion is limited.
suspension wire
 Electron cannot be accelerated.
51. Why Phosphor - bronze is used as suspension wire?
 Uncharged particles cannot be accelerated.
 Because, for phosphor - bronze wire, the couple per
unit twist is very small.
 The tangent drawn at any point on the magnetic
PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS field lines gives the direction of magnetic field at
1.ANSWERS
What are the properties of bar magnet? that point.
Properties of magnet:  They never intersect each other.
(i) A freely suspended bar magnet wil always point  The degree of closeness of the field lines
along the north - south direction. determines the relative strength of the magnetic
(ii) The attractive property of the magnet is maximum field. The magnetic field is strong where magnetic
near its end or pole. This is called pole strength. field lines crowd and weak where magnetic field
(iii) Two poles of a magnet have pole strength equal to lines thin out.
one another. 4. Explain Coulomb’s inverse square law in
(iv) When a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece magnetism.  Force experienced by the North pole along the
behave like a magnet with poles at its ends. Coulomb’ inverse square law in magnetism : direction of the field ; ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑁 = 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 ⃗
(v) The length of the bar magnet is called geometrical  Force experienced by the South pole opposite to the
length and length between two magnetic poles in a direction of the field ; ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑆 = − 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 ⃗
bar magnet is called magnetic length. The magnetic  Hence total force ; ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑁 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑆 = 0 ⃗
length is always slightly smaller than geometrical  So that there is no translator motion.
length. (i.e.)  But these two forces constitute a couple, which
magnetic length : geometrical length = 5 ∶ 6  Consider two bar magnets A and B as shown. tends to rotate the magnet along the direction of the
2. Write a note on pole strength.  Let , Pole strength of A = 𝑄𝑚𝐴 field ⃗⃗⃗𝐵.
Pole strength : Pole strength of B = 𝑄𝑚𝐵  Hence moment of force or torque about ‘O’ is
 The attracting property of the magnet is Distance between A and B = 𝑟 ⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑁 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑁 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑆 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑆
concentrated at its poles only and this property is  Then by Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction or
called pole strength (𝑞𝑚 ). ⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑁 𝑋 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 ⃗ + 𝑂𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 (−𝑞𝑚 𝐵 ⃗)
repulsion between two mannetic poles is directly ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗|
 It is a scalar quantity with dimension [𝐿 𝐴]. Its  Here, |𝑂𝑁| = |𝑂𝑆| = 𝑙 and |𝑞𝑚 𝐵| = |−𝑞𝑚 𝐵
proportional to the product of their pole strengths
S.I unit is 𝑨 𝒎 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑵 𝑻 −𝟏  Hence the magnitude of the torque,
and inversely proportional to the square of the
 North pole of the magnet experiences a force in the 𝜏 = 𝑙 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 + 𝑙 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃
distance between them. Hence
direction of the magnetic field and south pole 𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝑄𝑚𝐴 𝜏 = 2 𝑙 𝑞𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 [𝑞𝑚 2𝑙 = 𝑝𝑚 ]
experiences force opposite to the magnetic field. ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ∝ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟̂ (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑟̂ 𝝉 = 𝒑𝒎 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝑟2 𝑟2
 Pole strength depends on the nature of materials of  In magnitude,  In vector notation, ⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝒑 ⃗ 𝒎 𝑿 ⃗𝑩 ⃗
the magnet, area of cross-section and the state of 𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚 6. Obtain an expression for potential energy of a bar
magnetization. 𝐹 =𝑘 𝐴2 𝐴 magnet placed in an uniform magnetic field.
𝑟
 If a magnet is cut in to two equal halves along the  where, 𝑘 → proportionality constant. Potential energy of a bar magnet :
length, then pole strength is reduced to half.  In S. I unit, the value of 𝑘 is
 If the magnet is cut into two equal halves 𝜇𝑜
𝑘= ≅ 10−7 𝐻 𝑚−1
perperdicular to the length, then pole strength 4𝜋
remains same.  Then the force,
 If we cut the magnet in to two pieces, we will not 𝝁𝒐 𝑸 𝒎𝑨 𝑸𝒎𝑨
𝑭 =
separate north and south poles. Instead we get two 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
magnets. (i.e) isolated mono pole does not exist in  where, 𝜇𝑜 → permiability of free space or vacuum  Let a bar magnet of dipole moment ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝑚 is placed in
nature [𝜇𝑜 = 4 𝜋 𝑋 10−7 𝐻 𝑚−1 ]
a uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 at an angle 𝜃
3. Give the properties of magnetic field lines. 5. Calculate the torque acting on a bar magnet in
 The magnitude of the torque acting on the dipole is
Properties of magnetic field lines: uniform magnetic field.
; 𝝉 = 𝒑𝒎 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 They are continuous closed lines. Their direction is Torque acting on a bar magnet :
 So work done bt external torque (𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 ) for a small
from North pole to South pole outside the magnet  Consider a mannet of length ‘2𝑙’ of pole strength
angular displacement against the torque (𝝉) is
and South pole to North pole inside the magnet. ‘𝑞𝑚 ’ kept in uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . 𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝜃 = 𝜏 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

 Hence the total work done to rotate the bar magnet 9. What are called dia, para and ferro magnetic  But due to random orientation of these moments,
from 𝜃 to 𝜃 is , material? the net magnetic moment of the material is zero.
𝜃 𝜃  Materials which exhibit weak magnetim in the  In the presence of external magnetic field, the
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 direction opposite to the applied field are known as torque acting on the atomic dipoles will align them
𝜽 𝜽
𝑊 = 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 [− cos 𝜃]𝜃𝜽 = − 𝑝𝑚 𝐵 [cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 ] diamagnetic materials. They are repelled by the in the field direction.
magnet.  Thus a net magnetic dipole moment induced in the
 This workdone is stored as potential energy of the
bar magnet. Hence 𝑼 = − 𝒑𝒎 𝑩 [𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 ] (e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water direction of the applied field.
 Materials which exhibit weak magnetim in the  The induced dipole moment is present as long as
 If initial angle be  = 90 then,∶ 𝑼 = − 𝒑𝒎 𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
direction of the applied field are known as the external field exists.
 The potential energy stored in a bar magnet placed paramagnetic materials. They are feebly attracted  When placed in a non-magntic field, these materials
in a uniform magnetic field is, 𝑼 = − ⃗⃗⃗𝒑𝒎 . ⃗⃗⃗𝑩 by the magnets will have a tendency to move from weaker to
(i) If  = 0 then, ∶ 𝑼 = − 𝒑𝒎 𝑩 = minimum (e.g.) Alluminium, Platinum, Chromium stronger part of the field.
(ii) If  = 180 then, ∶ 𝑼 = 𝒑𝒎 𝑩 = maximum  Materials which exhibit strong magnetim in the  Materials which exhibit weak magnetim in the
 Thus the potential energy of a bar magnet is direction of the applied field are known as direction of the applied field are known as
minimum when it is align along the external field feromagnetic materials. They are strongly attracted paramagnetic materials.
and maximum when it align anti parallel with the by the magnets (e.g.) Aluminium, Platinum, Chromium
external field. (e.g.) Iron, Cobalt, Nickel 12. Explain ferro magnetism.
7. What are the precausions taken wile using tangent 10. Explain dia magnetism. Ferromangntic material:
galvanometer (TG) Diamagnetic material :
Precausions:  The orbital motion of electron produce a magnetic
 All the neaby magnets and magnetic materials are field perpendicular to the plane of the orbit.
kept away from the instrument.  Thus each electron orbit has finite orbital magnetic
 Using sprit level, the levelling screws at the base are dipole moment. But the resultant magnetic moment
adjusted so that the small magnetic needle is for each atom is zero.
exactly horizontal and also the circular coil is  In the presence of an external magnetic moment,
some electrons are speeded up and some are  Ferro magnetic material also possesses net
exactly vertical.
slowed down. magnetic dipole moment as paramagnetic material.
 The plane of the coil is kept along the magnetic  A ferro magnetic material is made up of smaller
meridian.  According to Lenz’s law, the electrons whose
moments were anti-parallel are speeded up which rigions called ferromagnetic domain.
 The pointer in the compass box should read 0° − 0°  Within each domain, the magnetic moments are
⃗⃗ = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑯
⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑴⃗⃗⃗ ) , show that produces induced magnetic moment in a direction
8. Using the relation 𝑩 aligned in same direction due to strong interaction
opposite to the field.
𝝌𝒎 = 𝝁𝒓 − 𝟏  The induced moment disappears as soon as the arising from electron spin. So each domain has net
Proof : The total magnetic induction, external field is removed. magnetization in a direction.
𝐵⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 ⃗ + 𝑀⃗⃗ ) − − − − − (1)  When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it has  But the direction of magnetization is different for
 By definition, tendency to move the material from stronger to different domains. Hence the net magnetization of
⃗⃗
𝑀 weaker part of the field. the specimen is zero.
𝜒𝑚 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝑀 ⃗⃗ = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻 ⃗  In the presence of external magnetic field, the
𝐻⃗  This action is called diamagnetic action and such
⃗ = 𝜇𝐻 ⃗ materials are known as diamagnetic materials. domain having magnetic moments parallel to the
& 𝐵
(e.g.) Bismuth, Copper, Water field grow in size and the other domains are aligned
 Put this in equation (1),
11. Explain paramagnetism. with the field.
𝜇𝐻 ⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 ⃗ + 𝜒𝑚 𝐻 ⃗)
Paramagnetic material :  It results, a strong net magnetization of the material
𝜇𝐻 ⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻⃗ (1 + 𝜒𝑚 ) in the direction of the applied field is produced.
𝜇  In some magnetic material, each atom or molecule
= 1 + 𝜒𝑚 has net dipole magnetic moment which is vector  Materials which exhibit strong magnetism in the
𝜇𝑜 sum of orbital and spin magnetic moments of direction of the applied field is called ferro
(𝑜𝑟) 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒𝑚 magnetic materials.
electrons.
∴ 𝝌 𝒎 = 𝝁𝒓 − 𝟏 (e.g.) Iron, Nickel, Cobalt
13. List the properties of Diamagnetic materials.  The materials (Soft irom) with high initial  It may be either clockwise or anticlock wise
Properties of Diamagnetic materials : permeability, large mangnetic induction and thin depending on the direction of current in the
 Magnetic susceptibility is negative. hysteresis loop with smaller area are needed to conductor.
 Relative permeability is slightly less than one desigh transformer cores.  If strength of the current is increased, then the
 The magnetic field lines are excluded by 17. What are the differences between soft and hard density of the magnetic field will also increases.
diamagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic ferromagnetic materials?  The strength of the magnetic field decreases at the
fields. Soft ferromagnetic materials : distance from the conductor increases.
 Susceptibility is nearly temperature independent.  When external field is removes, its magnetization 19. Explain the magnetic field around the current
14. List the properties of Paramagnetic materials. will disappears. carrying circular loop.
Properties of Paramagnetic materials :  Area of the loop is small Circular coil carrying current :
 Magnetic susceptibility is small positive value.  Low retentivity
 Relative permeability is greater than one  Low coercivity
 The magnetic field lines are attracted in to  High susceptibility and magnetic permeability
paramagnetic materials when placed in a magnetic  Less hysteresis loss
field.  Used as solenoid core, transformer core and
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to electromagnets
temperature. (e.g.) Soft iron, Mumetal, Stalloy
15. List the properties of Ferromagnetic materials. Hard ferromagnetic materials :
Properties of Ferromangnetic materials :  When external field is removes, its magnetization
 Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large will persists.
 Relative permeability is very very greater than one  Area of the loop is large
 The magnetic fleld lines are stronglyattracted in to  High retentivity  If we keep a magnetic compass near a current
the ferromagnetic materials when placed in a  High coercivity carrying circular conductor, then the magnetic
magnetic field.  Low susceptibility and magnetic permeability needle deflects which indicates the existence of
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to  More hysteresis loss magnetic field.
temperature.  Used as permanent magnets  Tracing the direction of the deflection, it shows the
16. Explain the applications of hysteresis loop. (e.g.) Steel, Alnico, Lodestone magnetic lines are circular near A and B and nearly
Applications of hysteresis loop : 18. Explain the magnetic field around a straight current parallel to each other near the centre of the loop.
 The main significance of hysteresis loop is that it carrying conductor.  Thus the field present near the centre of the coil is
provides the following information. Current carrying straight conductor : almost uniform.
(i) Retentivity  The strength of the magnetic field is increased if
(ii) Coercivity either the current in the coil or the number of turns
(iii) Permiability or both are increased.
(iv) Susceptibility  The polarity (north pole or south pole) depends on
(v) Energy loss during on cycle of magnetization the direction of current in the loop.
 These information will help us in selecting proper 20. State and explain Biot-Savart law.
and suitable material for a given purpose. Biot - Savart law :
 For example, the materials (Steel and Alnico) with
high retentivity, high coercivity and high  When a magnetic compass is kept near a current
permeability are suitable for making permanent carrying straight conductor, the magnetic needle
magnets. deflects which indicates there exists a magnetic
 The materials (Soft iron and Mumetal) with high field.
initial permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity  If we trace the direction shown by the magnetic
and thin hysteresis loop with smaller area are needle, we can draw the magnetic field lines which
preferred to make electro mangnet. are concentric circles having their centre at the axis
of the conductor.
 According to Biot - Savart law, the magnitude of Current loop as a magnetic dipole :  The direction of magnetic field is given by right
magnetic field 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ at a point ‘P’ at a distance ‘r’  The magnetic field from the centre of a currnt loop hand palm rule. (i.e.) if the current carrying
from the small elemental length ‘dl’ of the current of radius ‘R’ along the axis solenoid is held in right hand such that the fingers
2
‘I’ carrying conductor varies, 𝜇 𝑜 𝐼 𝑅 curl in the direction of current, then extended
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 3 𝑘̂ thumb gives the direction of magnetic field.
(i) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝐼
2 (𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 )2  Hence magnetic field of a solenoid looks like the
(ii) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 𝑑𝑙
 At larger distance, 𝑧 ≫ 𝑅 and hence 𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 ≈ 𝑧 2 magnetic field of a bar magnet.
(iii) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ sin 𝜃
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑅 2 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜋 𝑅 2 Uses :
(iv) 𝑑𝐵 ∝ 2
1 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = ̂
𝑘 = ̂
𝑘
𝑟 2 𝑧3 2 𝜋 𝑧3  Solenoid can be used as electromagnets which
 Hence, Here, 𝜋 𝑅2 → area of the loop produces strong magnetic field that can be turned
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝜇 𝐼𝐴 𝜇𝑜 2 𝐼 𝐴
𝑑𝐵 ∝ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 𝑜 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ − − − −(1) ON or OFF.
𝑟2 2 𝜋 𝑧3 4 𝜋 𝑧3  The strength of the magnetic field can be increased
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 sin 𝜃  We know that, magnetic field at a distance ‘𝑧’ along
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝐵 = 𝑘 − − − − (1) by keeping iron bar inside the solenoid.
𝑟2 the axial line is  They are useful in designing variety of electrical
 where, 𝑘 → constant 𝜇 2 ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝑚
𝜇𝑜 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 𝑜 − − − − − −(2) appliences.
 In S. I. units, 𝑘 = 4 𝜋 𝑧3 24. Write a note in MRI.
4𝜋
 Hence,  Compare equation (1) and (2) MRI :
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 ⃗⃗⃗𝒑𝒎 = 𝑰 ⃗⃗⃗𝑨  MRI is Magnetic Resonance Imaging which helps the
𝒅𝑩 = − − − − (2) (𝑜𝑟) 𝒑 = 𝑰 𝑨
𝟒𝝅 𝒓 𝟐 𝒎 physicians to diagonise or monitor treatment for a
 In vector notation,  This implies that a current carrying circular loop variety of abnormal conditions happening within
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝑿 𝒓̂ behaves as a magnetic dipole of dipole moment 𝒑 𝒎 the head, chest, abdomen and pelvis.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 = − − − − (3)  So the magnetic dipole moment of any current  It is a non invasive medical test.
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐 loop is equal to the product of the current and
 Here ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 is perpendicular to both 𝑰⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒍 and 𝒓̂  The patient is placed in a circular opening and large
area of the loop. current is sent through the superconduction wire
 From superposition principole the total magnetic 23. Explain current carrying solenoid behaves like a
field due to entire conductor is, to produce a strong magnetic field.
bar magnet.  This magnetic field produces radio frequency
𝝁𝒐 𝑰 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒍 𝑿 𝒓̂ Current carrying conductor:
⃗⃗ = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑩 𝒅𝑩 = ∫ pulses which are fed to a computer which produce
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐 pictures of organs which helps the physicians to
21. Give the difference between Coulomb’s law and examine various parts of the body
Biot-Savart’s law. 25. Define Lorentz force. Give the properties of Lorentz
Coulomb’s law Biot-Savart’s law magnetic force.
1) Electric field is 1) Magnetic field is Lorentz force :
calculated calculated  When an electric charge ′𝑞′ moves in the magnetic
2) Produced by a scalar 2) Produced be vector  A solenoid is a long coil of wire closely wound in the field 𝐵 ⃗ , it experience a force called Lorentz
source (i.e) charge ‘q’ source (i.e.) current form of helix. magnetic force.
⃗⃗⃗ ’
element ‘𝐼 𝑑𝑙  When current flows through the solenoid, magnetic 𝑭𝒎 = 𝑩 𝒒 𝒗 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
3) It is directed along the 3) It is directed field is produced.  In vector notation,
position vector joining perpendicular to the  It is due to the superposition of magnetic fields of ⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒎 = 𝒒 (𝒗
⃗ 𝑿 ⃗𝑩
⃗)
the source and the position vector and the each turn of the solenoid. Properties of Lorentz magnetic force :
point at which the field current element  Inside the solenoid, the magnetic field is nearly
(i) ⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒎 is directly proportional to the magnetic field (𝑩 ⃗⃗ )
is calculated. uniform and parallel to its axis.
⃗⃗⃗
(ii) 𝑭𝒎 is directlty proportional to the velocity (𝒗 ⃗)
4) Does not depends on 4) Depends on the angle  But outside the solenoid, the field is negligibly
small. (iii) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 is directly proportional to sine of the angle
angle between 𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 and 𝑟̂ 𝒎
 Depending on the direction of current, one end of between the velocity and magnetic field.
22. Explain the current loop acts as a magnetic dipole
and calculate its dipole moment. the solenoid behaves like North pole and the other (iv) ⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒎 is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
end behaves like South pole. charge
(v) The direction of ⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒎 is always perpendicular to (i) If > 𝑣𝑜 , then charged particle deflects in the  Let 𝑅𝑎 be the resistance of ammeter, then
⃗
⃗⃗⃗𝑣 and 𝐵 direction of Lorentz force. 1 1 1
= +
(ii) If 𝑣 < 𝑣𝑜 , then charged particle deflects in the 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝐺 𝑆
(vi) The direction of ⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒎 on negative chanrge is
direction of Coulomb force. 𝑹𝑮 𝑺
opposite to the direction of ⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒎 on positive charge (iii) If , then no deflection and the charged particle ⟹ 𝑹𝒂 =
(vii) If the of the charge is along the manetic field, then 𝑹𝑮 + 𝑺
moves in straight line.  Here, 𝑅𝐺 > 𝑆 > 𝑅𝑎
⃗⃗⃗𝑭𝒎 is zero.  Thus by proper choice of electric and magnetic  Thus an ammeter is a low resistance instrument,
26. Write a note on velocity selector. fields, the particle with particular speed can be and it always connected in series to the circuit.
Velocity selector: selected. Such an arrangement of fields is called a  An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
velocity selector. 28. How Galvanometer can be converted in to
 This principle is used in Bainbridge mass voltmeter?
spectrograph to separate the isotopes. Galvanometer to a voltmeter :
27. How Galvanometer can be converted in to Ammeter.
Galvanometer to an Ammeter :
 Let an electric charge ‘q’ of mass ‘m’ enters in to a

region of uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ with velocity ⃗⃗⃗𝑣  A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure
 Dut to Lorentz force, the charged particle moves in potential difference across any two points.
helical path.  A galvanometer is converted in to voltmeter by
 By applying proper electric field 𝐸⃗ , the Lorentz connecting high resistance in series with the
force can be balanced by Coulomb force  Ammeter is an instrument used to measure current. galvanometer.
 Here Coulomb force acts along the direction of  A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by  The scale is calibrated in volts.
electric field, whereas the Lorentz force is connecting a low resistance called shunt in parallel  Galvanometer resistance = 𝑅𝐺
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field. with the galvanometer. High resistanc = 𝑅ℎ
 Therefore in order to balance these forces, both  The scale is calibrated in amperes. Current flows through galvanometer = 𝐼𝐺
electric and magnetic fields must be perpendicular to  Galvanometer resistance = 𝑅𝐺 Voltage to be measured = 𝑉
each other. Shunt resistance = 𝑆 Total resistance of this circuit = 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅ℎ
 Such an arrangement of perpendicular electric and Current flows through galvanometer = 𝐼𝐺  Here the current in the electrical circuit is same as
magnetic fields are known as cross fields. Current flows through shunt resistance = 𝐼𝑆 the current passing through the galvanometer. (i.e.)
 The force on electric charge due to these fields is, Current to be measured = 𝐼 𝐼𝐺 = 𝐼
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 𝑞 [𝐸⃗ + (𝑣 𝑋 𝐵 ⃗ )] The potential difference across galvanometer is 𝑽
𝑰𝑮 =
same as the potential difference shunt resistance. 𝑹𝑮 + 𝑹𝒉
 For a positive charge, the electric force on the (i.e.) 𝑉𝐺𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑉
charge acts in downward direction whereas the 𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 = 𝐼𝑆 𝑆 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅ℎ =
Lorentz force acts upwards. 𝐼𝐺
𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 = (𝐼 − 𝐼𝐺 ) 𝑆 − − − −(1) 𝑽
When these two forces balance one another, the net 𝑰𝑮 ∴ 𝑹𝒉 = − 𝑹𝑮
force ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 0. Hence 𝑞 𝐸 = 𝐵 𝑞 𝑣𝑜 𝑺= 𝑹 𝑰𝑮
𝑰 − 𝑰𝑮 𝑮  Let 𝑅𝑣 be the resistance of voltmeter, then
𝑬
∴ 𝒗𝒐 =  From equation (1), 𝑹𝒗 = 𝑹𝑮 + 𝑹𝒉
𝑩 𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 = 𝑆 𝐼 − 𝐼𝐺 𝑆
 This means for a given magnitude of electric field  Here, 𝑅𝐺 < 𝑅ℎ < 𝑅𝑣
𝐼𝐺 (𝑆 + 𝑅𝐺 ) = 𝑆 𝐼  Thus an voltmeter is a highresistance instrument,
𝐸⃗ and magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ , the forces act only for the 𝑺
𝑰𝑮 = 𝑰 and it always connected in parallel to the circuit
particle moving with particular speed 𝒗𝒐 . 𝑺 + 𝑹𝑮 element.
 This speed is independent of mass and charge,
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
29. Differentiate Scalar, Vector and Tensor.  The angle between magnetic meridian at a point
Scalar : PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS and geographical meridian is called the magnetic
 It has only one component. 1.ANSWERS
Discuss Earth’s magnetic field in detail. declination (D).
 It has no direction (i.e) no unit vector Earth’s magnetic field :  The angle subtended by the Earth’s total magnetic
 Since it has no direction, its rank is zero. field wih the horizontal direction in the magnetic
Vector : meridian is called dip or magnetic inclination (I)
 It haIs resolved in to components. at that point.
 It has only one direction. (i.e.) has one unit vector  The component of Earth’s magnetic field along the
 Since each component have one direction, its rank horizontal direction in the magnetic meridian is
is one called horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic
Tensor : field (BH)
 It has resolved into components.  Let BH be the net Earth’s magnetic field at a point
 It has more than one direction (i.e) has more than on the surface of the Earth, then
one unit vector Horizontal component ; 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐸 cos 𝐼 − − − (1)
 If each component associated with two direction, Vertical component : 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝐸 s𝑖𝑛 𝐼 − − − (2)
then its rank is two and if each component  A freely suspended magnet comes to rest (2) 𝐵𝑉
approximately along the geographical north - south ⟹ tan 𝐼 =
associated with three direction, then its rank is (1) 𝐵𝐻
three. direction. (i) At magnetic equator :
 In general, if each component associated with ‘n’  To explain this, William Gilbert proposed that,  At magnetic equator, 𝐼 = 0°, then
direction, then it is called tensor of rank ‘n’ Earth itself like a gigantic powerful magnet, but this 𝐵𝐻 = 𝐵𝐸
theory was not accepted. 𝐵𝑉 = 0
 Gover suggested that the Earth’s magnetic field is (ii) At magnetic poles :
due to hot rays coming out from the Sun.  At magnetic poles, 𝐼 = 90° , then
 So many theories have been proposed, but none of 𝐵𝐻 = 0
the theory completely explains the cause for the 𝐵𝑉 = 𝐵𝐸
Earth’s magnetism. 2. Calculate the magnetic induction at a point on the
 The north pole of magnetic compass needle is axial line of a bar magnet.
attracted towards the magnetic south pole of the ⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 ) :
Magnetic field at axial line ( 𝐵
Earth which is near the geographic north pole.
 Simillarly the south pole of magnetic compass
needle is attracted towards the magnetic north
pole of the Earth which is near the the geographic
south pole.
 The branch of physics which deals with the Earth’s
magnetic field is called Geomagnetism (or)
Terrestrial magnetism.
 The Earth spins about an axis called geographic
axis and vertical line passing through the  Consider a bar magnet ‘NS’ of moment 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 2𝑙
geographic axis is called geographic meridian,  Let C be the point on its axis at a distance ‘r’ from
and a great circle perpendicular to Earth’s centre ‘O’
geographic axis is called geographic equator.  Let unit north pole (𝑞𝑚𝐶 = 1 𝐴 𝑚) is placed at ‘C’
 The straight line which connects magnetic poles of
 The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole
Earthis known as magnetic axis and the vertical lise
(i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to north pole
passing throuth magnetic axis is called magnetic
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 𝜇 𝑞𝑚
meridian and a great circle perpendicular to ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 = 𝑁 = 𝑜 𝑖̂ − − − − (1)
Earth’s magnetic axis is called magnetic equator. 𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2
 The attractive force experienced by unit north pole  Let C be the point on its equatorial line at a distance 4. What is tangent law? Discuss in detail. Explain the
(i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to south pole ‘r’ from centre ‘O’ principle, construction and working of tangent
⃗⃗⃗𝐹 𝜇 𝑞𝑚  Let unit north pole (𝑞𝑚𝐶 = 1 𝐴 𝑚) is placed at ‘C’ galvanometer.
⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑆 = 𝑆 = − 𝑜 𝑖̂ − − − − (2) Tangent Galvanometer :
𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2  The repulsive force experienced by unit north pole
(i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to north pole  It is a device used to measure very small currents.
 Then total magnetic field at ‘C’ is
𝐹𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚  It is a moving magnet type galvanometer.
⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 + ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑆
𝐵 𝐵𝑁 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑁𝐶) − − − − (1)
𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 𝑟 !𝟐  Its working is based on tangent law.
𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚
= 𝑖̂ + [− 𝑖̂ ]  The attractive force experienced by unit north pole Tangent law :
4 𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 4 𝜋 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2  When a magnetic needle or magnet is freely
𝜇𝑜 1 1 (i.e.) magnetic field at ‘C’ due to south pole
= 𝑞𝑚 [ − ] 𝑖̂ 𝐹𝑆 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙) 2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2 𝐵𝑆 = = (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑆) − − − − (2) magnetic fields, it will come to rest in the direction
𝑞𝑚𝐶 4 𝜋 𝑟 !𝟐
𝜇𝑜 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2 − (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 of the resultant of the two fields.
= 𝑞𝑚 [ ] 𝑖̂  Here, 𝑩𝑵 = 𝑩𝑺
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙)2 (𝑟 + 𝑙)2  Let B be the magnetic field produced by passing
 Resolve these two magnetic fields into their
𝜇𝑜 𝑟2 + 𝑙2 + 2 𝑟 𝑙 − 𝑟2 − 𝑙2 + 2 𝑟 𝑙 current through the coil of tangent galvanometer
components. Hence
= 𝑞𝑚 [ ] 𝑖̂ and BH be the horizontal component of Earth’s
4𝜋 {(𝑟 − 𝑙) (𝑟 + 𝑙)}2 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 = − 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑁 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂
magnetic field.
𝜇𝑜 4𝑟𝑙 𝐵 ⃗ 𝑆 = − 𝐵𝑆 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂
= 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑖̂  Under the action of two magnetic fields, the needle
4𝜋 (𝑟 − 𝑙 2 )2  Then the total magnetic field at ‘C’ is comes to rest at an angle  with 𝐵𝐻 , such that
𝜇𝑜 2 𝑟 (𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙) 𝐵⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐵𝑁 + 𝐵 ⃗𝑺 𝑩 = 𝑩𝑯 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽
= 𝑖̂
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 = − 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑁 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ Construction :
𝜇 2 𝑟 𝑝𝑚 − 𝐵𝑺 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 𝐵𝑆 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂  It consists of copper coil wound on a non-magnetic
⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑜
𝐵 𝑖̂ − − − − (3)
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 ⃗𝐵𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 𝐵𝑺 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ circular frame.
 where 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙 = 𝑝𝑚 → magnetic dipole moment ⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 2 𝐵𝑁 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂  It is fixed vertically on a horizontal turn table
𝐵 [∵ 𝐵𝑁 = 𝐵𝑺 ]
 If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then (𝑟 2 − 𝑙 2 )2 ≈ 𝑟 4 . So 𝜇𝑜 𝑞𝑚 providing with three levelling screws.
𝜇 2 𝑟 𝑝𝑚 = − 2 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂  At centre, a compass box is placed which consists
𝐵⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑜 𝑖̂ 4 𝜋 𝑟 !𝟐
4𝜋 𝑟4 𝜇 2 𝑞𝑚 of a small magnetic needle which is pivoted at its
𝜇 2 𝑝𝑚 ⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜
𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − − − (3) centre.
𝐵⃗ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 𝑜 𝑖̂ [𝑝𝑚 𝑖̂ = 𝑝𝑚 ] 4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )
4 𝜋 𝑟3  A thin aluminium pointer is attached to the
𝝁 𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒑𝒎  But in ∆ 𝑁𝑂𝐶,
⃗ 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 = 𝒐
⃗𝑩 − − − − (𝟒) magnetic needle normally and moves over circular
𝑂𝑁 𝑙 𝑙
𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟑 cos 𝜃 = = != scale.
1
3. Obtain the magnetic induction at a point on the 𝐶𝑁 𝑟 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )2  The circular scale is divided in to four quadrants
equatorial line of a bar magnet.  Then equation (3) becomes, and graduated in degrees.
Magnetic field at equatorial line ( 𝑩 ⃗⃗ 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂 ): 𝜇 𝑞𝑚 𝑙  In order to avoid parallax error in measurement, a
𝐵⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 2 𝑜 1 𝑖̂
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 ) (𝑟 2 mirror is placed below the aluminium pointer.
+ 𝑙 2 )2  Here the centre of magnetic needle will exactly
𝜇 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙
𝐵⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜 3 𝑖̂
coincide with the centre of the circular coil.
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2  The coil has three sections of 2, 5 and 50 turns
+ 𝑙 2 )2
𝜇 𝑝𝑚 which are different thickness and are used to
𝐵⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜 3 𝑖̂
4 𝜋 (𝑟 2 measuring currents of different strengths.
+ 𝑙 2 )2
Theory :
 where 𝑞𝑚 2 𝑙 = 𝑝𝑚 → magnetic dipole moment
3  When no current is passed through the coil, the
 If 𝑟 ≫ 𝑙, then (𝑟 2 + 𝑙 2 )2 ≈ 𝑟 3 . So small magnetic needle lies along horizontal
𝜇 𝑝 component of Earth’s magnetic field
𝐵⃗ 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = − 𝑜 𝑚 𝑖̂ [𝑝𝑚 𝑖̂ = 𝑝𝑚 ]
4 𝜋 𝑟3  When current pass through the coil, it produces
 Consider a bar magnet ‘NS’ of moment 𝑝𝑚 = 𝑞𝑚 2𝑙 𝝁 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒑 magnetic field in direction perpendicular to the
⃗ 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 = − 𝒐 𝒎
⃗𝑩 − − − −(𝟒)
𝟒 𝝅 𝒓𝟑 plane of the coil.
 Now there are two fields, which are acting mutually  Let a ferro magnetic material (iron) is magnetized 6. Deduce the relation for magnetic induction at a
perpendicular to each other. slowly by a magnetizing field 𝐻 ⃗ point due to an infinitely long straight conductor
They are  The magnetic induction 𝐵 ⃗ is increases from point A carrying current.
(i) The magnetic field ‘B’ and attains saturated level at C. This is shown by Magnetic field due to long straight current carrying
due to current in the coil the path AC conductor :
(ii) Horizontal component of  The maximum point up to which the material cn be
Earth’s magnetic field magnetized by applying the magnetizing field is
‘BH’ called Saturation magnetization.
 Thus the magnetic needle deflects through an angle  If magnetizing field is now reduced, the magnetic
‘’. By tangent law, induction also decreases but in different path CA.
B = Bh tan θ − − − − − − − − (1)  When magnetizing field is zero, the magnetic
 When current ‘I’ passing through a circular coil of induction is not zero and it has positive value. (i.e.)
radius ‘R’ having ‘N’ turns, the magnitude of some magnetism is left in the material even when
magnetic field at the centre is, H=0.
μo N I  The ability of the material to retain the magnetism
B = − − − − − − − − (2)
2R in them even magnetizing field vanishes is called
 Put equation (2) in (1) remanence or retentivity.
μo N I
= BH tan θ  To remove the remance, the magnetizing field is
2R gradually increased in the reverse direction, so that
μo N 𝐼
𝐁𝐇 = ( ) − − − (3) the magnetic induction decreases along DE and
2 R tan 𝜃 becomes zero at ‘E’
 Also the current is ,
𝟐 𝐑 𝐁𝑯  The magnitude of the reverse magnetizing field for  Consider a long straight wire YYI carrying a current I
𝐈 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = 𝐊 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 − −(4) which the residual magnetism of the material  Let P be a point at a distance ‘a’ from ‘O’
𝛍𝐨 𝐍 vanishes is called its coercivity.  Consider an element of length ‘𝑑𝑙’ of the wire at a
 where, ⃗ in the reverse direction, the
𝟐 𝐑 𝐁𝑯  Further increase of 𝐻 distance ‘𝑙’ from point ‘O’
K= 𝛍𝐨 𝐍
−→ Reduction factor of TG mangetic indiuction increases along EF until it  Let ⃗⃗𝑟 be the vector joining the element ‘𝑑𝑙’ with
5. Define Hysterisis. Explain it with help of diagram. reaches saturation at F in the reverese direction. the point ‘P’ and ‘𝜃’ be the angle between ⃗⃗𝑟 and
Hysterisis :  If magnetizing field is decreased and then ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
 Hysterisis means ‘lagging behind’ increased with direction reversed, the magnetic  Then the magnetic field at ‘P’ due to the element is,
 The phenomenon of lagging of magnetic induction induction traces the path FGKC. 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 𝒅𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 = 𝒏
̂ − − − −(1)
⃗ ), behind the magnetizing field ( 𝐻
(𝐵 ⃗ ) is called  This closed curve ACDEFGKC is called hysteresis 𝟒𝝅 𝒓𝟐
hysteresis. loop and it represents a cycle of magnetization.  where, 𝒏 ̂ → points into the page
 In the entire cycle, the magnetic induction ‘B’ lags AC AC
Hysterisis loop :  In ABC, sin θ = =
AB dl
behind the magnetizing field ‘H’.
AC = dl sin θ − − − − − − − (2)
 This phenomenon is called hysteresis
Hysterisis Loss :  In  ACP
 Due to hysterisis there is a loss of energy in the AC = r dφ − − − − − − − −(3)
form of heat and It is found that the energy lost per  From equation (2) and (3)
unit volume of the material when it is carried dl sin θ = r dφ − − − − − − − (4)
through one cycle of magnetization is equal to the  Put this in eqation (1)
μ0 I r dφ μ0 I dφ
area of the hysteresis loop. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑛̂ = 𝑛̂ − − − (5)
4 π r 2 4 π r
 Thus the loss of energy for a complete cycle is,
 In OAP
∆𝑬 = ∮ ⃗𝑯 ⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 a a
cos φ = (or) r = − − − (6)
r cos φ
 Put this in equation (5)  Here, 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ can be resolved in to two componenets.  Let an electron moves in circular motion around
μ0 I dφ μ0 I ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ the nucleus. The circulating electron in a loop is like
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝑩 = 𝑛̂ = cos φ 𝑛̂ (i) 𝑑𝐵 cos ϕ − horizontal component (Y - axis)
a
4 π ( ⁄cos φ) 4π a current in a circular loop.
(ii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐵 sin ϕ − vertical component (Z - axis)
 The total magnetic field at ‘P’ due to conductor YYI  The magnetic dipole moment due to current
 Here horizontal components of each element
φ2 φ2
μ0 I cancel each other. carrying circular loop is, ⃗⃗⃗𝝁𝑳 = 𝑰 ⃗𝑨
⃗
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = ∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝐵 = ∫ cos φ 𝑛̂  In magnitude, 𝝁𝑳 = 𝑰 𝑨 − − − − − − (𝟏)
−φ1 −φ1 4 π a  But vertical components alone contribute to total
magnetic field at the point ‘P’  If T is thetime period of an electron, the current due
μ I 𝑒
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 0 ⌊sin φ⌋φ −φ1 𝑛
2
̂ to revolving electron is, 𝐼 = −
4π a ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐵 sin ϕ 𝑘̂
⃗ = ∫ 𝑑𝐵
B 𝑇
μ I where ‘- e’  charge of an electron.
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 0 ⌊sin φ1 + sin φ2 ⌋ 𝑛̂ − − − − (7) 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
4π a ⃗ =
B ∫ 2 sin ϕ 𝑘̂ − − − − − (1)  If ‘R’ be the radius and ‘𝑣’ be the velocity of electron
 For infinitely long conductor, φ1 = φ2 = 90° 4𝜋 𝑟 in the circular orbit, then
μ I  Also from ∆𝐶𝑂𝑃, 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑅
⃗⃗⃗𝐵 = 0 [ 2 ] 𝑛̂ 𝑇= =
4π a 𝑅 𝑅 𝜔 𝑣
𝛍𝟎 𝐈 sin ϕ = = 1
⃗⃗⃗𝑩 = 𝒏
̂ 𝑟  Then equation (1) becomes,
(𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 )2 𝑒 𝑒
𝟐𝛑 𝐚 𝝁𝑳 = − 𝐴 = − 𝜋 𝑅2
7. Obtain a relation for the magnetic induction at a  But from equation (1) 2𝜋𝑅
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑅 𝑇 [ ]
point along the axis of a circular coil carrying ⃗ = 𝑜 ∫
B ̂ 𝑣
(𝑅 + 𝑧 ) 2
2 2 1 𝑘 2
current. 4𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑧 2 )2 where, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑅 → area of the circular orbit
Magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil : 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑅 𝒆𝒗𝑹
⃗B = ̂ ∴ 𝝁𝑳 = − − − − − (2)
 Consider a 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑙 𝑘 𝟐
circular coil of radius 4𝜋 (𝑅 2 + 𝑧 2 ) 2  By definition, angular momentum of the electron
‘R’ carrying a current ‘I’  where, ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = 2 𝜋 𝑅 → total length of the coil. about ‘O’ is ⃗⃗𝐿 = ⃗⃗⃗𝑅 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗𝑝
in anticlock wise 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑅  In magnitude, angular momentum is given by,
⃗ =
B 3
[2 𝜋 𝑅] 𝑘̂
direction. 𝐿 =𝑅𝑝=𝑚𝑣𝑅 − − − − (3)
4 𝜋 (𝑅 + 𝑧 )2
2 2
 Let ‘P’ be the 𝝁 𝒐 𝑰 𝑹𝟐  Dividing equation (2) by (3),
⃗ =
𝐁 ̂ 𝜇𝐿 𝑒𝑣𝑅 𝑒
point on the axis at a 𝟑 𝒌 = − =−
distance ‘z’ from 𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒛 )𝟐
𝟐 𝟐 𝐿 2𝑚𝑣𝑅 2𝑚
centre ‘O’  If the circular coil contains ‘N’ turns, then  In vector notation,
𝒆
 Consider two 𝝁 𝒐 𝑵 𝑰 𝑹𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝝁𝑳 = − ⃗
𝑳 − − − − (4)
⃗ =
𝐁 ̂
diametrically opposite 𝟑 𝒌 𝟐𝒎
𝟐 (𝑹 + 𝒛 )
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐  Here negative sign indicates that the magnetic
line elements of the
 The magnetic field at the centre of the coil is, dipole moment and angular momentum are in
coil of each of length
𝛍 𝐍𝐈 opposite direction. In magnitude,
⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 at C and D. ⃗ = 𝟎
𝐁 ̂
𝒌 (𝒛 = 𝟎) 𝜇𝐿 𝑒
𝟐𝐑 = = 8.78 𝑋 1010 𝐶 𝑘𝑔−1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 Let ⃗⃗𝑟 be the vector joining the current element 8. Compute the magnetic dipole moment of revolving 𝐿 2𝑚
(𝐼 𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ ) at C to the point ‘P’ electron. And hence define bohr magneton.  This constant is called gyro-magnetic ratio.
 From Pythogorous theorem, Magnetic dipole moment of revolving electron :  According to Bohr quantization rule, angular
𝑃𝐶 = 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑟 = √𝑅2 + 𝑧 2 momentum of an electron is,
and ∠ 𝐶𝑂𝑃 = ∠𝐷𝑂𝑃 = ϕ ℎ
𝐿=𝑛ℏ=𝑛
 According to Biot - Savart law, the magnetic field at 2𝜋
‘P’ due to the current elements 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 are,  where, ℎ → Plank’s constant (ℎ = 6.63 𝑋 10−34 𝐽 𝑠)
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 ⃗⃗𝑟 𝑛 → Positive integer (𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … . ..)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑜
𝑑𝐵 𝑒 𝑒 ℎ
4𝜋 𝑟2 ∴ 𝜇𝐿 = 𝐿= 𝑛
 Their magnitudes are same and it is given by, 2𝑚 2 𝑚 2𝜋
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝒆𝒉
𝑑𝐵 = [ ∵ 𝜃 = 90°] 𝝁𝑳 = 𝒏 − − − − (𝟓)
4 𝜋 𝑟2 𝟒𝝅𝒎
 The minimum magnetic moment can be obtained 10. Obtain an expression for magnetic field due to long N
B = μ0 I − − − − (4)
by substituting 𝑛 = 1 current carrying solenoid. 𝐿
𝒆𝒉 Mangnetic field due to current carrying solenoid :  Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then
(𝝁𝑳 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝝁𝑩 = = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟒 𝑨 𝒎𝟐 𝐍
𝟒𝝅𝒎 = 𝒏 . Hence,
𝑳
 The minimum value of magnetic moment of 𝛍𝟎 𝐍 𝐈
revolving electron is called Bohr magneton (𝝁𝑩 ) 𝐁 = = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧 𝐈 − − − − (5)
𝑳
9. Using Ampere’s law, obtain an expression for  Since ‘n’ and μ0 are constants, for fixed current ‘I’
magnetic field due to the current carrying wire of the magnetic field ‘B’ inside the solenoid is also
infinite length. constant.
Magnetic field due to current carrying straight wire 11. Obtain the magnetic fields at various points on the
using Ampere’s law : toroid.
Toroid :
 A solenoid is bent in such a way
 Consider a solenoid of length ‘L’ having ‘N’ turns. its ends are joined together to
 To calculate the magnetic field at any point inside form a closed ring shape is
the solenoid, consider an Amperian loop ‘abcd’ called toroid.
 From Ampere circuital law,
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜 − − − − − (1)
 The LHS of equation (1) can be written as
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ + ∫ 𝐵
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
 Consider a straight conductor of infinite length 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
carrying current ‘I’  Here,
 Imagine an Amperian circular loop at a distance ‘r’ b
𝑏 𝑏
from the centre of the conductor. ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 0° = B ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = B 𝒉

⃗ . d𝒍
∫ B
 From Ampere’s circuital law, a
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 c
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∫B d𝒍 = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 90° = 0
 Here ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 is the line element along the tangent to the b Open space interior to the toroid (P) :
𝑏
⃗⃗⃗ is
⃗ and 𝑑𝑙 d  To calculate the magnetic field 𝐵𝑃 at ‘P’, consider
Amperian loop. So the angle between 𝐵
∫ ⃗B. ⃗⃗⃗
d𝒍 = 0 [∵ B = 0] an Amperian loop (1) of radius 𝒓𝟏
zero (𝜃 = 0°). Thus, c
𝑐
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 1 is
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 a
∫ ⃗B. ⃗⃗⃗
d𝒍 = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 90° = 0 ⃗ 𝑃 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜
 Due to symmetry, the magnitude of the magnetic d
𝑏  Since the loop 1 encloses no current, 𝐼𝑜 = 0, then
field is uniform over the Amperian loop and hence,  Here ab = h . If we take large loop such that it is
⃗ 𝑃 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0
𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 equal to length of the solenoid, we have
∮ ⃗B. ⃗⃗⃗
dl = B 𝑳 − − − − − − − (2) ∴ ⃗⃗ 𝑷 = 𝟎
𝑩
 For circular loop, ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 2 𝜋 𝑟
Open space exterior to the toroid (Q):
𝐵 (2 𝜋 𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼  Let ‘I’ be the current passing through the solenoid
𝝁𝒐 𝑰  To calculate magnetic field 𝑩𝑸 at ‘Q’ construct
𝑩= of ‘N’ turns, then
Amperian loop (3) of radius 𝒓𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒓 I0 = N I − − − − − − − − (3)
 In vector notation,  Then Amperian circuital law for loop 3 is
 Put equation (2) and (3) in (1)
𝝁 𝑰 B 𝐿 = μ0 N I ⃗ 𝑄 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜
⃗ = 𝒐 𝒏
⃗𝑩 ̂
𝟐𝝅𝒓
 Since in each turn of the toroid loop, current  Hence charged particle moves in a circular orbit  It is a device used to accelerate the charged
coming out of the plane of paper is cancelled by the and the necessary centripetal force is provided by particles to gain large kinetic energy. It is also
current going into plane of the paper. Thus 𝐼𝑜 = 0 Lorentz force. (i.e.) called as high energy accelerator.
⃗ 𝑄 . ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑚 𝑣2  It is invented by Lawrence and Livingston.
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 𝐵𝑞𝑣=
𝑟 Principle :
∴ ⃗𝑩
⃗𝑸=𝟎  The radius of the circular path is,  When a charged particle moves normal to the
𝑚𝑣 𝑝 magnetic field, it experience magnetic Lorentz
Inside the toroid (S) : 𝑟= = − − − − (1)
 To calculate magnetic field 𝑩𝑺 at ‘S’ construct 𝐵𝑞 𝐵𝑞 force.
Amperian loop (2) of radius 𝒓𝟐 where, 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑝 → linear momentum Construction :
 The length of the loop 2 ; 𝐿2 = 2 𝜋 𝑟2  Let ‘T’ be the time period, then
and the loop encloses the current ; 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑁 𝐼 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑚𝑣
𝑇= =
 Then Amperian circuital law for loop 2 is 𝑣 𝑣𝐵𝑞
𝟐𝝅𝒎
⃗ 𝑆 . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑜 𝑻= − − − − (2)
𝑩𝒒
It is called cyclotron time period.
𝐵𝑆 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼
 Let ‘f’ be the frequency, then
𝐵𝑆 (2𝜋𝑟2 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝑁 𝐼 𝟏 𝑩𝒒
𝝁𝒐 𝑵 𝑰 𝒇= = − − − − (𝟑)
𝑩𝑺 = 𝑻 𝟐𝝅𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐  In terms of angular frequency,
 Let ‘n’ be the number of turns per unit length, then 𝑩𝒒
𝐍
𝝎=𝟐𝝅𝒇= − − − − (4)
= 𝒏. Hence 𝒎
𝟐𝝅𝒓𝟐 It is called cyclotron frequency or gyro-frequency.
𝑩𝑺 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐧 𝐈  From equantion (2), (3) and (4), we infer that time
12. Obtain the expression for force on a moving charge period (T), frequency (f) and angular frequency
in a magnetic field. ( 𝝎 ) depends only on specific charge, but not
Force on moving charge in a magnetic field : velocity or the radius of the circular path.  It consists two semi circular metal containers
Special cases : called Dees.
 If a charged particle moves in uniform magnetic  The Dees are enclosed in an evacuated chamber
field, such that its velocity is not perpendicular to and it is kept in a region of uniform magnetic field
the magnetic field, then its velocity is resolved into acts normal to the plane of the Dees.
two components.  The two Dees are kept separated with a gap and the
 One component is parallel to the fjeld and the other source ‘S’ of charged particles to be accelerated is
component is perpendicular to the field. placed at the centre in the gap between the Dees.
 Here parallel component remains unchanged and  Dees are connected to high frequency alternating
the perpendicular component keeps on changing potential difference.
 Consider a charged particle of charge ‘q’ having due to Lorentz force. Working :
mass ‘m’ enters perpendicular to uniform magnetic  Hence the path of the paricle is not circle, it is helix  Let the positive ions are ejected from source ‘S’
field ‘B’ with velocity 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ around the field.  It is accelerated towards a Dee-1 which has
 So this charged particle experience Lorentz force negative potential at that instant.
which acts perpendicular to both 𝐵 ⃗ and 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ and it is  Since the magnetic field is normal to the plane of
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 = 𝑞 (𝑣 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐵 ) the Dees, the ion undergoes circular path.
 Since Lorentz force alone acts on the particle, the  After one semi-circular path in Dee-1, the ion
magnitude of this force is reaches the gap between Dees.
𝐹 =𝐵𝑞𝑣 [𝜃 = 90°] 13. Describe the principle, construction and working of  At this time the polarities of the Dees are reversed,
Cylotron. so that the ion is now accelerated towards Dee-2
Cylotron : with a greater velocity.
 For this circular motion, the centripetal force of the  Consider a small segment of wire of length ‘𝑑𝑙’  Consider two straight parallel current carrying
charged particle is provided by Lorentz force, then  The free electorns drift opposite to the direction of conductors ‘A’ and ‘B’ separated by a distance ‘r’
𝑚 𝑣2 current with drift velocity 𝑣𝑑 kept in air.
=𝐵𝑞𝑣  The relation between current and drift velocity is,  Let I1 and I2 be the currents passing through the
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 𝐼 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑒 𝑣𝑑 − − − − − (1) A and B in same direction (z-direction)
𝑟=
𝐵𝑞  If the wire is kept in a magnetic field, then average  The net magnetic field due to I1 at a distance ‘r’
∴ 𝒓 ∝𝒗 force experienced by the electron in the wire is 𝜇 𝐼 𝜇 𝐼
⃗ 1 = 𝑜 1 (− 𝑖̂) = − 𝑜 1 𝑖̂
𝐵
 Thus the increase in velocity increases the radius of 𝐹 = − 𝑒 (𝑣𝑑 𝑋 𝐵 ⃗) 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟
the circular path. Hence the particle undergoes  Let ‘n’ be the number of free electrons per unit  Here 𝐵 ⃗ 1 acts perpendicular to plane of paper and
spiral path of increasing radius. volume, then the total number of electrons in the inwards.
 Once it reaches near the edge, it is taken out with help small element of volume (𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑑𝑙) is 𝑁 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑑𝑙  Then Lorentz force acts on the length element 𝑑𝑙 in
of deflector plate and allowed to hit the target T  Hence Lorentz force on the small element, conductor ‘B’ carrying current I2 due to this
 The important condition in cyclotron is the ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ) − − − (1) magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗1
𝑑𝐹 = −𝑒 𝑛 𝐴 𝑑𝑙 (𝑣𝑑 𝑋 𝐵
resonance condition. (i.e.) the frequency ‘𝑓’ of the 𝜇 𝐼
 Here length 𝑑𝑙 is along the length of the wire and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼2 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 𝑋 𝐵 ⃗ 1 = − 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙 𝑘̂ 𝑋 𝑜 1 𝑖̂
charged particle must be equal to the frequency of 2𝜋𝑟
hence the current element is
the electrical oscillator ‘𝑓𝑜𝑠𝑐 ’ . Hence 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
𝑩𝒒 I ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = − 𝑛 𝐴 𝑒 𝑑𝑙 𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = − ̂
(𝑘 𝑋 𝑖̂)
𝒇𝒐𝒔𝒄 =  Put this in equation (1), 2𝜋𝑟
𝟐𝝅𝒎 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝐼 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 𝑋 𝐵⃗ − − − (2) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −
𝑑𝐹 𝑗̂
 The time period of oscillation is , 2𝜋𝑟
𝟐𝝅𝒎  Therefore, the force in a straight current carrying  By Flemming’s left hand rule, this force acts left
𝑻=
𝑩𝒒 conductor of length ‘𝒍’ placed in a uniform magnetic wards. The force per unit length of the conductor B
 The kinetic energy of the charged particle is, field ⃗⃗⃗𝑭 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
𝟏 𝑩𝟐 𝒒𝟐 𝒓𝟐 ⃗𝑭 = 𝐈 𝒍 𝑿 𝑩 ⃗⃗ − − − (3) = − 𝒋̂ − − − − − (𝟏)
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝟐 𝟐𝒎  In magnitude,  Simillarly, net magnetic field due to 𝐼2 at a distance
Limitations of cyclotron : 𝑭 = 𝑩 𝐈 𝒍 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − − − (4) ‘r’ is
(i) the speed of the ion is limited Special cases : 𝜇 𝐼
⃗ 2 = 𝑜 2 𝑖̂
𝐵
(ii) electron cannot be accelerated (i) If the current carrying conductor placed along the 2𝜋𝑟
(iii) uncharged paricles cannot be accelerated. direction of magnetic field, then  = 0°  Here 𝐵 ⃗ 2 acts perpendicular to plane of paper and
14. Obtain an expression for the force on a current ∴ 𝑭=𝟎 outwards.
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. (ii) If the current carrying conductor is placed  Then Lorentz force acts on the length element 𝑑𝑙 in
Force on current carrying conductor in magnetic perpendicular to the magnetic field, then  = 90° conductor ‘A’ carrying current I1 due to this
field : ∴ 𝑭 = 𝑩 𝐈 𝒍 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗2
15. Obtain a force between two long parallel current 𝜇 𝐼
carrying conductors. Hence define ampere. ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑋 𝐵⃗ 2 = 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙 𝑘̂ 𝑋 𝑜 2 𝑖̂
2𝜋𝑟
Force between two parallel conductors carrying 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
current : ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = ̂
(𝑘 𝑋 𝑖̂)
2𝜋𝑟
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐹 = 𝑗̂
2𝜋𝑟
 By Flemming’s left hand rule, this force acts right
wards. The force per unit length of the conductor A
 When a current carrying conductor is placed in a ⃗⃗⃗𝑭 𝝁𝒐 𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐
magnetic field, the force experienced by the wire is = 𝒋̂ − − − − − (𝟐)
𝒍 𝟐𝝅𝒓
equal to the sum of Lorentz forces on the individual  Thus the force experienced by two parallel current
chage carriers in the wire. carrying conductors is attractive if they carry
 Let a current ‘I’ flows through a conductor of lengh current in same direction.
‘L’ and area of cross-section ‘A’
 On the other hand, the force experienced by two  Since the forces FQR and FSP are equal, opposite and Special cases:
parallel current carrying conductors is repulsive if collinear, they cancel each other. a) When θ = 90°or the plane of the loop is parallel to the
they carry current in opposite direction.  But the forces FPQ and FRS, which are equal in magnetic field, the torque on the current loop is
Definition of ampere : magnitude and opposite in direction, are not acting
maximum. 𝛕 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝐍 𝐁 𝐈 𝐀
 One ampere is defined as that current when it is along same straight line. Therefore, FPQ and FRS
b) When θ = 0°/180° or the plane of the loop is
passed through each of two infinitely long parallel constitute a couple which exerts a torque on the
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the torque on
conductors kept a a distance of one metre apart in loop.
the current loop is zero.
vacuum causes each conductor experience a force
17. Describe the principle, construction and working of
of 2 𝑋 10−7 newton per meter length of conductor.
moving coil galvanometer.
16. Deduce an expression for torque on a current loop
Moving coil galvanometer :
placed in uniform magneitic field 𝑩 ⃗⃗ .
 It is a device which is used to indicate the flow of
Torque on a current loop : current.
 Consider a rectangular current loop PQRS kept in Principle :
uniform magnetic field ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 with its plane parallel to  When a current carrying loop is placed in a uniform
the field magnetic field it experiences a torque.
 Let 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑎 → Length of the loop  The magnitude of torque acting on the arm PQ Construction :
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏 → Breadth of the loop about AB is  It consists of a rectangular coil PQRS of insulated
 Let 𝒏 ̂ be the unit vector normal to the plane of the 𝑏 𝑏 thin copper wire.
current loop. τ𝑃𝑄 = FPQ [ sin 𝜃] = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃]  A cylindrical soft-iron core is placed
2 2
It points in the direction of AB symmentrically inside the coil.
 The magnitude of torque acting on the arm RS  This rectangular coil is suspended freely between
about AB is two pole pieces of a horse-shoe magnet by means of
𝑏 𝑏 phosphor - bronze wire.
τ𝑅𝑆 = FRS [ sin 𝜃] = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃]  Lower end of the coil is connected to a hair spring
2 2
It points in the direction of AB which is also made up of phosphor bronze.
 The total torque acting on the entire loop about an  A small plane mirror is attached on the suspension
axis AB is given by wire to measure the deflection of the coil with help
𝑏 𝑏 of lamp and scale arrangement.
𝛕 = τ𝑃𝑄 + τ𝑅𝑆 = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃] + 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 [ sin 𝜃]  In order to pass electric current through the
 Let the loop is divided in to four sections PQ, QR, RS 2 2
and SP. The Lorentz force on each loop can be 𝛕 = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚 𝐛 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 galvanometer, the suspension strip W and the
calculated as follows. where, 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝐴 → area of the rectangular loop spring S are connectee to terminals.
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑃𝑄  𝛕 is along the direction of AB Working :
F𝑃𝑄 = B I (PQ) sin 90° = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚  In vector form, ⃗⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝑰⃗⃗⃗𝑨 𝑿 𝑩 ⃗⃗
From right hand cork screw rule, its direction is  In terms of magnetic dipole moment,
vertically upwards. ⃗ 𝒎 𝑿 ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝒑 ⃗
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑄𝑅 where, 𝒑 ⃗ 𝒎 = 𝑰⃗⃗⃗𝑨
F𝑄𝑅 = B I (QR) sin( 90 − ) = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉  The tendency of the torque is to rotate the loop so as
Its direction is along the loop downwards to align its normal vector with the direction of the
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑅𝑆 magnetic field.
F𝑅𝑆 = B I (RS) sin 90° = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐚  If there are N turns in the rectangular loop, then the
From right hand cork screw rule, its direction is  Consider a single turn of rectangular coil PQRS of
torque is given by
vertically downwards. length 𝑙 and breadth 𝑏, such that
𝛕 = 𝐍 𝐁 𝐈 𝐀 𝐬𝐢𝐧 
 Magnitude of Force on section 𝑆𝑃 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑙 ; 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑆𝑃 = 𝑏
F𝑆𝑃 = B I (SP) sin( 90 − ) = 𝐁 𝐈 𝐛 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉  Let ‘I’ be the electric current flowing through the
Its direction is along the loop upwards rectangular coil
 The horse-shoe type magnet has hemi-spherical
magnetic poles which produces a radial magnetic
field.
 Due to this radial field, the sides QR and SP are
always parallel to the magnetic field ‘B’ and
experience no force.
 But the sides PQ and RS are always perpendicular
to the magnetic field ‘B’ and experience force and
due to ths torque is produced.
 For single turn, the deflecting couple is,
𝜏𝑑𝑒𝑓 = 𝐹 𝑏 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝑙 𝑏 = 𝐵 𝐼 𝐴
 For coil with N turns, we get
𝝉𝒅𝒆𝒇 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑰 𝑨 − − − − (1)
 Due to this deflecting torque, the coil get twisted
and restoring torque is developed.
 The magnitude of restoring torque is proportional
to amount of twist and it is given by
𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒔 = 𝑲 𝜽 − − − − (2)
where 𝐾 → restoring couple per unit twist (or)
torsional constant
 At equilibrium, 𝝉𝒅𝒆𝒇 = 𝝉𝒓𝒆𝒔
𝑁𝐵𝐼𝐴= 𝐾𝜃
𝑲
𝑰= 𝜽 = 𝑮 𝜽 − − − (𝟑)
𝑵𝑩𝑨
𝑲
where, 𝐺 = → galvanometer constant (or)
𝑵𝑩𝑨
current reduction factor
NAME :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
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PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
7. What are called eddy currents? How are they 14. Define mutual inductance or coefficient of mutual
PART - II 2 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS produced? induction.
1. Define magnetic flux.  When magnetic flux linked with a conductor in the  Mutual inductance is also defined as the opposing
 The magnetic flux through an area ‘A’ in a form of a sheet or a plate changes, an emf is emf induced in the one coil, when the rate of
magnetic field is defined as the number of induced. As a result, the induced current flow in change of current through the other coil is 1 A s-1
magnetic field lines passing through that area concentric circular paths which resembles eddies  Its S.I unit is 𝑯 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑾𝒃 𝑨−𝟏 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑽 𝒔 𝑨−𝟏 and its
normally. of water. Hence these are known as Eddy currents dimension is [𝑴 𝑳𝟐 𝑻−𝟐 𝑨−𝟐 ]
 The S.I unit of magnetic flux is 𝑻 𝒎𝟐 (or) weber or Foucault currents. 15. What the methods of producing induced emf?
2. Define electromagnetic induction. 8. A spherical strone and a spherical metallic ball of  By changing the magnetic field ‘B’
 Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed same size and mass are dropped from the same  By changing the area ‘A’ of the coil
coil changes, an emf is induced and hence an height. Which one will reach earth’s surface first?  By changing the relative orientation ‘’ of the coil
electric current flows in the circuit. Justify your answer. with magnetic field.
 This emf is called induced emf and the current is  The stone will reach the earth’s surface earlier 16. How an emf is induced by changing the magnetic
called induced current. This phenomenon is called than the metal ball. field?
electromagnetic induction.  Because when the metal ball falls through the  Change in magnetic flux of the field is brought
3. What is the importance of electromagnetic magnetic field of earth, the eddy currents are about by,
induction? produced in it which opposed its motion. (i) The relative motion between the circuit and
 There is an ever growing demand for electric  But in the case of stone, no eddy currents are the magnet
power for the operation of almost all the devices produced and it falls freely. (ii) Variation in current flowing through the
used in present day life. 9. What is called inductor? nearby coil
 All these are met with the help of electric  Inductor is a device used to store energy in a 17. What is called AC generator or alternator?
generators and transformer which function on mangnetic field when an electric current flows  AC generator is a device which converts
electromagnetic induction. through it. mechanical energy used to rotate the coil or field
4. State Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. (e.g.) solenoids and toroids magnet in to electrical energy.
(i) Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed 10. What is called self induction? 18. State the principle of AC generator (alternator)
circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.  The phenomenon of inducing an emf in a coil,  It work on the principle of electromagnetic
(ii) The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is when the magnetic flux linked with the coil itself induction. (i.e.) The relative motion between a
equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux changes is called self induction. conductor and a magnetic field changes the
linked with the circuit.  The emf induced is called self-induced emf. magnetic flux linked with the conductor which in
5. State Lenz’s law. 11. Define self inductance or coeffient of self induction. turn induces an emf.
 Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced  Self inductance of a coil is defined as the flux  The magnitude of the induced emf is given by
current is such that is always opposes the cause linkage of the coil, when 1 A current flows through Faraday’s law and its direction by Flemming’s
responsible for its production. it. right hand rule.
6. State Flemming’s right hand rule.  Its S.I unit is 𝑯 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑾𝒃 𝑨−𝟏 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑽 𝒔 𝑨−𝟏 and its 19. State single phase AC generator.
 The thumb, index finger and middle finger of right dimension is [𝑴 𝑳𝟐 𝑻−𝟐 𝑨−𝟐 ]  In a single phase AC generator, the armature
hand are stretched out in mutually perpendicular 12. Define the unit of self inductance (one henry) conductors are connected in series so as to form a
directions. If index finger points the direction of  The inductance of the coil is one henry, if a current single circuit which generates a single - phase
magnetic field and the thumb points the direction changing at the rate of 1 A s-1 induces an opposing alternating emf and hence it is called single-phase
of motion of the conductor, then the middle finger emf of 1 V in it. alternator.
will indicate the direction of the induced current. 13. What is called mutual induction? 20. State three phase AC generators.
 Flemming’s right hand rule is also known as  When an electric current passing through a coil  If there are three separate coils, which would give
generator rule. changes with time, an emf is induced in the three separate emf’s then they are called three
neighbouring coil. This phenomenon is known as phase AC generators.
mutual induction and the emf is called mutually
induced emf.
21. What are the advantages of three phase 27. Define Sinusoidal alternating voltage. 33. Draw the phasor diagram for an alternating
AC generators?  If the waveform of alternating voltage is a sine voltage 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕
 For a given dimension of the generator, three - wave, then it is known as sinusoidal alternating
phase machine produces higher power output voltage and it is given by,
than a single -phase machine. 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
 For the same capacity, three phase alternator is 28. Define mean value or average value of AC.
smaller in size when compared to single phase  The mean or average value of alternating current
genarators. is defined as the average of all values of current 34. Define inductive reactance.
 Three phase transmission system is cheaper. A over a positive half cycle or negative half cycle.  The resistance offered by the inductor in an ac
relatively thinner wire is sufficient for 𝟐 𝑰𝒎 circuit is called inductive reactance and it is given
𝑰𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝟏 𝑰𝒎 by ; 𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎 𝑳 = 𝟐 𝝅 𝒇 𝑳
transmission of three phase power. 𝝅
22. What is called poly phase generator? 29. Define RMS value of AC.  Its unit is ohm (𝜴)
 Some AC generators may have more than one coil  The root mean square value of an alternating 35. An inductor blocks AC but it allows DC. Why?
in the armature core and each coil produces an current is defined as the square root of the mean  The DC current flows through an inductor
alternating emf. In these generators, more than of the square of all currents over one cycle. produces uniform mangetic field and the magnetic
one emf is produced. Thus they are called poly- 𝑰𝒎 flux linked remains constant. Hence there is no self
𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑰𝒎
phase generators. √𝟐 induction and self induced emf (opposing emf). So
23. What is called transformer? 30. Define effective value of alternating current. DC flows through an inductor.
 It is a stationary device used to transform  RMS value of AC is also called effective value of AC  But AC flows through an inductor produces time
electrical power from one circuit to another  The effective value of AC (𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 ) is defined as the varying magnetic field which inturn induces self
without changing its frequency. value of steady current which when flowing induced emf and this opposes any change in the
 The applied alternating voltage is either increased through a given circuit for a given time produces current. Since AC varies both in magnitude and
or decreased with corresponding decrease or the same amount of heat as produced by the direction, it flow is opposed by the back emf
increase in current in the circuit. alternating current when flowing through the induced in the inductor and hence inductor blocks
24. Distinguish between step up and step down same circuit for the same time. AC
transformer. 31. The common house hold appliences, the voltage 36. Define capacitive reactance.
Step up transformer Step down transformer rating is specified as 230 V, 50 Hz. What is the  The resistance offered by the capacitor is an ac
If the transformer If the transformer meaning of it? circuit is called capacitive reactance and it is given
𝟏 𝟏
converts an alternating converts an alternating  The voltage rating specified in the common house by ; 𝑿𝑪 = =
𝝎𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
current with low voltage current with high voltage hold appliences indicates the RMS value or
 Its unit is ohm (𝜴)
in to an alternating in to an alternating effective value of AC. (i.e.) 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝑽
37. A capacitor blocks DC but it allows AC. Why?
current with high voltage current with low voltage is  Its peak value will be,  When DC flows through capacitor, electrons flows
is called step up called step down 𝑽𝒎 = 𝑽𝒆𝒇𝒇 √𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎 𝑿 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒 = 𝟑𝟐𝟓 𝑽 from negative terminal and accumulated at one
transformer. transformer.
 Also 50 Hz indicates, the frequency of domestic AC plate making it negative and hence another plate
25. State the principle of transformer. supply. becomes positive. This process is known as
 The principle of transformer is the mutual 32. Define phasor and phasor diagram. charging and once capacitor is fully charged, the
induction between two coils. (i.e.) when an  A sinusoidal alternating voltage or current can be current will stop and we say capacitor blocks DC.
electric current passing through a coil changes represented by a vector which rotates about the  But AC flows through capacitor, the electron flow
with time, and emf is induced in the other coil. orgin in anti-clockwise direction at a constant in one direction while charging the capacitor and
26. Define the efficiency of the transformer. angular velocity ‘𝜔’. Such a rotating vector is called its direction is reversed while discharging. Though
 The efficiency (𝜂) of a transformer is defined as a phasor. electrons flow in the circuit, no electrons crosses
the ratio of the useful output power to the input  The diagram which shows various phasors and the gap between the plates. In this way, AC flows
power. phase relations is called phasor diagram. through a capacitor.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= 𝑋 100 %
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
38. Define resonance. 45. What are called LC oscillations?
 When the frequency of the applied sourch is equal  Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a
to the natural frequency of the RLC circuit, the pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of
current in the circuit reaches it maximum value. capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth
Then the circuit is said to be in electrical between the magnetic field of the inductor and the
resonance. electric field of the capacitor.
 The frequency at which resonance takes place is  Thus the electrical oscillations of definite
called resonant frequency. frequency are generated. These oscillations are
 Hence the condition for resonance is : 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪 called LC oscillations.
39. What are the applications of series RLC resonant 46. Define Flux linkage.
circuit?  The product of magnetic flux (Φ𝐵 ) linked with
 RLC circuits have many applications like filter each turn of the coil and the total number of turns
circuits, oscillators, voltage multipliers etc., (N) in the coil is called flux linkage (NΦ𝐵 )
 An important use of series RLC resonant circuits is 47. Define impedeance of RLC circuit.
in the tuning circuits of radio and TV systems. To  The effective opposion by resistor, inductor and
receive the signal of a particular station among capacitor to the circuit current in the series RLC
various broadcasting stations at different circuit is called impedance (Z)
frequencies, tuning is done. 𝒁 = √ 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 ) 𝟐
40. Resonance will occur only in LC circuits. Why?
 When the circuits contains both L and C, then
voltage across L and C cancel one another when
𝑉𝐿 and 𝑉𝐶 are 180 out of phase and the circuit
becomes purely resistive.
 This implies that resonance will not occur in a
RL and RC circuits.
41. Define Q - factor or quality factor.
 Q - factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across
L or C to the applied voltage at resonance.
42. Define power in an AC circuits.
 Power of a circuits is defined as the rate of
consumption of electric energy in that circuit.
 It is the product of the voltage and current.
43. Define power factor.
 Power factor (cos 𝜙) of a circuit is defined as the
cosine of the angle of lead or lag
 Power factor is also defined as the ratio of true
power to the apparent power.
44. Define wattles current.
 If the power consumed by an AC circuit is zero,
then the current in that circuit is said to be
wattless current.
 This wattles current happens in a purely inductive
or capacitive circuit.
2. Prove that experimentaly if the current in a one  At the same time, when they recede away from
PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS closed circuit changes, an emf is induced in one another, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
1.ANSWERS
Establish the fact that the relative motin between another circuit. decreases. The decrease in magnetic flux again
the coil and the magnet induces an emf in the coil of Faraday’s experiment - 2 : induces an emf in opposite direction and hence an
a closed circuit. electric current flows in opposite direction.
Faraday’s experiment - 1 :  So there is deflection in the galvanometer, when
there is a relative motion between the coil and the
magnet.
Experiment - 2 :
 In the second experiment, when the primary coil
‘P’ carries an electric current, a magnetic field is
established around it. The magnetic lines of this
field pass through itself and the neighbouring
 Consider a closed circuit consisting of a coil ‘C’ and secondary coil ‘S’
 Consider a closed circuit called primary consisting
a galvanometer ‘G’. Initially the galvanometer  When the primary circuit is open, no current flows
of coil ‘P’, a battery ‘B’ and a key ‘K’
shows no deflection. in it and hence the magnetic flux linked with
 Consider an another closed circuit called secondary
 When a bar magnet move towards the stationary secondary coil is zero
consisting of coil ‘S and a galvanometer ‘G’
coil with its north pole (N) facing the coil, there is a  When the primary circuit is closed, the increasing
 Here the two coils ‘P’ and ‘S’ are kept at rest in
momentary deflection in the galvanometer. This current increases the magnetic flux linked with
close proximity with respect to one another.
indicates that an electric current is set up in the coil primary as well as secondary coil. This increasing
 When the primary circuit is closed, current starts
 If the magnet is kept stationary inside the coil, the flux induces a current in the secondary coil.
flowing in this circuit. At this time, the
galvanometer does not indicate deflection.  When the current in the primary coil reaches a
galvanometer gives a momentary deflection. After
 The bar magnet is now withdrawn from the coil, the steady value, the magnetic flux linked with the
that, when current reaches a steady value, no
galvanometer again gives a momentary deflection secondary coil does not change and the current in
deflection is observed in the galvanometer.
but is opposite direction. This indicates current it will disappear.
 Similarly, if the primary circuit is broken, current
flows in opposite direction.  Similarly, when the primary circuit is broken, the
starts decreasing and there is again a momentary
 Now if the magnet is moved faster, it gives a larger decreasing current induces an electric current in
deflection but in the opposite direction. When
deflection due to a greater current in the circuit. the secondary coil, but in opposite direction.
current becomes zero, the galvanometer shows no
 The bar magnet is reversed (i.e.) the south pole now  So there is a deflection in the galvanometer,
deflection.
faces the coil and the experiment is repeated, same whenever there is a change in the primary current.
 From the above observations, it is concluded that
results are obtained but the directions of deflection 4. State and explain Faraday’s laws of
whenever the electric current in the primary
get reversed. electromagnetic induction.
changes, the galvanometer in secondary shows a
Faraday’s first law :
 Simillarly if the magnet is kept stationary and the deflection.
coil moved towards or away from the coil, similar 3. How we understood the conclusions obtained from  Whenever magnetic flux linked with a closed
results are obtained. circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit.
Faraday’s experiment.
 Thus the above experiments concluded that, Faraday’s experiment - Explanation :  The induced emf lasts so long as the change in
whenever there is a relative motion between the Experiment - 1 : magnetic flux continues.
coil and the magnet, ther is a deflection in the Faraday’s second law :
 In the first experiment, when a bar magnet is
galvanometer, indicating the electric current set up placed close to a coil, then there is some magnetic  The magnitude of induced emf in a closed circuit is
in the coil. flux linked with the coil. equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the circuit.
 When the barmagneti and coil approach each
other, the magnetic flux linked with the coil  If magnetic flux linked with the coil changes by
𝑑Φ𝐵 in time 𝑑𝑡 , then the induced emf is given by,
increases and this increase in magnetic flux
𝑑Φ𝐵
induces an emf and hence a transient current 𝜖= −
flows in one direction. 𝑑𝑡
 The negative sign in the above equation gives the 
According to Lenz’s law, when a magnet is moved  Due to this force, all the free electrons are
direction of the induced current either towards or away from a coil, the induced accumulate at the end A which produces the
 If a coil consisting of ‘N’ turns, then current produced opposes its motion. potential difference across the rod which inturn
𝒅𝚽𝑩 𝒅 ( 𝐍 𝚽𝑩 )  As a result, there will always be a resisting force establishes an electric field ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 directed along BA
𝝐= −𝑵 = − on the moving magnet. So work has to be done by
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕  Due to the electric field, the Coulomb force starts
 Here N Φ𝐵 is called flux linkage. some external agency to move the magnet against acting on the free electron along AB and it is given
5. Give an illustration of determining direction of this resistive force. by,
induced current by using Lenz’s law.  Here the mechanical energy of the moving magnet ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝐸 = − 𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 − − − − − (2)
Explanation of Lenz’s law : is converted into the electrical energy which ⃗⃗⃗
 At equilibrium, | 𝐹𝐵 | = | 𝐹𝐸 | ⃗⃗⃗
inturn gets converted in to Joule heat in the coil.
(i.e) energy is conserved from one form to another |−𝑒 (⃗⃗⃗𝑣 𝑋 ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 )| = |−𝑒 ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 |
 On the contrary to Lenz’s law, let us assume that 𝐵 𝑒 𝑣 sin 90° = 𝑒 𝐸
the induced current helps the cause responsible 𝐵𝑣 = 𝐸 − − − − (3)
for its production.  The potential difference between two ends of the
 If we push the magnet little bit towards the coil, rod is ,
the induced current helps the movement of the 𝑉=𝐸𝑙=𝐵𝑣𝑙
magnet towards the coil.  Thus the Lorentz force on the free electrons is
 Let a bar magnet move towards the solenoid with  Then the magnet starts moving towards the coil responsible to maintain this potential difference
its north pole pointing the solenoid. without any expense of energy, which is and hence produces an emf
 This motion increases the magnetic flux linked impossible in practice. 𝝐=𝑩𝒍𝒗 − − − − (4)
with the solenoid and hence an electric current is  Therefore the assumption that the induced current  Since this emf is produced due to the movement of
induced. Due to the flow of induced current, the helps the cause is wrong. the rod, it is often called as motional emf.
coil become a magnetic dipole whose two 7. Obtain an expression for motional emf from 8. Define eddy currents. Demonstrate the production
magnetic poles are on either end of the coil. Lorentz force. of eddy currents.
 Here the cause producing the induced current is Motional emf from Lorentz force: Eddy currents:
the movement of the magnet.  When magnetic flux linked with a conductor in the
 According to Lenz’s law, the induced current form of a sheet or a plate changes, an emf is
should flow in such a way that it opposed the induced.
movement of the north pole towards coil.  As a result, the induced current flow in concentric
 It is possible if the end nearer to the magnet circular paths which resembles eddies of water.
becomes north pole. Then it repels the north pole Hence these are known as Eddy currents or
of the bar magnet and opposed the movement of Foucault currents.
the magnet. Demonstration :
 Once pole end are known, the direction of the  Let a pendulum that can be freely suspended
induced current could be found by using right between the poles of a powerful electromagnet.
 Consider a straight conductor rod AB of length ‘𝑙’  Keeping the magnetic field switched off, If the
hand thumb rule. ⃗ which is directed
in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵 pendulum is made to oscillate, it executes a large
 Whwn the bar magnet is with drawn, the nearer
perpendicularly in to plane of the paper. number of oscillations before stops. Here air
end becomes south pole which attracts north pole
 Let the rod move with a constant velocity friction is a only damping force.
of the bar magnet, opposing the receding of the
⃗⃗⃗ towards right side.
𝑣  When the electro magnet is switched on, and the
magnet.
 When the rod moves, the free electrons present in pendulum is made to oscillate, it comes to rest
 Thus the direction of the induced current can be
it also move with same velocity 𝑣 ⃗
⃗⃗⃗ in 𝐵 within a few oscillations. Because eddy currents
found from Lenz’s law.
6. Show that Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of  As a result, the Lorentz forec acts on free electron are produced in it and it will oppose the
conservation of energy. in the direction from B to A and it is given by, oscillations (Lenz’s law)
Conservation of energy - Lenz’s law : ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝐵 = −𝑒 (⃗⃗⃗𝑣 𝑋 𝐵 ) − − − − (1)
 However some slots are cut in the disc, the eddy ∈  Similllarly, when a circuit is broken, the decreaing
∴ 𝑳 = − − − − − (𝟐)
currents are reduced and now the pendulum 𝒅𝒊 current induces an emf in the reverese direction
( )
executes several oscillations before coming to rest. 𝒅𝒕 which opposed the decay of the current.
 This clearly demonstrates the production of eddy Coefficient of self induction - Definition :  Thus inductance on the coil opposes any change in
current in the disc of the pendulum.  Self inductance of a coil is defined as the flux current and tries to maintain the original state.
9. What are the drawbacks of Eddy currents. How it linkage of the coil, when 1 A current flows through 13. Assuming that the length of the solenoid is large
is minimized? it. when compared to its diameter, find the equation
Drawbacks of Eddy currents :  Self inductance of a coil is also defined as the for its inductance.
 When eddy currents flow in the conductor, a large opposing emf induced in the coil, when the rate of Self inductance of a long solenoid (L) :
amout of energy is dissipated in the form of heat. change of current through the coil is 1 A s-1
 The energy loss due to flow of eddy current is 11. How will you define the unit of inductance?
inevitable but it can be reduced. Unit of inductance :
 To reduce eddy current losses, the core of the  Inductance is a scalar and its unit is 𝑾𝒃 𝑨−𝟏 (or)
transformer is made up of thin laminas insulated 𝑽 𝒔 𝑨=𝟏 (or) henry (H)
from one another. In case of electric motor the  It dimension is [𝑴 𝑳𝟐 𝑻−𝟐 𝑨−𝟐 ]
winding is made up of a group of wire insulated Definition - 1 :
from one another.  The self inductance is given by, 𝐋 =
𝐍 𝚽𝑩  Consider a long solenoid of length ‘𝑙’, area of cross
𝒊 section ‘A’ having ‘N’ number of turns
 The insulation used does not allow huge eddy  The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current
currents to flow and hence losses are minimized.  Let ‘𝑛’ be number of turns per unit length (i.e.)
of 1 A produces unit fux linkage in the coil.
10. Explain self induction and define coefficient of self turn density
Definition - 2 :
induction on the basis of (1) magnetic flux and ∈  When an electric current ‘𝑖’ is passed through the
 The self inductance is given by, 𝑳 = − 𝒅𝒊 coil, a magnetic field at any point inside the
(2) induced emf ( )
𝒅𝒕
Self induction :  The inductance of the coil is one henry if a current solenoid is,
−𝟏
changing at the rate of 𝟏 𝑨 𝒔 induces an 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝑖
opposing emf of 1 V in it.  Due to this field, the magnetic flux linked with the
12. Discuss the physical significance of inductance. solenoid is,
Physical inductance of inductance : ⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 cos 90° = 𝐵 𝐴
Φ𝐵 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . 𝑑𝐴
Φ𝐵 = [𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝑖] 𝐴
 Hence the total magnetic flux linked (i.e.) flux
 When an electric current flowing through a coil linkage
changes, an emf is induced in the same coil. This 𝑁 Φ𝐵 = 𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝑖 𝐴 = (𝑛 𝑙) 𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝑖 𝐴
phemomenon is known as self induction. The emf 𝑵 𝚽𝑩 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝟐 𝒊 𝑨 𝒍
induced is called self-induced emf.
 Let Φ𝐵 be the magnetic flux linked with each turn  Generally inertia means opposition to change the  Let ‘L’ be the self inductance of the solenoid, then
of the coil of turn ‘N’, then total flux linkage (𝑁Φ𝐵 ) state of the body. 𝑁 Φ𝐵 𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝑖 𝐴 𝑙
is directly proportional to the current ‘𝑖’ 𝐿= =
 In translational motion, mass is a measure of 𝑖 𝑖
N Φ𝐵 ∝ 𝑖 (𝑜𝑟) N Φ𝐵 = 𝐿 𝑖 inertia, whereas in rotational motion, moment of 𝑳 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒏 𝟐 𝑨 𝒍
𝐍 𝚽𝑩
∴ 𝐋= inertia is a measure of rotational inertia.  If the solenoid is filled with a dielectric medium of
𝒊  Simillarly inductance plays the same role in a relative permeability ‘𝜇𝑟 ’, then
 Where, L  constant called coefficient of self circuit as the mass and moment of inertia play in 𝑳 = 𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝒓 𝒏 𝟐 𝑨 𝒍 = 𝝁 𝒏 𝟐 𝑨 𝒍
induction (or) self inductance mechanical motion.  Thus, the inductance depens on
 When the current (𝑖) changes with time, an emf is  When a ciruit is switched on, the increasing (i) geomentry of the solenoid
induced in the coil and it is given by, current induces an emf which opposes the growth (ii) medium present inside the solenoid
𝑑(N Φ𝐵 ) 𝑑 (𝐿 𝑖) 𝒅𝒊
∈= − = − = −𝑳 of current in a circuit.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝒅𝒕
14. An inductor of inductance ‘L’ carries an electric  When an electric current passing through a coil 16. Show that the mutual inductance between a pair of
current ‘𝒊’. How much energy is stored while changes with time, an emf is induced in the coils is same (𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐𝟏 )
establishing the current in it? neighbouring coil. This phenomenon is known as Mutual inductance between a pair of coils :
Energy stored in an solenoid : mutual induction and the emf is called mutually
 Whenever a current is established in the circuit, induced emf.
the inductance opposes the growth of the current.  Consider two coils 1 and 2 which are placed close
 To establish the current, work has to done against to each other. If an electric current ‘𝑖1 ’ is sent
this opposition. This work done is stored as through coil -1, the magnetic field produced by it
magnetic potential energy. also linked with the coil -2
 Consider an inductor of negligible resistance, the  Let ‘Φ21 ’ be the magnetic flux linked with each
induced emf ‘∈’ at any instant ‘t’ is turn of the coil-2 of 𝑁2 turns due to coil -1, then
𝑑𝑖 the total flux linked with coil -2 is proportional to
∈ = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 the current ‘𝑖1 ’ in the coil -`1 (i.e.)
 Let ‘dW’ be the workdone in moving a charge ‘dq’ 𝑁2 Φ21 ∝ 𝑖1 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑁2 Φ21 = 𝑀21 𝑖1
in a time ‘dt’ against the opposition, then 𝑵𝟐 𝚽𝟐𝟏  Consider two long co-axial solenoids of same
𝑑𝑊 = − ∈ 𝑑𝑞 = − ∈ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 ∴ 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = − − − − (𝟏) length ‘𝑙’
𝒊𝟏
𝑑𝑖  Here 𝑀21 → constant called coefficient of mutual  Let 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 be the area of cross section of the
𝑑𝑊 = − [−𝐿 ] 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑡 induction or mutual inductance coil -2 solenoids. Here 𝐴1 > 𝐴2
 Total wor done in establishing the current ‘𝑖’ is with respect to coil -1  Let the turn density of these solenoids are
𝑖
𝑖2 1  When the current ‘𝑖1 ’ changes with time, an emf 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 resectively.
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐿 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿 [ ] = 𝐿 𝑖 2  Let ‘𝑖1 ’ be the current flowing through solenoid -1,
2 0 2 ‘∈2 ’ is induced in coil -2 and it is given by,
𝑑 (𝑁2 Φ21 ) 𝑑 (𝑀21 𝑖1 ) 𝑑𝑖1 then the magnetic field produced inside it is,
 This work done is stored as magnetic potential ∈2 = − = − = − 𝑀21
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐵1 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛1 𝑖1
energy. (i.e) ∈𝟐
𝟏  Hence the magnetic flux linked with each turn of
∴ 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = − − − − − (2)
𝑼𝑩 = 𝑳 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒊 solenoid -2 due to solenoid -1 is
𝟐 ( 𝟏)
𝒅𝒕 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 = ∮ 𝐵1 𝑑𝐴2 cos 0° = 𝐵1 𝐴2
 The energy stored per unit volume of the space is  Simillarly, Φ21 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵1 . 𝑑𝐴
called energy density (𝑢𝐵 ) and it is given by, 𝑵𝟏 𝚽𝟏𝟐
1 Φ21 = (𝜇𝑜 𝑛1 𝑖1 ) 𝐴2
2 𝑴𝟏𝟐 = − − − − (𝟑)
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑈𝐵 ) 2 𝐿 𝑖 1 (𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝐴 𝑙) 𝑖 2 𝒊𝟏𝟐  Then total flux linkage of solenoid -2 of 𝑁2 turns is
𝑢𝐵 = = = ∈𝟏 𝑁2 Φ21 = (𝑛2 𝑙 ) (𝜇𝑜 𝑛1 𝑖1 ) 𝐴2
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝐴 𝑙) 𝐴𝑙 2 𝐴𝑙 & 𝑴𝟏𝟐 = − − − − − (4)
𝝁𝒐 𝒏 𝟐 𝒊𝟐 𝒅𝒊𝟐 𝑁2 Φ21 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 𝑖1 − − − − (1)
( )
𝒖𝑩 = 𝒅𝒕  So the mutual inductance of solenoid -2 with
𝟐  Here 𝑀21 → constant called coefficient of mutual
𝑩𝟐 respect to solenoid -1 is given by,
𝒖𝑩 = [∵ 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝑖] induction or mutual inductance coil -2 𝑁2 Φ21 𝜇𝑜 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 𝑖1
𝟐 𝝁𝒐 with respect to coil -1 𝑀21 = =
15. Explain mutual induction. Define coefficient of 𝑖1 𝑖1
Coefficient of mutual induction - Definition :
mutual induction on the basis of (1) magnetic flux 𝑴𝟐𝟏 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍 − − − − (2)
 The mutual inductance is defined as the flux
and (2) induced emf  Simillarly, Let ‘𝑖2 ’ be the current flowing through
linkage of the one coil, when 1 A current flow
Mutual induction : solenoid -2, then the magnetic field produced
through other coil.
inside it is,
 Mutual inductance is also the opposing emf 𝐵2 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝑖2
induced in one coil, when the rate of change of
−1  Hence the magnetic flux linked with each turn of
current through other coil is 1 𝐴 𝑠
solenoid -1 due to solenoid -2 is
Φ12 = ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵2 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴2 = ∮ 𝐵2 𝑑𝐴2 cos 0° = 𝐵2 𝐴2
Φ12 = (𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝑖2 ) 𝐴2
 Then total flux linkage of solenoid -1 of 𝑁1 turns is  This change in magnetic flux results and induced It is minimized by using wires of larger
𝑁1 Φ12 = (𝑛1 𝑙 ) (𝜇𝑜 𝑛2 𝑖2 ) 𝐴2 emf and it is given by, diameter (thicki wire)
𝑁1 Φ12 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 𝑖2 − − − − (3) 𝑑Φ𝐵 (iii) Flux leakage :
∈=
 So the mutual inductance of solenoid -1 with 𝑑𝑡  The magnetic flux linked with primary coil is
respect to solenoid -2 is given by, ∈= 𝑩𝒍𝒗 not completely linked with secondary.
𝑁1 Φ12 𝜇𝑜 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝐴2 𝑙 𝑖2  This emf is called motional emf. The direction of Energy loss due to this flux leakage is
𝑀12 = = minimize by winding coils one over the
𝑖2 𝑖2 induced current is found to be clock wise from
𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝝁𝒐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍 − − − − (4) Fleming’s right hand rule. other.
 From equation (2) and (4), 𝑴𝟏𝟐 = 𝑴𝟐𝟏 18. What are the advantages of stationary armature - 20. Discuss the advantages of AC in long distance
 In general, the mutual inductance between two rotating field alternator? power transmission.
long co-axial solenoids is given by Advantages of stationary armature - rotating field Long distance power transmission :
𝑴 = 𝝁 𝒐 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍 alternator :  The electric power is generated in power stations
 If the solenoid is filled with a dielectric medium of  The current is drawn directly from fixed terminals using AC generators are transmitted over long
relative permeability ‘𝜇𝑟 ’, then on the stator without the use of brush contacts. distances through transmission lines to reach
𝑴 = 𝝁 𝒐 𝝁 𝒓 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍 = 𝝁 𝒏 𝟏 𝒏 𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝒍  The insulation of stationary armature winding is towns or cities. This process is called power
 Thus, the inductance depens on easier. transmission.
(i) geomentry of the solenoids  The number of slip rings is reduced. Moreover the  But during power transmission, due to Joules’s
(ii) medium present inside the solenoids sliding contacts are used for low-voltage DC heating ((𝐼 2 𝑅) in the transmission lines, sizable
(iii) proximity of the two soienoids source. fraction of electric power is lost.
17. How will you induce an emf by changing the area  Armature windings can be constructed more  This power loss can be reduced either by reducing
enclosed by the coil. rigidly to prevent deformation due to any current (I) or by reducing resistance (R)
EMF induced by changing area enclosed by the coil mechanical stress.  Here the resistance ‘R’ can be reduced with thick
19. Explain various energy losses in a transformer. wires of copper or aluminium. But this increases
Energy losses in a transformer : the cost of production of transmission lines and
(i) Core loss or Iron loss : hence this method is not economically viable.
 Hysterisis loss and eddy current loss are  Thus by using transformer, the current is
known as core loss or Iron loss. reduced by stepped up the alternating voltage
 When transformer core is magnetized or and thereby reducing power losses to a
demangnetized repeatedly by the alternating greater extent.
voltage applied across primary coil, hyterisis Illustration :
 Consider a conducting rod of length ‘𝑙’ moving takes place and some energy lost in the form  Let an electric power of 2 MW is transmitted
with a velocity ‘𝑣’ towards left on a rectangular of heat. It is minimized by using silicone steel through the transmission lines of resistance
metallic frame work. in making transformer core. 40 Ω at 10 𝑘𝑉 and 100 𝑘𝑉
 Alternating magnetic flux in the core induces (i) 𝑃 = 2 𝑀𝑊, 𝑅 = 40 Ω, 𝑉 = 10 𝑘𝑉, then
 The whole arangemetn is placed in a uniform
eddy currents in it. Therefore there is energy 𝑃 2 𝑋 106
magnetic field ‘⃗⃗⃗𝐵’ acting perpendicular to the 𝐼= = = 200 𝐴
loss due to the flow of eddy current called 𝑉 10 𝑋 103
plane of the coil inwards.
eddy current loss. It is minimized by using Power loss = 𝐼 𝑅 = (200) 𝑋 40 = 1.6 𝑋 106 𝑊
2 2
 As the rod moves from AB to DC in a time ‘dt’, the 1.6 𝑋 106
very thin laminations of transformer core.
area enclosed by the loop and hence the magnetic % of Power loss = = 0.8 = 𝟖𝟎 %
(ii) Copper loss : 2 𝑋 106
flux through the loop decreases.
 The primary and secondary coils in (ii) 𝑃 = 2 𝑀𝑊, 𝑅 = 40 Ω, 𝑉 = 100 𝑘𝑉 , then
 The change in magnetic flux in time ’dt’ is
transformer have electrical resistance. 𝑃 2 𝑋 10 6
𝑑Φ𝐵 = 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 (𝑙 𝑋 𝑣 𝑑𝑡) 𝐼= = = 20 𝐴
 When an electric current flows through them, 𝑉 100 𝑋 103
𝑑Φ𝐵
=𝐵𝑙𝑣 some amount of energy is dissipated due to Power loss = 𝐼 𝑅 = (20) 𝑋 40 = 0.016 𝑋 106 𝑊
2 2
𝑑𝑡 Joule’s heating and it is known as copper loss. 0.016 𝑋 106
% 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = = 0.008 = 𝟎. 𝟖 %
2 𝑋 106
 Thus it is clear that, when an electric power is 22. Obtain an expression for RMS value of alternating
current. 𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋 𝐼𝑚 2
transmitted at high voltage, the power loss is IRMS = √ = √
reduced to a large extent. RMS value of AC (𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 ) : 2𝜋 2
 So at transmitting point the voltage is increased  The root mean squae value of an alternating 𝑰𝒎
𝐈𝐑𝐌𝐒 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑰𝒎
and the corresponding current is decreased by current is defined as the square root of the mean √𝟐
using step-up transformer. At receiving point, the of the squares of all currents over one cycle.  Simillarly for alternating voltage, it can be shown
voltage is decreased and the current is increased Expression : that,
by using step-down transformer 𝑽𝒎
21. Obtain the expression for average value of 𝐕𝐑𝐌𝐒 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕 𝑽𝒎
√𝟐
alternating current.  RMS value of AC is also called effective value (𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓 )
Average or Mean value of AC : 23. Draw the phasor diagram and wave diagram for
 The average value of AC is defined as the average that current ‘𝒊’ leads the voltage ‘V’ by phase angle
of all values of current over a positive half-cycle or of ‘𝝓’
negative half-cycle. Phasor and wave diagram of ‘𝒊’ leads ‘V’ by ‘𝝓’
Expression :  The alternating current at any instant is  Let the alternating current and voltage at any
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 instant is,
 The sum of the squares of all currents over one 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
cycle is given by the area of one cycle of squared 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
wave.
 Consider an elementary area of thickness ‘𝑑𝜃’ in
the first half-cycle of the squared current wave.
Area of the element = 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃
 The average or mean value of AC over one  Area of one cycle of squared wave,
2𝜋
complete cycle is zero. Thus the average or mean 2𝜋
value is measured over one half of a cycle. = ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝐼𝑚 2 sin2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
0
 The alternating current at any instant is 0
2𝜋
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 1 − cos 2𝜃
= 𝐼𝑚 2 ∫ [ ] 𝑑𝜃
 The sum of all currents over a half-cycle is given 0 2
by area of positive half-cycle (or) negative half- [∵ cos 2𝜃 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝜃 ]
cycle. 𝐼𝑚 2 2𝜋 2𝜋
= [∫ 𝑑𝜃 − ∫ cos 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃] 24. Find out the phase relation ship between voltage
 Consider an elementary strip of thickness ‘𝑑𝜃’ in 2 and current in a pure resistive circuit.
0 0
positive half-cycle,
𝐼𝑚 2 sin 2𝜃 2𝜋 AC circuit containing pure resistor :
Area of the elementary strip = 𝑖 𝑑𝜃 = [𝜃− ]
 Then area of positive half-cycle, 2 2 0
2
𝜋
𝜋 𝐼𝑚 sin 4𝜋 sin 0
= [2𝜋 − −0+ ]
= ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐼𝑚 [− cos 𝜃]𝜋0 2 2 2
0
0 [∵ sin 0 = sin 4𝜋 = 0]
2
= − 𝐼𝑚 [cos 𝜋 − cos 0] = − 𝐼𝑚 [−1 − 1] = 2 𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑚
= [2 𝜋] = 𝐼𝑚 2 𝜋
 Then Average value of AC, 2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒  Hence,
𝐼𝑎𝑣 =
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝟐 𝑰𝒎  Let a pure resistor of resistance ‘R’ connected
𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 = √
𝐈𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝑰𝒎 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 across an alternating voltage source ‘𝑣’
𝝅  The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage
 For negative half-cycle ; 𝐈𝒂𝒗𝒈 = − 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕 𝑰𝒎
is given by,
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − (1)  Let ‘𝑖’ be the alternating current flowing in the 26. Find out the phase relation ship between voltage
 Let ‘𝑖’ be the alternating current flowing in the circuit due to this voltage, which induces a self and current in a pure capacitive circuit.
circuit due to this voltage, then the potential drop induced emf (back emf) across ‘L’ and it is given by AC circuit containing pure capacitor :
across ‘R’ is 𝑑𝑖
∈= − 𝐿 − − − − (2)
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖 𝑅 − − − − (2) 𝑑𝑡
 From Kirchoff’s loop rule, 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑅 = 0  From Kirchoff’s loop rule, 𝑣 − (−∈) = 0
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑅 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑣 = −∈
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑅 𝑑𝑖
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = − (− 𝐿 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑖
𝑅 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐿  Let a pure capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − − (3) 𝑑𝑡 across an alternating voltage source ‘𝑣’
𝑉
Here, 𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 → Peak value of AC 𝑉𝑚
𝑅 ∴ 𝑑𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡  The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage
𝐿 is given by,
 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that, the  Integrate on both sides,
applied voltage and the current are in phase with 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − (1)
𝑉𝑚  Let ‘ 𝑞 ’ be the instantaneous charge on the
each other. This is indicated in the phasor and 𝑖= ∫ sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
wave diagram. 𝐿 capacitor. The emf across the capacitor at that
𝑉𝑚 − cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑉𝑚 𝜋 instant is,
𝑖= ( )= [− sin ( − 𝜔𝑡)]
𝐿 𝜔 𝜔𝐿 2 𝑞
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 ∈= − − − − (2)
𝑖= sin (𝜔𝑡 − ) 𝐶
𝜔𝐿 2  From Kirchoff’s loop rule, 𝑣 − ∈= 0
𝝅
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒕 − ) − − − − (3) (𝑜𝑟) 𝑣 = ∈
𝟐 𝑞
𝑉
Where, 𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 → peak value of AC 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝜔𝐿 𝐶
 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that current ∴ 𝑞 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
lags behind the applied voltage by . This is
𝝅  By the definition of current,
𝟐 𝑑𝑞 𝑑(sin 𝜔𝑡)
indicated in the phasor and wave diagram. 𝑖= = 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 (cos 𝜔𝑡) 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑖 = 𝜔 𝐶 𝑉𝑚 sin ( + 𝜔𝑡) = sin ( + 𝜔𝑡)
25. Find out the phase relation ship between voltage 2 1
( ⁄𝜔 𝐶 ) 2
and current in a pure inductive circuit. 𝝅
𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝝎𝒕 + − ) − − − − (3)
AC circuit containing pure inductor: 𝑉𝑚
𝟐
where, = 𝐼𝑚 → Peak value of AC
(1⁄𝜔 𝐶 )
 From equation (1) and (3), it is clear that current
𝝅
leads the applied voltage by . This is indicated in
𝟐
the phasor and wave diagram.
Inductive reactance (𝑿𝑳 ) :

 Let a pure inductor of inductance ‘L’ connected  In pure inductive circuit, ‘𝜔 𝐿’ is the resistance
across an alternating voltage source ‘𝑣’ offered by the inductor and it is called inductive
 The instantaneous value of the alternating voltage reactance (𝑋𝐿 ). Its unit is ohm (𝜴)
is given by, 𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎 𝑳 = 𝟐 𝝅 𝒇 𝑳
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − (1)
Capacitive reactance (𝑿𝑪 ) : resistance, smaller the current with flat curve is  Then the instantaneous power is given by,
 In pure capacitive circuit, ‘1⁄𝜔 𝐶 ’ is the resistance obtained. 𝑃 = 𝑣 𝑖 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
offered by the capacitor and it is called capacitive 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 (sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 − cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙)
reactance (𝑋𝐶 ). Its unit is ohm (𝜴) 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 − sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙 )
1
𝟏 𝟏  Here the average of 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 over a cycle is and
𝑿𝑪 = = 2
𝝎𝑪 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 that of sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 is zero.
27. Explain resonance in series RLC circiuit.  Thus average power over a cycle is,
Resonance on series in RLC circuit : 1 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
 When the frequency of applied alternating source 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 ( cos 𝜙) = cos 𝜙
2 √2 √2
is increases, the inductive reactance ( 𝑿𝑳 ) 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓
increases, where as capacitive reactance (𝑿𝑪 ) Where, 𝑉𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝐼𝑅𝑀𝑆 → apparent power
decreases. 28. Define quality factor. Obtain an expression for it.
Definition : cos 𝜙 → power factor
 At particular frequency (𝜔 𝑅 ), 𝑿𝑳 = 𝑿𝑪 Special cases :
 Q - factor is defined as the ratio of voltage across
(i) For purely resistive circuit, 𝜙 = 0 and cos 𝜙 = 1
 At this stage, the frequency of applied source (𝜔𝑅 ) L (or) C to the applied voltage at resonance.
∴ 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺
is equal to the natural frequency of the RLC circuit, Expression :
 The current in the series RLc circuit becomes (ii) For purely inductive or capacitive circuit,
the current in the circuit reaches its maximum 𝜋
value. maximum at resonance. 𝜙=± and cos 𝜙 = 0. ∴ 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝟎
2
𝑋 −𝑋
 Then the circuit is said to be in electrical  Due to the increase in current, the voltage across (iii) For series RLC circuit, 𝜙 = tan−1 [ 𝐿 𝐶 ]
𝑅
resonance. The frequency at which resonance L and C are also increased, ∴ 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓
takes place is called resonant frequency.  This magnification of voltages at series resonance is
(iv) For series RLC circuit at resonance, 𝜙 = 0 and
 Thus at resonance, termed as Q - factor.
cos 𝜙 = 1. ∴ 𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶  By definition,
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐶 30. Write a note on wattful current and wattles current.
𝜔𝑅 𝐿 = 𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = Wattful current and Wattless current :
𝜔𝑅 𝐶 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
2
1 𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝑅 𝐿
𝜔𝑅 = 𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = =
𝐿𝐶 𝐼𝑚 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
 Hence the resonant angular frequency, 1 𝐿
1 𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝜔𝑅 = √𝐿 𝐶 𝑅
√𝐿 𝐶
 And resonant frequency, 𝟏 𝑳  Consider an AC circuit in which the voltage
𝑸 − 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = √
1 𝑹 𝑪 (𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 ) leads the current (𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 ) by phase angle ‘𝜙’
𝑓𝑅 =  Resolve the current in to two perpendicular
2 𝜋 √𝐿 𝐶  The physical meaning is that Q - factor indicates
Effects of series resonance : the number of times the voltage across L (or) C is components,
 When series resonance occurs, the impedance of greaterthan the applied voltage at resonance. (i) 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓 - Component along 𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺
the circuit is minimum and is equal to the 29. Obtain an expression for average power of AC over (ii) 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒔𝒊𝒏 - Component perpendicular to 𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺
resistance of the circuit. So the current in the a cycle. Discuss its special cases.  Here the component of current (𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓) which
circuit becomes maximum. Average power of AC : is inphase with the voltage is called ative
 (i.e.) At resonance, Z = R & 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑉
 Power of a circuit is defined as the rate of component. The power consumed by this
𝑅
consumption. It is given by the product of the component = 𝑽𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓 . It is known as
 The maximum current at resonance depends on wattfull current
the value of resistance (R) voltage and current.
 The alternating voltage and alternating current in  The other component of current which has a phase
 For smaller resistance, larger the current with angle of with the voltage is called reactive
sharper curve is obtained. But for larger the series RLC circuit at an instance are given by,
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 component. The power consumed by this current is
𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) zero. It is known as wattles current.
31. Define power factor in various ways. Give some Case (ii) :
examples for power factor.  When charge 𝑞 = 0 ; Current « 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 , the total
Power factor - Definitions : energy,
(i) The cosine of the angle lead or lag is called power 1 1
factor (power factor = = cos 𝜙) 𝑈 = 0 + 𝐿 𝐼𝑚2 = 𝐿 𝐼𝑚2
2 2
𝑅 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑞 𝑑
(ii) Power factor =
𝑍
= 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 [∵ 𝑖 = − =− (𝑄 cos 𝜔𝑡) = 𝑄𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡]
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑄
(iii) Power factor =
𝑉𝐼
= 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟  Hence, 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑄𝑚 𝜔 = 𝑚
√𝐿𝐶
Examples : 1 𝑄𝑚2 𝑄𝑚2
 For purely resistive circuit, 𝜙 = 0 and cos 𝜙 = 1 ∴ 𝑈= 𝐿 [ ] = − − − − (2)
2 𝐿𝐶 2𝐶
 For purely inductive or capacitive circuit,  Here the total energy is wholly magnetic
𝜋
𝜙=± and cos 𝜙 = 0 Case (iii) :
2
 For RLC circuit, power factor lies between 0 and 1  When charge = 𝑞 , Current = 𝑖, then the total
32. What are the advantages and disadvantages of AC energy,
over DC? 𝑞2 1
Advantages of AC over DC : 𝑈= + 𝐿 𝑖2
2𝐶 2
 The generation of AC is cheaper than that of DC  Here, 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 & 𝑖 = 𝑄𝑚 𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡. So
 When AC is supplied at higher voltages, the 𝑄𝑚2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 1
transmission losses are small compared to DC 𝑈= + 𝐿 𝑄𝑚2 𝜔2 sin2 𝜔𝑡
2𝐶 2
transmission. 1
 Since, 𝜔2 =
𝐿𝐶
 AC can easily be converted into DC with the help
𝑄𝑚2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 𝐿 𝑄𝑚2 sin2 𝜔𝑡
of rectifier. 𝑈= +
Disadvantages of AC over DC : 2𝐶 2 𝐿𝐶
2
𝑄𝑚 𝑄𝑚2
 Alternating voltages cannot be used for certain 𝑈= (𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔𝑡 + sin2 𝜔𝑡) = − − − (3)
application. (e.g) charging of batteries, 2𝐶 2𝐶
 From equation (1), (2) and (3) it is clear that the
electroplating, electric traction etc.,
total energy of the system remains constant
 At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work
with AC than DC.
33. Show that the total energy is conserved during LC
oscillations.
Conservation of energy LC oscillations :
 During LC oscillations, the energy of the system
oscillates between the electric field of the
capacitor and the magnetic field of the inductor.
 Although these two energies vary with time, the
total energy remains constant. (i.e)
𝑞2 1
𝑈 = 𝑈𝐸 + 𝑈𝐵 = + 𝐿 𝑖 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2𝐶 2
Case (i) :
 When the charge of in the ccapacitor ; 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑚
and the current through the inducor ; 𝑖 = 0
𝑄𝑚2 𝑄𝑚2
𝑈= +0= − − − − (1)
2𝐶 2𝐶
 The total energy is wholly electrical.
Electro magnetic damping : 𝑑 𝑑
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ∈= − (𝑁Φ𝐵 ) = − (𝑁 Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡)
 The armature of the galvanometer coil is wound 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
1.ANSWERS
Explain the applications of eddy currents (or) on a soft irom cylinder. = − 𝑁 Φ𝑚 (− sin 𝜔𝑡) 𝜔
Focault currents.  Once the armature is deflected, the relative motion ∈ = 𝑵 𝚽𝒎 𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − − − (1)
Induction stove : between the soft irom cylinder and the radial  When 𝜃 = 90°, then the induced emf becomes
 It is used to cook food quickly and safely with less magnetic field induces eddy current in the maximum and it is given by,
consumption. Below the cooking zone, there is a cylinder. ∈𝒎 = 𝑵 𝚽𝒎 𝝎 = 𝑵 𝑩 𝑨 𝝎 − − − − − (2)
tightly woind coil of insulated wire.  The damping force due to the flow of eddy current  Therefore the value of induced emf at that instant
 A suitable cooking pan is placing over the cooking brings the armature to rest immediately and the is then given by,
zone. galvanometer shows a steady deflection. ∈ = ∈𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − − − (3)
 When the stove is switched on, an AC flowing in  This is called electromagnetic damping.  Thus the induced emf varies as sine function of the
the coil produces high frequency alternating 2. Show mathematically that the rotation of a coil in a time angle and this is called sinusoidal emf or
magnetic field which induces very strong eddy magnetic field over one rotation induces an alternating emf.
currents in the cooking pan. alternating emf of one cycle.  If this alternating voltage is given to a closed
 The eddy currents in the pan produce so much of Induction of emf by changing relative orientation circuit, a sinusoidally varying current flows in it.
heat due to Joule heating which is used to cook the of the coil with the magnetic field : This current is called alternating current an is
food. given by,
Eddy current brake : 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 − − − − − (4)
 This types of brakes are generally used in high  where, 𝑰𝒎 → peak value of induced current
speed trains and roller coasters. 3. Elaborate the standard construction details of AC
 Strong electromagnets are fixed just above the generator.
rails.To stop the train, electromagnets are swiched AC generator - construction :
on. The magnetic field of these magnets induces  AC generator (alternator) is an energy conversion
eddy currents in the rails which oppose the device. It converts mechanical energy used to
movement of the train. This is eddy current linear rotate the coil or field magnet in to electrical
brake. energy.
 In some cases, the circular disc connected in train  It works on the principle of electromagnetic
is made to rotate in between the pole of a induction.
electromagnet. When there is a relative motion  It consists of two major parts stator and rotor.
between the disc and the magnet, eddy currents  In commercial alternators, the armature winding
are induced in the disc which stop the train. Ths is is mounted on stator and the field magnet on rotor
eddy current circular brake. Stator : It has three components
Eddy current testing : (i) Stator core (Armature) :
 It is one of the non - destructive testing methods to  Consider a rectangular coil of ‘N’ turns kept in a  It is made up of iron or steel alloy.
find defects like surface craks, air bubbles present uniform magnetic field ‘B’  It is a hollo cylinder and is laminated to
in a specimen.  The coil rotates in anti-clockwise direction with an minimize eddy current loss.
 A coil of insulated wire is given an alternating angular velocity ‘𝜔’ about an axis.  The slots are cut on inner surface of the core
electric current, so that it produces an alternating  Initially let the plane of the coil be perpendicular to accommodate armature windings.
magnetic field. to the field (𝜃 = 0) and the flux linked with the (ii) Armature windings :
 When this coil is brought near the test surface, coil has its maximum value. (i.e.) Φ𝑚 = 𝐵 𝐴  It the coil wound on slots provided in the
eddy current is induced in it, and the presence of  In time ‘t’, let the coil be rotated through an angle armature core. One or more than one coil may
defects caused the change in phase and amplitude 𝜃 (= 𝜔𝑡), then the total flux linked is be employed, depending on the type of
of the eddy current. 𝑁 Φ𝐵 = 𝑁 𝐵 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑁 Φ𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 alternator.
 Thus the defects present in the specimen are  According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced at
identified. that instant is,
Rotar :
 It consists magnetic field windings
 The magnetic poles are magnetized bhy DC source
 The ends of field windings are connected to a pair
of slip rings, attached to a common shaft about
which rotor rotates. Slip rings rotate along with
rotor.
 To maintain connection between the DC source
and field windings, two brushed are used which
continuously slide over the slip rings Construction :
4. Explain the working of a single - phase AC  It has 6 slots, cut in its inner rim. Each slot is 60
generator with necessary diagram. away from one another. six armature conductors
Single phase AC generator : are mounted in these slots.
 In a single phase AC generator, the armature  The conductors 1 - 4, 2 - 5 and 3 - 6 are joined in
conductors are connected in series so as to form a  Let the magnetic field rotate in clock-wise series to form coils 1, 2 and 3
single circuit which generates a single-phase direction.  So these coils are rectangular in shape and are
alternating emf and hence it is called single-phase  When the field magnet rotates through 90, the 120 apart from one another.
alternator. magnetic field becomes parallel to PQRS. The Working :
induced emf’s across PQ and RS would become
maximum. According to Flemming’s right hand
rule, the direction of induced emf for PQ is
downwards and for RS is upwards. Therefore the
current flows along PQRS. The point A in the graph
represents this maximum emf.
 When field magnet rotates 180, the field is again
perpendicular to PQRS and the induced emf
becomes zero. This is represented by point B
 When field magnet rotates 270, the field is again
Principle : parallel to PQRS, the induced emf is maximum but
 Electro magnetic induction the direction is reversed. Thus the current flows
Construction : along SRQP. This is represented by point C.
 Consider a stator core consisting of 2 slots in  On completion of 360, the induced emf becomes
which 2 armature conductor PQ and RS are zero and it is represented by the point D.  The initial position of the field magnet is
mounted to form single - turn rectangular loop  From the graph, it is clear that, when field magnet horizontal and field direction is perpendicular to
PQRS completes one rotation, the emf induced in PQRS is the plane of the coil - 1.
 Rotor has 2 salient poles with field windings which alternating in nature.  When it rotated from that position in clock-wise
can be magnetized by means of DC source. 5. How are the three different emfs generated in a direction, alternating emf ‘∈1 ’ in coil - 1 begins a
Working : three-phase AC generator? Show the graphical cycle from origin ‘O’
 The loop PQRS is stationary and is perpendicular representation of these three emfs.  When it rotated through 120, alternating emf ‘∈2 ’
to the plane of the paper. Three phase AC generator : in coil - 2 statrs at point ‘A’
 Assume the initial position of the field magnet is  If the AC generator consists three separate coils,  When it rotated through 240, alternating emf ‘∈3 ’
horizontal. At that instant, the direction of which would give three separate emfs, then it is in coil - 3 statrs at point ‘B’
magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the called three-phase generators.  Thus these emfs produced in the three phase AC
loop PQRS. The induced emf is zero. It is generator have 120 phase difference between one
represented by origin ‘O’ in the graph another.
6. Explain the principle , construction and working of  The emf induced in the primary coil ‘∈𝑃 ’ is almost
transformer. equal and opposite to the applied voltage ‘𝑉𝑃 ’ and
Transformer : is given by,
 It is a stationary device used to transform 𝑑Φ𝐵
𝑉𝑃 = ∈𝑃 = − 𝑁𝑃 − − − − (1)
electrical power from one circuit to another 𝑑𝑡
without changing its frequency.  The frequency of alternating magnetic flux is same
 It is done with either increasing or decreasing the as the frequency of applied voltage. Therefore
applied alternationg voltage with corresponding induced in secondary will also have same  The applied alternating voltage is given by,
decrease or increase of current in the circuit. frequency as that of applied voltage, 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − − (1)
 If the transformer converts an alternating current  The emf induced in the secondary coil ‘∈𝑆 ’ is,  Let ‘𝑖’ be the current in the circuit at that instant.
with low voltage in to an alternating current with 𝑑Φ𝐵  Hence the voltage developed across R, L and C
𝑉𝑆 = ∈𝑆 = − 𝑁𝑆 − − − − (2)
high voltage, it is called step-up transformer. 𝑑𝑡 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖 𝑅 ( 𝑉𝑅 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖)
 If the transformer converts an alternating current  Dividing equation (1) by (2), 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑖 𝑋𝐿 (𝑉𝐿 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 𝑖 𝑏𝑦 )
𝜋
with high voltage in to an alternating current with 𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝜋

2
= − − − − (3) 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖 𝑋𝐶 (𝑉𝐶 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑠 𝑖 𝑏𝑦 )
low voltage, it is called step-down transformer. 𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷 2
Principle : Where, K  transformation ratio  The phasor diagram is drawn by representing
 Mutual induction between two coils.  For an ideal transformer, current along ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐼 , 𝑉𝑅 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 , 𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐵
Construction : input power = output power ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
and 𝑉𝐶 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑂𝐶
𝑉𝑃 𝑖𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝑖𝑆
𝑽𝑺 𝒊𝑷
= − − − − (4)
𝑽𝑷 𝒊𝑺
 From equation (3) and (4), we have
𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝒊𝑷
= = =𝑲 − − − − (5)
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷 𝒊𝑺
(i) If K > 1 (or) 𝑵𝑺 > 𝑵𝑷 , then 𝑽𝑺 > 𝑽𝑷 and 𝒊𝑺 < 𝒊𝑷
This is step up transformer in which voltage
increased and the corresponding current is
 It consists of two coils of high mutual inductance decreased.
wound over the same transformer core made up of (ii) If K < 1 (or) 𝑵𝑺 < 𝑵𝑷 , then 𝑽𝑺 < 𝑽𝑷 and 𝒊𝑺 > 𝒊𝑷
silicone steel. This is step down transformer in which voltage
 To avoid eddy current loss, the core is generally decreased and the corresponding current is
laminated  If 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 , then the net voltage drop across LC
increased.
 The alternating voltage is applied across primary combination is (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 ) which is represented by
Efficiency of a transformer :
coil (P), and the output is taken across secondary ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷
 The efficiency (𝜂) of a transformer is defined as
coil (S)  By parallogram law, the diagonal 𝑂𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ gives the
the ratio of the useful output power to the input
 The assemnbled core and coils are kept in a power. resultant voltage ‘𝑣’
container which is filled with suitable medium for 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
better insulation and cooling purpose. 𝜂= 𝑋 100 % ∴ 𝑣 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 ) 2
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Working : 7. Derive an expression for phase angle between the 𝑣 = √𝑖 2 𝑅2 + (𝑖 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑖 𝑋𝐶 ) 2
 The alternating voltage given to the primary coil, applied voltage and current in a series RLC circuit. 𝑣 = 𝑖√ 𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2
set up an alternating magnetic flux in the Series RLC circuit : 𝑣
laminated core. (𝑜𝑟) 𝑖= − − − (4)
 Consider a circuit containing a resistor of √ 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) 2
2
 As the result of flux change, emf is induced in both resistance ‘R’, a inductor of inductance ‘L’ and a 𝒗
primary and secondary coils. capacitor of capacitance ‘C’ connected across an (𝑜𝑟) 𝒊= − − − (𝟓)
𝒁
alternating voltage source.
 Where, 𝒁 = √ 𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )
𝟐 is called Stage -1 : Stage - 6 :
impedance of the circuit, which refers to the  Consider the capacitor is fully charged with  This state of the circuit is similar to the initial state
effective opposition to the circuit current by the maximum charge 𝑄𝑚 . So that the energy stored in but the difference is that the capacitor is charged
series RLC circuit. 𝑄𝑚2 in opposite direction. So it will starts discharge
the capacitor is maximum (i.e.) 𝑈𝐸 =
 From the phasor diagram, the phase angle 2𝐶 through inductor in anti-clockwise direction.
 As there is no current in the inductor, 𝑈𝐵 = 0  The total energy is the sum of the the electrical
between ‘𝑣’ and ‘𝑖’ is found out by
𝑽𝑳 − 𝑽𝑪 𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪  Therefore the total energy is wholly electrical. and magnetic energies.
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝝓 = = − − − (𝟔) Stage - 2 : Stage - 7 :
𝑽𝑹 𝑹
 The capacitor now begins to discharge through the  The processes are repeated in opposite direction
Special cases :
inductor that establishes current ‘𝑖’ clockwise and finally the circuit returns to the initial state.
(i) When 𝑋𝐿 > 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆.
It means that 𝒗 leads 𝒊 by 𝜙. direction.  Thus when the circuit goes through these stages,
(𝒊. 𝒆. ) 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − 𝝓)  This current produces a magnetic field around the an alternating current flows in the circuit.
This circuit is inductive. inductor and energy stored in the inductor which  As this process is repeated again and again, the
𝐿 𝑖2
(ii) When 𝑋𝐿 < 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆. is given by 𝑈𝐵 = electrical oscillations of definte frequency are
2 generated. These are known as LC oscillations.
It means that 𝒗 lags behind 𝒊 by 𝜙.  As the charge in the capacitor decreases, the
(𝒊. 𝒆. ) 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓) 9. Compare the electromagnetic oscillations of LC
energy stored in it also decreases and is given by
This circuit is capacitive circuit with the mechanical oscillations of block-
𝑞2
(iii) When 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 , the phase angle 𝝓 𝒊𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐. It 𝑈𝐸 = 2𝐶
spring system to find the expression for angular
means that 𝒗 inphase with 𝒊  Thus the total energy is the sum of electrical and frequency of LC oscillatiors mathematically.
(𝒊. 𝒆. ) 𝒗 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 & 𝒊 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 magnetic energies. Analogies between LC oscillations and simple
This circuit is resistive Stage - 3 : harmonic oscillations :
8. What are called LC oscillations? Explain the  When the charge in the capacitor becomes zero, its Electromagnetic
Mechanical oscilations
generation of LC oscilations. energy becomes zero (i.e.) 𝑈𝐸 = 0 oscilations
LC oscillations :  In this stage maximum current (𝐼𝑚 ) flows through This circuit consists This circuit consists spring
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a inductor and its energy becomes maximum. (i.e.) inductor and capacitor and block
pure inductor of inductance L and a capacitor of 𝐿𝐼2 Charge ‘q’ Displacement ‘𝑥’
capacitance C, the energy oscillates back and forth 𝑈𝐵 = 2𝑚 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑥
Current 𝑖 = Velocity 𝑣 =
between the magnetic field of the inductor and the  Thus the total energy is wholly magnetic. 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
electric field of the capacitor. Stage - 4 : Inductance ‘L’ Mass ‘m’

1
 Thus the electrical oscillations of definite  Eventhough the charge in the capacitor is zero, the Reciprocal if capacitance Force constant ‘𝑘’
𝐶
frequency are generated. These oscillations are current will continue to flow in the same direction. 1 1 1
Electrical energy = [ ] 𝑞 2
Potential energy = 𝑘𝑥 2
called LC oscillations.  Since the current flow is in decreasing magnitude, 2 𝐶 2
1 1
Generation of LC oscillations : the capacitor begins to charge in the opposite Magnetic energy = 𝐿𝑖 2 Kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 2
 Whenever energy is given to a circuit containing a direction. Electro magnetic energy Mechanical energy
pure inductor of  Thus a part of the energy is transferred from the 1 1 1 1 1
= [ ] 𝑞 2 + 𝐿𝑖 2 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2
inductance L and a inductor back to the capacitor. The total energy is 2 𝐶 2 2 2
capacitor of capacitance the sum of the electrical and magnetic energies. Angular frequency of LC oscillations :
C, the energy oscillates Stage - 5 :  We know that the angular frequency of
back and forth between  When the current in the circuit reduces to zero, 𝒌
mechanical oscilations, 𝝎 = √
the magnetic field of the the capacitor becomes fully charged in the 𝒎
𝟏
inductor and the electric opposite direction.  From the above table, 𝒌 → & 𝒎 →𝑳
𝑪
field of the capacitor.  Thus the energy stored in the capacitor becomes  Thus the angular frequency of LC oscillations is,
 Thus the electrical maximum and the energy stored in the inductor is 𝟏
oscillations of definite frequency are generated. zero. 𝝎=
These oscillations are called LC oscillations. √𝑳 𝑪
 So the total energy is wholly electrical.
NAME :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
cilah®K‹ Ïšyh®nghš V¡f‰W§ f‰wh®
filanu fšyh jt®
bršt® K‹ t¿at® ã‰gJ nghš (f‰wt®K‹) V§»¤ jhœªJ ã‹W«
fšé¡ f‰wtnu ca®ªjt®. fšyhjt® Ïêªjt®.

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 5 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
6. Define electromagnetic spectrum.
PART - II 2 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS PART - III 3 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
 The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves
1. Define displacement current. in terms of wavelength or frequency is called 1. Discuss briefly the experiment conducted by Hertz
 The displacement current can be defined as the electromagnetic spectrum. to produce and detect electromagnetic spectrum.
current which comes into play in the region in 7. Define dispersion. Hertz experiment :
which the electric field and the electric flux are  When white light is made to pass through the  The theoritical prediction of existence of
changing with time prism, it is split in to its seven xonstituent colours. electromagnetic wave by Maxwell was
 That is when ever the change in electric field takes This phenomenon is known as dispersion of light. experimentally confirmed by Henrich Hertz.
place, displacement current is produced.  The patern of colours obtanined on the screen  His experimental set up consists of two metal
2. Define electro magnetic waves. after dispersion is called spectrum. electrodes which are made of small spherical
 Electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical waves 8. Define emission spectra. metals.
which move with speed equals to the speed of light  The spectrum obtained from a self luminous  These are connected to larger spheres and the
(in vacuum) source of light is called emission spectrum. ends of them are connected to induction coil which
3. Give the modified form of Ampere’s circuital law.  Each sourch has its own characteristic emission produce very high emf.
 If 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐷 are the conduction and displacement spectrum.  Due to this high voltage, the air between the
current, then the modified Ampere’s circuital law 9. Define absorbtion spectra. electrodes gets ionized and spark is produced.
is givent by,  When light is allowed to pass through an  A receiver (ring electrode) kept at a distance also
∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 ) absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained gets spark which implies that the energy is
is known as absorbtion spectrum. transmitted from electrode to the receiver as a
𝑑  It is the characteristic of absorbing substance. wave known as electromagnetic waves.
(𝑜𝑟) ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 10. Define Fraunhofer lines.  If the receiver is rotated by 90, then no spark is
 This is also known as Ampere - Maxwell’s law.  When the spectrum obtained from the Sun is observed by the receiver.
4. Write a note on Gauss’s law in magnetism. examined, it consists of large number of dark lines  This confirms that electromagnetic waves are
 Maxwell’s second equation is called as Gauss’ s law (line absorbtion spectrum). transverse waves as predicted by Maxwell.
for magnetism. It states that the surface integral of  These dark lines in the solar spectrum are known  Hertz detected radio waves and also computed the
magnetic field over a closed surface is zero. as Fraunhofer lines. speed of radio waves which is equal to the speed
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝑩 𝒅𝑨 = 𝟎 11. What are the uses of Fraunhofer lines? of light (3 𝑋 108 𝑚 𝑠 −1 ).
 The absorption spectra for various materials are 2. Explain the sources of electromagnetic waves.
 It implies that the magnetic lines of force form a compared with the Fraunhofer lines in the solar Sources of electromagnetic waves :
continuous closed path. It means that no isolated spectrum, which helps to identifying elements  Any stationary source charge produces only
magnetic monopole exists. present in the Sun’s atmosphere. electric field. When the charge moves with
5. Write a note on Ampere -Maxwell law. 12. Why electro magnetic waves are non mechanical? uniform velocity, it produces steady current which
 It is modified Ampere’s circuital law This law  Electromagnetic waves do not require any gives rise magnetic field around the conductor in
relates the magnetic field around any closed path medium for propagation. So electromagnetic wave which charge flows.
toe the conduction current and displacement is a non-mechanical wave.  If the charged particle accelerates, in addition to
current through that path. electric field, it also produces magnetic field. Here
 Mathematically, both electric and magnetic fields are time varying
∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 ) fields.
 The linked electric and magnetic fields have wave
𝑑 property which propagate in the direction
(𝑜𝑟) ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑡 perpendicular to the plane containing electric and
⃗⃗ → magnetic field
Here, 𝑩 magnetic field vectors.
 It implies that both conduction and displacement  This is known as electromagnetic waves and it is
current produces magnetic field transverse in nature.
 Any oscillatory motion is also an accelerating 5. Write a note on infra red rays. 8. Write a note on X - rays.
motion, so when the charge oscillates about their Infra red rays : X - rays :
mean position, it produces electromagnetic waves.  It is produced from hot bodies and also when the  It is produced when there is a sudden deceleration
 Let, electric and magnetic vectors are given by, molecules undergo rotational and vibrational of high speed electrons at high atomic number
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸𝑜 sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) transitions. target.
−7 −3
𝐵𝑥 = 𝐵𝑜 sin(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)  Wavelength range : 8 𝑋 10 𝑚 − 5 𝑋 10 𝑚  Also by electronic transitions among the
then the direction of propagation of  Frequency range : 4 𝑋 1014 𝐻𝑧 − 6 𝑋 1010 𝐻𝑧 innermost orbits of atoms.
electromagnetic waves are along Z -axis  It provides electrical energy to satellites by means  Wavelength range : 1 𝑋 10−13 𝑚 − 1 𝑋 10−8 𝑚
 Here the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is of solar cells  Frequency range : 3 𝑋 1021 𝐻𝑧 − 1 𝑋 1016 𝐻𝑧
equal to the frequency of the source (oscillation  It is used in,  It has more penetrating power than UV - rays.
charge) (i) producing dehydrated fruits  It is used in,
 In free space or vacuum, the ratio between 𝑬𝒐 and (ii) green housed to keep the plants warm, (i) studying structures of inner atomic electron
𝑩𝒐 is equal to the speed of electromagnetic wave (iii) heat therapy for muscular pain or sprain shell and crystal structures.
which is equal to speed of light (c) (iv) TV remote as a signal carrier, to look through (ii) detecting fracture, diseased organs, formation
𝑬𝒐 haze fof or mist of bones and stones, observing the progress of
𝒄 = night vision or infrared photography
𝑩𝒐 (v) healing bones
3. Write a note on Radio waves. 6. Write a note visible light. (iii) detect faults, cracks, flaws and holes in a
Radio waves : Visible light : finished metal product
 It is produced by oscillators in electric circuits.  It is produced by incandescent bodies and also it is 9. Write a note on gamma rays.
−4
 Wavelength range : 1 𝑋 10 𝑚 − 1 𝑋 10 𝑚 4 radiated by excited atoms in gases. Gamma rays :
−7 −7
9
 Frequency range ∶ 3 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 − 3 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 4  Wavelength range : 4 𝑋 10 𝑚 − 7 𝑋 10 𝑚  It is produced by transitionsof atomic nuclei and
14 14
 They obey reflection and diffraction  Frequency range : 7 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 − 4 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 decay of certain elementary particles.
 It is used in,  It obeys the laws of reflection, refraction,  Wavelength range : 1 𝑋 10−14 𝑚 − 1 𝑋 10−10 𝑚
(i) radio and television communication systems interference, diffraction, polarization,  Frequency range : 3 𝑋 1022 𝐻𝑧 − 3 𝑋 1018 𝐻𝑧
(ii) cellular phones to transmit voice photo -electric effect and photographic action.  They produce chemical reactions on photographic
communication in the ultra high frequency  It can be used to, plates, fluorescence, ionization, diffraction.
band (i) study the structure of molecules  Its penetrating power is higher than X-rays and
4. Write a note on infra microwaves. (ii) arrangement of electrons in eternal shells of UV rays.
Microwaves : atoms and  It has no charge but harmful to human body.
 It is produced by electromagnetic oscillators in (iii) sensation of our eyes  It is used in,
electrical circuits 7. Write a note on ultra violet rays. (i) providing information about the structure of
−3
 Wavelength range: 1 𝑋 10 𝑚 − 3 𝑋 10 𝑚 −4 Ultra violet rays : atomic nuclei
11
 Frequency range : 3 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 − 1 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 9  It is produced by Sun, arc and ionized gases. (ii) radio therapy for the treatment of cancer and
−10 −7
 They obey reflection and polarization  Wavelength range : 6 𝑋 10 𝑚 − 4 𝑋 10 𝑚 tumour
17 14
 It is used in,  Frequency range : 5 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 − 7 𝑋 10 𝐻𝑧 (iii) food industry to kill pathogenic micro
(i) radar system for aircraft navigation,  It has less penetrating power organism
(ii) speed of the vehicle,  It can be absorbed by atmospheric ozone and
(iii) microwave oven for cooking harmful to human body.
(iv) very long distance wireless communication  It is used to,
through satellites (i) destroy bacteria
(ii) sterilizing the surgical instruments,
(iii) burglar alarm
(iv) detect the invisible writing, finger prints and
(v) study of molecular structure
Equation - 3 :  To understand how the changing electric field
PART - IV 5 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  This is Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic produces magnetic field, let us consider the
1. Write down Maxwell equations in integral form. induction. situation of charging a parallel plate capacitor.
Maxwel equations - Integral form :  This law relates electric field with the changing
 Electrodynamics can be summarized into four magnetic flux.
basic equations, known as Maxwell’s equations.  This equation implies that, the line integral of the
 Maxwell’s equations completely explain the electric field around any closed path is equal to the
behaviour of charges, currents and properties of rate of change of magnetic flux through the closed
electric and magnetic fields. path bounded by the surface.
 This equation ensures the existence of  Mathematically it is expressed as,  The electric current passing through the wire is
electromagnetic waves. 𝒅𝚽𝑩 the conduction current ‘𝐼𝐶 ’
∮𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 − − − − (3)
Eqution - 1 : 𝒅𝒕  This current generates magnetic field around the
 It is nothing but Gauss’s law Here, ⃗𝑬 → electric field wire connected across the capacitor.
 It relates the net electric flu to net electric charge Equation - 4 :  To calculate the magnetic field at a point ‘P’ near
enclosed in a surface.  It is modified Ampere’s circuital law and also the wire, let us consider an amperian loop which
 Mathematically, Gauss law is expressed as, called as Ampere - Maxwell’s law. encloses the surface 𝑆1 . Thus from Ampere
𝑸  This law relates the magnetic field around any circuital law,
∮𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅
⃗ . 𝒅𝑨 − − − − (1)
𝜺𝒐 closed path toe the conduction current and ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 − − − − (1)
 Here, 𝑬 ⃗ → electric field displacement current through that path.
𝑆1
𝑸𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 → charge enclosed  Mathematically,  Suppose the same loop is enclosed by balloon
 This equation is true for both discreate or ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 ) shaped surface 𝑆2 , then the boundaries of two
continuous distribution of charges surfaces are same but shape of the enclosing
 It also indicates that the electric field lines start 𝑑
(𝑜𝑟) ∮ ⃗⃗⃗𝐵 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝐶 + 𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜 ∫ ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 . 𝑑𝐴⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ surfaces are different.
from positive change and terminate at negative 𝑑𝑡  Ampere’s law does not depend on shape of the
charge. Here, ⃗𝑩⃗ → magnetic field
enclosing surface and hence the integrals will give
 The electric field lines do not form a continuous  It implies that both conduction and displacement the same answer.
closed path (i.e.) isolated positive or negative current produces magnetic field  But there is no current in between the plates of
charges can exist. 2. Explain the modification of Ampere’s circuital law. the capacitor, the magnetic field on the surface is
Equation - 2 : Maxwell’s corrections to Ampere’s circuital law : zero. So the magnetic field at ‘P’ is zero. Hence
 It has no name. But this law os similar to Gauss law  According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
in electrostatics. Hence this law can be called as induction, the change in magnetic field produces ⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 0 − − − − (2)
Gauss’s law in magnetism. an electric field. Mathematically 𝑆2
 According to this law, the surface integral of 𝜕 𝜕  Here there is an inconsistency between equation
⃗⃗⃗ = −
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 Φ𝐵 = − ∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
magnetic field over a closed surface is zero. 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 (1) and (2). Maxwell resolved this inconsistency
 Mathematically, this law can be expressed as,  It implies that the electric field 𝐸⃗ is induced along as follows.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝟎
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝑨 a closed loop by the changing magnetic flux Φ𝐵 in  Due to external source, the capacitor gets charged
∮𝑩 − − − − (2)
the region encircled by the loop. up because of current flowing through the
Here, 𝑩⃗⃗ → magnetic field  The converse of this statement, that is change in capacitor. This produces an increasing electric
 This equation implies that the magnetic field lines electric flux produces magnetic field is explained field between the capacitor plates.
form a continuous closed path. (i.e.) no isolated by Maxwell.  This time varying electric field (or flux) existing
magnetic monopole exists 𝜕 𝜕 between the plates of the capacitor also produces
∮𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = −
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 Φ𝐸 = − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 a current known as displacement current.
 This is known as Maxwell’s law of induction.  From Gauss ‘s law,
𝑞
Φ𝐸 = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝐴 =
𝜀𝑜
 The change in electric flux is, 4. Explain in detail the emission spectra. 5. Explain in detail the absorption spectra.
𝑑Φ𝐵 1 𝑑𝑞 1 Emission spectra : Absorption spectra :
= = 𝐼
𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑑𝑡 𝜀𝑜 𝑑  The lighe from self luminous source gives  When light is allowed to pass through an
𝒅𝚽𝑩 emission spectrum. absorbing substance, then the spectrum obtained
∴ 𝑰𝒅 = 𝜺𝒐  Each source has its own characteristic emission is known as absorption spectrum.
𝒅𝒕
Where,
𝑑𝑞
= 𝑰𝒅 → Displacement current spectrum.  It is characteristic of the absorbing substance.
𝑑𝑡
 The emission spectrum can be divided in to three  Absorption spectrum is classified into three types;
 The displacement current can be defined as the
types ; (i) Continuous absorption spectrum :
current which comes in to play in the region in
(i) Continuous emission spectra :  When the light is passed through a
which the electric field and the electric flux are
changing with time.  Incandescent solids, liquids gives medium, it is dispersed by the prism, we
continuous spectra. get continuous absorption spectrum.
 So Maxwell modified Ampere’s law as
 It consists of wavelengths containing all  For instance, when we pass white light
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝒐 𝑰 = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝑰𝒅 ) − − − (3) the visible colours ranging from violet to through a blue glass plate, it absorbs
red. every thing except blue. This is an
 Where, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝑑 → total current (e.g.) Spectrum obtained from carbon arc, example for continuous absorption
3. Explain the properties of electromagnetic waves. incandescent filament lamp, etc spectrum.
Properties of electromagnetic waves : (ii) Line emission spectra : (ii) Line absorption spectrum :
 Electromagnetic waves are produced by any  Light from excited atoms gives line  When light from incandescent lamp is
accelerated charge. spectrum. They are also known as passed through cold gas, the spectrum
 They do not require any medium for propagation. discontinuous spectra. obtained through the dispersion due to
So electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical  The line spectr are sharp lines of definite the prism is line absorption spectrum.
wave. wavelengths or frequencies.  For example, when light from carbon arc
 They are transverse in nature, (i.e) the oscillating  It is different for different elements is made to pass through sodium vapour, a
electric field vector, oscillation magnetic field (e.g.) spectra of atomic hydrogen, helium, continuous spectrum of carbon arc with
vector and direction of propagation are mutually etc two dark lines in the yellow rigion of
perpendicular to each other. (iii) Band emission spectra : sodium vapour is obtained.
 They travel with speed of light in vacuum or free  The light from excited molecules gives
space and it is given by, band spectrum. (iii) Band absorption spectrum :
𝟏  It consists of several number of very  When the white light is passed through
𝒄= = 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏 closely spaced spectral lines which the iodine vapour, dark bands on
√ 𝜺𝒐 𝝁𝟎
overlapped together forming specific continuous bright background is
 In a medium with permittivity ‘𝜀’ and permeability obtained. This is known as band
coloured bands.
‘𝜇’, the speed of electromagnetic wave is less than absorption spectra.
 This spectrum has a sharp edge at one
speed in free space or vacuum. (i.e.) 𝒗 < 𝒄
end and fades out at the other end.  It is also obtained when white light is
Hence, refractive index of the medium is,
𝒄  Band spectrum is the characteristic of the passed through diluted solution of blood
𝝁 = = √ 𝜺𝒓 𝝁𝒓 molecule. or chlorophyll or through certain
𝒗
 They are not deflected by electric or magnetic (e.g.) spectra of hydrogen gas, ammonia solutions of organic and inorganic
field. gas in the discharge tube, etc compounds.
 They show interference, diffraction and
polarization.
 Like other waves, electromagnetic waves also
carry energy, linear momentum and angular
momentum.
NAME :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
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PG ASST (PHYSICS)
12 PHYSICS UNIT - 6 (VOLUME II) 2, 3, & 5 MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
2 & 3 mark questions and answers 5. Distinguish convex mirror and concanve mirror?
Convex mirror Concave mirror
1. Define reflection. It is a spherical mirror in It is a spherical mirror in
 The bouncing back of light in to the same medium which reflection takes which reflection takes
when it encounters a reflecting surface is called place at the convex place at the concave
reflection of light. surface and other surface surface and other surface
2. State the laws of reflection. is silvered is silvered
(1) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to 6. Define (1) centre of curvature, (2) Radius of
the surface all are coplanar. curvature (3) pole, (4) principal axis, (5) focus or 7. Define paraxial rays and marginal rays.
(2) The angle of incidence (𝑖) is equal to angle of focal point, (6) focal length, (7) focal plane Paraxial rays :
reflection (𝑟). That is 𝒊 = 𝒓 (1) Centre of curvature :  The rays travelling very close to the principal axis
3. What is the angle of deviation due to reflection?  The centre of the sphere of which the mirror and make small angle with it are called paraxial
 The angle between the incident and deviated ray is a part is called centre of curvature (C) rays.
is called angle of deviation (d) of the light ray. (2) Radius of curvature : Marginal rays :
 The radius of the sphere of which the  The rays travelling far away from the principal
spherical mirror is a part is called the radius axis and fall on the mirror far away from the pole
of curvature (R) of the mirror. are called as marginal rays.
(3) Pole (or) Optic centre :
 The middle point on the spherical surface of 8. Obtain the relation between focal length (f) and
the mirror (or) the geometrical centre of the radius of curvature (R) of the spherical mirror.
 From figure (a), mirror is called the pole (P) of the mirror. Relation between f and R :
𝑑 = 180° − (𝑖 + 𝑟) [𝑖 = 𝑟] (4) Principal axis :
𝒅 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° − 𝟐 𝒊  The line joining the pole (P) and the centre of
 The angle between the incident ray and the curvature (C) is called the principal axis (or)
reflecting surface is called glancing angle (𝛼). optical axis of the mirror.
 From figure (b), (5) Focus or Focal point :
𝑑 = ∠𝐵𝑂𝑌 + ∠𝑌𝑂𝐶 = 𝛼 + 𝛼 = 𝟐 𝜶  Light rays travelling parallel and close to the
4. What are the characteristics of the image formed principal axis when incident on a spherical
by the plane mirror? mirror, converge at a point for concave mirror
Characteristics of the image of the plane mirror : or appears to diverge from a point for convex
 Virtual, erect and laterally inverted. mirror on the principal axis. This point is
 Size of image is equal to the size of the object. called the focus or focal point (F) of the mirror  Let ‘C’ be the centre of curvature of the mirror.
 The distance of the image behind the mirror is (6) Focal length :  Consider a light ray parallel to the principal axis
equal to the distance of object in front of it.  The distance between the pole (P) and the and incident at ‘M’ on the mirror.
 If an object placed between two plane mirrors Focus (F) is called the focal length (f) of the  After reflection, it will passes through principal
inclined at an angle 𝜃 , then the number (n) of mirror. focus ‘F’
images formed is, (7) Focal plane :  The line ‘CM’ is the normal to the mirror at ‘M’
360°
(1) If [ ] even, then ; 𝑛 = [
360°
− 1 ] for  The plane through the focus and  From the figure (a),
𝜃 𝜃 perpendicular to the principal axis is called angle of incidence ; 𝑖 = ∠𝐴𝑀𝐶
objects placed symmentrically or the focal plane of the mirror. angle of reflection ; 𝑟 = ∠𝐶𝑀𝐹
unsymmentrically.
360° 360°
 By the law of reflection. we have, 𝒊 = 𝒓
(2) If [ ] odd, then ; 𝑛 = [ − 1 ] for  Thus, , ∠𝑀𝐶𝑃 = 𝑖 & ∠𝑀𝐹𝑃 = 2 𝑖
𝜃 𝜃
objects placed symmentrically  From ∆𝑀𝐶𝑃 and ∆𝑀𝐹𝑃
360°
(3) If [ ] odd, then ; 𝑛 = [
360°
] for objects 𝑃𝑀
𝜃 𝜃 tan 𝑖 =
placed unsymmentrically 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝑀  The incident light is taken from left to right.  When light travels from denser to rarer medium it
tan 2 𝑖 =
𝑃𝐹  All the distances are measured from the pole. deviates away normal. Hence the angle of
 As the angles are small, we have tan 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖 and  The distance measured to the right of pole along deviation ; 𝒅 = 𝒓 − 𝒊
tan 2 𝑖 ≈ 2 𝑖 . So the principal axis are taken as positive
𝑃𝑀  The distance measured to the left of pole along the
𝑖 = − − − − − (1)
𝑃𝐶 principal axis are taken as negative
𝑃𝑀  Heights measured in the upward perpendicular
2𝑖 = − − − − − (2) 16. Define simultaneous reflection or simultaneous
𝑃𝐹 direction to the principal axis are taken as positive
 Put eqn (1) in eqn (2)  Heights measured in the downward perpendicular refraction.
𝑃𝑀 𝑃𝑀 direction tothe principal axis are taken as negative  The phenomenon in which a part of light from a
2 =
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐹 11. Define refractive index. source undergoing reflection and other part of
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝑃𝐹 = 𝑃𝐶  Refractive index (n) of a transparent medium is light from same source undergoing refraction at
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝑓= 𝑅 defined as the ratio of speed of light in vacuum the same surface is called simultaneous
𝑹 reflection or simultaneous refraction.
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒇= − − − − − (3) (or air) to the speed of light on that medium.
𝟐 𝒄  Such surfaces are available as partially silvered
𝒏= glasses.
𝒗
9. How we locate the image formation in spherical 12. Define optical path. 17. What is the principle of reversiability?
mirrors?  Optical path of a medium is defined as the  The principle of reversibility states that, light will
Image formation in spherical mirrors: distance (d) light travels in vacuum in the same be follow exactly the same path if its direction of
time it travels a distance (d) in the medium. travel is reversed.
 If ‘n’ is the refractive index of the medium. then  This is true for both reflection and refraction.
optical path is ; d = n d 18. Define relative refractive index.
sin 𝑖 𝑛
13. What is called refraction?  From Snell’s law, = 2
sin 𝑟 𝑛1
 Refraction is passing through of light from one 𝑛2
a) A ray parallel to the principal axis after reflection optical medium to another optical medium  Here the term [ ] is called relative refractive
𝑛1
will pass through or appear to pass through the through a boundary. index of second medium with respect to the first
principal focus. 𝒏
14. State the laws of refraction (Snell’s law). medium and it is denoted by 𝑛21 (i,e.) 𝒏𝟐𝟏 = 𝟐
𝒏𝟏
b) A ray passing through or appear to pass through  The incident ray, refracted ray and normal are all
the principal focus, after reflection will travel 19. Give the useful relations obtained from the
coplanar.
parallel to the principal axis, concept of relative refractive index.
 The ratio of angle of incident ‘i’ in the first medium
c) A ray passing through the centre of curvature (1) Inverse rule :
to the angle of reflection ‘r’ in the second medium 𝟏 𝒏𝟏 𝟏
retraces its path after reflection as it is a case of is equal to the ratio of refractive index of the 𝒏𝟏𝟐 = (𝒐𝒓) = 𝒏
normal incidence. second medium ‘𝑛2 ’ to that of the refractive index 𝒏𝟐𝟏 𝒏𝟐 [ 𝟐]
𝒏𝟏
d) A ray falling on the pole will get reflected as per of the first medium ‘𝑛1 ’ (2) Chain rule :
law of reflection keeping principal axis as the sin 𝑖 𝑛2 𝒏𝟑 𝒏𝟑 𝒏𝟏
normal. = 𝒏𝟑𝟐 = 𝒏𝟑𝟏 𝑿 𝒏𝟏𝟐 (𝒐𝒓) = 𝑿
sin 𝑟 𝑛1 𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
10. What are the Cartesian sign conventions for a (𝒐𝒓) 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 20. Obtain the equation for apparent depth.
spherical mirrors? 15. What is the angle of deviation due to refraction? Apparent depth :
Cartesian sign convention : Angle of deviation due to refraction :
 The angle between the incident and deviated ray
is called angle of deviation.
 When light travels from rarer to denser medium it
deviates towards normal. Hence the angle of
deviation ; 𝒅 = 𝒊 − 𝒓
 We observe that the bottom of a tank filled with  The entire light is reflected back in to the denser 26. What are mirage and looming?
water with water appears raised as shown. medium itself, This phenomenon is called total Mirrage :
 Light OB from the object ’O’ passes through water internal reflection.  In hot places, air near the ground is hotter than air
get refracted in air 23. What are the conditions to achieve total internal at a height. Hot air less dense.
 The refracted ray BC appers to come from ‘I’ reflection?  The refractive index of air decreases with
which is just above ‘O’ (i.e) the object is appears to  Light must travel from denser to rarer medium decrease in density.
be at ‘I’  Angle of incidence must be greater than critical  Because of this, the air near hot ground acts as
 Refractive index of water = 𝒏𝟏 angle (𝑖 > 𝑖𝐶 ) rarer medium than the air at height.
Refractive index of air = 𝒏𝟐 24. Obtain an expression for critical angle.  When light from tall object like tree, passes
Angle of incidence in water = 𝒊 Critical angle: through a medium whose refractive index
Angle of refraction in air = 𝒓  When light ray passes from denser medium to decreases towards the ground, it successively
Original depth of tank = 𝑫𝑶 = 𝒅 rarer medium, it bends away from normal. So deviates away from the normal and undergoes
Apparent depth of tank = 𝑫𝑰 = 𝒅 𝑖<𝑟 total internal reflection when the angle of
 Here 𝒏𝟏 > 𝒏𝟐 . Hence , 𝒊 < 𝒓  As 𝑖 increases, 𝑟 also increases rapidly and at a incidence near the ground exceeds the critical
 By Snell’s law in product form, certain stage it just gracing the boundary angle.
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 (𝑟 = 90°). The corresponding anle of incidence is  This gives an illusion as if the light comes from
 As the angles aresmall, we can write called critical angle (𝑖𝐶 ) somewhere below the ground.
sin 𝑖 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑖 & sin 𝑟 ≈ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑟  From Snell’s law of product form  For of the shaky nature of the layers of air,the
Hence, 𝑛1 ta𝑛 𝑖 = 𝑛2 tan 𝑟 − − − − (1) 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 observers feels as wet surface beneath the object.
 In ∆𝐷𝑂𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐷𝐼𝐵,  When 𝑖 = 𝑖𝐶 , then 𝑟 = 90°  This phenomenon is called mirage.
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 90° Looming :
ta𝑛 𝑖 = = 𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 = 𝒏𝟐  In cold places, the refractive index increases
𝐷𝑂 𝑑
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝒏𝟐 towards the ground, because the temperature of
ta𝑛 𝑟 = =  𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 =
𝐷𝐼 𝒅 𝒏𝟏 air close to the ground is less than the air at
 Put this in eqn (1)  If the rarer medium is air, then 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏 and let height.
𝐷𝐵 𝐷𝐵 𝒏𝟏 = 𝒏 , then  So in cold regions like glaciers and frozen lakes
𝑛1 [ ] = 𝑛2 [  ] 𝟏
𝑑 𝒅 and seas, the reverse effect of mirage will happen.
1 1 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝑪 =
𝒏  Hence an inverted image is formed little above the
𝑛1 = 𝑛2  𝟏
𝑑 𝒅 (or) 𝒊𝑪 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 ( ) surface. This phenomenon called looming.
𝒏𝟐 𝒏 27. Write a note on the prisms making using of total
∴ 𝒅 = 𝒅
𝒏𝟏 25. Obtain the reason for glittering of diamond. internal reflection.
 For air ; 𝒏𝟐 = 𝟏 and let 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 , then apparent Glittering of diamond : Prisms making using use of total internal reflection
depth  The glittering of diamond is due to the total
𝒅 internal reflection of light happens inside the
𝒅 =
𝒏 diamond.
 Thus the bottom appears to be elevated by (𝑑 − 𝑑  )  The refractive index of diamond is 2.417 and the
𝒅 𝟏 critical angle is 24.4
𝒅 − 𝒅 = 𝒅 − = 𝒅 (𝟏 − )
𝒏 𝒏  Diamond has large number of cut planed faces.
21. Define critical angle.  So light entering the diamond get total internally
 The angle of incidence in the denser medium for reflected from many cut faces before getting out.
which the refracted ray graces the boundary is  This gives a sparkling effect for diamond.  Prisms can be designed to reflect light by 90° or by
called critical angle 𝒊𝑪 180° by making use of total internal reflection.
22. Define total internal reflection.  In both cases, the critical angle of material of the
 If the angle of incidence in the denser medium is prism must be less than 45° .This is true for both
greater than the critical angle, there is no crown glass and flint glass
refraction possible in the rarer medium.
28. What is Snell’s window (or) Radius of illumination? 30. Write a note on an endoscope. 33. Define power of a lens.
Snell’s window : Endoscope :  The power ‘P’ of a lens is defined as the reciprocal
 When a light source like electric bulb is kept  An endoscope is an instrument used by doctors of its focal length (𝒇)
inside a water tank, the light from the source which has a bundle of optical fibres that are used 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑷 = = (𝒏 − 𝟏) [ − ]
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
travels in all direction inside the water. to see inside a patient’s body.
 The light that incident on water surface at an  It works on the phenomenon of total internal  The unit of power is diopter (D)
angle less than the critical angle will undergo reflection.  Power is positive for converging lens and negative
refraction and emerge out from the water.  It is inserted in to the body through mouth or nose for diverging lens.
 The light incident at an angle greater than the or a special hole made in the body. 34. Define the power of a mirror.
critical angle will undergo total internal reflection.  The necessary instruments for operation is  The power of a mirror is negative of the reciprocal
𝟏
 But the light incident at critical angle graces the attached at their ends. of its focal length. (i. e.) 𝑷 =
−𝒇
surface and hence the entire surface of water 31. Define primary and secondary focal points.  This is because, a concave mirror which has
appears illuminated when seen from outside. Primary focal point (𝐅𝟏 ) : negative focal length is a converging mirror with
 On the otherhand, when light entering water from positive power.
outside is seen from inside the water, the view is 35. Define silvered lenses.
restricted to a particular angle equal to the critical  If one of the surfaces of a lens is silvered from
angle 𝑖𝐶 outside, then such a lens is said to be a silvered
 The restricted illuminated circular area is called lens. It is a combination of a lens and a mirror.
Snell’s window.  It is defined as a point, where an object should be
 A silvered lens is basically a modified mirror and
29. Write a note on optical fibres. placed to give paraller emergent ray to the
its power is given by
Optical fibre: principal axis
𝑷 = 𝟐 𝑷𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 + 𝑷𝒎𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
 For convergent lens such an object is real and for 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
divergent lens, the object is virtual. (𝒐𝒓) [ ] = [ ]+ [ ]
−𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒔 −𝒇𝒎𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
 Here, 𝑃𝐹1 = 𝑓1 → principal focal length 36. Write a note on prism.
Secondary focus point (𝐅𝟐 ) :  A prism is a triangular block of glass or plastic
which is bounded by the three plane faces not
parallel to each other.
 Its one face is grounded which is called base.
 The other two faces are polished which are called
 Transmitting signals from one end to another end refracing faces of the prism.
due to the phenomenon of total internal reflection  It is defined as a point, where all the parallal rays  The angle between the two refracting faces is
is called optical fibres. travelling close to the principal axis converge to called angle of prism (A)
 It consists of inner part called core and outer part form an image on the principal axis. 37. Define angle of minimum deviation.
called cladding or sleeving  For convergent lens such an image is real and for  The angle between incident ray and emergent ray
 The refractive index of the core must be higher divergent lens, the imagt is virtual. is called angle of deviation (d).
than that of the cladding.  Here, 𝑃𝐹2 = 𝑓2 → secondary focal length  When the angle of incidence increases, the angle
 Signal in the form of light is made to incident 32. What are the sign conventions for lens on focal of deviation decreases, reaches a minimum value
inside the core-cladding boundary at an angle length? and then continues to increase.
greater than the critical angle.  The sign of focal length is not decided on the  The minimum value of angle of deviation is called
 Hence it undergoes repeated total internal direction of measurement of the focal length from angle of minimum deviation (D).
reflections along the length of the fibre without the pole of the lens as they have two focal lengths 38. What is called dispersion of light?
undergoing any refraction. on either side of the lens.  The splitting of white light in to its constituent
 Even while bending the optic fibre, it is done in  The focal length of thin lens is taken as positive for colours is called dispersion of light.
such a way that the condition for total internal a converging lens and negative for a diverging lens  This band of colours of light is called its spectrum.
reflection is ensured at every reflection.  The spectrum consists seven colours in the order
VIBGYOR
39. Define dispersive power. 45. How are rainbows formed?
 Dispersive power (𝜔) is the ability of the material Formation of rainbows :
of the prism to cause prism.  Rainbows are formed due to dispersion of sunlight
 It is defined as the ratio of the angular dispersion through droplets of water during rainy days.
for the extreme colours to the deviation for any  Rainbow is observed during rainfall or after
mean colour. rainfall or looking water fountain provided the
40. What is Rayleigh’s scattering? Sun is at the back of the observer.
 The scattering of light by atoms and molecules  When sun light falls on the water drop suspended
which have size (𝒂) very less than that of the air, it splits in to its constituent seven colours.
wavelength ( 𝜆 ) of light is called Rayleigh’s Here waterdrops acts as a glass prism.
scattering.  Primary rainbow is formed when one total
(i.e) condition for Rayleigh’s scattering is 𝒂 <<  internal reflection takes place inside the drop.
41. State Rayleigh’s scattering law. The angle of view for violet to red in primary
 The intensity (I) of Rayleigh’s scattering is rainbow is 40 to 42
inversely proportional to fourth power of  Secondary rainbow is formed when two total
wavelength (𝜆) internal reflection takes place inside the drop.
𝟏 The angle of view for violet to red in primary
𝑰 ∝ 𝟒
𝝀 rainbow is 52 to 54
42. Why does sky appears blue colour?
 According to Rayleigh’s scattering, shorter
wavelenths (violet) scattered much more than
longer wavelengths (Red)
 As our eyes are more sensitive to blue colour than
violet, the sky appears blue during day time.
43. Why does sky and Sun looks reddish during sunset
and sunrise?
 During sunset or sunrise, the light from Sun
travels a greater distance through atmosphere.
 Hence the blue light which has shorter wavelength
is scattered away and less scattered red light of
longer wavelength reaches observer
 This is the reason for reddish appearance of sky
and Sun during sunrise and sunset.
44. Why does cloud appears as white colour?
 When size of particles or water drops are greater
than the wavelength of light (𝑎 ≫ 𝜆), the intensity
of scattering is equal for all the wavelength.
 Since clouds contains large amount of dust and
water droplets, all the colours get equally
scattered irrespective of wavelength. This is the
reason for the whitish appearance of cloud.
 But the rain clouds appear dark because of the
condensation of water droplets on dust paricles
that make the cloud become opque.
𝑣 𝑣  The light passing through one cut in the wheel get
5 - Mark Question & Answer (𝑜𝑟) = −1
𝑢 𝑓 reflected by a mirror M kept at a long distance ‘d’
1. Derive the mirror equation and the equation for  Dividing both sides by 𝑣 (about 8 km) from the toothed wheel.
lateral magnification. 1 1 1  If the toothed wheel was not rotating, the reflected
= −
Mirror equation : 𝑢 𝑓 𝑣 light from the mirror would again pass through
 The equation which gives the relation between 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 the same cut and reach the observer through G.
+ = − − − − − (𝟒)
object distance (𝑢), image distance (𝑣) and focal 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇 Working :
length (𝑓) is of spherical mirror is called mirror  This is called mirror equation. It is also valid for  The angular speed of the rotation of the toothed
equation. convex mirror. wheel was increased until light passing through
Lateral magnification: one cut would completely be blocked by the
 It is defined as the ratio of the height of the image adjacent tooth. Let that angular speed be 𝜔
(ℎ1 ) to the height of the object (h)..  The total distance traveled by the light from the
 From eqn (1) toothed wheel to the mirror and back to the wheel
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 is ‘2d’ and the time taken be ‘t’.
=  Then the speed of light in air,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴 2𝑑
− ℎ1 −𝑣 𝑣=
= 𝑡
ℎ −𝑢  But the angular speed is,
 Let an object AB is placed on the principle axis of a  Hence magnification, 𝜃
concave mirror beyond the centre of curvature ‘C’ 𝒉𝟏 𝒗 𝜔=
 The real and inverted image 𝐴1 𝐵1 is formed 𝒎= =− − − − − (𝟓) 𝑡
𝒉 𝒖  Here 𝜃 is the angle between the tooth and the slot
between C and F  Using eqn (4)
 By the laws of reflection, which is rotated by the toothed wheel within that
𝒉𝟏 𝒇−𝒗 𝒇 time ‘t’ . Then,
angle of incidence (𝑖) = angle of reflection (𝑟) 𝒎= = = − − (𝟔)
𝒉 𝒇 𝒇 − 𝒖 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
∠𝐵𝑃𝐴 = ∠𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 𝜃=
2. Describe the Fizeau’s method to determine speed 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑡ℎ + 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠
 From figure, ∆ 𝐵𝑃𝐴 and ∆ 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1 are similar
of light. 2𝜋 𝜋
triangles. So 𝜃= =
Fizeau’s method : 2𝑁 𝑁
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝑃𝐴1
= − − − − − (1)  Hence angular speed,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐴 𝜋
 Also ∆ 𝐷𝑃𝐹 and ∆ 𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐹 are similar triangles. So ( ) 𝜋
𝜔= 𝑁 =
𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑡 𝑁𝑡
= [𝑃𝐷 = 𝐴𝐵] 𝜋
𝑃𝐷 𝑃𝐹 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑡 =
1 1 1
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐹 𝑁𝜔
= − − − − − (2)  Therefore the speed of light in air,
𝐴𝐵 𝑃𝐹
 From eqn (1) and (2), 2𝑑 2𝑑
𝑣= = 𝜋
𝑃𝐴1 𝐴1 𝐹 𝑡 ( )
= 𝑁𝜔
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹 𝟐𝒅𝑵𝝎
𝑃𝐴1 𝑃𝐴1 − 𝑃𝐹 𝒗=
= − − − − (3) 𝝅
𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐹  The speed of light in air was determined as,
 By applying sign conventions, 𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟗𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝑃𝐴 = −𝑢 ; 𝑃𝐴1 = −𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐹 = −𝑓  The light from the source S was first allowed to
−𝑣 − 𝑣 − ( −𝑓) fall on a partially silvered glass plate G kept at an
= angle of 45 to the vertical.
−𝑢 −𝑓
𝑣 𝑣−𝑓  The light then allowed to pass through a rotating
(𝑜𝑟) = toothed-wheel with N -teeth and N -cuts.
𝑢 𝑓  The speed of rotation of the wheel could be varied
through an external mechanism.
3. Obtain the equation for radius of illumination (or) 4. Derive the equation for acceptance angle and sin 𝑖𝑎 1
=
Snell’s window. numerical aperture of optical fibe. √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛3
Radius of Snell’s window : Acceptance angle :
 Light is seem from a point ‘A’ at a depth ‘d’  To ensure the critical angle incidence in the core- √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin 𝑖𝑎 = = √
 Applying Snell’s law in product form at point ‘B, cladding boundary inside the optical fibre, the 𝑛3 𝑛32
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑛2 sin 90° light should be incident at a certain angle at the
𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 = 𝑛2 ene of the optical fibre while entering in to it. This 𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
𝑛2 𝒊𝒂 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 [√ ]
(𝑜𝑟) sin 𝑖𝐶 = − − − (1) angle is called acceptance angle. 𝒏𝟑𝟐
𝑛1
 If the outer medium is air, then 𝑛3 = 1 . The
acceptance angle becomes,
𝒊𝒂 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (√𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐 )
 Light can have any angle of incidence from zero to
𝒊𝒂 with the normal at the end of the optical fibre
forming a conical shape called acceptance cone.
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,  The term (𝑛3 sin 𝑖𝑎 ) is called numerical aperture
𝐶𝐵 𝑅  Applying Snell’s law at point ‘A’, (NA) of optical fibre
sin 𝑖𝐶 = = − − − (2) sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1
𝐴𝐵 √𝑅 + 𝑑 2
2 = − − − − − (1) 𝑵𝑨 = 𝒏𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒂 = √𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐
sin 𝑟𝑎 𝑛3
 Compare eqn (1) and (2)
𝑅 𝑛2  To have total internal reflection inside optical 5. Derive the equation for lateal displacement of light
= fibre, the anle of incidentce at the core-cladding passing through a glass slab.
√𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 𝑛1 interface at B should be atleast critical angle (𝑖𝐶 ) Refraction through a glass slab :
𝑅2 𝑛2 2  Appliying Snell’s law at point ‘B’
(𝑜𝑟) = ( )
𝑅2 + 𝑑 2 𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝐶 𝑛2
2
𝑅 + 𝑑 2
𝑛1 2 =
(𝑜𝑟) = ( ) sin 90° 𝑛1
𝑅 2 𝑛2 𝑛2
(𝑜𝑟) sin 𝑖𝐶 = − − − − − (2)
𝑑2 𝑛1 2 𝑛1
1+ 2 = ( )  From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 , 𝑖𝐶 = 90° − 𝑟𝑎
𝑅 𝑛2
𝑑2 𝑛1 2 𝑛12  Then eqn (2) becomes,
= ( ) − 1 = −1 𝑛2
𝑅2 𝑛2 𝑛22 sin(90° − 𝑟𝑎 ) =
𝑛1
𝑑2 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛2
= (𝑜𝑟) cos 𝑟𝑎 =
𝑅2 𝑛22 𝑛1
𝑅2 𝑛22
(𝑜𝑟) = 2 𝑛2 2  Thickness of glass slab = t
𝑑2 𝑛1 − 𝑛22 ∴ s𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎 = √1 − cos 2 𝑟𝑎 = √1 − ( ) Refractive index of glass = n
𝑛22 𝑛1
𝑅2 = 𝑑 2 [ 2 ]  The perpendicular distance ‘CE’between refracted
𝑛1 − 𝑛22 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ray and incident ray at C gives the lateral
s𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎 = √ = displacement (L).
𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝑛12 𝑛1
∴ 𝑹=𝒅√  𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐵𝐶𝐸 ,
𝒏𝟏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟐𝟐  Put this in eqn (1), 𝐿
sin 𝑖𝑎 𝑛1 sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) =
 If the rarer medium outsideis air, then 𝑛2 = 1 and = 𝐵𝐶
let 𝑛1 = 𝑛 , then √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 𝑛3 𝐿
𝟏 ( ) 𝐵𝐶 =
𝑛1 sin(𝑖 − 𝑟)
𝑹=𝒅 [ ]
√𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐵𝐶𝐹,  Put the values of 𝑖 and 𝑟 in eqn (1)  Hence
𝑡 𝑛1 (𝛼 + 𝛽) = 𝑛2 (𝛽 − 𝛾) 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
cos 𝑟 = − = − − − (1)
𝐵𝐶 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛1 𝛽 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛2 𝛾 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑅1
𝑡 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝛽 − 𝑛1 𝛽  For refracting surface ②, the light goes from
𝐵𝐶 =
cos 𝑟 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑛1 𝛼 + 𝑛2 𝛾 = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 𝛽 𝑛2 𝑡𝑜 1 . Hence
 Hence,  Put 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 , we have 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝐿 𝑡 − 1 = − − − (2)
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅2
= 𝑛1 [ ] + 𝑛2 [ ] = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ ]
sin(𝑖 − 𝑟) cos 𝑟 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶  Adding equation (1) and (2), we get,
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒊 − 𝒓) 𝑛 1 𝑛 2 𝑛 2 − 𝑛1
𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 𝑛1 − 𝑛2
𝑳 =𝒕 [ ] (𝑜𝑟) + = − + − 1 = +
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒓 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐶 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅1 𝑅2
 Using Cartesian sign convension, we get 𝑛1 𝑛1 1 1
 Therfore lateral displacement depends on, − = (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) [ − ]
(1) thickness of the glass slab 𝑃𝑂 = −𝑢 ; 𝑃𝐼 = +𝑣 ; 𝑃𝐶 = +𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑛1 𝑛2 𝑛2 − 𝑛1 1 1 (𝑛2 − 𝑛1 ) 1 1
(2) angle of incidence ∴ + = − = [ − ]
6. Derive equation for refraction at single spherical −𝑢 𝑣 𝑅 𝑣 𝑢 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝒏𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 − 𝒏𝟏
surface. (𝒐𝒓) − = − − − (2) 𝟏 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 − = ( − 𝟏) [ − ] − − − (𝟐)
Refraction at single spherical surface :  Here rarer medium is air and hence 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 and 𝒗 𝒖 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
let the refractive index of second medium be  If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at
𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 . Therefore the forcus of the lens. Thus, for 𝑢 = ∞ , 𝑣 = 𝑓
𝒏 𝟏 𝒏− 𝟏 Then equation becomes,
− = − − − (𝟑) 1 1 𝑛2 1 1
𝒗 𝒖 𝑹 − = ( − 1) [ − ]
7. Obtain Lens maker formula and metion its 𝑓 ∞ 𝑛1 𝑅1 𝑅2
significance. 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
= ( − 𝟏) [ − ] − − − (𝟑)
Lens maker’s formula : 𝒇 𝒏𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
 A thin lens of refractive index 𝑛2 is placed in a  Here first medium is air and hence 𝒏𝟏 = 𝟏 and
medium of refractive index 𝑛1 let the refractive index of second medium be
 Let 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 be radii of curvature of two 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒏 . Therefore
 Refractive index of rarer medium = 𝑛1 spherical surfaces ① and ② respectively 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Refractive index of spherical medium = 𝑛2 = (𝒏 − 𝟏) [ − ] − −(𝟒)
𝒇 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Centre of curvature of spherical surface = 𝐶  The above equation is called lens maker’s
Point object in rarer medium = 𝑂 formula.
Point image formed in denser medium = 𝐼  By comparing eqn (2) and (3)
 Apply Snell’s law of product form at the point N 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑛1 sin 𝑖 = 𝑛2 sin 𝑟 − = − − − − − − (𝟓)
𝒗 𝒖 𝒇
 Since the angles are small, we have,
 This equation is known as lens equation..
sin 𝑖 ≈ 𝑖 k‰W« sin 𝑟 ≈ 𝑟
8. Derive the equation for thin lens and obtain its
∴ 𝑛1 𝑖 = 𝑛2 𝑟 − − − − (1)
magnification.
 𝐿𝑒𝑡, ∠𝑁𝑂𝑃 = 𝛼, ∠𝑁𝐶𝑃 = 𝛽, ∠𝑁𝐼𝑃 = 𝛾, then
 Let P be pole of the lens and O be the Point object. Magnification of thin lens :
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁
tan 𝛼 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛼 =  Here 𝐼1 be the image to be formed due the
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝑂
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁 refracton at the surface ① and 𝐼 be the final image
tan 𝛽 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛽=
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 obtanined due the refracton at the surface ②
𝑃𝑁 𝑃𝑁  We know that, equation for single spherical surface
tan 𝛾 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝛾 = 𝑛2 𝑛1 𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼 − =
 From figure , 𝑖 = 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝑣 𝑢 𝑅
𝛽 = 𝑟 + 𝛾 (or) 𝑟 = 𝛽 − 𝛾  For refracting surface ①, the light goes from
𝑛1 𝑡𝑜 𝑛2 .
1
 Let an object 𝑂𝑂 is placed on the principal axis  Let us consider two lenses ① and ② of focal  The angle between two refraction faces is called
with its height perpendicular to the principal axis. lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 placed co-axially in contact with angle of the prism ‘A’
 The ray 𝑂1 𝑃 passing through the pole of the lens each other.
goes undeviated.  Let the object is placed at ‘O’ beyond the principal
 But the ray parallel to principal axis, after focus of ① on the principal axis.
refraction it passes through secondary focus ‘F’  It forms an image at 𝐼1
 At the point of intersection of these two rays, an  This image 𝐼1 acts as an object for lens ② and
inverted, real image 𝐼𝐼1 is formed. hence the final image is formed at ‘I’
 Height of object ; 𝑂𝑂1 = ℎ  Writing the lens equation for lens ①
Height of image ; 𝐼𝐼1 = 𝒉𝟏 1 1 1
− = − − − − (1)
 The lateral magnification (m) is defined as the 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑓1
ration of the heiht of the image to that of the  Writing the lens equation for lens ②
object. 1 1 1
− = − − − − (2)
𝐼𝐼1 𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓2
𝑚= − − − − (1)  Adding equation (1) and (2)  Here, ‘PQ’ be incident ray, ‘QR’ be refracted ray
𝑂𝑂1
 ∆𝑃𝑂𝑂1 and ∆𝑃𝐼𝐼1 are similar triangles . So , 1 1 1 1 1 1 and ‘RS’ be emergent ray.
− + − = +  The angle between incident ray and emergent ray
𝐼𝐼1 𝑃𝐼 𝑣1 𝑢 𝑣 𝑣1 𝑓1 𝑓2
= 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 is called angle of deviation (d)
𝑂𝑂1 𝑃𝑂 − = + − − − (𝟑)  Let QN and RN be the normal drawn at the points
 Using Cartesian sign convension, 𝒗 𝒖 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
Q and R
−𝒉𝟏 𝑣  If this combination acts as a single lens of focal
𝑚= = lenth ‘F’, then, ,  The incident and emergent ray meet at a point M
𝒉 −𝑢  From figure, ∠ 𝑀𝑄𝑅 = 𝑑1 = 𝑖1 − 𝑟1
𝒉𝟏 𝒗 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒎= = − − − − (𝟐) − = − − − (𝟒) and ∠ 𝑀𝑅𝑄 = 𝑑2 = 𝑖2 − 𝑟2
𝒉 𝒖 𝒗 𝒖 𝑭  Then total angle of deviation,
 The magnification is negative for real image and  Compare eqn (3) and (4)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑑 = 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
positive for virtural image. = + − − − (𝟓) 𝑑 = (𝑖1 − 𝑟1 ) + (𝑖2 − 𝑟2 )
 Thus for convex lens, the magnification is 𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐
𝑑 = (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 ) − (𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) − − − (1)
negative, and for concave lens, the magnification is  For any number of lenses,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏  In the quadrilateral AQNR, ∠𝑄 = ∠𝑅 = 90° .
positive.
= + + + +⋯ Hence
 Combining the lens equation and magnification 𝑭 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟑 𝒇𝟒
𝐴 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
equation, we get  Let 𝑷𝟏 , 𝑷𝟐 , 𝑷𝟑 , 𝑷𝟒 … be the power of each lens,
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐴 = 180° − ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 − − − (2)
𝒉𝟏 𝒇 then the net power of the lens combination,
𝒎= =  In QNR,
𝒉 𝒇+ 𝒖 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 + 𝑷𝟒 + ⋯
 Let 𝒎𝟏 , 𝒎𝟐 , 𝒎𝟑 , 𝒎𝟒 … be the magnification of 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 180°
𝒉𝟏 𝒇 − 𝒗 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = 180° − ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 − − − (3)
(𝒐𝒓) 𝒎= = each lens, then the net magnification of the lens
𝒉 𝒇  From eqn (2) and (3)
combination,
9. Derive the equation for effective forcal length for 𝐴 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 − − − − (4)
𝒎 = 𝒎𝟏 𝑋 𝒎𝟐 𝑋 𝒎𝟑 𝑋 𝒎𝟒 𝑋 …
lenses in contact.  Put eqn (4) in eqn (1),
10. Derive the equation for angle of deviation
Focal length of lenses in contact : 𝒅 = (𝒊𝟏 + 𝒊𝟐 ) − 𝑨 − − − −(5)
produced by af prism and thus obtain the equation
for refractive index of material of the prism.  Thus the angle of deviation depends on,
Angle of deviation (d) : (1) the angle of incidence (𝑖1 )
 Let ‘ABC’ be the section of triangular prism. (2) the angle of the prism (A)
 Here face ‘BC’ is grounded and it is called base of (3) the material of the prism (n)
the prism. (4) the wavelength of the light ()
 The other two faces ‘AB’ and ‘AC’ are polished
which are called refracting faces.
Angle of minimum deviation (D) : 11. What is dispersion? Obtain the equation for 𝐴+𝛿
[ ] 𝐴+𝛿
 A graph is plotted between the angle of incidence dispersive power of a medium. 2
n= =
along x-axis and angle of deviation along y-axis. Dispersion : 𝐴 𝐴
[ ]
 From the graph, as angle of incidence increases,  Splitting of white light into its constituent colours 2
is called dispersion. n𝐴 = 𝐴+𝛿
the angle of deviation decreases, reaches a
 The coloured band obtained due to dispersion is (or) 𝛿 = n 𝐴 − 𝐴
minimum value and then continues to increase.
called spectrum. ∴ 𝜹 = (𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (2)
Dispersive power :  Thus, angle of deviation for violet and red light,
𝜹𝑽 = (𝐧𝑽 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (3)
𝜹𝑹 = (𝐧𝑹 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (4)
 The angular dispersion is given by,
𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 = (n𝑉 − 1) 𝐴 − (n𝑅 − 1) 𝐴
𝛿𝑉 − 𝛿𝑅 = n𝑉 𝐴 − A − n𝑉 𝐴 + A
𝜹𝑽 − 𝜹𝑹 = (𝐧𝑽 − 𝐧𝑹 ) 𝑨 − − − − − (5)
 Let 𝜹 be the angle of deviation for mean ray
(yellow) and n be the corresponding refractive
 The minimum value of angled of deviation is index, then
called angle of minimum deviation (D). 𝜹 = (𝐧 − 𝟏) 𝑨 − − − − − − (6)
 At minimum deviation,  Dispersive power (𝝎) is the ability of the material  By definition, dispersive power
(1) 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 of the prism to cause dispersion. 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜹𝑽 − 𝜹𝑹
𝜔= =
(2) 𝑟1 = 𝑟2  It is defined as the ration of the angular 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜹
dispersion for the extreme colours to the (n𝑉 − n𝑅 ) 𝐴
(3) Refracted ray ‘QR’ is parallel to the base ‘BC’ 𝜔=
of the prism. deviation for any mean colour. (n − 1) 𝐴
Refractive index of the material of the prism (n) :  Let A be the angle of prism and D be the angle of (𝐧𝑽 − 𝐧𝑹 )
𝝎= − − − − − − − (𝟕)
 At angle of minimum deviation, minimum deviation, then the refractive index of (𝐧 − 𝟏)
𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖 the material of the prism is  Dispersive power is a dimensionless quantity. It
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟 𝐴+𝐷 has no unit. It is always positive.
sin [ ]
 Put this in equations (4) and (5) n= 2
𝐴
𝐴= 𝑟+ 𝑟 =2𝑟 sin [ ]
2
𝑨  If the angle of the prism is small in the order of
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒓= − − − − − − (6)
𝟐 10 then it is called small angle prism. In this
and 𝐷 = (𝑖 + 𝑖) − 𝐴 = 2 𝑖 − 𝐴 prism, the angle of deviation also become small.
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝑖 = 𝐴 + 𝐷  Let A be the angle of prism and 𝛿 be the angle of
𝑨+𝑫
𝒊= − − − − − − (7) minimum deviation, then the refractive index
𝟐 𝐴+𝛿
 Then by Snell’s law , sin [ ]
2
sin 𝑖 n= − − − − (1)
n= 𝐴
sin 𝑟 sin [ ]
2
𝑨+𝑫  Since A and 𝛿 are small, we may write,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 [ ]
𝐧= 𝟐 − − − − (𝟖) 𝐴+𝛿 𝐴+𝛿
𝑨 sin [ ] ≈ [ ]
𝐬𝐢𝐧 [ ] 2 2
𝟐 𝐴 𝐴
sin [ ] ≈ [ ]
2 2
 Put this in eqn (1),
NAME :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
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f‰wtD¡F všyh ehL« brhªj ehlhF«. všyh CU« brhªj CuhF«. Ïjid
bjçªJ« xUt‹ Ïw¡F« tiu Tl¥ go¡fhkš ÏU¥gJ Vndh?

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
2 & 3 mark questions and answers  Maxwell proposed electromagnetic theory of light. 9. State Huygen’s principle.
 According to electromagnetic wave theory, light is Huygen’s principle :
1. What are the salient features of corpuscular an electromagnetic wave which is transverse in  Each point of the wavefront is the source of
theory of light? nature carrying electromagnetic energy. secondary wavelets which spreading out in all
Corpuscular theory :  No medium is necessary for the propagation of directions with speed of the wave.
 Sir Isaac Newton proposed corpuscular theory of electromagnetic waves.  The envelope to all this wavelets gives the
light.  All the phenomenon of light could be successfully position and shape of the new wavefront at a later
 According this theory, light is emitted as tiny, explained by electromagnetic theory. time.
massless and perfectly elastic particles called  But the interaction of light with matter like 10. Define interference.
corpuscles. photoelectric effect, Compton effect could not be  The phenomenon of superposition of two light
 As the corpuscles are very small, the source of explained by this theory. waves which produces increase in intensity at
light does not suffer appreciable loss of mass even 4. Write a short note on quantum theory of light. some points and decrease in intensity at some
if it emits light for a long time. Quantum theory of light : other points is called interference of light.
 They travel with high speed and they are  By extending Max Plank quantum ideas, Albert 11. What is phase of a wave?
unaffected by the force of gravity. So their path is Einstein proposed quantum theory of light.  Phase is the angular position of a vibration.
a straight line.  According to quantum theory, light is not 12. Give the relation between phase difference and
 The energy of light is the kinetic energy of these continuous but it propagated in the form of path difference.
corpuscles. discrete packets of energy called photon.  In the path of the wave, one wavelength 
 When they impinge on the retina of the eye, the  Each photon has energy ‘E’ of corresponds to a phase of 2 
vision is produced. The different size of the 𝑬=𝒉𝝂  Hence the path difference 𝛿 corresponds to a
corpuscles is the reason for different colours of Here 𝒉 →Plank’s constant( 𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 𝑱𝒔) phase difference 𝜙 is
light. 5. What is Dual nature of light ? 𝝀
 A light has both wave as well as particle nature 𝜹= 𝝓
 The reflection of light is due to repulsion of the 𝟐𝝅
corpuscles by the medium and refraction of light and hence it is said to have dual nature. 13. Whar are called coherent sources?
is due to the attraction of the courpuscles by the (1) Light propagated as a waves  Two light sources are said to be coherent, if they
medium. (2) Light interacts with matter as a particle produce waves which have same phase or
 This theory could not explain, why speed of light is 6. Write a note on wave nature of light. constant phase difference, same frequency or
lesser in denser medium than rarer medium and Wave nature of light : wavelength, same waveform and preferably same
also interference, diffraction and polarization.  Light is transverse electromagnetic wave. amplitude.
2. Write a note on wave theory of light.  The wave nature of light was confirmed by the 14. Can two independent monochromatic sources acts
Wave theory of light : experiments on interference and diffraction. as coherent sources?
 Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of  Like electromagnetic wave, light can travel  Two independent monochromatic sources never
light. through vacuum. be coherent, because they may emit waves of
 According to wave theory, light is a disturbance  The transverse nature of light was proved by same frequency and same amplitude, but not with
from a source that travels as longitudinal polarization. same phase.
mechanical wave through the ether medium that 7. Define wave front.  Due to thermal vibrations, the atoms while
was presumed to pervade in all space.  A wavefront is the locus of points which are in the emitting light undergoes this change in phase.
 This theory could successfully explain reflection, same state or phase of vibration. 15. Give the methods to obtain coherent light waves.
refraction, interference, and diffraction. 8. What are the shapes of wavefront for (a) source at  Coherent waves are obtained by following three
 But polarization could not explain by this theory infinite, (b) point source and (c) line source? techniques.
as it is the property of only transverse waves. (1) A point source located at a finite distance gives (1) Intensity or amplitude division
 Later the existence of ether in all space was spherical wavefront. (2) Wavefront division
proved to be wrong. (2) A point source located at infinite distance gives (3) Source and images
3. Write a note on electromagnetic wave theory . plane wavefront.
Electromagnetic wave theory of light : (3) A line source gives cylindrical wavefront.
16. Write a note on intensity or amplitude division. 20. What is bandwidth of interference pattern? 𝟏
Case (3) : If 𝒂 > 𝝀 (i.e.) 𝒂 = 𝟐 𝝀 then, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = or
𝟐
Intensity or amplitude division :  The band width () is defined as the distance 𝜽 = 𝟑𝟎° The diffraction is observed with a measurable
 If light is incident on a partially silvered mirror, between any two consecutive bright or dark spread. Hence, it is concluded that for observing the
both reflection and refraction takes place fringes. diffraction pattern, essentially the width of the slit a
simultaneously. 21. What are the conditions for obtaining clear and must be just few times greater than the wavelength of
 As the two light beams are obtained from the broad interference bands? light λ
same light source, the two divided light beams will (1) The screen should be as far away from the source Case(4) : If 𝒂 >> 𝝀 then 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 << 𝟏 . The first
be coherent beams. as possible. minimum falls within the width space of the slit itself.
 They will be either in-phase or at constant phase (2) The wavelength of light used must be larger. Hence, the phenomenon of diffraction is not observed
difference. (e.g.) Michelson’s interferometer (3) Two coherent sources must be as close as possible at all.
17. Write a note on wavefront division. 22. Brilliant colours are exhibited by the surface of oil 26. What is diffraction grating?
Wavefront division : films and soap bubbles. Why?  Grating is a plane sheet of transparent material on
 It is the common method used for producing two  The colours exhibited by the surface of oil films which opaque rulings are made with a fine
coherent sources. We know all the points on the and soap bubbles are due to interference of white diamond pointer.
wavefront are at the same phase. light undergoing multiple reflections from the top  Thus gratting has multiple slits with equal widths
 If two points are chosen on the wavefront by using and bottom surfaces of thin films. of size comparable to the wavelength of light
a doubl slit, the two points will act as coherent  The colourd depends upon,  The modern commercial grating contains about
sources. (e.g.) Young’s double slit method (1) thickness of the film 6000 lines per centimeter.
18. Write a note on Source and images method. (2) refractive index of the film 27. Define grating element and corresponding points.
Source and images : (3) angle of incidence of the light  The combined width of a ruling (b) and a slit (a) is
 In this method, a source and its image will act as a 23. What is diffraction? called grating element (e = a + b)
set of coherent source, because the source and its  Diffraction is bending of waves around sharp  Points on successive slits separated by a distance
image will have waves in-phase or constant phase edges into the geometrically shadowed region. equal to the grating element are called
difference. (e.g.) Lloyd’s mirror  We observe diffraction only when the size of the corresponding points.
19. What are called constructive and destructive obstacle is comparable to the wavelength 28. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
interference? 24. Distinguish between Fresnel and Fraunhofer
Interference Diffraction
Constructive interference : diffraction.
Superposition of two Bending of waves around
 During superposition of two coherent waves, the Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
waves the edges
points where the crest of one wave meets the Spherical or cylindrical wave Plane wavefront
crest of other (or) the trough of one wave meets Superposition of waves Superposition of wavefronts
front undergoes diffracion undergoes diffraction
the trough of the other wave, the waves are from two coherent sources emitted from various
The source of light is finite The source of light is points of the same
in-phase. distance from the obstacle infinite distance from
 Hence the displacement is maximum and these wavefront
the obstacle
points appear as bright. Equally spaced fringes Unequally spaced fringes
Convex lenses need not be Convex lenses are to be
 This type of interference is said to be constructive Intensity of all the bright Intensity falls rapidly for
used used
interference. fringes is almost same higher orders
Difficult to observe and Easy to observe and
Destructive interference : Large number of fringes Less number of fringes are
analyse analyse
 During superposition of two coherent waves, the are obtained obtained.
25. Discuss the special cases on first minimum in
points where the crest of one wave meets the 29. What is Fresnel’s distance? Obtain an expression
Fraunhofer diffraction.
trough of other (or) vice versa, the waves are for it.
 The equation for first minimum in single slit
out-of-phase. Fresnel’s distance:
diffraction is 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝝀
 Hence the displacement is minimum and these  Fresnel’s distance is the distance upto which ray
Case (1) :If 𝒂 < 𝝀 then 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 > 𝟏 which is not possible.
points appear as dark. optics is obeyed and beyond which ray optics is
Hence diffraction does not takes place.
 This type of interference is said to be destructive not obeyed but wave optics becomes significant.
Case (2) : If 𝒂 = 𝝀 then 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝟏 (or) 𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎° .
interference. (i.e.) The first minimumis at 𝟗𝟎°
Expression : 33. Define polarization.  Edwin Land developed polarizer in the form of
 The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of thin sheets.
light to a particular direction perpendicular to the  Tourmaline is a natural polarizing material. But
direction of wave propagation motion is called polaroids are made artificially.
polarization.  A number of needle shaped crystals of quinine
34. Distinguish between unpolarized and plane iodosulphate with their axes parallel to one
 Let Fresnel distance = 𝑧 polarized light. another packed in between two transparent
 From the diffraction equation for first minimum, Unpolarized light Plane polarized light plastic sheets serve as a good polaroid.
𝜆 𝜆 A transverse wave which A transverse wave which has  Recently new type of polaroids are prepared in
sin 𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝜃 = has vibrations in all vibrations in only one which thin film of polyvinyl alcohol (colour less
𝑎 𝑎
 From the definition of Fresnel’s distance, directions in a plane direction in a plane crystals) is used.
𝑎 𝑎 perpendicular to the perpendicular to the38. What is polarizer and analyser?
sin 2𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 2𝜃 =
𝑧 𝑧 direction of propagation is direction of propagation is Polariser :
 Equating the above two equantion, said to be unpolarized light said to be planepolarized light  The polaroid which plane polarizes the
𝜆 𝑎 Symmetrical about the ray Asymmetrical about the unpolarized light passing through it is called a
2 =
𝑎 𝑧 direction ray direction polarizer.
𝒂𝟐 Produced by conventional It is obtained from Analyser :
𝒛=
𝟐𝝀 light sources unpolarized light with help  The polaroid which is used to examine whether a
30. Give the reason for colourful appearance of the of polarizers beam of light is polarized or not is called analyser.
compact disc. 35. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization. 39. Discuss how a plane polarized and partially
 On the read or writable side of the disc, there are Plane of vibration: polarized light will be analysed using analyser?
many narrow circular tracks whose width are  The plane containing the vibrations of the electric Plane polarized light :
comparable to the wavelength of visible light. field vector is known as plane of vibration.  If the intensity of light varies from maximum to
 Hence the diffraction takes place after reflection Plane of polarization: zero for every rotation of 90 of the analyser, the
for incident white light to give colourful  The plane perpendicular to the plane of vibration light is said to be plane polarized
appearance. and containing the ray of light is known as the Partially polarized light :
 Thus tracks act as reflecting grating. plane of polarization.  If the intensity of light varies from maximum to
31. What are resolution and resolving power? 36. How an unpolarized light can be polarized? mimimum for every rotation of 90 of the
 Two point sources must be imaged in such a way  The unpolarized light can be polarized by analyser, the light is said to be partially polarized.
that their images are sufficiently far apart that following techniques. 40. State and prove Malus’ law.
their diffraction pattersn do not overlap. This is (1) Polarization by selective absorption Malus’s law :
called resolution. (2) Polarization by reflection  When a beam of plane polarized light of intensity
 The inverse of resolution is called resolving (3) Polarization by double refraction 𝐼𝑜 is incident on an analyser, the light transmitted
power. The ability of an optical instrument to (4) Polarization by scattering of intensity I from the analyser varies directly as
separate or distinguish small or closely adjacent 37. Discuss polarization by selective absorption. the square of the cosine of the angle  between
objects through the image formation is said to be Polarization by selective absorption (Polaroids) : the transmission axis of polarizer and analyser.
resolving power of the instrument.  Selective absorption is the property of a material This is known as Malus’ law.
32. What is Rayleigh’s criterion? which transmits waves whose electric field vibrate 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝜽
 According to Rayleigh’s criterion, for tow point in a plane parallel to a certain direction of Proof :
objects to be just resolved, the minimum distance orientation and absorbs all other waves.  Let the angle between plane of polarizer and
between their diffraction images must be in such a  The polroids or polarizer using this property of analyser = 
way that the central maximum of one coincides selective absorption to produce intense plane Intensity of electric vector transmitted by the
with the first minimum of the other and vice polarized light. polarizer = 𝐼𝑜
versa.  Selective absorption is also called as dichroism. Amplitude of this electric vector = 𝑎
 The Rayleigh’s criterion is said to be limit of
resolution.
43. Explain polarization by reflection.  From the figure,
Polarization by reflection : 𝑖𝑃 + 90° + 𝑟𝑃 = 180°
𝒓𝑷 = 𝟗𝟎° − 𝒊𝑷 − − − −(1)
 From Snell’s law
sin 𝑖𝑃
=𝑛
sin 𝑟𝑃
sin 𝑖𝑃
=𝑛
sin(90° − 𝑖𝑃 )
sin 𝑖𝑃
=𝑛
cos 𝑖𝑃
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒊𝑷 = 𝒏
 The amplitude of the incident light was resolved in  This relation is known as Brewster’s law.
to two components,  This law states that, the tangent of the polarizing
 It is the simplest method to produce plane angle for a transparent medium is equal to its
(1) 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 - parallel component to the axis of
polarized light. refractive index.
transmission of the analyser
 It is discovered by Malus. 45. Write a note on pile of plates.
(2) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 - perpendicular component to the axis
 Here, XY - reflecting surface Pile of plates :
of transmission of the analyser
AB - incident unpolarized light beam
 Here only the parallel component (𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) will
BC - reflecting light beam
be transmitted by the analyser.
BD - refracted light beam
 Hence ht intensity of the transmitted light is,
2  On examining the reflected beam ‘BC’ with an
𝐼 ∝ (𝑎 cos 𝜃 )
analyser, it is found that the ray is is partially
𝐼 = 𝑘(𝑎 cos 𝜃 )2
2 2 plane polarized.
𝐼 = 𝑘 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝟐  When the light is allowed to be incident on
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
particular angle, the reflected beam is found to be
(1) When 𝜃 = 0° , 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐
plane polarized. That angle of incidence is called
(2) When 𝜃 = 90° , 𝑰 = 𝟎
polarizing angle ( 𝒊𝑷 )  It work on the principle of polarization by
41. List the uses of polaroids.
44. State and prove Brewster’s law reflection.
Uses of polaroids :
Brewste’ s law :  It consists of a number of glass plates placed one
 Used in goggles and cameras to avoid glare of light
 The angle of incidence at which a beam of over the other in a tube.
 Used in holography (three dimensional motion
unpolarized light falling on a transparent surface  These plates are inclined at an angle 𝟑𝟑. 𝟕° to the
pictrure)
is reflected as a beam of plane polarized light is axis of the tube.
 Used to improve contrast in old oil paintings
called polarizing angle or Brewster’s angle (𝑖𝑃 )  A beam of unpolarized light is allowed to fall on
 Used in optical stress analysis.
 Sir David Brewster found that, at polarizing the pile of plates along the axis of the tube. So the
 Used as window glasses to control the intensity of
angle, the reflected and transmitted rays are angle of incidence of light will be 𝟓𝟔. 𝟑°, which is
incoming light
perpendicular to each other. the polarizing angle for glass.
 Polarised needle beam acts as needle to
 Let, incident polarizing angle = 𝑖𝑃  The vibrations perpendicular to the plane of
read/write in compact discs (CDs)
Angle of refraction = 𝑟 incidence are reflected at each surface and those
 Polaroid produce polarized lights to be used in
liquid crystal display (LCD) parallel to it are transmitted.
42. Defined angle of polarization.  The larger the number of surfaces, the greater the
 The angle of incidence at which the reflected beam intensity of the reflected plane polarized light.
is plane polarized is called polarizing angle or  The pile of plates is used as a polrizer and also as
Brewste’s angle (𝒊𝑷 ) an analyser.
 The polarizing angle for glass is ; 𝒊𝑷 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟓°
46. Define double refraction.  Nicol prism is made by calcite crystal which is
 When a ray of unpolrized light is incident on a double refracting crystal.
calcite crystal, two refracted rays are produced.  ABCD is the principal section of a calcite crystal
Hence two images of a single object are formed. with its length is three times of its breadth.
This phenomenon is called double refraction.  The face angles are 72 and 108
 The obtained images are called as,  It is cut in to two halves along the diagonal AB and
(1) Ordinary image joined together by a layer of canada balsam, a
(2) Extra ordinary image transparent cement.
 Double refraction is also called bi refringence.  Let an unpolarized light from monochromatic
47. Distinguish between ordinary ray and extra source is incident on the face AC of the Nicol prism.
ordinary ray.  Here double refraction takes place, and the ray
Ordinary ray Extraordinary ray split in to ordinary ray and extraordinary ray.
They obey the laws of They do not obey the laws  For this calcite crystal.
refraction of refraction refractive index for the ordinary ray = 1.658  Under the influence of the electric field of the
refractive index for the extraordinary ray = 1.486 incident wave the electrons in the molecules
Inside the crystal, they Inside the crystal, they
 The refractive index of canada balsam = 1.523 acquire components of motion in both these
travel with same velocity travel with different
Here canada balsam does not polarize light directions.
in all directions velocities along different
 The ordinary ray is totally internally reflected at  We have shown an observer looking at 90 to the
directions
the layer of canada balsam. direction of the sun.
A point source inside the A point source inside the
 The extraordinaty ray alone is transmitted  Clearly, charges accelerating paralled do not
crystal produces spherical crystal produces elliptical
through the crystal which is plane polarized. radiate energy towards this observer since their
wavefront for ordinary wavefront for extra
51. What are the uses and drawbacks of Nicol prism? acceleration has no transverse component.
ray ordinary ray
Uses :  The radiation scattered by the molecule is
48. Define Optic axis.
 It produces plane polarized light and funcitons as therefore polarized perpendicular to the plane of
 Inside the double refracting crystal, there is a
a polarizer. the paper.
particular direction in which both the ordinary
 It can also used as an analyser.  This explains the reason for polarization of
and extraordinary rays travel with same velocity.
Drawbacks : sunlight by scattering.
This direction is called optic axis.
 It cost is very high due to scarity of large and 53. Distinguish between near point focusing and
 Along optic axis, the refractive index is same for
flawless calcite crystal. normal focusing.
both rays.
 Due to extraordinary ray passing obliquely Near point focusing Normal focusing
49. Define uniaxial crystal and biaxial crystal.
through it, the emergent ray is always displaced a The image is formed at The image is formed at
 Crystals like calcite, quartz, tourmaline and ice
little to one side. near point infinity
having only one optic axis are called uniaxial
crystals.  The effective field of view is quite limited. In this position, the eye In this position, the eye is
 Crystals like mica, topaz, selenite and aragonite  Light emerging out of it is not uniformly plane feel little strain most relaxed to view the
having two optic axes are called biaxial crystals. polarized. image
50. Discuss about Nicol prism. 52. Explain polarization by scattering. Magnification is high Magnification is low
Polarization by scattering: 𝑫 𝑫
Nicol prism : 𝒎= 𝟏+ 𝒎=
 The light from a clear blue portion of the sky 𝒇 𝒇
shows a rise and fall of intensity when viewed 54. Why is oil immersed objective preferred in a
through a polaroid which is rotated. microscope?
 This is because of sunlight, which has changed its  The ability of microscope depends not only in
direction on encountering the molecules of the magnifying the object but also in resolving two
earth’s atmosphere. points on the object separated by a small distance
1.22 𝜆
 The electric field of light interact with the (𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = )
2 sin 𝛽
electrons present in the air molecules.
 That is, smaller the value of ′𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 ′ better will be 60. What is hypermetopia? What is its remedy?
the resolving power of the microscope.  A person suffering from hypermetopia or
 To further reduce the value of ′𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 ′ , the optical farsightedness cannot see objects close to the eye.
path of the light is increased by immersing the  It occurs when the eye lens has too long focal
objective of the microscope in to a bath containg length due to thinning of eye lens or shortening of
1.22 𝜆 the eyeball than normal.
oil of refractive index ‘n’. 𝑖. 𝑒. (𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = )
2 𝑛 sin 𝛽
 Using convex lens this defect can be rectified.
 Such an objective is called oil immersed objective. 61. What is presbyopia?
 The term ‘𝒏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷′ is called numerical aperture  The least distance for clear vision for aged people
(NA) is appreciably more than 25 cm and the person
55. What are the merits and demerits of reflecting has to keep the object inconveniently away from
telescope? the eye.
Merits :  Thus reasing or viewing smaller things held in the
 Only one surface is to be polished and maintained. hands is difficult for them.
 Support can be given from the entire back of the  This kind of farsightedness arising due to aging is
mirror rather than only at the rim for lens. called presbyopia.
 Mirror weigh much less compared to lens. 62. What is astigmatism?
Demerits :  Astigmatism is the defect arising due to different
 The objective mirror would focus the light inside curvatures along different planes in the eye lens.
the telescope tube. One must have an eye piece  Astigmatic person cannot see all the directions
insided obstruction some light. equally well.
56. What is the use of an erecting lens in a terrestrial  Lenses with different curvatures in different
telescope? planes called cylindrical lens is used to rectify
 A terrestrial telescope is used to see object at long astigmatism defect.
distance on the surface of earth. Hence image 63. Whar are called Airy’s discs?
should be erect.  When a circular aperture like a lens or the iris of
 So an additional erecting lens is used to make the eye forms an image of a point object, the image
final image enlarged and erect. formed will not be a point, but a diffraction
57. What is the use of collimator inspectrometer? pattern of concentric circles that becomes fainter
 The collimator is an arrangement to produce a while moving away from the centre.
parallel beam of light.  These are known as Airy’s discs.
58. What are the uses of spectrometer?
 Spectrometer is an optical instrument used to,
(1) study the spectra of different sources of light
(2) measure the refractive indices of materials
59. What is myopia? What is its remedy?
 A person suffering from myopia or nearsightedness
cannot see distant objects clearly.
 It occurs when the eye lens has too short focal
length due to thickening of the lens or larger
diameter of the eyeball than usual.
 Using concave lens this defect can be rectified.
2. Prove laws of refraction using Huygen’ principle. 3. Obtain the equation for resultant intensity due to
5 - Mark Question & Answer Laws of refraction - Proof : interference of light.
1. Prove laws of reflection using Huygens principle. Resultant intensity due to interference :
Laws of reflection - Proof :
 Let 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the two light waves meeting at a

point ‘P’
 𝑋𝑌 − Reflecting surface  Let XY be the refracting surface .  At any instant ‘t’, the displacement equations,
 𝐴𝐵 −Incident plane wavefront.  The incident wavefront AB is in rarer medium (1) 𝑦1 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − − − − (1)
 The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular  The incident rays from L and M are perpendicular 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) − − − − (2)
to this incident wavefront. to this incident wavefront. where, 𝜙  phase difference between them
 Initially the point ‘A’ reaches reflecting surface.  Initially the point ‘A’ reaches refracting surface.  Then the resultant displacement,
 Then the successive points between AB reaches  Then the successive points between AB reaches 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
the surface. the surface. 𝑦 = 𝑎1 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎2 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
 Finally, by the time B reaches 𝐵1 , the point A  Finally, by the time B reaches 𝐵1 , the point A  By solving this, we get,
would have reached 𝐴1 would have reached 𝐴1 in the other medium. 𝒚 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊 𝒏 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽) − − − − (3)
 This is applicable to all the points on the  This is applicable to all the points on the
wavefront AB. Thus the reflected wavefront 𝐴1 𝐵1 wavefront AB. Thus the refracted wavefront 𝐴1 𝐵1  where, 𝐴 = √𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 and
emanates as a plane wavefront. emanates as a plane wavefront. 𝑎2 sin 𝜙
 The line from 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1 perpendiculars to 𝐴1 𝐵1  The line from 𝐿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1 perpendiculars to 𝐴1 𝐵1 𝜃 = tan−1 [ ]
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 cos 𝜙
represent reflected rays. represent refracted rays. (1) When , 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … …. .the resultant
 .As the reflection happens in the same medium,  Let 𝑣1 be the speed of light in medium (1) and 𝑣2 amplitude becomes maximum
the speed of light is same before and after be the speed of light in medium (2). Here 𝑣1 > 𝑣2
 The time taken for the ray to travel from B to 𝐵1 is 𝑨𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √(𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
reflection. Hence, 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐵𝐵1
same as the time taken for the ray to travel from (2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …. the resultant
Law (1) :
 The incident rays, the reflected rays and the A reaches 𝐴1 . So 𝐴𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝑡 and 𝐵𝐵1 = 𝑣1 𝑡 amplitude becomes minimum
normal are in the same plane. 𝐵𝐵1 𝑣1 𝑨𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √(𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
Law (2) : ∴ 1
= − − − − − (1)  The intensity of light is directly proportional to
𝐴𝐴 𝑣2
 Angle of incidence, Law (1) : the square of the amplitude.
∠𝑖 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐿 = 90° − ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐴𝐵1  The incident rays, refracted rays and the normal 𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2
 Angle of reflection, are in the same plane. 𝐼 ∝ 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2 𝑎1 𝑎2 cos 𝜙
∠𝑟 = ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝑀1 = 90° − ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝐴1 = ∠𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴 Law (2) : 𝑰 ∝ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 − − − (𝟒)
 In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐵1 and ∆𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐴,  Angle of incidence, (1) When, 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … …. .the resultant
∠𝐵 = ∠𝐴1 = 90° ∠𝑖 = ∠𝑁𝐴𝐿 = 90° − ∠𝑁𝐴𝐵 = ∠𝐵𝐴𝐵1 intensity becomes maximum. This is called
𝐴𝐴1 = 𝐵𝐵1 and  Angle of refraction, constructive interference.
hypotenuse 𝐴𝐵1 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 ∠𝑟 = ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝑀1 = 90° − ∠𝑁 1 𝐵1 𝐴1 = ∠𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ (𝒂𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
 Thus the two triangles are congruent. (i.e)  From ∆𝐴𝐵𝐵1 and ∆𝐵1 𝐴1 𝐴 , 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 − − − (𝟓)
∠𝐵𝐴𝐵1 = ∠𝐴1 𝐵1 𝐴 (
𝐵𝐵1
) (
𝑐
) (2) When, 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …. the resultant
∴ ∠𝒊 = ∠𝒓 sin 𝑖 𝐴𝐵1 𝐵𝐵1 𝑣1 𝑛1 𝑛2
= = = = = intensity becomes minimum. This is called
sin 𝑟 𝐴𝐴1 𝐴𝐴1 𝑣2 𝑐
𝑛1
 Hence laws of reflection are proved. ( 1) ( )
𝑛2 destructive interference.
𝐴𝐵
 In product form, 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 ∝ (𝒂𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 )𝟐
𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 ∝ 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 − 𝟐 √𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 − − − (𝟔)
Special case :  When screen is placed at a distance of about 1 m 5. Obtain the equation for band width in young’s
 If 𝒂𝟏 = 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒂 , then resultant amplitude, from double slit, equally spaced alternate bright double slit method.
𝐴 = √𝑎2 + 𝑎2 + 2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 and dark fringes are appears on the screen. These Theory :
are called interference fringes.
𝐴 = √2 𝑎2 + 2 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
 At the point ‘O’ on the screen, the waves from
𝐴 = √2 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 travels equal distances and arrive
𝜙 in-phase. Due to constructive interference, bright
𝐴 = √2 𝑎2 [2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )] fringe is formed at point ‘O’ . This is called central
2
bright fringe.
𝝓  When one of the slit is covered, then the fringes
𝑨 = 𝟐 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ( ) − − − − − (𝟕)
𝟐 disappear and there is uniform illumination
 If 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 = 𝑰𝑶 , then the resultant intensity, observed on the screen. This clearly shows that
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 the fringes are due to interference e.
𝜙 Path difference (𝜹) :
𝐼 ∝ 4 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( )
2
𝝓
𝑰 = 𝟒 𝑰𝑶 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 ( ) − − − − − (8)
𝟐  Let distance between 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 =𝑑
When, 𝜙 = 0, ±2𝜋, ±4𝜋, … …., 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟒 𝑰𝑶 Distance of the screen from double slit =𝐷
and 𝜙 = ±𝜋, ±3𝜋, ±5𝜋 … …., 𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎 Wavelength of coherent light wave =
 Thus the phase difference (𝜙) between the two  Hence path difference between the light waves
waves decides the intensity of light at the point, from 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 to the point ‘P’ is
where the two waves meet. 𝒚
𝜹= 𝒅
4. Explain Young’s double slit experimental set up 𝑫
and obtain equation for path difference. Condition for bright fringe (maxima) :
Young’ s double slit experiment :  For constructive interference, the path difference
 Let distance between 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 =𝑑 will be,
Distance of the screen from double slit =𝐷 𝜹= 𝒏𝝀 [ 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, … ]
Wavelength of coherent light wave = 𝑦
𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆
 Hence path difference between the light waves 𝐷
from 𝑆1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆2 to the point ‘P’ is  Thus the distance of the n th brigt fringe from ‘O’ is
𝛿 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑀𝑃 = 𝑆2 𝑀 𝑫
𝒚𝒏 = 𝒏 𝝀 − − − − − (3)
 From the figure, ∠𝑂𝐶𝑃 = ∠𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑀 = 𝜃 𝒅
 𝐼𝑛 ∆𝑆2 𝑆1 𝑀 Condition for dark fringe (minima) :
𝑆2 𝑀 𝛿  For destructive interference, the path difference
sin 𝜃 = = will be,
𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑑
∴ 𝛿 = sin 𝜃 . 𝑑 𝝀
 Thomas Young used an opaque screen with two 𝜹 = (𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟏) [ 𝑛 = 1, 2, … ]
small openings called double slit 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 kept  Here 𝜃 is small. Hence, sin 𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 𝟐
𝑦 𝜆
equidistance from a source ‘S’ 𝛿= 𝜃. 𝑑 − − − − − (1) 𝑑 = (2 𝑛 − 1)
 The width of each slit is about 0.03 mm and they  Also, in ∆𝑂𝐶𝑃, 𝐷 2
 Thus the distance of the n th darkt fringe from ‘O’ is
are separated by a distance of about 0.3 mm. 𝑂𝑃 𝑦
𝜃 ≈ tan 𝜃 = = 𝑫 𝝀
 As 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are equidistant from ‘S’, the light 𝑂𝐶 𝐷 𝒚𝒏 = (𝟐 𝒏 − 𝟏) − − − − − (4)
waves from ‘S’ reach 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 in phase.  Put this in eqn (1) 𝒅 𝟐
 So 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 act as coherent sources which are the 𝒚
𝜹= 𝒅 − − − − − (2) Band width (𝜷)
requirement of obtaining interference pattern. 𝑫
 Point ‘P’ may be apper either bright or dark  The band width is defined as the distance between
 The wavefronts from 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 get superposed on any two consecutive bright or dark fringes.
the otherside of the double slit. depending on the path differendce.
 The distance between (n+1) th and nthconsecutive Interference due to reflected light :  Let 𝑦 be the distance of of point ‘P’ from ‘O’
bright fringes from ‘O’ is  When light travelling in a rarer medium and  The lines joining ‘P’ to the different points on the
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 getting reflected by a denser medium, undergoes a slit can be treated as parallel lines, making and
𝐷 𝐷 phase change of  . Hence an additional path angle 𝜃 with the normal ‘CO’
𝛽= (𝑛 + 1) 𝜆 − 𝑛𝜆 𝝀  All the parallel waves from different points on the
𝑑 𝑑 difference of is introduced.
𝑫 𝟐 slits get interfere at ‘P’ to give resultant intensity.
𝜷= 𝝀 − − − − − − − (𝟓)  Again for normal incidence (𝑖 = 0), the points ‘A’ Condition for minima :
𝒅
 Simillarly the distance between (n+1)th and nth and ‘C’ are very close to each other.  To explain minimum intensity, divide the slit
consecutive dark fringes from ‘O’ is  The extra distance travelled by the wave coming in to even number of parts.
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛 out from ‘C’ is (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) (1) Condition for P to be first minimum :
𝐷 𝜆 𝐷 𝜆  Hence the path difference between the waves  Let us divide the slit AB in to two half’s each of
𝛽= [2(𝑛 + 1) − 1] − ( 2𝑛 − 1 ) reflected at ‘A’ and ‘C’ is 𝑎
𝑑 2 𝑑 2 width
𝑫 𝛿 = 𝜇 (𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶) = 𝜇 (𝑑 + 𝑑) = 2 𝜇 𝑑 2
𝜷= 𝝀 − − − − − − − (𝟔) 𝜆  The various points on the slit which are
𝒅  Since additional path difference is introduced 𝑎
2 separated by the same width ( ) called
 Eqn (5) and (6) shows that the bright and dark due to reflection at A, the the total path difference, 2
fringes are of same width equally spaced on either 𝝀 corresponding points
side of central bright fringe 𝜹 =𝟐𝝁𝒅 + − − − (4)  The path difference of light waves from
𝟐
6. Obtain the equations for constructive and (1) The condition for constructive interference in different corresponding points meeting at ‘P’
destructive interference for transmitted and 𝑎
reflected ray is,, 𝛿 = sin 𝜃
reflected waves in thin films. 𝛿 =𝑛𝜆 2
Interference in thin films :  The condition for ‘P’ to be first minimum,
𝜆
(𝑜𝑟) 2𝜇𝑑 + =𝑛𝜆 𝑎 𝜆
2 sin 𝜃 =
𝝀 2 2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝟐 𝝁 𝒅 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) − − − (𝟓) (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝝀
𝟐 (2) Condition for P to be second minimum :
(2) The condition for destructive interference in
 Let us divide the slit AB in to four equal parts
reflected ray is, 𝑎
𝜆 of width
4
𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)  Here various corresponding points on the slit
2
𝜆 𝜆 which are separated by the same width ( )
𝑎
(𝑜𝑟) 2 𝜇 𝑑 + = (2𝑛 + 1) 4
2 2  The path difference of light waves from
(𝑜𝑟) 𝟐𝝁𝒅 = 𝒏𝝀 − − − (6)
different corresponding points meeting at ‘P’
7. Discuss diffraction at single slit and obtain the 𝑎
condition for nth minimum. 𝛿 = sin 𝜃
4
 Consider a thin film of transparent material of Diffraction at single slit :  The condition for ‘P’ to be second minimum,
refractive index ‘’ and thickness ‘t’ 𝑎 𝜆
 A parallel beam of light is incident on the film at sin 𝜃 =
4 4
an angle ‘𝑖’ (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟐 𝝀
 At upper surface, the light wave is divided in to (3) Condition for P to be nth minimum :
two parts. One part is reflected and other part is  Let us divide the slit AB in to 2n equal parts
refracted. of width
𝑎
 The refracted part which enters in to the film, 2𝑛
again gets divided at the lower surface in two  The condition for ‘P’ to be nth minimum,
 Let a parallel beam of light fall normally on a 𝑎 𝜆
parts. One is transmitted and the other is reflected sin 𝜃 =
back in to the film. single slit AB. The centre of the slit is C 2𝑛 2
 A straight line through ‘C’ perpendicular to the (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒏 𝝀
 Here interference is produced by both the
reflected and transmitted light. plane of slit meets the centre of the screen at ‘O’
Condition for maxima : The path difference (𝛿) between the diffracted
  The slit of the spectrometer is illuminated by a
 To explain maximum intensity, divide the slit in to waves from one pair of corresponding points is, monochromatic light, whose wavelength to be
odd number of parts. 𝛿 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 determined.
 For first maximum, the slit is divided in to three  The point ‘P’ will be bright, when  The telescope is brought in line with collimator to
𝑎
equal parts each of width ( ). Hence 𝛿=𝑚𝜆 [𝑚 = 0,1,2,3 … ] view the direct image of the slit.
3
 Hence,  The given transmission grating is then mounted
𝑎 𝜆 𝝀
sin 𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟑 (𝒂 + 𝒃) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒎 𝝀 − − − − (1) on the prism table with its plane perpendicular to
3 2 𝟐 where 𝑚  order of diffraction the incident beam of light coming from collimator.
 For secod maximum, the slit is divided in to five
𝑎 (1) Condition for zero order maximum :  The telsescope is turn to one side until the first
equal parts each of width ( ). Hence  When, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 0, then, 𝜃 = 0 ; 𝑚 = 0 order diffraction image of the slit coincides with
5
𝑎 𝜆 𝝀 It is zero order diffraction or central the vertical cross wire of the eye piece.
sin 𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝟓
5 2 𝟐 maximum  The reading of the position of the telescope is
 In general, for nth first maximum, the slit is divided (2) Condition for first order maximum : noted.
𝑎  Similarly the first order diffraction image on the
in to (2n+1) equal parts each of width ( ).  When, (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃1 = 𝜆, then, 𝜃 = 𝜃1 ; 𝑚 = 1
2𝑛+1
It is first order diffraction other side is made to coincide with vertical cross
Hence
𝑎 𝜆 𝝀 (3) Condition for second order maximum : wire and corresponding reading is noted.
sin 𝜃 = (𝑜𝑟) 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)  When,(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 2𝜆, then,𝜃 = 𝜃 ; 𝑚 = 2  The difference between two positions gives 2 𝜃
2𝑛 + 1 2 𝟐 2 2
 Half of its value gives 𝜃, the diffraction angle for
8. Discuss the diffraction at a grating and obtain the It is second order diffraction
(4) Condition for higher order maxima : first order maximum.
condition for mth maximum.
(𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆  The wavelength of light is calculated from,
Diffraction in grating :
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
 If ‘N’ be the number of rulings drawn per unit 𝝀=
width (1 m), then , 𝑁 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝑏 = 1 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑵𝒎
𝑁 (𝑎 + 𝑏) = 1 10. Discuss the experiment to determine the
1 wavelength of different colours using diffraction
𝑎+𝑏 = grating.
𝑁
1 Determination of wavelength of different colours :
∴ sin 𝜃 = 𝑚 𝜆  White light is a composite light which contains all
𝑁
(𝑜𝑟) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑵 𝒎 𝝀 − − − − − (𝟐) wavlengths from violet to red in visible region.
9. Discuss the experiment to determine the  When white light is used, the diffraction pattern
wavelength of monochromatic light using consists of a white central maximum and on both
diffraction grating. sides continuous coloured diffraction patterns are
Experiment to determine wavelength of light : formed.
 Let ‘AB’ represent the plane transmission grating.
 It has number of slits of equal width (𝑎) and equal
number of opaque rulings of equal width (𝑏)
 Lte a plane wavefornt of monochromatic light of
wavelength ‘ 𝜆 ’ be incident normally on the
grating.
 As the slit size is comparable to that of
wavelength, the incident light diffracts at the
grating.
 Using convex lens, the diffracted waves are  The wavelength of a spectral line can be very
focused on the screen. accurately determined with help of a diffraction
 Consider a point ‘P’ on the screen, at an angle ‘𝜃 ‘ grating and a spectrometer.
with the normal drawn from the centre of the  Let all the preliminary adjustments are made on
grating to the screen. the spectrometer.
 The central maximum is white as all the colours Simple microscope - Normal focussing :
meet here constructively with no phase difference.
 It produces a spectrum of diffraction pattern from
violet to red on either side of central maximum.
 By measuring the angle (𝜽) at which these colours
appear for various order (m) of diffraction, the
wavelength of different colours could be
calculated using the formula,
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝀=  Here the image is formed at infinity.
𝑵𝒎
where, 𝑵  number of rulings drawn per unit  So we will not get direct practical relation for
width of grating magnification. Hence we can practically use the
angular magnification.  The final image is inverted with respect to the
11. Discuss about simple microscope and obtain the original object.
equations for magnification for near point  The angular magnification is defined as the ratio
of angle (𝜃𝑖 ) subtended by the image with aided Magnification (m) :
focusing and normal focusing.  From the ray diagram, the linear magnification
Simple microscope - Near point focussing : eye to the angle (𝜃𝑂 ) subtended by the object with
unaided eye. That is, due to the objective is,
1
𝜃𝑂 ℎ 𝐿
𝑚= − − − − − − (1) 𝑚 𝑜 = = − − − − − (1)
𝜃𝑖 ℎ 𝑓𝑜
 For unaided eye, Here ‘L’ is the distance between the first focal
ℎ point of the eye piece to the second focal point of
tan 𝜃𝑂 ≈ 𝜃𝑂 = the objective. This is called the tube length.
𝐷
 For aided eye,  The magnification of the eyepiece,
ℎ 𝐷
tan 𝜃𝑖 ≈ 𝜃𝑖 = 𝑚𝑒 = 1 + − − − − − (2)
𝑓 𝑓𝑒
 Thus eqn (1) becomes,  The total magnification ‘m’ in near point focusing ,
ℎ 𝑳 𝑫
 A simple microscope is a single magnifying lens of 𝜃𝑂 ( ) 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒎𝒆 = [ ] [𝟏 + ]
𝑚= = 𝐷 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
small focal length. ℎ
𝜃𝑖 ( )  If the final image is formed at infinity (normal
 In near point focusing, object distance ‘u’ is less 𝑓 focusing), the magnification if eye piece is,
than ‘f’ 𝑫 𝐷
 The image is formed at near point or least distance 𝒎= 𝑚𝑒 = − − − − − (3)
𝒇 𝑓𝑒
‘D’ of distinct vision. 12. Explain about compound microscope and obtain
 The magnification ‘m’ is given by,  The total magnification ‘m’ in normal focusing is,
𝑣 the equation for magnification. 𝑳 𝑫
𝑚= Compound microscope : 𝒎 = 𝒎𝒐 𝒎𝒆 = [ ] [ ]
𝑢 𝒇𝒐 𝒇𝒆
 Using lens equation,  The lens near the object is called the objective, 13. Obtain the equation for resolving power of
𝑣 forms a real, inverted, magnified image of the microscope.
𝑚 =1− object.
𝑓 Resolving power of microscope:
  This serves as the object for the second lens which  A microscope is used to see the details of the
𝑣 is the eyepiece. object under observation.
𝑚 =1−  Eye piece serves as a simple microscope that
𝑓  Good microscope should not only magnify the
 Substitute, 𝑣 = −𝐷 produces finally an enlarged and virtual image. object but also resolve the two points on an object
𝑫  The first inverted image formed by the objective is which are separated by the smallest distance dmin.
𝒎= 𝟏+ to be adjusted close to, but within the focal plane
𝒇  Actually, dmin is the resolution and its reciprocal is
of the eyepiece, so that the final image is formed the resolving power.
nearly at infinity or at the near point.
14. Discuss about astronomical telescope. 15. Mention different parts of spectrometer and
Astronomical telescope : explain the preliminary adjustments.
 An astronomical telescope is used to get the Spectrometer :
magnification of distant astronomical objects like  The spectrometer is an optical instrument used to
stars, planets … analise the spectra of different sources of light, to
 The image formed by this will be inverted. measure the wavelength of different colours and
to measure the refractive indices of materials of
prisms.
 The spatial resolution (radius of central  It basically consists of three parts namely
maximum) is (i) collimator (ii) prism table and (iii) telescope.
1.22 𝜆 𝑓 (1) Collimator:
𝑟𝑜 =
𝑎  The collimator is used for producing parallel
 In microscope, the object distance is just more than beam of light.
the focal length f and the image is formed at v as  It has a convex lens and a vertical slit of
shown in the Figure. Hence,.
1.22 𝜆 𝑣 adjustable width which faces the source.
𝑟𝑜 =  The position of slit can be adjusted so that it is
𝑎
 Here, in the place of focal length f we have the kept at the focus of the lens.
image distance v. If the difference between the two  The collimator is rigidly fixed to the base.
points on the object to be resolved is dmin, then the  It has an objective of long focal length and a much (2) Prism table:
magnification m is, larger aperture than eye piece.
 The prism table is used for mounting the
𝑟𝑜  Light from a distant object enters the objective
𝑚= prism, grating etc. It consists of two circular
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 and a real image is formed in the tube at its second
focal point. discs provided with three levelling screws.
𝑟𝑜 1.22 𝜆 𝑣 1.22 𝜆 𝑣
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝑣  The eye piece magnifies this image producing a  It can be rotated and its position can be read
𝑚 𝑚𝑎 ( )𝑎
𝑢 final inverted image. from two verniers V1 and V2 .
1.22 𝜆 𝑢 1.22 𝜆 𝑓 Magnification (m) :  The prism table can be fixed at any desired
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = [∵ 𝑢 ≈ 𝑓]
𝑎 𝑎  The magnification ‘m’ is the ratio of the angle 𝛽 height.
𝑎
 On the object side, 2 tan 𝛽 ≈ 2 sin 𝛽 = subtended at the eye by the final image to the (3) Telescope :
𝑓
1.22 𝜆 angle 𝛼 which the object subtends at the lens or  The telescope is an astronomical type.
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = the eye.
2 sin 𝛽  It consists of an eyepiece provided with cross
𝛽
 To further reduce the value of dmin the optical path 𝑚= wires at one end and an objective at its other
of the light is increased by immersing the 𝛼
 From figure, end.
objective of the microscope into a bath containing ℎ  The distance between the objective and the
oil of refractive index n. [ ]
𝑓 eyepiece can be adjusted so that the telescope
1.22 𝜆 𝑚= 𝑒
𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ forms a clear image at the cross wires.
2 𝑛 sin 𝛽 [ ]
𝑓𝑜  The telescope is attached to a circular scale
 Such an objective is called oil immersed objective. 𝒇𝒐
The term n sin β is called numerical aperture 𝒎 = and both can be rotated together.
𝒇𝒆
(NA). Hence,  The telescope and prism table are provided
 The length of the telescope is approximately,
𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝝀 𝑳 = 𝒇𝒐 + 𝒇𝒆 with radial screws for fixing them at a
𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒏 =
𝟐 (𝑵𝑨) desired position and tangential screws for
 Then the resolving power of microscope is, fine adjustments.
𝟏 𝟐 (𝑵𝑨)
𝑹𝑴 = =
𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐 𝝀
Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer  The parallel rays coming from the collimator fall Refractive index (𝝁) of the prism :
(1) Adjustment of the eyepiece: The telescope is on the two faces AB and AC.  The refractive index of the material of the prism is
turned towards an illuminated surface and the  The telescope is rotated to the position 𝑇1 until calculated using the formula,
the image of the slit formed by the reflection at the 𝑨+𝑫
eyepiece is moved to and fro until the cross wires 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
face AB coincides with the vertical cross wire of 𝝁= 𝟐
are clearly seen. 𝑨
the telescope. 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( )
(2) Adjustment of the telescope: The telescope is  The corresponding vernier readings are noted. 𝟐
adjusted to receive parallel rays by focusing it to a  The telescope is then rotated to the position
distant object to get a clear image on the cross 𝑇2 where the image of the slit formed by the
wire. reflection at the face AC coincides with the vertical
(3) Adjustment of the collimator : The telescope is cross wire of the telescope. The corresponding
brought in line with the collimator. The distance vernier readings are again noted.
between the illuminated slit and the lens of the  The difference between these two readings gives
the angle rotated by the telescope, which is twice
collimator is adjusted until a clear image of the slit
the angle of the prism.
is seen at the cross wire.  Half of this value gives the angle of the prism (A)
(4) Levelling of the prism table : The prism table is (2) Angle of minimum deviation (D) :
brought to the horizontal level by adjusting the
levelling screws and it is ensured by using sprit
level.
16. Explain the experimental determination of
material of the prism using spectrometer.
Determination of refractive index :
 The preliminary adjustments of the telescope,
collimator and the prism table of the spectrometer
are made.
 The refractive index () of the prism is  The prism is placed on the prism table, so that the
determined by knowing the angle of the prism (A) light from the collimator falls on a refracting face
and the angle of minimum deviation (D) and the refracted image is observed through the
(1) Angle of the prism (A) : telescope.
 The prism table is now rotated, so that the angle of
deviation decreases.
 A stage comes when the image stops for a moment
and if we rotate the prism table further in the
same direction, the image is seen to recede and
the angle of deviation increases.
 The vertical cross wire of telescope is made to
coincide with the image of the slit, where it turns
back. This gives the minimum deviation position.
 The vernier readings corresponding to this
position is noted.
 Now the prism is removed and the telescope is
 The prism is placed on the prism table with its turned to receive the direct ray and the vernier
refracting edge facing the collimator. readings are again noted.
 The slit is illuminated by a sodium light.  The difference between the two readings gives the
angle of minimum deviation (D)
NAME :
SCHOOL :
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PG ASST (PHYSICS)
2 & 3 Marks Questions and Answers 8. How does photo electric current vary with the  There is no time lag between incidence of light
1. Why do metals have a large number of free intensity of the incident light? and ejection of photoelectrons.
electrons? Variation of photo current with intensity : 12. Explain why photoelectric effect cannot be
 In metals, the electrons in the outer most shells  Keeping the frequency explained on the basis of wave nature of light
are loosely bound to the nucleus. (𝜈 ) and acceleration Failures of classical wave theory :
potential (V) as  According to wave theory, light of greater
 Even at room temperature, due to thermal
constant, the intensity intensity should impart greater kinetic energy to
agitation the loosely bounded electrons are
of incident light is the liberated electrons.
detached from their orbit and free to move inside
varied and the But the experiments show that maximum kinetic
the metal in a random manner. This is the reason
corresponding photo energy of the photoelectrons does not depend on
for large number of free electrons in the metal.
2. Define surface barrier. eletric current is the intensity of the incident light.
measured  According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense
 The potential barrier which prevents free electrons
from leaving the metallic surface is called surface  A graph is drawn between intensity along X-axis beam of light is incident on the surface, electrons
and the photo current along Y-axis. will be liberated from the surface of the target,
barrier.
 From the graph, the photo current (i.e) the number however low the frequency of the radiation is.
 It is created by the positive nuclei of the metal
of electrons emitted per second is directly But photoelectric emission is not possible below a
3. Define electron emission.
proportional to the intensity of incident light. certain minimum frequency called threshold
 The liberation of electrons from any surface of a
9. Define stopping potential. frequency.
substance is called electron emission.
 The negative or retarding potential given to  Since the energy of light is spread across the
 The material with small work function is more
collecting electrode which is just sufficient to stop wavefront, each electron needs considerable
effective in electron emission.
the most energetic photoelectrons emitted and amount of time (a few hours) to get energy
4. Define work function of a metal. Give its unit.
make the photo current zero is called stopping sufficient to overcome the work function and to
 The minimum energy needed for an electron to potential or cut - off potential. get liberated from the surface.
escape from the metal surface is called work 10. Define threshold frequency. But experiments show that photoelectric emission
function of that metal. It is denoted by 𝜙𝑂 is almost instantaneous process
 For a giver surface, the emission of photo
 Its unit is electron volt (eV). electrons takes place only if the frequency of 13. Explain the concept of quantization of energy.
5. Define electron volt (eV) incident light is greater than a certain minimum Quantization of energy :
 One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy frequency called threshold frequency.  Max Planck proposed quantum concept in 1900 in
gained by a electron when accelerated by a 11. State the laws of photo electric effect. order to explain the block body radiations.
potential difference of 1 volt. Laws of photo electric effect :  According to Planck, matter is composed of a large
𝟏 𝒆𝑽 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟐 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝑱  For a given frequency of incident light, the number number of oscillating particles (atoms) which
6. What is photo electric effect? of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional vibrate with different frequencies.
 The ejection of electrons from a metal plate when to the intensity of the incident light. The  Each atomic oscillator which vibrates with its
illuminated by light or any other electromagnetic saturation current is also directly proportional to characteristic frequency emits or absorbs
radiation of suitable wavelength or frequency is the intensity of incident light. electromagnetic radiation of the same frequency.
called photo electric effect.  Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is (i) If an oscillator vibrates with frequency v, its
 The ejected electrons are called as photo independent of intensity of the incident light. energy can have only certain discrete values,
electrons and the corresponding current is called  Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons 𝑬𝒏 = 𝒏 𝒉 𝝂 [𝑛 = 1,2,3, … . ]
photo electric current from a given metal is directly proportional to the where h  Planck’s constant.
7. What are called photo sensitive materials? frequency of incident light. (ii) The oscillators emit or absorb energy in small
 The materials which eject photoelectrons upon  For a given surface, the emission of packets or quanta and the energy of each
irradiation of electromagnetic wave of suitable photoelectrons takes place only if the frequency of quantum is E = h ν
wavelength are called photosensitive materials. incident light is greater than a certain minimum  This implies that the energy of the oscillator is
(e.g.) Metals like cadmium, zinc, magnesium etc frequency called the threshold frequency. quantized and not continuous This is called
and Alkali metals like lithium, sodium, caesium quantization of energy.
14. Explain Eienstein’s explanation for the particle 19. What is called matter waves or de Broglie waves? 24. Write the relationship of de Broglie wavelength λ
nature (quanta ) of light  The waves assoiated with matter particles like associated with a particle of mass m in terms of its
Particle nature of light - Eienstein’s explanation : electrons in motion is called matter waves or kinetic energy K.
 According to Einstein, the energy in light is not de Broglei waves.  De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential ‘V’ ,
spread out over wavefronts but is concentrated in 20. Derive the expression of de Broglie wavelength. 𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= =
small packets or energy quanta. Therefore, light of De Broglei wavelength : 𝒎𝒗 √𝟐 𝒎 𝒒 𝑽
frequency v from any source can be considered  The momentum of photon of frequency ′𝜈′ is,  Since, q V = K (kinetic energy), we have
as a stream of quanta 𝐸 ℎ𝜈 ℎ 𝒉
𝑝= 𝑐= 𝑐 = 𝜆 [𝑐 = 𝜆𝜈] 𝝀=
 The energy of each light quantum ; E = h ν ℎ √𝟐 𝒎 𝑲
𝒉𝝂  The wavelength of a photon is, 𝜆 = 25. Name an experiment which shows wave nature of
 The linear momentum of quanta is ; 𝒑 = 𝑝
𝒄 the electron. Which phenomenon was observed in
 According to de Broglie, this equation is applicable
 The individual light quantum of definite energy this experiment using an electron beam?
to matter particle also.
and momentum can be associated with a particle.  The wave nature of electron (i.e) de Broglie
The light quantum can behave as a particle and  Let ‘m’ be the mass and ‘𝒗’ be the velocity of the
particle, then the wavelength hypothesis of matter waves was experimentally
this is called photon. confirmed by Davisson and Germer experiment.
𝒉 𝒉
15. Define intensity of light according to the quantum 𝝀= =
𝒎𝒗 𝒑  Diffraction is the important property of waves. So
concept. in this experiment, diffraction of electron beam
 According to quantum concept, the intensity of  This wavelength of the matter waves is known as
de Broglie wavelength. was observed when they fall on crystalline solids.
light of given wavelength is defined as the number 26. An electron and an alpha particle have same kinetic
of energy quanta or photons incident per unit area 21. Write the expression for the de Broglie wavelength energy. How are the deBroglie wavelengths
per unit time with photon having same energy. associated with a charged particle of charge ‘q’ and
−𝟐 mass ‘m’, when it is accelerated through a associated with them related?
 The unit is 𝑾 𝒎  De Broglei wavelength of electron beam,
16. What is the nature of light? potential V.
ℎ
 The light possesses dual nature that of both wave  De Broglie wavelength in terms of potential ‘V’ , 𝜆𝑒 =
√2 𝑚𝑒 𝐾
𝒉 𝒉
and particle. 𝝀= =  De Broglei wavelength of alpha particle,
 Light behaves as a wave during its propagation 𝒎 𝒗 √𝟐 𝒎 𝒒 𝑽 ℎ
𝜆𝛼 =
and behaves as a particle during its interaction 22. Why we do not see the wave properties of a √2 𝑚𝛼 𝐾
with matter. baseball? 𝝀𝒆 𝒎
17. What is photo electric cell? Give its type. 𝒉 ∴ = √ 𝒎𝜶
 The de Broglie wavelength of matter is ; 𝝀 = 𝝀𝜶 𝒆
𝒎𝒗
 The device which converts light energy into
 Thus the de Broglie wavelength is inversely 27. What are called X - rays? Why are they so called?
electrical energy is called photo electric cell or  X - rays are invisible, electromagnetic waves of very
proportional to the mass
simply photo cell. short wavelength ranging from 0.1 A to 100 A
 Since the mass of base ball is too large as
 It works on the principle of photo electric cell  When a fast moving electrons strike a metal target
compared with the electron, the de Broglie
 Photo cells are classified in to three types. wavelength of base ball is negligibly small of high atomic weight, X - rays are produced.
(1) Photo emissive cell  At the time of discovery, the orgin of this highly
 So we do not see the wave property of the baseball
(2) Photo voltaic cell penetrating rays were not known. So they were
23. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy.
(3) Photo conductive cell called as X - rays.
Which one has greater de Broglie wavelength.
18. What is De Broglie hypothesis? 28. List the properties of X - rays.
Justify.
 Due to the symmetry in nature, de Broglie 𝒉 Properties of X - rays :
suggested that if radiation like light can act as  De Broglei wavelength of proton ; 𝝀 𝒑 =
√𝟐 𝒎𝒑 𝑲  They travel in straight line with the velocity of light
particles at times, then matter particles like  De Broglei wavelength of electron ; 𝝀𝒆 =
𝒉
 They are not deflected both by electric and
electrons should also act as waves at times. √𝟐 𝒎𝒆 𝑲
 Here the mass of the proton is greater than the magnetic field
 According to de Broglie hypothesis, all matter  X - ray photons are highly energetic
particles like electrons, protons, neutrons in mass of the electron (𝒎𝑷 > 𝒎𝒆 )
 Hence the de Broglei wavelength of electron is  They pass through materials which are opaque to
motion are associated with waves. These waves
greater than that of proton (𝝀𝒆 > 𝝀𝑷 ) visible light.
are called de Broglie waves or matter waves.
29. What factor does the quality and intensity of X - 32. Write a note on continuous X - ray spectrum.  It is evident that K - series of lines in the X - ray
rays were depends? Continuous X - ray spectrum : spectrum arise due to the electronic transistions
 The quality of X - rays is measured in terms of its  When a fast moving electron penetrates and from L, M. N, O, ……… shells to K - shell.
penetrating power which depends on the velocity approaches a target nucleus, it get accelerates or
of the striking electron and the atomic number of decelerates
target material.  It may results in a change of path of the electron.
 The intensity of X - rays is depends on the number  The radiation produced from such decelerating
of electrons striking the target electron is called Bremsstrhlung or braking
30. Write a note on the production of X - rays. radiation.
Production of X - rays :  The energy of the emitted photon (radiation) is
equal to the loss of kinetic energy of the electron.
 So the photons are emitted with all possible
energies or frequencies.
 The continuous X -ray spectrum is due to such
radiations.
 When an electron gives up all its energy, then the
photon is emitted with highest frequency (𝜈0 ) or
lowest wavelength (𝜆0 )
 X - rays are produced in a Coolidge tube which is a  The intial kinetic energy of an electron = eV  Similarly L - series originates due to electronic
discharge tube. where, V  accelerating voltage transition from M, N, O, ……. shells to L - shell.
 Here a tungsten filament ‘F’ is heated by L.T, so  Thus, 34. Explain the applications of X -rays.
that electrons are emitted from it by thermionic 𝑐
𝑒 𝑉 = ℎ 𝜈0 = ℎ (1) Medical diagnosis :
emission. 𝜆0  X - rays can pass through flesh more easily
 These electrons are accelerated to very high 𝒉𝒄 𝟏𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 than through bones. Thus X -ray radiograph
speeds by H.T (𝑜𝑟) 𝝀𝟎 = = 𝑨°
𝒆𝑽 𝑽 containing a deep shadow of the bones and a
 The target material like tungsten is embedded in  This relation is known as Duane - Hunt formula. light shadow of flesh. So X -rays radiographs
the face of solid copper anode. 33. Write a note on characteristic X - ray spectra. ae used to detect fractures, foreign bodies,
 When high speed electrons strike the target, they Characteristic X - ray spectra : diseased organs etc.,
are decelarated suddenly and lose their kinetic  When the target is hit by fast electrons, the (2) Medical therapy :
energy. obtained X - ray spectra shows some narrow  X - ray can kill diseased tissues. So they are
 As a result, X -ray photons are produced. peaks at some well-defined wavelength. employed to cure skin diseases, malignant
 The face of target is inclined at particular angle, so  The line spectrum showing these peaks is called tumours etc.,
that the X - rays can leave the tube through its characteristic X - ray spectrum. (3) Industry :
side.  This X -ray spectrum is due to the electronic  They are used to check for flaws in welded
 Since most of the kinetic energy of electrons get transitions within the atoms. joints, motor tyres, tennis balls and wood,
converted in to heat, the target made of high  For example, when an energetic electron  At the custom post, they are used for
melting point and a cooling system are usally penetrates in to the target atom and removes the detection of contraband goods.
employed. electrons in K - shell and create a vacancy in it. (4) Scientific Research :
31. What is X -ray spectra? Give its types.  So the electrons from outer orbits jump to fill up  X - ray diffraction is important tool to study
 The intensity of the X-rays when plotted against the vacancy in K - shell. the structure of the crystalline materials (i.e)
its wavelength gives a curve called X - ray  During the downward transition, the energy the arrangement of atoms and molecules in
spectrum. difference between the levels is given out in the crystals.
 X - ray spectrum consists of two parts, namely form of X - ray photon of definite wavelength.
(1) Continuous X -ray spectrum  Such wavelengths, characteristic of the target,
(2) Characteristic X - ray spectrum consitute the line spectrum. .
35. Mention the two features of x-ray spectra, not  Thus free eletrons get sufficient kinetic energy
5 Marks Questions and Answers and emitted from the surface. This type is
explained by classical electromagnetic theory.
 Though classical electromagnetic theory suggests 1. What do you mean by electron emission? Explain called seconday emission.
the emission of radiations from accelerating briefly various methods of electron emission. (e.g.) photo multiplier tube
electrons, it could not explain two features Electron emission : 2. Briefly discuss the observations of Hertz,
exhibited by x-ray spectra. These features are  The liberation of electrons from any surface of a Hallwachs and Lenard.
given below. substance is called electron emission. Hertz experiment :
(1) For a given accelerating voltage, the lower  Heinrich Hertz successfully generating and
 The minimum energy needed to liberate the
limit for the wavelength of continuous x-ray detecting the existence of electromagnetic waves.
electorns from the metal surface is called work
spectra is same for all targets. This minimum function of that metal.  He used high voltage induction coil to cause a
wavelength is called cut-off wavelength. spark discharge between two metallic spheres.
 Depending upon the energy source, the electron
(2) The intensity of x-rays is significantly emission is classified as four types which are  When spark is formed, the charges will oscillate
increased at certain well-defined wavelengths explained below. back and forth rapidly and the electromagnetic
36. What is Bremsstralung? (1) Thermionic emission : waves are produced.
 When a fast moving electron penetrates and  When a metal is heated to a high temperature,  To detect this electromagnetic waves, a copper
approaches a target nucleus, it get accelerates or the free electrons on the surface get sufficient wire bent in the shape of a circle is used as
decelerates. It may results in a change of path of energy in the form of heat, so that they are detector.
the electron. emitted from the metallic surface. This type of Hallwachs’s experiment :
 The radiation produced from such decelerating emission is known as thermionic emission.  In Hertz experiment, in order to improve the
electron is called Bremsstrhlung or braking  The intensity of the thermionic emission visibility of the spark, it is exposed to ultra violet
radiation. depends on the metal used and its rays which makes the spark as more vigorous.
temperature.  Wilhelm Hallwachs confirmed that the strange
(e.g.) electron microscopes, X-ray tubes behaviour of the spark is due to the photo electric
(2) Field emission : emission under the action of ultra violet light.
 When a very strong electric field is applied  In Hallwachs experiment, a clean circular plate of
across the metal, this strong field pulls the zinc is mounted in insulating stand and is attached
free electrons and helps to overcome the to a gold leaf electroscope by a wire.
surface barrier of the metal. This type of
emission of electron is called field emission.
(e.g.) Field emission display
(3) Photo electric emission :
 When an electromagnetic radiation of
suitable frequency is incident on the surface
of the metal, the energy is transferred from
the radiation to free electrons.
 Hence the free electrons gets sufficient energy
to cross the surface barrier and this type is  When uncharged zinc plate is irradiated by
called photo electric emission. ultraviolet light, it becomes positively charged and
(e.g.) photo electric cells, phot diodes the leaves are open as shown in figure (a)
(4) Secondary emission :  If negatively charged zinc plate is exposed to
 When a beam of fast moving electrons strikes ultraviolet light, the leaves will close as the charges
the surface of the metal, the kinetic energy is leaked away quickly as shown in figure (b)
transferred to the free electrons on the metal  If positively charged plate is exposed to uv-light, it
surface. becomes more positive and the leaves are open
further as shown in figure (c)
 From these observations, it was concluded that  S is the source of electromagnetic wave of  Let the frequency and intensity of the incident
negatively charged electrons were emitted from frequency ‘𝜈’ and intensity ‘I’ light are kept constant.
the zinc plate under the action of uv - light.  C is the cathode made up of photo sensitive  Now, the potential of A is increased and the
Lenard experiment : material and is used to emit electrons. corresponding photocurrent is noted.
 A is the anode which collects the emitted electrons  Simillarly, a negative (retarding) potential is
 A and C are placed in an evacuated glass envelope applied to A and again the photocurrent is noted.
with a quartz window that permits uv -light and  Plot a graph by taking anode potential along
visible light. X -axis and photo current along Y - axis
 PQ is a potential divider arrangement which is  From the graph,
connected through a key K and battery B (1) When the potential of A increases, the photo
 The voltmeter ‘V’ and micro ammeter ‘A’ also current also increases and reaches a
included in this circuit. saturation value called saturation current.
 If there is no light incident on the cathode C, no (2) When a negative potential is applied to A, the
photoelectrons are emitted and the micro photo current does not immediately drop to
ammeter reads zero. zero, because the photo electrons are emitted
 When uv - light or visible light is allowed to fall on wity some definite and different kinetic
 A and C are two metallic plates placed in an energies.
C, the photo electrons are emitted and are
evacuated quartz bulb. (3) If the negative or retarding potential of A
attracted towards anode.
 Galvanometer G and battery B are connected in gradually increased, the photo current starts
 As a result, the photo electric current is set up in
the circuit. decreasing and becomes zero at one
the circuit which is measured using micro
 When uv - light is incident on plate C, and electric particular negative potential 𝑉𝑂
ammeter.
current flows in a circuit which is indicated by the (4) The value of negative or retarding potential
 The photo electric current depends following
deflection in the galvanometer. give to anode A which is just sufficient to stop
quantities,
 But if the plate A is irradiated by uv - light, no the most energetic photo electrons emitted
(1) the intensity of incident light
current is observed in the circuit. and make the photo current zero is called
(2) the potential difference between the
 From these observations, it is concluded that electrodes stopping potential or cut - off potential (𝑉𝑂 )
when uv- light falls on the negative plate C, (3) the nature of the material (5) Here the initial kinetic energy of the fastest
electrons are ejected from it, which are attracted electron (0 is equal to the work done by the
(4) frequency of incident light
by the positive plate A. 4. Explain the effect of potential difference on photo stopping potential to stop it. (i.e.)
 Hence the circuit is completed and the current electric current. 1 2
flows in it. 𝑒 𝑉𝑂 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
Effect of potential difference on photoelectric 2
 Thus the uv - light falling on the negative plate current : 𝟐 𝒆 𝑽𝑶
causes the electron emission from the surface of (𝑜𝑟) 𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ = 𝟓. 𝟗𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟓 √𝑽𝑶
the plate. 𝒎
3. Explain the experimental set up for study of photo 5. Explain how frequency of incident light varies with
electric effect stopping potential.
Experiment for study of photo electric effect : Effect of frequency on photoelectric current :
 Let the intensity of incident light is kept constant.
 The variation of photo current with the Anode
potential is studied for different incident
frequencies.
 A graph is plotted by taking anode potential along
x - axis and photo current along y - axis
 From the graph,
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is (1) Part of the photon energy is used for the
independent of intensity of the incident light. ejection of the electrons from the metal
 Maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons surface and it is called work function (𝝓𝟎 )
from a given metal is directly proportional to the (2) Remaining energy as the kinetic energy (K) of
frequency of incident light. the ejected electron.
 For a given surface, the emission of photo  From the law of conservation of energy,
electrons takes place only if the frequency of ℎ 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝐾
incident light is greater than a certain minimum 1
(𝑜𝑟) ℎ 𝜈 = 𝜙0 + 𝑚 𝑣 2 − − − − (1)
frequency called the threshold frequency. 2
 There is no time lag between incidence of light where m  mass of the electron and
and ejection of photoelectrons. (i.e.) phote electric υ  velocity
(1) Stopping potential vary over different effect is an instantaneous process  At threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of
frequencies of incident light. (i.e) Greater the 7. Explain the particle nature of light. List the ejeced electrons will be zero. (i.e.)
frequency, larger the stopping potential characteristics of photons. when. 𝜈 = 𝜈0 then 𝐾 = 0 Thus eqn (1) becomes
(2) Thus as the frequency is increased, the Particle nature of light : ℎ 𝜈0 = 𝜙0 − − − − (2)
photoelectrons are emitted with greater kinetic  According to Eienstein, the energy in light is not  Put eqn (2) in (1)
energies so that the retarding potential needed spread out over wavefronts, but is concentrated in 1
ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ 𝜈0 + 𝑚 𝑣 2 − − − − (3)
to stop thephotoelectrons is also greater. small packets or energy quanta. 2
Variation of stopping potential with frequency :  The energy of each light quantum is ; 𝑬 = 𝒉 𝝂  The equation (3) is known as Einstein’s
 The individual light quantum of definite energy photoelectric equation.
and momentum can be associated with a particle  If the electron does not lose energy by internal
and this is called photon. collisions, then it is emitted with maximum kinetic
Characteristics of photons : energy Kmax. Then
1
 Each photon will have energy given by ℎ 𝜈 = ℎ 𝜈0 + [ 𝑚 𝑣 2 ]
𝒉𝒄 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑬=𝒉𝝂= 1
𝝀 (𝑜𝑟) 2
𝑚 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ 𝜈 − ℎ 𝜈0
 The energy of a photon is determined by the 2
frequency of the radiation and not by its intensity. (𝑜𝑟) 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓𝟎 − − − − (𝟒)
 The photons travel with the velocity of light and  A graph between maximum kinetic energy Kmax
its momentum is given by, of the photoelectron and frequency ν of the
𝒉 𝒉𝝂 incident light is a straight line
𝒑= =
 From the graph, 𝝀 𝒄
(1) The stopping potential varies linealy with  Photons are electrically neutral, and hency they
frequency. are not deflected ny electric and magnetic fields.
(2) Below a particular frequency called threshold  When photon interacts with matter, the total
frequency (𝝂𝑶 ), no electrons are emitted. energy, total linear momentum and angular
(3) Hence at threshold frequency stopping momentum are conserved.
potential is zero for that reason. 8. Obtain Einstein’s photoelectric equation with
6. List out the laws of photoelectric effect. necessary explanation.
Laws of photoelectric effect : Einstein’s explanation of photoelectric equation :
 For a given frequency of incident light, the number  When a photon of energy ‘hν’ is incident on a
of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional metal surface, it is completely absorbed by a
to the intensity of the incident light. The single electron and the electron is ejected.
saturation current is also directly proportional to  In this process, the energy of incident photom is
the intensity of incident light. utilized in two ways.
9. Explain experimentally observed facts of  In this, the resistance of the semiconductor  Photo cells of exposure meters in photography are
photoelectric effect with the help of Einstein’s changes in accordance with the radiant used to measure the intensity of the given light
explanation. energy incident on it. and to calculate the exact time of exposure.
Explanation for photo electric effect : 11. Give the construction and working of photo 13. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength of
 As each photon liberates one electron, then the emissive cell. electrons.
increase of intensity of the light increases the Photo emissive cell : De Boglie wavelength of electrons :
number of electrons emitted there by increasing  It consists of an  An electron of mass m is accelerated through a
the photo current. evacuated glass or potential difference of V volt.
 From, 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒉 𝝂 − 𝝓𝟎 , it is evident that Kmax quartz bulb in which  The kinetic energy acquired by the electron is
is proportional to the frequency of the light and is two metallic given by
independent of intensity of the light. electrodes a cathode 1
𝟏 𝟐 and an anode are 𝑚 𝑣2 = 𝑒 𝑉
 From, 𝒉 𝝂 = 𝒉 𝝂𝟎 + 𝒎 𝒗 , there must be 2
𝟐
fixed.  Hence the speed of the electron is.
minimum energy (equal to the work function of 2𝑒𝑉
 The cathode C is semi-
the metal) for incident photons to liberate 𝑣2 =
electrons from the metal surface. Below which, cylindrical in shape 𝑚
emission of electrons is not possible. and is coated with a 2𝑒𝑉
Correspondingly, there exists minimum frequency photo sensitive 𝑣= √ − − − − (1)
material. 𝑚
called threshold frequency below which there is
 The anode A is a thin rod or wire kept along the  The de Broglie wavelength of electron is
no photoelectric emission.
axis of the semi-cylindrical cathode. ℎ ℎ
 According to quantum concept, the transfer of 𝜆= =
photon energy to the electrons is instantaneous  A potential difference is applied between the 𝑚𝑣 2𝑒𝑉
anode and the cathode through a galvanometer G. 𝑚√
so that there is no time lag between incidence of 𝑚
photons and ejection of electrons. Working : 𝒉
𝝀= − − − (2)
10. Explain photo electric cells and its types.  When cathode is illuminated, electrons are √𝟐 𝒎 𝒆 𝑽
Phot electric cell : emitted from it.
 These electrons are attracted by anode and hence where, ℎ = 6.626 𝑋 10−34 𝐽 𝑠
 Photo electric cell or photo cell is a device which 𝑒 = 1.6 𝑋 10−19 𝐶
converts light energy into electrical energy. a current is produced which is measured by the
galvanometer. 𝑚 = 9.11 𝑋 10−31 𝑘𝑔
 It works on the principle of photo electric effect.
 When light is incident on the photosensitive  For a given cathode, the magnitude of the current 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟕 𝒐
depends on ∴ 𝝀 = = 𝑨
materials, their electric properties will get √ 𝑽 √ 𝑽
affected, based on which photo cells are classified (1) the intensity to incident radiation and
14. Describe briefly Davisson – Germer experiment
into three types. They are Phote emissive cell, (2) the potential difference between anode and
which demonstrated the wave nature of electrons.
Phot voltaic cell and Photo conductive cell cathode.
Davisson - Gerner experiment :
(1) Photo emissive cell : 12. Give the application of photo cells .
 De Broglie hypothesis of matter waves was
 Its working depends on the electron emission Applications of photo cells :
experimentally confirmed by Clinton Davisson
from a metal cathode due to irradiation of  Photo cells have many applications especially as
and Lester Germer in 1927.
light or other radiations. switches and sensors.
 They demonstrated that electron beams are
(2) Photo voltaic cell :  Automatic lights that turn on when it gets dark
diffracted when they fall on crystalline solids.
 Here sensitive element made of use photocells, as well as street lights that switch
 Since crystal can act as a three-dimensional
semiconductor is used which generates on and off according to whether it is night or day.
diffraction grating for matter waves, the electron
voltage proportional tothe intensity of light or  Photo cells are used for reproduction of sound in
waves incident on crystals are diffracted off in
other radiations. motion pictures
certain specific directions.
(3) Photo conductive cell :  They are used as timers to measure the speeds of
 The filament F is heated by a low tension (L.T.)
athletes during a race.
battery so that electrons are emitted from the hot
filament by thermionic emission.
 The graph shows the variation of intensity of the Principle :
scattered electrons with the angle θ for the  The wave nature of the electron is used in the
accelerating voltage of 54V. construction of microscope called electron
 For a given accelerating voltage V, the scattered microscope.
wave shows a peak or maximum at an angle of 50°  The resolving power of a microscope is inversely
to the incident electron beam. proportional to the wavelength of the radiation
 This peak in intensity is attributed to the used.
constructive interference of electrons diffracted  Thus higher resolving power can be obtained by
from various atomic layers of the target material. employing the waves of shorter wavelengths.
 From the known value of interplanar spacing of  De Broglie wavelength of electron is very much
Nickel, the wavelength of the electron wave has less than (a few thousands less) that of the visible
been experimentally calculated as 1.65Å. light.
 The wavelength can also be calculated from de  As a result, the microscopes employing de Broglie
Broglie relation for V = 54 V as waves of electrons have very much higher
12.27 𝑜 12.27 𝑜 resolving power than optical microscope.
𝝀= 𝐴 = 𝐴 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝐀
√𝑉 √54  Electron microscopes giving magnification more
 This value agrees well with the experimentally than 2,00,000 times are common in research
observed wavelength of 1.65Å. laboratories.
 Thus this experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s Working :
hypothesis of the wave nature of moving particles.  The construction and working of an electron
 They are then accelerated due to the potential 15. Briefly explain the principle and working of microscope is similar to that of an optical
difference between the filament and the anode electron microscope. microscope except that in electron microscope
aluminium cylinder by a high tension (H.T.) Electron microscope : focussing of electron beam is done by the
battery. electrostatic or magnetic lenses.
 Electron beam is collimated by using two thin  The electron beam passing across a suitably
aluminium diaphragms and is allowed to strike a arranged either electric or magnetic fields
single crystal of Nickel. undergoes divergence or convergence thereby
 The electrons scattered by Ni atoms in different focussing of the beam is done
directions are received by the electron detector  The electrons emitted from the source are
which measures the intensity of scattered electron accelerated by high potentials.
beam.  The beam is made parallel by magnetic condenser
 The detector is rotatable in the plane of the paper lens.
so that the angle 𝜃 between the incident beam and  When the beam passes through the sample whose
the scattered beam can be changed at our will. magnified image is needed, the beam carries the
 The intensity of the scattered electron beam is image of the sample.
measured as a function of the angle θ.  With the help of magnetic objective lens and
magnetic projector lens system, the magnified
image is obtained on the screen.
 These electron microscopes are being used in
almost all branches of science.
physics - 2 unit - 9
Name :
Standard : 12 Section :
School :
Exam No :
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PG ASST (PHYSICS)
2 & 3 Marks Questions and Answer  This model could not expalain stability of atom  At this closest distance, all the kinetic energy of
and further, it fails to explain the origin of spectral the alpha particle will be converted into
1. What are called cathode rays? lines observed in the spectrum of hydrogen atom electrostatic potential energy
 When the pressure is about 0.01 mm of Hg, and other atoms. 1 1 (2𝑒)(𝑍𝑒)
positive column disappears and a dark space is 5. Give the results of Rutherford alpha scattering 𝑚 𝑣𝑜 2 =
2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑜
formed between anode and cathode which is experiment. 1 2 𝑍 𝑒2
called Crooke’s dark space. Results of alpha scattering experiment : 𝑟𝑜 =
 At this time the walls of the tube appear with 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑜 ( 1 𝑚 𝑣 2 )
 Most of the alpha particles are undeflected through 2 𝑜
green colour and some invisible rays emanate the gold foil and went straight. 𝟏 𝟐 𝒁 𝒆𝟐
from cathode called cathode rays, which are later  Some of the alpha particles are deflected through a 𝒓𝒐 = − − − − (1)
𝟒 𝝅 𝜺𝒐 𝑬𝑲
found be a beam of electrons. small angle.  where 𝑬𝑲 → kinetic energy of alpha particle
2. Give the properties of cathode rays.  A few alpha particles (one in thousand) are 8. Define impact parameter.
Properties of cathode rays : deflected through the angle more than 90°  The impact parameter (b) is defined as the
 Cathode rays possess energy and momentum  Very few alpha particles returned back (back perpendicular distance between the centre of the
 They travel in a straight line with high speed of scattered) –that is, deflected back by 180° gold nucleus and the direction of velocity vector of
the order of 107m s-1. 6. What are the conclusion made by Rutherford from alpha particle when it is at a large distance.
 It can be deflected by both electric and magnetic the results of alpha scattering experiments. 9. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford atom
fields. Conclusion made in alpha scattering experiment : model?
 The direction of deflection indicates that they are (Rutherford atom model) (1) Stability of atom cannot be explained :
negatively charged particles.  Rutherford proposed that an atom has a lot of  According to classical electrodynamics, any
 When the cathode rays are allowed to fall on empty space and contains a tiny matter known as accelerated charge emits electromagnetic
matter, they produce heat. nucleus whose size is of the order of 10-14 m. radiations which results loses in its energy.
 They affect the photographic plates  The nucleus is positively charged and most of the  Hence, it can no longer sustain the circular
 They produce fluorescence mass of the atom is concentrated in nucleus. motion and the radius of the orbit becomes
 When the cathode rays fall on a material of high  The nucleus is surrounded by negatively charged smaller and smaller (undergoes spiral
atomic weight, x-rays are produced. electrons. motion) and finally the electron should fall
 Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they  Since static charge distribution cannot be in a into the nucleus and hence the atoms should
pass. stable equilibrium, he suggested that the electrons
1 disintegrate.
 The speed of cathode rays is up to ( ) th of the are not at rest and they revolve around the  But this does not happen. Hence, Rutherford
10
nucleus in circular orbits like planets revolving model could not account for the stability of
speed of light.
around the sun. atoms.
3. Define specific charge.
7. What is distance of closest approach? Obtain (2) Line spectrum of atom could not explained :
 Charge per unit mass is called specific charge (or)
expression for it.  According to this model, emission of radiation
mass-normalized charge.
Definition : must be continuous and must give continuous
 Its unit is 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏
 The minimum distance between the centre of the emission spectrum.
4. Write a note on Thomson’s atom model.
nucleus and the alpha particle just before it gets  But experimentally we observe only line
Thomson’s atom model :
reflected back through 180° is defined as the (discrete) emission spectrum for atoms.
 According to J. J. Thomson’s atom model, the
distance of closest approach (or) contact distance 10. State the postulates of Bohr’s atom model.
atoms are considered as homogeneous spheres
𝑟𝑜 Postulate (1) :
which contain uniform distribution of positively
Expression :  The electron in an atom moves around nucleus in
charged particles.
 The negatively charged electrons are embedded circular orbits under the influence of Coulomb
in it like seeds in water melon fruit. electrostatic force of attraction.
 The atoms are electrically neutral, this implies  This Coulomb force gives necessary centripetal
that the total positive charge in an atom is equal to force for the electron to undergo circular motion.
the total negative charge.
Postulate (2) : 15. What are the drawbacks in Bohr atom model? 21. What is isotones? Give an example.
 Electrons in an atom revolve around the nucleus Drawbacks of Bohr atom model :  The atoms of different elements having same
only in certain discrete orbits called stationary  Bohr atom model is valid only for hydrogen atom number of neutrons are called isotones.
orbits where it does not radiate electromagnetic or hydrogen like-atoms but not for complex atoms (e.g.) 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝑩 and 𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝑪
energy.  When the spectral lines are closely examined, 22. Define atomic mass unit.
 The angular momentum (𝑙) of the electron in individual lines of hydrogen spectrum is  One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as the 1/12th
these stationary orbits are quantized (i.e.) integral accompanied by a number of faint lines. These of the mass of the isotope of carbon ( 𝟏𝟐𝟔 𝑪)
ℎ closed packed lines are called fine structure. This
multiple of  𝟏 𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝒌𝒈
2𝜋 is not explained by Bohr atom model.
𝒉 23. Give the empirical formula for nuclear radius.
𝒍=𝒏 =𝒏ℏ  Bohr atom model fails to explain the intensity  The nuclear radius is given by,
𝟐𝝅 variations in the spectral lines. 𝟏
where n  principal quantum number 𝑹 = 𝑹 𝑶 𝑨𝟑
 The distribution of electrons in atoms is not
 This condition is known as angular momentum where 𝑅𝑂 = 1.2 𝐹 [1 𝐹 = 10−15 𝑚]
completely explained by Bohr atom model.
quantization condition. 24. Difine nuclear density.
16. Define atomic number and mass number.
Postulate (3) :  Nuclear density is defined as the ratio of mass of
 The number of protons in the nucleus is called the
 Energy of orbits are not continuous but discrete. the nucleus to its volume.
atomic number (Z)
This is called the quantization of energy. 𝒎
 The number of neutrons in the nucleus is called 𝝆= = 𝟐. 𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟕 𝒌𝒈 𝒎−𝟑
 An electron can jump from one orbit to another 𝟒
neutron number (N). 𝝅 𝑹𝑶 𝟑
orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon whose 𝟑
 The total number of neutrons and protons in the 25. What is mass defect?
energy is equal to the difference in energy (ΔE)
nucleus is called the mass number(A) [A = Z+N]  The experimental mass of a nucleus is less than
between the two orbital levels
𝒄 17. Write a general notation of nucleus of element X. the total mass of its individual constituents.
∆𝑬 = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊 = 𝒉 𝝂 = 𝒉 What each term denotes?  The mass difference between total mass of the
𝝀
where c  speed of light  The general notation of nucleus is ; 𝑨𝒁𝑿 nucleons and the real mass of the nucleus is called
λ  wavelength of the radiation used and  where X is the chemical symbol of the element, mass defect (Δm)
𝝂  frequency of the radiation A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number. ∆𝒎 = (𝒁 𝒎𝒑 + 𝑵 𝒎𝒏 ) − 𝑴
11. Define excitation energy. (e.g.) Nitrogen nucleus is represented by 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝑵 26. Define binding energy.
 The energy required to excite an electron from 18. What is the charge of nucleus?  When Z protons and N neutrons are combine to
lower energy state to any higher energy state is  The nucleus is made up of positively charged form a nucleus, the mass diappear equivalent to
known as excitation energy. protons and electrically neutral neutrons. mass defect (Δm) is converted in to energy which
 Its unit is electron volt (eV)  So the net charge of the nucleus is positive and it is used to bind the nucleons in the nucleus. This is
12. Define excitation potential. has the value = + Z e known as binding energy (BE)
 Excitation potential is defined as excitation energy 19. What is isotope? Give an example.
𝑩𝑬 = ∆𝒎 𝒄𝟐 = [(𝒁 𝒎𝒑 + 𝑵 𝒎𝒏 ) − 𝑴 ] 𝒄𝟐
per unit charge.  The atoms of the same element having same
atomic number Z, but different mass number A are 27. Calculate the energy equivalent to one atomic
 Its unit is volt (V) mass unit (1 u). Give the answer in eV unit.
13. Define ionization energy. called isotopes.
 The isotopes of any element have same electronic  According to Eienstein’s mass - energy relation
 The minimum energy required to remove an 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 2 = (1 𝑢 ) 𝑋 (3 𝑋 108 )2
electron from an atom in the ground state is structure and same chemical properties.
𝐸 = 1.66 𝑋 10−27 𝑋 9 𝑋 1016
known as binding energy or ionization energy. (e.g) Hydrogen isotopes : 𝟏𝟏𝑯 , 𝟐𝟏𝑯 , 𝟑𝟏𝑯
𝐸 = 14.94 𝑋 10−11 𝐽
 Ionization energy of hydrogen atom is 20. What is isobars? Give an example.
 But we have, 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 𝑋 10−19 𝐽
𝑬𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽  The atoms of different elements having the same
∴ 𝑬 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽
14. Define ionization potential. mass number A, but different atomic number Z are
28. Define average binding energy per nucleon?
 Ionization potential is defined as ionization energy called isobars.
 The average binding energy per nucleon is the
per unit charge.  They have different physical and chemical
energy required to separate single nucleon from
 The ionization potential of hydrogen atom is, properties
the particular nucleus. (̅̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐸 ).
𝑽𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝑽 (e.g) 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟔 𝑺, 𝟏𝟕 𝑪𝒍, 𝟏𝟖 𝑨𝒓, 𝟏𝟗 𝑲 and 𝟐𝟎 𝑪𝒂
 It measures the stability of the nucleus.
29. What is nuclear force? (3) Gamma decay : 37. State the law of radioactive decay.
 It was concluded that there must be a strong  In α and β decay, the daughter nucleus is in  At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
attractive force between protons to overcome the the excited state most of the time. time, called rate of decay is proportional to the
repulsive Coulomb’s force. This strong attractive  So this excited state nucleus immediately number of nuclei ( N ) at the same instant.
force which holds the nucleus together is called returns to the ground state or lower energy 38. Define activity. Give its unit.
nuclear force. state by emitting highly energetic photons  Activity or decay rate which is the number of
30. Give the properties of nuclear forces? called γ rays. nuclei decayed per second and it is denoted as R
Properties of Nuclear forces :  During gamma decay there is no change in 𝒅𝑵
𝑹=
 The strong nuclear force is of very short range, atomic number and mass number 𝒅𝒕
𝐴 ∗ 𝐴  Its unit is becquerel (Bq) and curie (Ci)
acting only up to a distance of a few Fermi. 𝑍 𝑿 ⟶ 𝑍𝑋 + gamma rays (𝛾)
 Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature. 12 12 ∗ 0 39. Define one bequerel.
(e.g) 5𝐵 ⟶ 6𝐶 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅  one Becquerel (Bq) is equal to one decay per
 The strong nuclear force is attractive and acts 12 ∗ 12
with an equal strength between proton-proton, 6𝐶 ⟶ 6𝐶 + 𝛾 second.
proton-neutron, and neutron – neutron. 33. Define disintegration energy. 𝟏 𝑩𝒒 = 𝟏 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
 Strong nuclear force does not act on the electrons.  In decay process, the total mass of the daughter 40. Define one curie.
So it does not alter the chemical properties of the nucleus and product nucleus is always less than  one curie was defined as number of decays per
atom. that of the parent nucleus. The difference in mass second in 1 g of radium
31. Define radioactivity. ( Δm) is released as energy called disintegration 𝟏 𝑪𝒊 = 𝟑. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚/𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
 The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of energy Q 41. What is half life of nucleus. Give the expression.
highly penetrating radiations such as α, β and γ  If Q > 0, the decay is spontaneous (natural  The half life (𝑻𝟏/𝟐 ) is the time required for the
rays by an element is called radioactivity and the radioactivity) If Q < 0, the decay process cannot
number of atoms initially present to reduce to one
substances which emit these radiations are called occur spontaneously and energy must be supplied
half of the initial amount .
radioactive elements. to induce the decay. 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
32. Give the symbolic representation of alpha decay, 34. In alpha decay, why the unstable nucleus emits 𝑻𝟏 =
𝟒 𝟐 𝝀
beta decay and gamma decay. 𝟐𝑯𝒆 nucleus? Why it does not emit four separate
42. What is mean life of nucleus? Give the expression.
(1) Alpha decay : nucleons?
 The mean life time (𝝉) of the nucleus is the ratio of
 When unstable nuclei decay by emitting an  For example, if 238 234
92𝑈 nucleus decays into 90𝑇ℎ by
sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the
α-particle ( 42𝐻𝑒 ), its atomic number (Z) emitting four separate nucleons (two protons and
total number nuclei present initially.
decreases by 2, the mass number (A) two neutrons), then the disintegration energy Q 𝟏
decreases by 4. for this process turns out to be negative. 𝝉=
𝝀
 It implies that the total mass of products is greater 43. Write a note on the discovery
 The α- decay process symbolically written as of neutron.
𝐴 𝐴−4 4 than that of parent ( 238
92𝑈 ) nucleus.
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒 Discovery of neutron :
238 234 4  This kind of process cannot occur in nature  In 1930, Bothe and Becker found that when
(e.g.) 92𝑈 ⟶ 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒
because it would violate conservation of energy. beryllium was bombarded with α particles, highly
(2) Beta decay :
35. Write a note on positron? penetrating radiation was emitted.
 In 𝜷− - decay, the atomic number of the
 The positron is an anti-particle of an electron  This radiation was capable of penetrating the
nucleus increases by one but mass number
whose mass is same as that of electron and charge thick layer of lead and was unaffected by the
remains the same.
𝐴 𝐴 0 is opposite to that of electron (i.e.) +e. electric and magnetic fields.
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅ 36. State the properties of neutrino.
(e.g.) 14 14 0  Initially, it was thought wrongly as γ - radiation.
6𝐶 ⟶ 7𝑁 + −1𝑒 + 𝜈̅ Properties of neutrino :
 In 𝜷+ - decay, the atomic number of the  But in 1932, James Chadwick discovered that
 It has zero charge those radiations are particles of mass little greater
nucleus decreases by one but mass number  It has an antiparticle called anti-neutrino.
remains the same. than the mass of the proton and had no charge.
 Recent experiments showed that the neutrino has
𝐴 𝐴 0  He called them as neutrons ( 𝟏𝟎𝒏). The above
𝑍𝑋 ⟶ 𝑍−1𝑌 + 1𝑒 + 𝜈 very tiny mass.
(e.g.) 22 22 0 reaction was written as
11𝑁𝑎 ⟶ 10𝑁𝑒 + 1𝑒 + 𝜈  It interacts very weakly with the matter. 𝟗 𝟒 𝟏𝟐 𝟏
𝟒𝑩𝒆 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆 ⟶ 𝟔𝑪 + 𝟎𝒏
Therefore, it is very difficult to detect.
44. List the properties of neutrons.  These three neutrons cause further fission  According to Hans Bethe, the sun is powered by
Properties of neutrons : produces nine neutrons and this process goes on. proton-proton cycle of fusion reaction.
 Mass of the neutron is little greater than the mass  Thus the number of neutrons goes on increasing  This cycle consists of three steps :
of the proton and had no charge. almost in geometric progression and this is called Step - 1 : 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯 ⟶ 𝟐𝟏𝑯 + 𝟎𝟏𝒆 + 𝝂
 Neutrons are stable inside the nucleus. But free a chain reaction Step - 2 : 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝑯 ⟶ 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝜸
 neutron has half life of 13 minutes. Then it decays  There are two kinds of chain reactions: 𝟑 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏
with emission of proton, electron and anti (1) Uncontrolled chain reaction Step - 3 : 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆 ⟶ 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯
neutrino. (2) Controlled chain reaction.  In general, the above three steps can be written as.
 Neutrons are classified according to their kinetic 48. What is called nuclear reactor? 𝟒 𝟏𝟏𝑯 ⟶ 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟐 𝟏𝟏𝑯 + 𝟐 𝟎𝟏𝒆 + 𝟐 𝝂 + 𝟐𝟕 𝑴𝒆𝑽
energy as  Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear 53. What are the constituent particles of neutron and
(1) slow neutrons (0 to 1000 eV) fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled proton?
(2) fast neutrons (0.5 MeV to 10 MeV). manner.  Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks
 The neutrons with average energy of about  The energy produced is used either for research which are now considered as elementary particles
0.025 eV in thermal equilibrium are called purpose or for power generation.  According to quark model,
2
thermal neutron.  The first nuclear reactor was built in the year (1) Proton is made up of two up quarks (+ 𝑒)
3
45. What is meant by nuclear fission? 1942 at Chicago, USA 1
 The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a 49. What is nuclear fusion? and one down quark (− 𝑒) and
3
2
heavier atom into two smaller nuclei with the  When two or more light nuclei (A<20) combine to (2) Neutron is made up of one up quark (+ 𝑒)
3
release of a large amount of energy is called form a heavier nucleus, then it is called nuclear 1
and two down quarks (− 𝑒)
nuclear fission. fusion. 3
46. Calculate the energy released per fission. 50. What is mean by thermo nuclear reactions? 54. What is radio carbon dating?
Energy released in one fission:  When two light nuclei come closer to combine, it is  Radioactive dating or carbon dating is the
 Consider the following fission reaction. strongly repelled by the coulomb repulsive force technique to estimate the age of ancient object by
𝟐𝟑𝟓
𝑼 + 𝟏
𝒏 ⟶ 𝟏𝟒𝟏
𝑩𝒂 + 𝟗𝟐
𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑 𝟏
𝒏 + 𝑸  To overcome this repulsion, the two light nuclei using radio carbon isotope ( 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝑪)
𝟗𝟐 𝟎 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟔 𝟎
 Total mass before fission ; must have enough kinetic energy to move closer 55. Write a note on smoke detector.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝟗𝟐𝑼𝟐𝟑𝟓
= 235.045733 𝑢 to each other such that the nuclear force becomes Smoke detecter :
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝟎𝒏 𝟏
= 1.008665 𝑢 effective.  An important application of alpha decay is smoke
 This can be achieved if the temperature is very detector which prevent us from any hazardous fire.
= 236.054398 𝑢 much greater than the value 107 K.  It uses around 0.2 mg of man-made weak
 Total mass after fision ;  When the surrounding temperature reaches radioactive isotope called americium ( 𝟐𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟓𝑨𝒎)
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝟏𝟒𝟏 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 = 140.9177 𝑢 around 107 K, lighter nuclei start fusing to form  This radioactive source is placed between two
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝟗𝟐 𝟑𝟔 𝑲𝒓 = 91.8854 𝑢 heavier nuclei and this resulting reaction is called oppositely charged metal plates and α radiations
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝒏 = 3.025995 𝑢 thermonuclear fusion reaction. from 𝟐𝟒𝟏𝟗𝟓𝑨𝒎 continuously ionize the nitrogen,
51. What is the source of stellar energy? oxygen molecules in the air space between the
= 235.829095 𝑢
 The energy generation in every star is only plates.
mass defect ; ∆𝑚 = 236.054398 𝑢  As a result, there will be a continuous flow of
through thermonuclear fusion because its
(−) 235.829095 𝑢 small steady current in the circuit.
temperature is of the order of 107 K
= 0.225303 𝑢  Most of the stars including our Sun fuse hydrogen  If smoke enters, the radiation is being absorbed by
into helium and some stars even fuse helium into the smoke particles rather than air molecules.
 Then energy released during this fission reaction,  As a result, the ionization and along with it the
heavier elements.
𝑄 = ∆𝑚 𝑋 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉 current is reduced. This drop in current is
52. Write a note on proton - proton cycle.
𝑄 = 0.225303 𝑋 931 𝑀𝑒𝑉 detected by the circuit and alarm starts.
 The sun’s interior temperature is around
𝑸 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝒆𝑽
1.5 𝑋 107 𝐾 .  The radiation dosage emitted by americium is
47. What is called chain reaction. Give its types. very much less than safe level, so it can be
 At this temperature, fusion reaction takes place
 During every fission reaction, three neutrons are considered harmless.
and the sun is converting 6 𝑋 1011 𝑘𝑔 hydrogen
released along with products.
into helium every second.
 Let ‘e’ be the charge of cathode ray particle.  Hence the deflection at the end of the electric field
5 Mark Questions & Answers  The upward force acting on cathode rays due to 1 1
𝑦  = 𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑎 𝑡 2 = 0 + 𝑎𝐸 𝑡 2
1. Explain the J.J. Thomson experiment to determine electric field ‘E’ is; 𝑭𝑬 = 𝒆 𝑬 2 2
the specific charge of electron.  The downward force acting on cathode rays due to 
1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 2 1 𝑒 𝐸 𝑙2
magnetic field is ; 𝑭𝑩 = 𝒆 𝑩 𝒗 𝑦 = ( ) =
Specific charge of elctron - J J Thomson Experiment 2 𝑚 𝑣 2 𝑚 𝑣2
 In undeflected equilibrium position, 2 2
 Charge per unit mass of an electron is called 1 𝑒𝐸 𝑙 𝐵
𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐵 𝑦 =
specific charge (e/m) 2 𝑚 𝐸2
Principle : 𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒𝐵𝑣 𝟏 𝒆 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
𝑬 𝒚 = − − − − (𝟐)
 Cathode rays (electron beam) deflects by both 𝒗 = − − − − − −(𝟏) 𝟐𝒎 𝑬
electric and magnetic fields is the principle 𝑩  Then the deflection on the screen,
involved in this method. Method (1) - To find specific charge : 𝑦 ∝ 𝑦 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑦 = 𝐶 𝑦
Set up :  Let ‘V’ be the potential difference between anode 𝐶  Proportionality constant
and cathode.  Using equation (2),
 Since the cathode rays (electron beam) are 1 𝑒 𝑙 2 𝐵2
accelerated from cathode to anode, the potential 𝑦=𝐶
2𝑚 𝐸
energy ‘eV’ of the electron beam at the cathode is 𝒆 𝟐𝒚𝑬
converted into kinetic energy of the electron beam = − − − − − (𝟑)
at the anode. Hence, 𝒎 𝑪 𝒍𝟐 𝑩𝟐
 By substituting the known values, we get
1 𝒆
𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏
2 𝒎
𝒆 𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝟏 𝑬𝟐 Method (3) - Deflection due to magnetic field :
∴ = =
𝒎 𝟐𝑽 𝟐 𝑽 𝑩𝟐  When the electric field is turned off (𝐸 = 0), the
 The value of specific charge is , deflection is only due to magnetic field.
𝒆
 It is ahighly evacuated discharge tube = 𝟏. 𝟕 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑪 𝒌𝒈−𝟏  The magnetic force provides the centripetal force,
 Cathode rays (electron beam) produced at 𝒎 the electron beam undergoes semi-circular path .
cathode ‘C’ are attracted towards anode disc A Method (2) - Deflection due to electric field :
Hence.
which allow only a narrow beam of cathode rays. 𝑚 𝑣2
 These cathode rays are now allowed to pass 𝑒𝑣𝐵=
𝑅
through the parallel plates and strike the screen 𝑚𝑣
coated with ZnS, a light spot is observed at O 𝑒𝐵=
𝑅
 The metal plates are maintained at high voltage. 𝐸
𝑚 ( ) 𝑚𝐸
 Further, this gas discharge tube is kept in between 𝑒𝐵= 𝐵 =
pole pieces of magnet such that both electric and 𝑅 𝐵𝑅
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other. 𝒆 𝑬
= 𝟐 − − − − − (𝟒)
Velocity of cathode rays (𝒗) : 𝒎 𝑩 𝑹
 When the magnetic field is turned off (𝐵 = 0), the  The specific charge is independent of
deflection is only due to electric field. (1) Gas used
 Let ‘m’ be the mass of the electron, the upward (2) Nature of the electrodes
acceleration due to electric field ‘E’ is
𝐹𝐸 𝑒𝐸
𝑎𝐸 = =
𝑚 𝑚
 Upward initial velocity ; 𝑢 = 0
 Let ‘𝑙’ be the length of the deflecting plate, then
time taken to travel in electric field is,
𝑙
𝑡=
𝑣
2. Discuss the Millikan’s oil drop experiment to  Radius of the oil drop =𝑟
determine the charge of an electron. Density of the the oil =𝜌
Millikan’s oil drop method : Density of the air =𝜎
 The downward gravitational force acting on the
oil drop is.
4
𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟 3 ] 𝑔
3
 The upthrust force experienced by the oil drop
due to displaced air is
4  From the free body diagram,
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜎 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟 3 ] 𝑔 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝐸
3
 Once the oil drop attains a terminal velocity υ, the 4 4
𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 + 𝑞 𝐸
net downward force 3 3
acting on the oil drop is 4 4
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑞 𝐸 = 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 − 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔
 It consists of two horizontal circular metal plates equal to the viscous 3 3
A and B each with diameter around 20 cm and are 4
force acting opposite to 𝑞𝐸= 𝜋𝑟 3 (𝜌
− 𝜎 )𝑔
separated by a small distance 1.5 cm. the direction of motion 3
 These two parallel plates are enclosed in a 4
of the oil drop. 𝑞= 𝜋 𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
chamber with glass walls.  From Stokes law, the 3𝐸
 A high potential difference around 10 kV applied  Put equation (1), we get
viscous force on the oil 1
across the metal plates, such that electric field acts drop is ; 𝐹𝑣 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 4 9𝜂𝑣 9𝜂𝑣 2
vertically downward.  From the free body 𝑞= 𝜋 [ ][ ] (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
3𝐸 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
 A small hole is made at the centre of the upper diagram, 1
18 𝜂𝑣 2
plate A and atomizer is kept exactly above the hole 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑣 𝑞= 𝜋 [𝜂 𝑣] [ ] (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
to spray the liquid. 4 4 𝐸 2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔
 When a fine droplet of highly viscous liquid (like 𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 = 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟3] 𝑔 + 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 𝟏
3 3 𝟏𝟖 𝜼𝟑 𝒗 𝟑 𝟐
glycerine) is sprayed using atomizer, it falls freely 4 4 𝒒= 𝝅[ ] − − − −(𝟐)
3 3
𝜌 [ 𝜋 𝑟 ]𝑔 − 𝜎 [ 𝜋 𝑟 ]𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 𝑬 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝈 )𝒈
downward through the hole of the top plate only 3 3
under the influence of gravity. 4  Millikan repeated this experiment several times
3 (𝜌
 Few oil drops in the chamber can acquire electric 𝜋𝑟 − 𝜎 )𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝑟 𝜂 𝑣 and computed the charges on oil drops.
3
charge (negative charge) because of friction with 𝑟3 18 𝜋𝜂𝑣  He found that the charge of any oil drop can be
air or passage of x-rays in between the parallel = written as integral multiple of a basic value,
𝑟 4 𝜋 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 (−1.6 X 10−19 C), which is nothing but the charge of
plates. 9𝜂𝑣
 Further the chamber is illuminated by light which
2
𝑟 = an electron. Hence, 𝒆 = − 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑿 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝑪
2 (𝜌 − 𝜎 )𝑔 3. Derive the expression for radius and energy of the
is passed horizontally and oil drops can be seen 𝟏
clearly using microscope placed perpendicular to 𝟗𝜼𝒗 𝟐 nth orbit of hydrogen atom using Bohr atom model.
𝒓 = [ ] − −(𝟏) Radius of nth orbit :
the light beam. 𝟐 (𝝆 − 𝝈 )𝒈
 These drops can move either upwards or (2) Determination of electric charge :
downward.  When the electric field is switched on, charged
(1) Radius of oil drop : oil drops experience an upward electric force
 When the electric field is switched off, the oil (qE).
drop accelerates downwards.  Strength of the electric field is adjusted to
 Due to the presence of air drag forces, the oil make that particular drop to be stationary.
drops easily attain its terminal velocity and  Under these circumstances, there will be no
moves with constant velocity. Let it be ‘𝑣’ viscous force acting on the oil drop.
𝟐
 Consider an atom which contains the nucleus at 𝒏  For hydrogen, (Z = 1), then
rest which is made up of of protons and neutrons. 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒂𝑶 − − − − (𝟑)
𝒁 𝒎 𝒆𝟒 𝟏
 Let an electron revolving around the stabe nucleus 𝒉 𝟐 𝜺𝑶 𝑬𝒏 = − − − − − (𝟕)
where, 𝑎𝑂 = = 0.529 𝐴 → Bohr radius 𝟖 𝜺𝑶𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
 Atomic number =𝑍 𝝅 𝒎 𝒆𝟐
 For hydrogen, = 1), So radius of 𝑛𝑡ℎ orbit,
(Z  The negative sign in equation (7) indicates that
Total charge of th nucleus =+𝑍𝑒
𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒂 𝑶 𝒏𝟐 − − − − (𝟒) the electron is bound to the nucleus.
Charge of an electron =−𝑒
 For first orbit, n = 1, (ground level)  Put the values of 𝜺𝑶 , 𝒉, 𝒎, 𝒆 and using ‘eV’ unit we
Mass of the electron =𝑚
𝑟1 = 𝑎𝑂 = 0.529 𝐴 have,
 From Coulomb’s law, the force of attraction 𝟏𝟑. 𝟔
between the nucleus and the electron is  For second orbit, n = 2, (first excited level) 𝑬𝒏 = − 𝒆𝑽
1 (+ 𝑍 𝑒) (−𝑒) 𝑟2 = 4 𝑎𝑂 = 4 𝑋 0.529 𝐴 = 2.116 𝐴 𝒏𝟐
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = 𝑟̂  For third orbit, n = 3, (second excited level)  when, n = 1, 𝑬𝟏 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔 𝒆𝑽
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 when, n = 2, 𝑬𝟐 = − 𝟑. 𝟒 𝒆𝑽
𝑟3 = 9 𝑎𝑂 = 9 𝑋 0.529 𝐴 = 4.761 𝐴
1 𝑍 𝑒2 when, n = 3, 𝑬𝟑 = − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏 𝒆𝑽
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = − 𝑟̂  Thus, radius of the orbit, 𝒓𝒏 ∝ 𝒏𝟐
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 Velocity of electron in nth orbit :  Thus, as ‘n’ increases, energy also increases. (i.e.)
 This force provides necessary centripetal force  According to Bohr’s quantization condition, the orbit which is closest to the nucleus has lowest
given by. ℎ energy. So it is often called ground state
𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛  The ground state energy of hydrogen (- 13.6 eV) is
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 = − 𝑟̂ 2𝜋
𝑟𝑛 𝑛2 ℎ used as a unit of energy called Rydberg.
 At equilibrium, 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑎𝑂 =𝑛 1 Rydberg = − 13.6 eV
𝑍 2𝜋
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝒉 𝒁 4. Explain the spectral series of hydrogen atom.
𝒗𝒏 = − − − (𝟓)
1 𝑍 𝑒2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝟐 𝝅 𝒎 𝒂𝑶 𝒏 Spectral series of hydrogen atom :
− 𝑟̂ = − 𝑟̂ 𝟏  When an electron jumps from mth orbit to nth orbit,
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛  Hence, 𝒗𝒏 ∝ (i.e.) the velocity of the electron
𝒏 a spectral line was obtained whose wave number
1 𝑍 𝑒2 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 decreases as the principal quantum number
= − − − − − (1) (i.e.) reciprocal of wave length is,
4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛2 𝑟𝑛 increases 1 1 1
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2 Total Energy of electron in nth orbit : 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑟𝑛 = 𝜆 𝑛 𝑚
𝑍 𝑒2  Electrostatic force is a conservative force.  here, R  Ryderg constant(𝑅 = 1.097 𝑋 107 𝑚−1 )
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑚2 𝑣𝑛2 𝑟𝑛2  So potential energy of the electron in nth orbit,  For m > n, various spectral series are obtained.
𝑟𝑛 = 1 (+ 𝑍 𝑒) (−𝑒) 1 𝑍 𝑒2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑈𝑛 = = − (1) Lyman series :
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 ]2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛  n = 1 and m = 2, 3, 4, …..
𝑟𝑛 =  Kinetic energy of the electron in nth orbit,
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚  Hence the wave number,
 From Bohr’s postulate, 1 1 1 𝑍 𝑒2 1 1 1
ℎ 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛2 = [ ] [𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑛(1)] 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛 =𝑛ℏ 2 2 4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 𝜆 1 𝑚
2𝜋  Thus , 𝑼𝒏 = −𝟐 𝑲𝑬𝒏  They lie in ultra violet region
 Hence, (2) Balmer series :
 Therefore, total energy of the electron in nth orbit,
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [𝑙𝑛 ]2  𝑛 = 2 and 𝑚 = 3, 4, 5, . ….
𝑟𝑛 = 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑈𝑛 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = −2 𝐾𝐸𝑛 + 𝐾𝐸𝑛 = − 𝐾𝐸𝑛
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 1 𝑍 𝑒2  Hence the wave number,
𝑛ℎ 2 𝐸𝑛 = − 1 1 1
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) [ ] 8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 𝑟𝑛 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑟𝑛 = 2𝜋 𝜆 2 𝑚
𝑂 ℎ2 𝜀 𝑛2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚  From equation (2), 𝑟𝑛 = [ ] .Hence  They lie in visible region
𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2 𝑍
(4 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ) 𝑛2 ℎ2 (3) Paschen series :
𝑟𝑛 = 1 𝑍 𝑒2
𝑍 𝑒 2𝑚 𝑋 4 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑛 = −  𝑛 = 3 and 𝑚 = 4, 5, 6, ….
8 𝜋 𝜀𝑂 ℎ2 𝜀𝑂 𝑛2
𝒉𝟐 𝜺𝑶 𝒏𝟐 [ ]  Hence the wave number
𝒓𝒏 = [ ] − − − − (𝟐) 𝜋 𝑚 𝑒2 𝑍
𝝅 𝒎 𝒆𝟐 𝒁 𝟒 𝟐 1 1 1
𝒎𝒆 𝒁 𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
 Here 𝜺𝑶 , 𝒉, 𝒎, 𝒆 and 𝝅 are constant. 𝑬𝒏 = − − − − − (𝟔) 𝜆 3 𝑚
𝟖 𝜺𝑶𝟐 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐  They lie in infra red region
(4) Brackett series : (3) For higher mass numbers, the curve reduces 𝑁
̅̅̅̅ ln [ ] = − 𝜆 𝑡
 𝑛 = 4 and 𝑚 = 5, 6, 7, …. slowly and 𝐵𝐸 for uranium is about 7.6 MeV. They 𝑁𝑂
 Hence the wave number, are unstable and radioactive. Taking exponential on both sides,
1 1 1 (4) If two light nuclei with A<28 combine to form 𝑁
𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ] = 𝑒− 𝜆 𝑡
𝜆 4 𝑚 heavier nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon is 𝑁𝑂
 They lie in middle infra red region, more for final nucleus than initial nuclei. Thus, if 𝑵 = 𝑵𝑶 𝒆− 𝝀 𝒕 − − − − (𝟐)
(5) Pfund series : the lighter elements combine to produce a nucleus  Equation (2) is called the law of radioactive decay.
 𝑛 = 5 and 𝑚 = 6, 7,8, …. of medium value A, a large amount of energy will  Here the number of atoms is decreasing
 Hence the wave number be released. This is the basis of nuclear fusion exponentially over the time.
1 1 1 and is the principle of the hydrogen bomb.  This implies that the time taken for all the
𝜈̅ = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝜆 5 𝑚 (5) If a nucleus of heavy element is split (fission) into radioactive nuclei to decay will be infinite.
 They lie in far infra red region. two or more nuclei of medium value A, the energy
5. Explain the variation of average binding energy released would again be large. The atom bomb is
with the mass number by graph and discuss its based on this principle.
features. 6. Obtain the law of radioactivity (radioactive decay)
Binding energy curve : Law of radioactivity :
 At any instant t, the number of decays per unit
time, called rate of decay (dN/ dt) is proportional
to the number of nuclei (N) at the same instant.
This is called law of radioactive decay.
Expression :
 Let 𝑁𝑂 be the numer of nuclei at initial time (t = 0)
 Let ‘N’ be the number of undecayed nuclei at any
time ‘t’ 7. Obtain an expression for half life time and mean
 If ‘dN’ be the number of nuclei decayed in time ‘dt’ life time.
𝑑𝑁 Half life time (𝑻𝟏 ) :
then, rate of decay = 𝟐
𝑑𝑡
 From law of radioactivity,  Half-life T1/2 is thetime required for the number of
𝑑𝑁 atoms initially present to reduce to one half of the
∝𝑁 initial amount.
 The average binding energy per nucleon (𝐵𝐸 ̅̅̅̅ ) is 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁  From the law of radioactive decay, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑂 𝑒 − 𝜆 𝑡
the energy required to separate single nucleon (𝑜𝑟) = −𝜆𝑁 − − − − − (1) 𝑁
from the particular nucleus. 𝑑𝑡  If 𝑡 = 𝑇1 then, 𝑁 = 𝑂 . Hence
2
𝐵𝐸 [(𝑍 𝑚𝑃 + 𝑁 𝑚𝑛 ) − 𝑀𝐴 ] 𝑐 2 Here, 𝜆 → decay constant 2
̅̅̅̅ 𝑁 𝑂 − 𝜆 𝑇1
𝐵𝐸 = =  Decay constant (𝜆 ) is different for different = 𝑁𝑂 𝑒 2
𝐴 𝐴 radioactive sample and the negative sign in the 2
 ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐸 is plotted against A of all known nuclei and the 1 − 𝜆 𝑇1
graph obtained is called binding energy curve. equation implies that the N is decreasing with = 𝑒 2
time. 2
 From the graph, 𝜆 𝑇1
 By rewriting the equation (1), we get (𝑜𝑟) 𝑒 2 = 2
̅̅̅̅
(1) The value of 𝐵𝐸 rises as the mass number A
 Taking log on both sides,
increases until it reaches a maximum value of
𝑑𝑁 𝜆 𝑇1 = ln 2
8.8 MeV for A = 56 (iron) and then it slowly = − 𝜆 𝑑𝑡 2
decreases. 𝑁 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏
Integrating on both sides, 𝑻𝟏 = =
(2) The average binding energy per nucleon is 𝑁 𝑡 𝟐 𝝀 𝝀
𝑑𝑁
about 8.5 MeV for nuclei having mass number ∫ = − 𝜆 ∫ 𝑑𝑡  If the number of atoms present at t = 0 is N0 , then
between A = 40 and 120. These elements are 𝑁𝑂 𝑁 0 (1) Number of atoms remais undecayed after
comparatively more stable and not [ln 𝑁]𝑁𝑁𝑂 = − 𝜆 𝑡 1st half life = 𝑶
𝑵
𝟐
radioactive. [ln 𝑁 − ln 𝑁𝑂 ] = − 𝜆 𝑡
(2) Number of atoms remais undecayed after  Since our human body, tree or any living organism (3) Moderators :
𝑵
2nd half life = 𝑶 continuously absorb CO2 from the atmosphere, the  The probability of initiating fission by fast
𝟒
ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶 in the living organism is also neutron in another nucleus is very low.
(3) Number of atoms remais undecayed after
𝑵 nearly constant. Therefore, slow neutrons are preferred for
3rd half life = 𝑶  But when the organim dies, it stops absorbing CO2. sustained nuclear reactions
𝟖
 In general, after n half-lives, the number of nuclei Since 146 𝐶 starts to decay, the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶  The moderator is a material used to convert
remaining undecayed is given by in a dead organism or specimen decreases over fast neutrons into slow neutrons.
𝑵𝑶 the years.  Usually the moderators having mass
𝑁 = 𝒏
𝟐  Suppose the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶 in the ancient tree comparable to that of neutrons. Hence, these
Mean life time (𝝉) : pieces excavated is known, then the age of the tree light nuclei undergo collision with fast
 The mean life time of the nucleus is the ratio of pieces can be calculated. neutrons and the speed of the neutron is
sum or integration of life times of all nuclei to the 9. Describe the working of nuclear reactor with a reduced
total number nuclei present initially. block diagram.  Most of the reactors use water, heavy water
 Let 𝜆 be the decay constant of the radioactive Nucleaar reactor : (D2O) and graphite as moderators.
substance, then  Nuclear reactor is a system in which the nuclear (4) Control rods :
𝟏 fission takes place in a self-sustained controlled  The control rods are used to adjust the
𝝉=
𝝀 manner reaction rate.
 Thus mean life and decay constant is inversely  The energy produced is used either for research  During each fission, on an average 2.5
proportional to each other. purpose or for power generation. neutrons are emitted
Half life and mean life - Relation :  The first nuclear reactor was built in the year  In order to have the controlled chain
 Half life time is given by, 1942 at Chicago. reactions, only one neutron is allowed to
ln 2 0.6931
𝑇1 = 𝜆
= 𝜆
cause another fission and the remaining
2 neutrons are absorbed by the control rods.
 Mean life period is given by,  Usually cadmium or boron acts as control rod
1
𝜏= 𝜆
material
 From the above two equations, (5) Coolants :
𝑻𝟏 = 𝝉 𝒍𝒏 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝝉  The cooling system removes the heat
𝟐 generated in the reactor core.
8. Explain radio carbon dating.  Ordinary water, heavy water and liquid
Radio carbon dating : sodium are used as coolant since they have
 The important application of beta ecay is very high specific heat capacity and have large
radioactive dating or carbon dating. Using this boiling point under high pressure.
technique, the age of an ancient object can be  This coolant passes through the fuel block and
calculated. carries away the heat to the steam generator
 All living organisms absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) Main parts of Nuclear reactor : through heat exchanger
from air to synthesize organic molecules. (1) Fuel :  The steam runs the turbines which produces
 In this absorbed CO2, the major part is  The commonly used fuels are 235 239
92𝑈 and 94 𝑃𝑢 electricity in power reactors.
12 14
6 𝐶 and very small fraction 6 𝐶 whose half-life is  Naturally occurring uranium contains only (6) Shielding :
5730 years. 0.7% of 235 238
92𝑈 and 99.3% are only 92𝑈 .  For a protection against harmful radiations,
238
 Carbon-14 in the atmosphere is always decaying  So the 92𝑈 must be enriched such that it the nuclear reactor is surrounded by a
but at the same time, cosmic rays from outer space contains at least 2 to 4% of 235
92𝑈 concrete wall of thickness of about 2 to 2.5 m.
are continuously bombarding the atoms in the (2) Neutron source :
atmosphere which produces 146 𝐶 .  A neutron source is required to initiate the
 So the continuous production and decay of 146 𝐶 in chain reaction for the first time.
the atmosphere keep the ratio of 146 𝐶 to 126 𝐶  A mixture of beryllium with plutonium or
always constant. polonium is used as the neutron source
10. Briefly explain the elementary particles of nature. 11. Explain in detail the four fundamental forces.
Elementary particles : Fundamental forces in nature :
 An atom has a nucleus surrounded by electrons  Gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak
and nuclei is made up of protons and neutrons. forces are called fundamental forces of nature.
 Initially, protons, neutrons and electrons are (1) Gravitational forces :
considered as fundamental building blocks of  The attractive force between two masses is
matter. called gravitational force and it is universal in
 But in 1964, Murray Gellman and George Zweig nature.
theoretically proposed that protons and neutrons  Our planets are bound to the sun through
are not fundamental particles, but they are made gravitational force of the sun.
up of quarks.  We are in the Earth because of Earth’s
 These quarks are now considered elementary gravitational attraction on our body.
particles of nature. (2) Electromagnetic force :
 Electrons are fundamental or elementary particles  Between two charges there exists
because they are not made up of anything. electromagnetic force and it plays major role
 In the year 1968, the quarks were discovered in most of our day-today events.
experimentally by Stanford.  We are standing on the surface of the earth
 There are six quarks namely, because of the electromagnetic force between
(1) Up quark atoms of the surface of the earth with atoms
(2) Down quark in our foot
(3) Charm quark  It is stronger than gravitational force.
(4) Strange quark (3) Strong Nuclear force :
(5) Top quark and  Between two nucleons, there exists a strong
(6) Bottom quark nuclear force and this force is responsible for
 There exist their anti particle also. stability of the nucleus.
 All these quarks have fractional charges. For  The atoms in our body are stable because of
example, strong nuclear force.
2
Charge of up quark is = + 𝑒 (4) Weak Nuclear force :
3
1  In addition to these three forces, there exists
Charge of down quark is = − 𝑒 another fundamental force of nature called
3
 According to quark model, the weak force.
(1) Proton is made up of two up quarks and one  This weak force is even shorter in range than
down quark nuclear force.
(2) Neutron is made up of one up quark and two  This force plays an important role in beta
down quarks decay and energy production of stars.
 During the fusion of hydrogen into helium in
sun, neutrinos and enormous radiations are
produced through weak force.
 The lives of species in the earth depend on the
solar energy from the sun and it is due to
weak force which plays vital role during
nuclear fusion reactions going on in the core
of the sun
`
PHYSICS - 2 UNIT - 10
NAME :
STANDARD : 12 SEC :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
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fšé x‹nw mêt‰w brštkhF«. mj‰F x¥ghd Áwªj
bršt« ntW vJÎ« Ïšiy

PG ASST (PHYSICS)
2 and 3 Mark Questions & Answers 7. What is extrinsic semiconductors?  The Schematic representation and circuit symbol
 The semiconductor obtained by dopping either is given below.
1. What is called electronics? pentavalent impurity or trivalent impurity is called
 Electronics is the branch of physics incorporated extrinsic semiconductor.
with technology towards the design of circuits (e.g.) P - type and N-type semicondutor
using transistors and microchips. 8. Define hole.
 It depicts the behaviour and movement of electrons  When an electron is excited, covalent bond is
in a semiconductor, vacuum, or gas. broken. Now octet rule will not be satisfied. 13. What is called biasing? Give its types.
2. What are passive components and active  Thus each excited electron leaves a vacancy to  Biasing is the process of giving external energy to
components? complete bonding. charge carriers to overcome the barrier potential
 Components that cannot generate power in a  This ‘deficiency’ of electron is termed as a ‘hole’ and make them move in a particular direction.
circuit are called passive components 9. What is called P-type semiconductor?  The external voltage applied to the p-n junction is
(e.g.) Resistors, inductors, capacitors  A P - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a called bias voltage.
 Components that can generate power in a circuit pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant  Depending on the polarity of the external source to
are called active components. of trivalent elements (acceptor impurity) like the P-N junction we have two types of biasing
(e.g.) transistors Boron, Aluminium, Gallium and Indium (1) Forward bias
3. What is energy band?  In P-type semicondutors, (2) Reverse bias
 When millions of atoms are brought close to each Holes are majority charge carriers 14. Differentiate forward bias and reverse bias.
other, the valence orbitals and the unoccupied Electrons are minority charge carriers Forward bias :
orbitals are split according to the number of atoms. 10. What is N-type semiconductor?  If the positive terminal of the external voltage
Their energy levels will be closely spaced and will  A N - type semiconductor is obtained by doping a source is connected to the P-side and the negative
be difficult to differentiate the orbitals of one atom pure Germanium (or Silicon) crystal with a dopant terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased
from the other and they look like a band of pentavalent elements (donor impurity) like  It reduces width of the depletion region.
 This band of very large number of closely spaced Phosphorus, Arsenic and Antimony Reverse bias :
energy levels in a very small energy range is known  In N-type semicondutors,  If the positive terminal of the battery is connected
as energy band. Electrons are majority charge carriers to the N-side and the negative potential to the P-
4. What is valance band, conduction band and Holes are minority charge carriers side, the junction is said to be reverse biased
forbidden energy gap? 11. Define junction potential or barrier potential.  It increases width of the depletion region.
 The energy band formed due to the valence orbitals  When P - type and N - type semiconductors 15. Define reverse saturation current.
is called valence band. combine to form PN junction, due to diffusion of  Under reverse bias, a small current flows across the
 The energy band that formed due to the majority charge carriers a depletion region is junction due to the minority charge carriers in both
unoccupied orbitals is called the conduction band formed near the junction. regions.
 The energy gap between the valence band and the  It prevents the charge carriers to further diffusion  Because the reverse bias for majority charge
conduction band is called forbidden energy gap. across the junction. Because a potential difference carriers serves as the forward bias for minority
5. What is called intrinsic semiconductor? is set up by the immobile ions in this depletion charge carriers.
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity region.  The current that flows under a reverse bias is called
is called an intrinsic semiconductor.  This difference in potential across the depletion the reverse saturation current or leakage current
 Its conduction is low. layer is called the barrier potential or junction (IS).
(e.g.) Silicon, Germanium potential.  It depends on temperature.
6. Define dopping.  This barrier potential approximately equals 16. What is meant by rectification?
 The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium.  The process of converting alternating current into
semiconductor is called doping. 12. What is P-N juction diode? Give its symbol. direct current is called rectification.
 It increases the concentration of charge carriers  A P-N junction diode is formed when a P -type  The device used for rectification is called rectifier.
(electrons and holes) in the semiconductor and in semiconductor is fused with a N-type  A P-N junction diode is used as rectifier.
turn, its electrical conductivity. semiconductor.
 The impurity atoms are called dopants.  It is a device with single P-N junction
17. What is mean by break down voltage? collisions and further production of charge 24. Give the applications of LEDs.
 The reverse saturation current due to the minority carriers.  Indicator lamps on the front panel of the scientific
charge carriers is small.  This cumulative process leads to an avalanche of and laboratory equipments.
 If the reverse bias applied to a P-N junction is charge carriers across the junction and  Seven-segment displays.
increased beyond a point, the junction breaks consequently reduces the reverse resistance.  Traffic signals, exit signs, emergency vehicle
down and the reverse current rises sharply.  This is known as avanlanche breakdown. lighting etc.
 The voltage at which this breakdown happens is  Here the diode current increases sharply.  Industrial process control, position encoders, bar
called the breakdown voltage 20. What is called Zener diode? Give its circuit symbol. graph readers.
 It depends on the width of the depletion region,  Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped 25. What is photo diode? Give its circuit symbol.
which in turn depends on the doping level. Silicon diode which is specially designed to be  A P-N junction diode which converts an optical
18. Write a note on Zener breakdown. operated in the breakdown region. signal into electric current is known as photodiode
Zener breakdown :  The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.  Its operation exactly opposite to that of an LED.
 It wil occur in heavily doped P-N junction which  Photo diode words in reverse bias.
have narrow depletion layers (< 10-6 m)  The circuit symbol of photo diode is given below.
 When a reverse voltage across this junction is
increased to the breakdown limit, a very strong
electric field of strength 3 X 107 V m–1 is set up 21. Give the applications of Zener diode.
across the narrow layer.  Voltage regulators
 This electric field is strong enough to break or  Peak clippers 26. Give the applications of photo diode.
rupture the covalent bonds in the lattice and  Calibrating voltages  Alarm system
thereby generating electron-hole pairs. This effect  Provide fixed reference voltage in a network for  Count items on a conveyer belt
is called Zener effect. biasing  Photoconductors
 Even a small further increase in reverse voltage  Meter protection against damage from accidental  Compact disc players, smoke detectors
produces a large number of charge carriers. application of excessive voltage.  Medical applications such as detectors for
 Hence the junction has very low resistance in the 22. What is opto electronic devices? computed tomography etc.
breakdown region.  The devices which convert electrical energy into 27. What are called solar cells?
 This process of emission of electrons due to the light and light into electrical energy through  A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
rupture of bands in from the lattice due to strong semiconductors are called opto electronic devices. converts light energy directly into electricity or
electric field is known as internal field emission or  Optoelectronic device is an electronic device which electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
field ionization. utilizes light for useful applications.  It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf
 The electric field required for this is of the order of (e.g.) LEDs, photo diodes and solar cells. when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
106 V m–1 23. What is light emitting diode (LED)? 28. Give the applications of solar cells.
19. Write a note on avalanche break down.  LED is a P-N junction diode which emits visible or  Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches,
Avalanche breakdown : invisible light when it is forward biased. toys, portable power supplies, etc.
 It will occurs in lightly doped junctions which have  Here electrical energy is converted into light  Solar cells are used in satellites and space
wide depletion layers. energy, this process is also called applications
 Here the electric field is not strong enough to electroluminescence.  Solar panels are used to generate electricity.
produce breakdown.  The circuit symbol of LED is given below. 29. Write a note on bipolar junction transistor(BJT).
 But the minority charge carriers accelerated by the  The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) consists of a
electric field gains sufficient kinetic energy, collide semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) crystal in
with the semiconductor atoms while passing which an N-type material is sandwiched between
through the depletion region. two P-type materials called PNP transistor or
 Thisleads to the breaking of covalent bonds and in a P -type material sandwiched between two N-type
turn generates electron-hole pairs. materials called NPN transistor.
 The newly generated charge carriers are also  The three regions formed are called emitter (E),
accelerated by the electric field resulting in more base (B) and collector (C)
 The schematic symbol and circuit symbol of PNP  Input termial - Emitter  Input current = 𝐼𝐵
and NPN transistors are given below. Output terminal - Collector Output current = 𝐼𝐸
Common terminal - Base  The input signal (VBC) is applied across
 Input current = 𝐼𝐸 base - collector junction
Output current = 𝐼𝐶  The output signal (VEC) is measured across
 The input signal (VBE) is applied across emitter - collector junction.
emitter - base junction 34. Define input resistance of transistor.
 The output signal (VCB) is measured across  The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage
collector - base junction. (ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a
32. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called
configurations of NPN transistor. the input resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).
Common emitter configuration : ∆ 𝑽𝑩𝑬
𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
∆ 𝑰𝑩 𝑽
𝑪𝑬
 The input resistance is high for a transistor in
common emitter configuration.
30. Discuss the different modes of transistor biasing. 35. Define output resistance of transistor.
(1) Forward Active :  The ratio of the change in collector-emitter voltage
 In this bias the emitter-base junction (JEB) is (ΔVCE) to the change in collector current (ΔIC) at a
forward biased and the collector-base junction constant base current (IB) is called the output
(JCB) is reverse biased. resistance (𝒓𝑶 ).
 The transistor is in the active mode and in this ∆ 𝑽𝑪𝑬
 Input termial - Base 𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
mode, the transistor functions as an amplifier. ∆ 𝑰𝑪 𝑰
Output terminal - Collector 𝑩
(2) Saturation :  The output resistance is very low for a transistor in
 Here, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) and Common terminal - Emitter
 Input current = 𝐼𝐵 common emitter configuration.
collector-base junction (JCB) are forward 36. Define forward current gain.
Output current = 𝐼𝐶
biased.  The ratio of the change in collector current (ΔI C) to
 The transistor has a very large flow of currents  The input signal (VBE) is applied across
base - emitter junction the change in base current (ΔIB) at constant
across the junctions and in this mode, collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is called forward
 The output signal (VCE) is measured across
transistor is used as a closed switch. current gain (β).
collector - emitter junction.
(3) Cut-off : ∆ 𝑰𝑪
 In this bias, both the emitter-base junction (JEB) 33. Draw the circuit diagram of common emitter 𝜷= [ ]
configurations of NPN transistor. ∆ 𝑰𝑩 𝑽
and collector-base junction (JCB) are reverse 𝑪𝑬
Common collector configuration :  Its value is very high and it generally ranges from
biased.
 Transistor in this mode is an open switch. 50 to 200.
31. Draw the circuit diagram of common base 37. Give the relation between 𝜶 and 𝜷
configurations of NPN transistor.  Forward current gain in common base mode,
∆ 𝐼𝐶
Common base configuration : 𝛼= [ ]
∆ 𝐼𝐸 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
 Forward current gain in common emitter mode,
∆ 𝐼𝐶
𝛽= [ ]
∆ 𝐼𝐵 𝑉
𝐶𝐸
 From the above two equations, we have
𝜷 𝜶
 Input termial - Base 𝜶= (𝒐𝒓) 𝜷=
Output terminal - Emitter 𝟏 + 𝜷 𝟏 − 𝜶
Common terminal - Collector
38. What is called transistor amplifier? 42. Give the Barkhausen conditions for sustained 48. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
 A transistor operating in the active region has the oscillations. operation and truth table of AND gate .
capability to amplify weak signals.  The loop phase shift must be 00 or integral AND gate - circuit symbol :
 Amplification is the process of increasing the signal multiples of 2π.
strength (increase in the amplitude).  The loop gain must be unity. |𝑨𝜷| = 𝟏
39. What is called transistor oscillator? Here, A → Voltage gain of the amplifier,
 An electronic oscillator basically converts DC β → Feedback ratio
energy into AC energy of high frequency ranging 43. Give the applications of oscillator.
Boolean expression :
from a few Hz to several MHz. Hence, it is a source  To generate a periodic sinusoidal or non sinusoidal
of alternating current or voltage. wave forms.  Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any  To generate RF carriers. 𝑌 = 𝐴 .𝐵
external signal source.  To generate audio tones Logical operation :
40. Give the types of an oscillator.  To generate clock signal in digital circuits.  The output of AND gate is high (1) only when all the
 There are two types of oscillators:  As sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO. inputs are high (1).
(1) Sinusoidal and 44. Distinguish between analog and digital signal.  The rest of the cases the output is low (0)
(2) Non-sinusoidal Truth table :
Analog signal Digital signal
 Sinusoidal oscillators generate oscillations in the It is continuously varying It contains only two Inputs Output
form of sine waves at constant amplitude and voltage or current with discreate values of A B Y=A.B
frequency respect to time voltages (i.e.) low (OFF) 0 0 0
 Non-sinusoidal oscillators generate complex and high (ON) 0 1 0
non-sinusoidal waveforms like square wave, These signals are These signals are 1 0 0
triangular wave or saw-toothed wave employed in rectifying employed in signal
41. Draw the block diagram of an oscillator 1 1 1
circuits and transistor processing.
Block diagram of oscillator : amplifier circuits communication etc., 49. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
45. Distinguish between positive and negative logic. operation and truth table of OR gate .
Positive logic Negative logic OR gate - circuit symbol :
Binary 1 stands for +5 V Binary 1 stands for 0V
Binary 0 stands for 0 V Binary 0 stands for +5 V
Boolean expression :
 Oscillator essensially consists three main parts,  Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then
(1) Tank circuit : 𝑌 =𝐴+𝐵
46. Why digital signals are preferred than analog Logical operation :
 The tank circuit generates electrical signals?
oscillations and acts as the AC input source  The output of OR gate is high (1) when either of the
 Because of their better performance, accuracy, inputs or both are high (1)
to the transistor amplifier. speed, flexibility and immunity to noice.
(2) Amplifier : Truth table :
47. What are called logic gates?
 Amplifier amplifies the input ac signal. Inputs Inputs
 A logic gate is an electronic circuit which functions
(3) Feed back network : based on digital signals. A B 𝒀=𝑨+𝑩
 The feedback circuit provides a portion of  They are considered as the basic building blocks of 0 0 0
the output to the tank circuit to sustain the most of the digital systems. 0 1 1
 oscillations without energy loss.  It has one output with one or more inputs. 1 0 1
 Hence, an oscillator does not require an 1 1 1
external input signal.
 The output is said to be self-sustained.
50. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical Truth table : Logical operation :
operation and truth table of NOT gate . Output Output  The output Y is high (1) only when either of the
Input
NOT gate - circuit symbol : (AND) (NAND) two inputs is high (1).
A B Z=A.B 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩  In the case of an Ex-OR gate with more than two
0 0 0 1 inputs, the output will be high (1) when odd
0 1 0 1 number of inputs are high (1)
Truth table :
Boolean expression : 1 0 0 1
Input Output
 If A be the input and Y be the output, then 1 1 1 0
̅ A B 𝒀= 𝑨⨁𝑩
𝒀=𝑨 52. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
operation and truth table of NOR gate . 0 0 0
Logical operation :
 The output is the complement of the input. It is NOR gate - circuit symbol : 0 1 1
represented with an overbar. 1 0 1
 It is also called as inverter. 1 1 0
 The output Y is high (1), when input is low (0) and 54. State Demorgan’s theorems.
vice versa. Theorem - 1 :
Truth table : Boolean expression :  The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then equal to the product of its complements.
Input Output
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑨̅ . 𝑩
̅
A 𝒀=𝑨 ̅
Logical operation : Theorem - 2 :
0 1  The output Y equals the complement of OR  The complement of the product of two logical
1 0 operation inputs is equal to the sum of its complements.
51. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical  The circuit is an OR gate followed by a NOT gate ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
operation and truth table of NAND gate . and is summarized as NOR 55. What is an integrated circuit?
NAND gate - circuit symbol :  The output is high (1) when all the inputs are  An integrated circuit (IC) or a chip or a microchip
low (0). is an electronic circuit, which consists of thousands
 The rest of the cases, the output is low (0) to millions of transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc.
Truth table : integrated on a small flat piece of Silicon.
Output Output 56. What are the application of integrated circuits (ICs)
Input
(OR) (NOR)  Low cost
A B Z = A + B 𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩  great performance.
Boolean expression : 0 0 0 1  Very small in size
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then 0 1 1 0  High reliability
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 1 0 1 0  They can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer,
Logical operation : microprocessor and computer memory.
1 1 1 0
 The output Y equals the complement of AND 57. Distinguish between digital IC and analog IC
operation. 53. Give the circuit symbol, Boolean expression, logical
operation and truth table of EX-OR gate . Digital IC :
 The circuit is an AND gate followed by a NOT gate.  Digital ICs uses digital signals (logical 0 and 1).
Therefore, it is summarized as NAND. EX-OR gate - circuit symbol :
They usually find their applications in computers,
 The output is at low (0) only when all the inputs are networking equipment, and most consumer
high (1). electronics.
 The rest of the cases, the output is high (1) Analog IC :
Boolean expression :  Analog (or) linear ICs work with continuous values.
 Ley A and B are the inputs and Y be the output, then Linear ICs are typically used in audio and radio
𝒀 = 𝑨 .𝑩̅+ 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩 frequency amplification.
𝒀=𝑨⨁𝑩
58. How electron-hole pairs are created in a 63. Give the advantages and limitations of amplitude 68. Compare FM and PM ?
semiconductor material? modulation (AM) Comparison between FM and PM :
 A small increase in temperature is sufficient Advantages of AM :  PM wave is similar to FM wave.
enough to break some of the covalent bonds and  Easy transmission and reception  PM generally uses a smaller bandwidth than FM. In
release the electrons free from the lattice.  Lesser bandwidth requirements other words, in PM, more information can be sent
 Hence a vacant site is created in the valanceband  Low cost in a given bandwidth.
and this vacancies are called holes which are Limitations of AM :  Hence, phase modulation provides high
treated to possess positive charges.  Noise level is high transmission speed on a given bandwidth.
 Thus electrons and holes are the two charge  Low efficiency 69. What is called base band signals?
carriers in semiconductors.  Small operating range  Information can be in the form of a sound signal
59. A diode is called as a unidirectional device. Explain 64. Define frequency modulation (FM) like speech, music, pictures, or computer data.
 An ideal diode behaves as conductor when it is  If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified  The electrical equivalent of the original
forward biased and behaves as an insulator when it according to the instantaneous amplitude of the information is called the baseband signal.
is reverse biased. baseband signal then it is called frequency 70. Define band width.
 Thus diode coducts current only from P -type to modulation (FM)  The frequency range over which the baseband
N -type through the junction when it is forward 65. Give the advantages and limitations of frequency signals or the information signals such as voice,
biased. modulation (FM) music, picture, etc. is transmitted is known as
 Hence Diode is a unidirectional device. Advantages of FM : bandwidth.
60. What is called modulation? Give its types.  Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in  Bandwidth gives the difference between the upper
 For long distance transmission, the low frequency signal-noise ratio. and lower frequency limits of the signal.
base band signal (input signal) is superimposed on  The operating range is quite large.  If ν1 and ν2 are the lower and upper-frequency
to a high frequency carrier signal (radio signal) by limits of a signal, then the bandwidth,
 The transmission efficiency is very high as all the
a process called modulation. transmitted power is useful. 𝑩𝑾 = 𝝂𝟐 − 𝝂𝟏
(1) Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range 71. Define the size of the antenna.
(2) Frequency Modulation (FM)  Antenna is used at both transmitter and receiver
which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has
(3) Phase Modulation (PM) end.
better quality compared to AM radio.
61. What is the necessity of modulation?  Antenna height is an important parameter to be
Limitations of FM :
 When the information signal of low frequency is discussed. The height of the antenna must be a
 FM requires a much wider channel.
transmitted over a long distances, there will be 𝝀
 FM transmitters and receivers are more complex multiple of . (i.e.)
information loss occurs. 𝟒
and costly. 𝝀 𝒄
 As the frequency of the carrier signal is very high,
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to 𝒉= =
it can be transmitted to long distances with less 𝟒 𝟒𝝂
AM. 72. What are the three modes of propagation of
attenuation.
66. Define phase modulation (PM) electromagnetic waves through space.
 Thus in the modulation process, carrier signal of
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband  Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave
very high frequency signal (radio signal) is used to
signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal propagation (nearly 2 kHz to 2 MHz)
carry the baseband signal(information)
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is
62. Define amplitude modulation (AM)  Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric
called phase modulation
 If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified propagation (nearly 3 MHz to 30 MHz)
67. What is called centre frequency (resting frequency)?
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the  Space wave propagation (nearly 30MHz to
 When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero
baseband signal, then it is called amplitude 400GHz)
(no input signal), there is no change in the
modulation (AM) 73. Write a note on ground wave propagation.
frequency of the carrier wave.
 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the
 It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre
transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to
frequency or resting frequency.
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called
 Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the ground wave propagation.
FM transmitter.
 The corresponding waves are called ground waves 78. What is space wave propagation? 82. Write a note on internet and give itsapplications.
or surface waves.  The process of sending and receiving information  Internet is a fast growing technology in the field of
 It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio signal through space is alled space wave communication system with multifaceted tools.
navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto-shore communication  Internet is the largest computer network
communication and mobile communication.  The electromagnetic waves of very high recognized globally that connects millions of
74. Give the factors that are responsible for frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space people through computers.
transmission impairments. waves.  It finds extensive applications in all walks of life.
Increasing distance : 79. Define fibre optical communication. Applications :
 The attenuation of the signal depends on  The method of transmitting information from one Search engine :
(1) power of the transmitter place to another in terms of light pulses through an  The search engine is basically a web-based service
(2) frequency of the transmitter, and optical fiber is called fiber optic communication. tool used to search for information on World Wide
(3) condition of the earth surface.  It works on the principle of total internal reflection. Web.
Absorption of energy by the Earth : 80. What is mean by RADAR? Communication :
 When the transmitted signal in the form of EM  Radar basically stands for RAdio Detection And  It helps millions of people to connect with the use
wave is in contact with the Earth, it induces charges Ranging System. of social networking: emails, instant messaging
in the Earth and constitutes a current.  It is one of the important applications of services and social networking tools.
 Due to this, the earth behaves like a leaky communication systems and is mainly used to E-Commerce :
capacitorwhich leads to the attenuation of the sense, detect, and locate distant objects like  Buying and selling of goods and services, transfer
wave. aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc. of funds are done over an electronic network.
Tilting of the wave: As the wave : 81. Write a note on mobile communication and give its 83. What do you mean by Internet of Things?
 As the wave progresses, the wavefront starts applictions.  Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made possible
gradually tilting according to the curvature of the  Mobile communication is used to communicate to control various devices from a single device.
Earth. with others in different locations without the use of (e.g.) Home automation using a mobile phone.
 This increase in the tilt decreases the electric field any physical connection like wires or cables 84. Distinguish between wireline and wireless
strength of the wave.  It enables the people to communicate with each communication? Specify the range of
 Finally, at some distance, the surface wave dies out other regardless of a particular location like office, electromagnetic waves in which it is used.
due to energy loss. house, etc. Wirelinecommunication
75. Define sky wave propagation.  It also provides communication access to remote  It is apoint-point communication) uses mediums
 The mode of propagation in which the areas. like wires, cables and optical fibers.
electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna, Applictions :  These systems cannot be used for long distance
directed upwards at large angles gets reflected by  It is used for personal communication and cellular transmission as they are connected physically.
the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave phones offer voice and data connectivity with high Examples are telephone, intercom and cable TV.
propagation or ionospheric propagation. speed. Wireless communication
 The corresponding waves are called sky waves  Transmission of news across the globe is done  It uses free space as a communication medium.
76. Define skip distance. within a few seconds.  The signals are transmitted in the form of
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and  Using Internet of Things (IoT), it is made possible electromagnetic waves with the help of a
the point of reception of the sky wave along the to control various devices from a single device. transmitting antenna.
surface is called as the skip distance Example: home automation using a mobile phone.  Hence wireless communication is used for long
77. Define skip zone.  It enables smart classrooms, online availability of distance transmission.
 There is a zone in between where there is no notes, monitoring student activities etc. in the field Examples are mobile, radio or TV broadcasting, and
reception of electromagnetic waves neither ground of education. satellite communication.
nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
85. What are called noises?
 It is the undesirable electrical signal that interfaces
with the transmitted signal.
 Noise attenuates or reduces the quality of the
transmitted signal.
 It may be man-made (automobiles, welding
machines, electric motors etc.) or natural
(lightning, radiation from sun and stars and
environmental effects).
86. What are repeaters?
 Repeaters are used to increase the range or
distance through which the signals are sent.
 It is a combination of transmitter and receiver.
 The signals are received, amplified, and
retransmitted with a carrier signal of different
frequency to the destination.
 The best example is the communication satellite in
space.
87. Define attenuation.
 The loss of strength of a signal while propagating
through a medium is known as attenuation.
88. Define Range.
 It is the maximum distance between the source and
the destination up to which the signal is received
with sufficient strength.
Semiconductors :  But at room temperature, some of the covalent
5 marks Questions & Answers  In semiconductors, there exists a narrow forbidden bonds are brakes and releases the electrons free
1. Explain the classification of solids on the basis of energy gap (𝐸𝑔 < 3 𝑒𝑉) between the valence band from the lattice.
energy band theory. and the conduction band.
Classification of solids :  At a finite temperature, thermal agitations in the
 Based on the energy band theory, solids are solid can break the covalent bond between the
classified in to three types, namely atoms.
(1) Insulators  This releases some electrons from valence band to
(2) Metals (Condutors) conduction band.
(3) Semiconductors  Since free electrons are small in number, the
conductivity of the semiconductors is not as high as
that of the conductors.
 The resistivity value of semiconductors is from  As a result, some states in the valence band become
−𝟓 𝟔 empty and the same number of states in the
𝟏𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎 𝛀 𝒎.
conduction band will be occupied.
 When the temperature is increased further, more
 The vacancies produced in the valence band are
number of electrons is promoted to the conduction
called holes which are treates as positive charges.
band and increases the conduction.
 Hence, electrons and holes are the two charge
 Thus, the electrical conduction increases with the
carriers in semiconductors.
increase in temperature. (i.e.) resistance decreases
Insulators :  In intrinsic semiconductors, the number of
with increase in temperature.
 In insulator the valence band (VB) and the electrons in the conduction band is equal to the
 Hence, semiconductors are said to have negative
conduction band (CB) are separated by a large number of holes in the valence band.
temperature coefficient of resistance.
energy gap.  The conduction is due to the electrons in the
 The most important elemental semiconductor
 The forbidden energy gap (𝐸𝑔 ) is approximately conduction band and holes in the valence band
materials are Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge).
6 eV in insulators.  The total current (I) is always the sum of the
 At room temperature,
 The gap is very large that electrons from valence electron current (𝑰𝒆 ) and the hole current (𝑰𝒉 )
forbidden energy gap for Si ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟏. 𝟏 𝒆𝑽 and
band cannot move into conduction band even on 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒆 + 𝑰𝒉
forbidden energy gap for Ge ; 𝑬𝒈 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒆𝑽
the application of strong external electric field or  The increase in temperature increases the number
2. Explain in detail the intrinsic semiconductor. of charge carriers (electrons and holes).
the increase in temperature.
Intrinsic semiconductor : 3. Elucidate the formation of a N-type and P-type
 Therefore, the electrical conduction is not possible
 A semiconductor in its pure form without impurity semiconductors.
as the free electrons are almost nil and hence these
is called an intrinsic semiconductor. N - type semiconductor :
materials are called insulators.
(e.g) silicon, germanium
 Its resistivity is in the range of 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏 − 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟗 𝛀 𝒎
 Consider Silicon lattice. Each Silicon atom is
Metals (Conductors) :
covalently bonded with the neighbouring four
 In metals, the valence band and onduction band
atoms to form the lattice.
overlap
 At absolute zero (0 K), this will behaves as
 Hence, electrons can move freely into the
insulator, because there is no free charges.
conduction band which results in a large number of
free electrons in the conduction band.
 Therefore, conduction becomes possible even at
low temperatures.
 The application of electric field provides sufficient  A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a
energy to the electrons to drift in a particular pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant
direction to constitute a current. from pentavalent elements like Phosphorus,
 For metals, the resistivity value lies between Arsenic, and Antimony
𝟏𝟎−𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝛀 𝒎
 The dopant has five valence electrons while the  As Silicon atom has four valence electrons, one  On the n-side, positive ion cores are exposed and
Silicon atom has four valence electrons. electron position of the dopant in the crystal lattice on the p- side, negative ion cores are exposed
 During the process of doping, four of the five will remain vacant.  An electric field E forms between the positive ion
valence electrons of the impurity atom are bound  The missing electron position in the covalent bond cores in the n-type material and negative ion cores
with the 4 valence electrons of the neighbouring is denoted as a hole. in the p-type material.
replaced Silicon atom.  To make complete covalent, the dopant is in need  The electric field sweeps free carriers out of this
 The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will of one more electron. region and hence it is called depletion region as it
be loosely attached with the nucleus as it has not  These dopants can accept electrons from the is depleted of free carriers.
formed the covalent bond. neighbouring atoms. Therefore, this impurity is  A barrier potential (Vb) due to the electric field E
 The energy level of the loosely attached fifth called an acceptor impurity. is formed at the junction.
electron is found just below the conduction band  The energy level of the hole created by each  As this diffusion of charge carriers from both sides
edge and is called the donor energy level impurity atom is just above the valence band and is continues, the negative ions form a layer of
 The energy required to set free a donor electron is called the acceptor energy level. negative space charge region along the p-side.
only 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.  For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the  Similarly, a positive space charge region is formed
 At room temperature, these electrons can easily valence band in addition to the thermally by positive ions on the n-side.
move to the conduction band with the absorption generated holes.  The positive space charge region attracts electrons
of thermal energy.  Hence, in an P - type semiconductor, the from P-side to n-side and the negative space charge
 The pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons majority carriers - Holes region attracts holes from N-side to P -side.
to the conduction band and are called donor minority carriers - Electrons  This moment of carriers happen in this region due
impurities. 4. Explain the formation of PN junction diode. Discuss to the formed electric field and it constitutes a
 Therefore,each impurity atom provides one extra its V–I characteristics. current called drift current.
 electron to the conduction band in addition to the Formation of PN junction diode :  The diffusion current and drift current flow in the
thermally generated electrons opposite direction and at one instant they both
 Hence, in an N - type semiconductor, the become equal.
majority carriers - Electrons  Thus, a P-N junction is formed.
minority carriers - Holes V -I characteristics :
P - type semiconductor :  It is the study of the variation in current through
the diode with respect to the applied voltage across
the diode when it is forward or reverse biased.
 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and

P-type semiconductor materials.
 A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a  Here the N-region has a high electron concentration
pure Silicon (or Germanium) crystal with a dopant and the P-region a high hole concentration.
from trivalent elements like Boron, Aluminium,  So the electrons diffuse from the N-side to the
Gallium and Indium P-side. Simillarly holes also diffuse from P - side to
 The dopant has three valence electrons while the the N- side. This causes diffusion current.
Silicon atom has four valence electrons.  In a P-N junction, when the electrons and holes
 During the process of doping, the dopant with three move to the other side of the junction, they leave
valence electrons are bound with the neighbouring behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites, which
three Silicon atoms. are fixed in the crystal lattice and are unable to
move.
Forward bias characteristics : 5. Draw the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier  The output of the half wave rectifier is not a steady
 If the positive terminal of the external voltage and explain its working. dc voltage but a pulsating wave.
source is connected to the P-side and the negative Half wave rectifier :  A constant ora steady voltage is required which can
terminal to the N-side, it is called forward biased. be obtained with the help of filter circuits and
 A graph is plotted by taking the forward bias voltage regulator circuits.
voltage (V) along the x-axis and the current (I)  Efficiency (𝜼) is the ratio of the output dc power to
through the diode along the y-axis. This graph is the ac input power supplied to the circuit. Its value
called the forward V-I characteristics. for half wave rectifier is 40.6 %
 From the graph, 6. Explain the construction and working of a full wave
(1) At room temperature, a potential difference rectifier.
equal to the barrier potential is required Full wave rectifier :
before a reasonable forward current starts
flowing across the diode. This voltage is known  In a half wave rectifier circuit, either a positive half
as threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or or the negative half of the AC input is passed
knee voltage (Vth). through while the other half is blocked.
For Silicon ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟕 𝑽  Only one half of the input wave reaches the output.
For Germanium ; 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝑽 Therefore, it is called half wave rectifier.
(2) The graph clearly infers that the current flow is  This circuit consists of a transformer, a
not linear and is exponential. Hence it does not P-N junction diode and a resistor (𝑅𝐿 )
obey Ohm’s law.  Here, a P-N junction diode acts as a rectifying diode.
(3) The forward resistance (𝒓𝒇 ) of the diode is the During positive half During negative half
ratio of the small change in voltage (ΔV)to the cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
small change in current(ΔI), Terminal A becomes Terminal B becomes
∆𝑽 positive with respect to positive with respect to  The positive and negative half cycles of the AC input
𝒓𝒇 = terminal B. terminal A. signal pass through this circuit and hence it is called
∆𝑰
(4) Thus the diode behaves as a conductor when The diode is forward The diode is reverse the full wave rectifier.
it is forward biased. biased and hence it biased and hence it does  It consists of two P-N junction diodes, a center
Reverse bias characteristics : conducts not conducts tapped transformer, and a load resistor (RL).
 If the positive terminal of the battery is connected No current passes through  The centre (C) is usually taken as the groundor zero
The current flows through voltage reference point.
to the n-side and the negative potential to the p- RL and there is no voltage
the load resistor RL and  Due to the centre tap transformer, the output
side, the junction is said to be reverse biased. drop across RL
the AC voltage developed voltage rectified by each diode is only one half of the
 A graph is drawn between the reverse bias voltage (The reverse saturation
across RL constitutes the total secondary voltage.
and the current across the junction, which is called current in a diode is
output voltage V0
the reverse V - I characteristics. negligible) During positive half During negative half
 Under this bias, a very small current in μA, flows  The output waveform is shown below. cycle of input AC cycle of input AC
across the junction. This is due to the flow of the Terminal M is positive, Terminal M is negative,
minority charge carriers called the leakage G is at zero potential and G is at zero potential and
current or reversesaturation current. N is at negative potential N is at positive potential
For Silicon ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟐𝟎 𝝁 𝑨 Diode D1 is forward biased Diode D1 is reverse biased
For Germanium ; 𝑰𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝟓𝟎 𝝁 𝑨 Diode D2 is reverse biased Diode D2 is forward biased
 Besides, the current is almost independent of the D 1 conducts and current D2 conducts and current
voltage. flows along the path flows along the path
 The reverse bias voltage can be increased only up MD 1 AGC ND2 BGC
to the rated value otherwise the diode will enter The voltage appears The voltage appears
into the breakdown region. across RL in the direction across RL in the same
G to C direction G to C
 Hence in a full wave rectifier both postive and  The V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is shown  The reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical
negative half cycles of the input signal pass through below. which means that the diode possesses some small
the circuit in the same direction resistance called Zener dynamic impedance.
 The output waveform is shown below.  Zener resistance is the inverse of the slope in the
breakdown region. It means an increase in the
Zener current produces only a very small increase
in the reverse voltage which can be neglected.
 Thus the voltage of an ideal Zener diode does not
change once it goes into breakdown.
 It means that VZ remains almost constant even
when IZ increases considerably.
8. Explain the working of Zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
Zener diode as a voltage regulator :
 Though both positive and negative half cycles of ac
input are rectified, the output is still pulsating in
nature.
 The efficiency (η) of full wave rectifier is twice that
of a half wave rectifier and is found to be 81.2 %.
7. Write a note on Zener diode. Explain the V - I  The forward characteristic of a Zener diode is
characteristics of Zener diode.
similar to that of an ordinary P-N junction diode.
Zener diode :  It starts conducting approximately around 0.7 V.
 Zener diode is a reverse biased heavily doped  However, the reverse characteristics is highly
Silicon diode, designed to be operated in the
significant in Zener diode.
breakdown region.  The increase in reverse voltage normally generates  A Zener diode working in the breakdown region
 Zener breakdown occurs due to the breaking of very small reverse current. can serve as a voltage regulator.
covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in  While in Zener diode, when the reverse voltage is  It maintains a constant output voltage even when
the depletion region by the reverse voltage. increased to the breakdown voltage (VZ), the input voltage (𝑉𝑖 ) or load current (𝐼𝐿 ) varies.
 It produces an extremely large number of increase in current is very sharp.  Here, in this circuit the input voltage 𝑉𝑖 is regulated
electrons and holes which constitute the reverse  The voltage remains almost constant throughout at a constant voltage Vz (Zener voltage) at the
saturation current. the breakdown region. output represented as V0 using a Zener diode.
 The circuit symbol of Zener diode is given below.  Here, IZ(max) represents the maximum reverse  The output voltage is maintained constant as long
current. as the input voltage does not fall below Vz .
 If the reverse current is increased further, the  When the potential developed across the diode is
diode will be damaged. greater than VZ, the diode moves into the Zener
V-I Characteristics of Zener diode :
 The important parameters on the reverse breakdown region.
 The circuit to study the forward and reverse
characteristics are  It conducts and draws relatively large current
characteristic s of a Zener diode is shown below.
VZ→Zener breakdown voltage through the series resistance 𝑹𝑺 .
IZ(min)→minimum current to sustain breakdown  The total current I passing through 𝑹𝑺 equals the
IZ(max)→maximum current limited by maximum sum of diode current IZ and load current IL (i.e.)
power dissipation. 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒁 + 𝑰𝑳
 The Zener diode is operated in the reverse bias  It is to be noted that the total current is always less
having the voltage greater than VZ and current less than the maximum Zener diode current.
than IZ(max).  Under all conditions 𝑽𝑶 = 𝑽𝒁
 Thus, output voltage is regulated.
9. What is meant by light emitting diode? Explain its 10. Explain in detail about the photo diode. 11. Explain the working principle of Solar cell. Mention
working principle with diagram. Photo diode : its applications.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) :  A P-N junction diode which converts an optical Solar cell :
 LED is a p-n junction diode which emits visible or signal into electric current is known as photodiode.  A solar cell, also known as photovoltaic cell,
invisible light when it is forward biased.  Thus, the operation of photodiode is exactly converts light energy directly into electricity or
 Since, electrical energy is converted into light opposite to that of an LED. electric potential difference by photovoltaic effect.
energy, this process is also called electro  Photo diode works in reverse bias. Its circuit
luminescence. symbol below.
 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is

incident on the photo diode.
 The device consists of a P-N junction
semiconductor made of photosensitive material
 It consists of a P-layer, N-layer and a substrate.  It is basically a P-N junction which generates emf
kept safely inside a plastic case
 A transparent window is used to allow light to when solar radiation falls on the P-N junction.
 It has a small transparent window that allows light
travel in the desired direction.  A solar cell is of two types : P-type and N-type.
to be incident on the P-N junction.
 In addition, it has two leads; anode and cathode.  Both types use a combination of P-type and N-type
 Photodiodes can generate current when the P-N
 When the P-N junction is forward biased, the Silicon which together forms the P-N junction of
junction is exposed to light and hence are called as
conduction band electrons on N-side and valence the solar cell.
light sensors.
band holes on P-side diffuse across the junction.  The difference is that P-type solar cells use P-type
 When a photon of sufficient energy (h) strikes the
 When they cross the junction, they become excess Silicon as the base with an ultra-thin layer of N-type
depletion region of the diode, some of the valence
minority carriers (electrons in P-side and holes in Silicon, while N-type solar cell uses the opposite
band electrons are elevated into conduction band,
N-side). combination.
in turn holes are developed in the valence band.
 These excess minority carriers recombine with  The other side of the P-Silicon is coated with metal
 This creates electron-hole pairs.
oppositely charged majority carriers in the which forms the back electrical contact.
 The amount of electronhole pairs generated
respective regions, i.e. the electrons in the  On top of the N-type Silicon, metal grid is deposited
depends on the intensity of light incident on the
conduction band recombine with holes in the which acts as the front electrical contact.
P-N junction.
valence band  The top of the solar cell is coated with anti-
 These electrons and holes are swept across the
 During recombination process, energy is released reflection coating and toughened glass.
P-N junction by the electric field created by reverse
in the form of light (radiative) or heat (non-  In a solar cell, electron–hole pairs are generated
voltage before recombination takes place.
radiative). due to the absorption of light near the junction.
 Thus, holes move towards the N-side and electrons
 For radiative recombination, a photon of energy hv  Then the charge carriers are separated due to the
towards the P-side.
isemitted. For non-radiative recombination, electric field of the depletion region.
 When the external circuit is made, the electrons
energy is liberated in the form of heat.  Electrons move towards N–type Silicon and holes
flow through the external circuit and constitute the
 The colour of the light is determined by the energy move towards P-type Silicon layer.
photocurrent.
band gap of the material.  The electrons reaching the N-side are collected by
 When the incident light is zero, there exists a
 Therefore, LEDs are available in a wide range of the front contact and holes reaching P-side are
reverse current which is negligible.
colours such as blue (SiC), green (AlGaP) and red collected by the back electrical contact.
 This reverse current in the absence of any incident
(GaAsP). Now a days, LED which emits white light  Thus a potential difference is developed across
light is called dark current and is due to the
(GaInN) is also available. solar cell.
thermally generated minority carriers.
 When an external load is connected to the solar cell, towards the base region and constitutes the 13. Sketch the static characteristics of a common
photocurrent flows through the load. emitter current (IE). emitter transistor and bring out the essence of
 Many solar cells are connected together either in  The electrons after reaching the base region input and output characteristics.
series or in parallel combination to form solar recombine with the holes in the base region. Static characteristics of NPN transistor in CE mode :
panel or module.  Since the base region is very narrow and lightly
 Many solar panels are connected with each other to doped, all the electrons will not have sufficient
form solar arrays. For high power applications, holes to recombine and hence most of the electrons
solar panels and solar arrays are used. reach the collector region.
Applications :  Eventually, the electrons that reach the collector
(1) Solar cells are widely used in calculators, watches, region will be attracted by the collector terminal as
toys, portable power supplies, etc. it has positive potential and flows through the
(2) Solar cells are used in satellites and space external circuit.
applications  This constitutes the collector current (IC).
(3) Solar panels are used to generate electricity.  The holes that are lost due to recombination in the 𝑽𝑩𝑬 − Base - emitter voltage
12. Explain transistor action in common base base region are replaced by the positive potential 𝑽𝑪𝑬 − Collector - emitter voltage
configuration. of the bias voltage VEB and constitute the 𝑰𝑩 − Base current
Working of NPN transistor in CB mode : base current (IB ). 𝑰𝑪 − Collector current
 The magnitude of the base current will be in 𝑽 𝑩𝑩 & 𝑽𝑪𝑪 −Biasing voltages
micoamperes as against milliamperes for emitter 𝑹𝟏 & 𝑹𝟐 − Variable resistors
and collector currents. (1) Input characteristics :
 It is to be noted that if the emitter current is zero,  Input Characteristics curves give the
then the collector current is almost zero. relationship between the base current (IB) and
 It is therefore imperative that a BJT is called a base to emitter voltage (VBE) at constant
current controlled device. collector to emitter voltage (VCE)
 Applying Kirchoff ’s law, we can write the emitter
current as the sum of the collector current and the
base current.
𝑰𝑬 = 𝑰𝑩 + 𝑰𝑪
 Basically, a BJT can be considered as two  Since the base current is very small, we can write,
P-N junction diodes connected back to- back. 𝑰𝑬 ≈ 𝑰𝑪
 In the forward active bias of the transistor, the  There is another component of collector current
emitter-base junction is forward biased by VEB and due to the thermally generated electrons called
the collector-base junction is reverse biased by VCB. reverse saturation current, denoted as ICO.
 The forward bias decreases the depletion region  This factor is temperature sensitive.
across the emitter-base junction and the reverse  The ratio of the collector current to the emitter
bias increases the depletion region across the current is called the forward current gain (𝜶𝒅𝒄 ) of
collector-base junction. a transistor.
 Hence, the barrier potential across the emitter- 𝑰𝑪
base junction is decreased and the collector-base 𝜶𝒅𝒄 =
𝑰𝑬
junction is increased.  The α of a transistor is a measure of the quality of a
 In an NPN transistor, the majority charge carriers transistor. Higher the value of α better is the  The curve looks like the forward
in the emitter are electrons. As it is heavily doped, transistor. characteristics of an ordinary P-N junction
it has a large number of electrons.  The value of α is less than unity and ranges from diode.
 The forward bias across the emitter-base junction 0.95 to 0.99.  There exists a threshold voltage or knee
causes the electrons in the emitter region to flow voltage (Vk) below which the base current is
very small.
 Beyond the knee voltage, the base current ∆𝑽𝑪𝑬 Presence of dc source at the input (saturation
𝒓𝑶 = [ ]
increases with the increase in base-emitter ∆𝑰𝑪 𝐼 region) :
𝐵
voltage.  The output resistance for transistor in  When a high input voltage (Vin = +5 V) is applied,
 It is also noted that the increase in the common emitter configuration is very low. the base current (IB) increases and in turn
collector-emitter voltage decreases the base (3) Current transfer characteristics : increases the collector current.
current. This shifts the curve outward.  This gives the variation of collector current  The transistor will move into the saturation region
 This is because the increase in collector- (IC) with changes in base current (IB) at (turned ON).
emitter voltage increases the width of the constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE)  The increase in collector current (IC) increases the
depletion region in turn, reduces the effective voltage drop across RC, thereby lowering the
base width and thereby the base current. output voltage, close to zero.
 The ratio of the change in base-emitter voltage  The transistor acts like a closed switch and is
(ΔVBE) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at a equivalent to ON condition.
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is Absence of dc source at the input (cutoff region) :
called the input resistance (𝒓𝒊 ).  A low input voltage (Vin = 0 V ), decreases the base
∆𝑽𝑩𝑬 current (IB) and in turn decreases the collector
𝒓𝒊 = [ ]
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑽 current (IC).
𝑪𝑬
 The input resistance is high for a transistor in  The transistor will move into the cut-off region
common emitter configuration.  It is seen that a small IC flows even when IB is (turned OFF).
(2) Output characteristics : zero.  The decrease in collector current (IC) decreases the
 The output characteristics give the  This current is called the common emitter drop across RC, thereby increasing the output
relationship between the variation in the leakage current (ICEO), which is due to the flow voltage, close to +5 V.
collector current (ΔIC) with respect to the of minority charge carriers.  The transistor acts as an open switch which is
variation in collector-emitter voltage (ΔVCE) at  The ratio of the change in collector current considered as the OFF condition.
constant input current (IB) (ΔIC) to the change in base current (ΔIB) at  It is manifested that, a high input gives a low output
constant collector-emitter voltage (VCE) is and a low input gives a high output.
called forward current gain (β).  Therefore, a transistor can be used as an inverter
∆𝑰𝑪 in computer logic circuitry.
𝜷= [ ] 15. Describe the function of a transistor as an amplifier
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑉
𝐶𝐸 with the neat circuit diagram. Sketch the input and
 Its value is very high and it generally ranges output wave form.
from 50 to 200. Transisitor as an amplifier :
14. Transistor functions as a switch. Explain.
Transistor as a switch :
 There are four important regions in the curve

(i) Saturation region
(ii) Cut-off region
(iii) Active region
(iv) Break down region
 The ratio of the change in the collectoremitter
voltage (ΔVCE) to the corresponding change in  The transistor in saturation and cut-off regions
the collector current (ΔIC) at constant base functions like an electronic switch that helps to
current (IB) is called output resistance (𝒓𝑶 ). turn ON or OFF a given circuit by a small control
signal.
 Amplification is the process of increasing the signal  The increase in collector current (IC) decreases Feedback network :
strength (increase in the amplitude). the potential drop across RC and increases the  The circuit used to feedback a portion of the output
 If a large amplification is required, multistage collector-emitter voltage (VCE). to the input is called the feedback network.
amplifier is used.  Thus, the input signal in the negative direction  If the portion of the output fed to the input is in
 Here, the amplification of an electrical signal is produces an amplified signal in the positive phase with the input, then the magnitude of the
explained with a single stage transistor amplifier direction at the output. input signal increases.
 Single stage indicates that the circuit consists of  Therefore, 1800 phase reversal is observed  It is necessary for sustained oscillations.
one transistor with the allied components. during the negative half cycle of the input Tank circuit :
 An NPN transistor is connected in the common signal  The LC tank circuit consists of an inductance and a
emitter configuration. capacitor connected in parallel
 A load resistance, RC is connected in series with the
collector circuit to measure the output voltage.
 The capacitor C1 allows only the ac signal to pass
through.
 The emitter bypass capacitor CE provides a low
reactance path to the amplified ac signal.
 The coupling capacitor CC is used to couple one
stage of the amplifier with the next stage while
constructing multistage amplifiers.
16. Explain the action transistor as an oscillator.
 VS is the sinusoidal input signal source applied
Transistor as an oscillator :
across the base-emitter.  Whenever energy is supplied to the tank circuit
 An electronic oscillator basically converts dc energy
 The output is taken across the collector-emitter. from a DC source, the energy is stored in inductor
into ac energy of high frequency ranging from a few
 Collector current, and capacitor alternatively.
Hz to several MHz.
𝑰𝑪 = 𝜷 𝑰𝑩  This produces electrical oscillations of definite
 Hence, it is a source of alternating current or voltage.
 Applying Kirchhoff ’s voltage law in the output frequency.
 Unlike an amplifier, oscillator does not require any
loop, the collector-emitter voltage is  But in practical oscillator circuits there will be loss
external signal source.
𝑽𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 of energy across resistors, inductor coils and
 Basically, there are two types of oscillators:
Working of the amplifier : capacitors.
Sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal.
(1) During the positive half cycle :  Due to this, the amplitude of the oscillations
 An oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, an
 Input signal (Vs) increases the forward voltage decreases gradually.
amplifier and a feedback circuit as shown
across the emitter-base.  Hence, the tank circuit produces damped electrical
 As a result, the base current (IB) increases. oscillations.
 Consequently, the collector current (IC)  Therefore, in order to produce undamped
increases β times. oscillations, a positive feedback is provided from
 This increases the voltage drop across RC the output circuit to the input circuit.
which in turn decreases the collector-emitter  The frequency of oscillations is determined by the
voltage (VCE). values of L and C using the equation.
 Therefore, the input signal in the positive 𝟏
𝒇=
direction produces an amplified signal in the 𝟐 𝝅 √𝑳 𝑪
negative direction at the output. Hence, the
output signal is reversed by 180°
(2) During the negative half cycle : Amplifier :
 Input signal (Vs) decreases the forward  Amplification is the process of increasing
voltage across the emitter-base. amplitude of weak signals (i.e) Amplifier amplifies
 As a result, base current (IB) decreases and in the input ac signal
turn increases the collector current (IC).
17. State and prove De Morgan’s First and Second  From the above truth table, we can conclude
theorems. ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩 ̅
De Morgan’s First Theorem :  Thus De Morgan’s second Theorem is proved.
 The complement of the sum of two logical inputs is  It also says that a NAND gate is equal to a bubbled
equal to the product of its complements. OR gate.
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅
Proof :  The corresponding logic circuit diagram 19. What is called modulation? Explain the types of
 The Boolean equation for NOR gate is modulation with help of necessary diagrams.
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 Modulation :
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled AND gate is  For long distance transmission, the low frequency
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ .𝑩
̅ baseband signal (input signal) is superimposed
A B A+B ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅ .𝑩
𝑨 ̅ 18. State Boolean laws. Elucidate how they are used to onto a high frequency radio signal by a process
simplify Boolean expressions with suitable called modulation.
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
example.  In the modulation process, a very high frequency
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Boolean laws : signal called carrier signal (radio signal) is used to
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 (1) Complement law : carry the baseband signal.
(i) ̿ =𝐴
𝐴 Types of modulation :
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 (1) Amplitude modulation (AM)
(2) OR -Laws:
 From the above truth table, we can conclude (2) Frequency modulation (FM)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅ .𝑩
̅ (i) 𝐴 + 0 = 𝐴
𝑨+𝑩 = 𝑨 (3) Phase modulation (PM)
(ii) 𝐴 + 1 = 1
 Thus De Morgan’s First Theorem is proved. Amplitude modulation (AM) :
(iii) 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 𝐴
 It also says that a NOR gate is equal to a bubbled  If the amplitude of the carrier signal is modified
(iv) 𝐴 + 𝐴̅ = 1
AND gate. according to the instantaneous amplitude of the
(3) AND -Laws:
 The corresponding logic circuit diagram baseband signal, then it is called amplitude
(i) 𝐴 .0 = 0
(ii) 𝐴 .1 = 𝐴 modulation.
(iii) 𝐴 . 𝐴 = 𝐴  Here the frequency and the phase of the carrier
(iv) 𝐴 . 𝐴̅ = 0 signal remain constant.
(4) Commutative Laws :
De Morgan’s First Theorem : (i) 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
 The complement of the products of two logical (ii) 𝐴 . 𝐵 = 𝐵 . 𝐴
inputs is equal to the sum of its complements. (5) Associative Laws :
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 = 𝑨 ̅+𝑩̅ (i) 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶
Proof : (ii) 𝐴 . (𝐵. 𝐶) = (𝐴 . 𝐵). 𝐶
 The Boolean equation for NAwD gate is (6) Distributive Laws :
𝒀 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨.𝑩 (i) 𝐴 (𝐵 + 𝐶) = 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐴 𝐶
 The Boolean equation for a bubbled OR gate is (ii) 𝐴 + (𝐵 𝐶) = (𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐴 + 𝐶)
𝒀= 𝑨 ̅ +𝑩 ̅ Example :
A B A .B ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨. 𝑩 ̅
𝑨 ̅
𝑩 ̅+𝑩
𝑨 ̅ Simplify the following Boolean expression.
𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
Solution :
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 (1 + 𝐵)
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 𝐴𝐶 + 𝐴𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐶 .1 [𝑂𝑅 −law (2) ]
𝑨𝑪 + 𝑨𝑩𝑪 = 𝑨𝑪 [𝐴𝑁𝐷 −law (2) ]
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 Circuit description
 We can see clearly that the carrier wave is modified  When the frequency of the baseband signal is zero  The electrical equivalent of the original
in proportion to the amplitude of the baseband (no input signal), there is no change in the information is called the baseband signal.
signal. frequency of the carrier wave. (e.g.) microphone
 Amplitude modulation is used in radio and TV  It is at its normal frequency and is called as centre (2) Transmitter :
broadcasting. frequency or resting frequency.  It feeds the electrical signal from the
Advantages of AM :  Practically 75 kHz is the allotted frequency of the transducer to the communication channel.
 Easy transmission and reception FM transmitter.  The transmitter is located at the broadcasting
 Lesser bandwidth requirements Advantages of FM : station.
 Low cost  Large decrease in noise. This leads to an increase in
Limitations of AM : signal-noise ratio.
 Noise level is high  The operating range is quite large.
 Low efficiency  The transmission efficiency is very high as all the
 Small operating range transmitted power is useful.
Frequency modulation (FM) :  FM bandwidth covers the entire frequency range
 If the frequency of the carrier signal is modified which humans can hear. Due to this, FM radio has
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the better quality compared to AM radio.
baseband signal, then it is called frequency Limitations of FM :  It consists,
modulation.  FM requires a much wider channel. (i) Amplifier : The transducer output is very
 Here the amplitude and the phase of the carrier  FM transmitters and receivers are more complex weak and is amplified by the amplifier.
signal remain constant. and costly. (ii) Oscillator : It generates high-frequency
 In FM reception, less area is covered compared to carrier wave (a sinusoidal wave) for long
AM. distance transmission into space.
Phase modulation (PM) : (iii) Modulator : It superimposes the
 The instantaneous amplitude of the baseband baseband signal onto the carrier signal and
signal modifies the phase of the carrier signal generates the modulated signal.
keeping the amplitude and frequency constant is (iv) Power amplifier : It increases the power
called phase modulation level of the electrical signal in order to
 This modulation is used to generate frequency cover a large distance.
modulated signals. (3) Transmitting antenna :
20. Elaborate on the basic elements of communication  It radiates the radio signal into space in all
system with the necessary block diagram. directions.
Communication system :  It travels in the form of electromagnetic waves
 Electronic communication is nothing but the with the velocity of light (3 × 108 m s–1)
transmission of sound, text, pictures, or data (4) Communication channel :
 When the amplitude of the baseband signal is zero, through a medium.  Communication channel is used to carry the
the frequency of the modulated signal is the same Basic elements of communication system : electrical signal from transmitter to receiver
as the carrier signal. (1) Input transducer : with less noise or distortion.
 The frequency of the modulated wave increases  A transducer is a device that converts  The communication medium is basically of two
when the amplitude of the baseband signal variations in a physical quantity (pressure, types: wireline communication and wireless
increases in the positive direction (A, C). temperature, sound) into an equivalent communication.
 The increase in amplitude in the negative half cycle electrical signal or vice versa. (5) Receiver :
(B, D) reduces the frequency of the modulated  In communication system, the transducer  The signals that are transmitted through the
wave converts the information which is in the form communication medium are received with the
of sound, music, pictures or computer data into help of a receiving antenna and are fed into the
corresponding electrical signals. receiver.
 The receiver consists of electronic circuits like • Increasing distance  The communication systems like television
demodulator, amplifier, detector etc. • Absorption of energy by the Earth broadcast, satellite communication, and RADAR
• Tilting of the wave are based on space wave propagation.
 It is mainly used in local broadcasting, radio  The range or distance (d) of coverage of the
navigation, for ship-to-ship, shipto- shore propagation depends on the height (h) of the
communication and mobile communication. antenna given by the equation, 𝒉 = √𝟐 𝑹 𝒉
Sky wave propagation : where, 𝑅 → Radius of earth (6400 km)
 The mode of propagation in which the 22. Explain satellite communication.
electromagnetic waves radiated from an antenna, Satellite communication :
directed upwards at large angles gets reflected by
the ionosphere back to earth is called sky wave
propagation or ionospheric propagation.
 The demodulator extracts the baseband signal  Extremely long distance communication is possible
from the carrier signal. as the radio waves can undergo multiple
 Then the baseband signal is detected and reflections between the earth and the ionosphere.
amplified using amplifiers. Finally, it is fed to the  The phenomenon of bending the radio waves back
output transducer. to earth is due to the total internal reflection.
(6) Output transducer :  The satellite communication is a mode of
 This is the reason why the EM waves are communication of signal between transmitter and
 It converts the electrical signal back to its transmitted at a critical angle to ensure that the
original form such as sound, music, pictures or receiver via satellite.
waves undergo total reflection and reaches the  The message signal from the Earth station is
data. (e.g.) loudspeakers, picture tubes, ground without escaping into space.
computer monitor, etc. transmitted to the satellite on board via an uplink
 The shortest distance between the transmitter and (frequency band 6 GHz), amplified by a
21. Explain the three modes of propagation of the point of reception of the sky wave along the
electromagnetic waves through space. transponder and then retransmitted to another
surface is called as the skip distance earth station via a downlink (frequency band
Modes of propagation of electromagnetic waves :  There is a zone in between where there is no
 The electromagnetic wave transmitted by : 4 GHz)
reception of electromagnetic waves neither ground  The high-frequency radio wave signals travel in a
(1) Ground wave propagation (or) surface wave nor sky, called as skip zone or skip area.
propagation (2 kHz to 2 MHz) straight line (line of sight) may come across tall
Space wave propagation : buildings or mountains or even encounter the
(2) Sky wave propagation (or) ionospheric  The process of sending and receiving information
propagation (3 MHz to 30 MHz) curvature of the earth.
signal through space is called space wave  A communication satellite relays and amplifies
(3) Space wave propagation (30 MHz to 400 GHz) communication
Ground wave propagation : such radio signals via transponder to reach distant
 The electromagnetic waves of very high and far off places using uplinks and downlinks.
 If the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the frequencies above 30 MHz are called as space
transmitter glide over the surface of the earth to  It is also called as a radio repeater in sky.
waves. Applications :
reach the receiver, then the propagation is called
 These waves travel in a straight line from the (1) Weather Satellites:
ground wave propagation.
transmitter to the receiver. Hence, it is used for a  They are used to monitor the weather and
 The corresponding waves are called ground waves line of sight communication (LOS).
or surface waves. climate of Earth.
 For high frequencies, the transmission towers  By measuring cloud mass, these satellites
 Both transmitting and receiving antennas must be must be high enough so that the transmitted and
close to the earth. enable us to predict rain and dangerous storms
received signals (direct waves) will not encounter like hurricanes, cyclones etc.
 The size of the antenna plays a major role in the curvature of the earth and hence travel with
deciding the efficiency of the radiation of signals. (2) Communication satellites:
less attenuation and loss of signal strength.  They are used to transmit television, radio,
 During transmission, the electrical signals are  Certain waves reach the receiver after getting
attenuated over a distance. internet signals etc. Multiple satellites are used
reflected from the ground. for long distances.
 Some reasons for attenuation are as follows:
(3) Navigation satellites: 24. Fiber optic communication is gaining popularity  Recent developments in optical communication
 These are employed to determine the among the various transmission media -justify. provide the data speed at the rate of 25 Gbps
geographic location of ships, aircrafts or any Fiber optic communication :
other object.  The method of transmitting information from one
23. Explain the function of RADAR. Give its applications. place to another in terms of light pulses through
RADAR : an optical fiber is called fiber optic communication.
 Radar basically stands for RAdioDetection And  It is in the process of replacing wire transmission
Ranging System. in communication systems.
 It is one of the important applications of  Light has very high frequency (400THz –790 THz)
communication systems and is mainly used to than microwave radio systems.
sense, detect, and locate distant objects like  The fibers are made up of silica glass or silicon
aircraft, ships, spacecraft, etc. dioxide which is highly abundant on Earth.
 The angle, range, or velocity of the objects that are  Now it has been replaced with materials such as
invisible to the human eye can be determined. chalcogenide glasses, fluoroaluminate crystalline
 Radar uses electromagnetic waves for materials because they provide larger infrared
communication. wavelength and better transmission capability.
 The electromagnetic signal is initially radiated into  As fibers are not electrically conductive, it is
space by an antenna in all directions. preferred in places where multiple channels are to
 When this signal strikes the targeted object, it gets be laid and isolation is required from electrical and
reflected or reradiated in many directions. electromagnetic interference.
 This reflected (echo) signal is received by the radar Applications :
antenna which in turn is delivered to the receiver.  Optical fiber system has a number of applications
 Then, it is processed and amplified to determine namely, international communication, inter-city
the geographical statistics of the object. communication, data links, plant and traffic control
 The range is determined by calculating the time and defense applications.
taken by the signal to travel from RADAR to the Merits :
target and back.  Fiber cables are very thin and weigh lesser than
Applications : copper cables.
 In military, it is used for locating and detecting the  This system has much larger band width. This
targets. means that its information carrying capacity is
 It is used in navigation systems such as ship borne larger.
surface search, air search and weapons guidance  Fiber optic system is immune to electrical
systems. interferences.
 To measure precipitation rate and wind speed in  Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables.
meteorological observations, Radars are used. Demerits :
 It is employed to locate and rescue people in  Fiber optic cables are more fragile when compared
emergency situations. to copper wires.
 It is an expensive technology.
Importance :
 Fiber optic cables provide the fastest transmission
rate compared to any other form of transmission.
 It can provide data speed of 1 Gbps for homes and
business.
 Multimode fibers operate at the speed of 10 Mbps.
`
PHYSICS - 2 UNIT - 11
NAME :
SCHOOL :
EXAM NO :
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PG ASST (PHYSICS)
2 And 3 Mark Questions & Answers (2) Bottom - up approach :  It works on,
 Nano materials are synthesized by assembling (1) Face recognition
1. Distinguish between Nanoscience and the atoms or molucles together. Selectively (2) Providing response to player’s actions is
Nanotechnology. atoms are added to create structures. computer games
Nanoscience : (e.g.) plasma etching and chemical vapour (3) Taking decisions based on previous actions
 It is the science of objects with typical size deposition (4) To regulate the traffic by analyzing the
1 - 100 nm 5. List the applications of Nano technology. density of traffic on roads
 Nano means one - billionth of a metre. (i.e) 10−9 𝑚  Energy storage (5) Translate words from one language to another
Nanotechnology :  Defence and security 10. Give the applications of robot in various fields.
 It is a technology involving the design, production,  Metallurgy and materials Applications of robot :
characterization and application of nano  Electronics  Weaponry, packing, Lawn mowing, cutting, under
structured materials  Optical engineering and communication water, agriculture, pool cleaning
2. What is the difference between Nanomaterials and  Biomedical and drug delivery  Welding, cutting, assembling, litter robot,
Bulk materials?  Agriculture and food transport.
 If the particle of a solid is of size less than 100 nm,  Cosmetics and paints  Vacuum cleaners, hospitals, surgery, laboratory
it is said to be a ‘nano solid’. When the particle size  Bio-technology  Exploring stars, planets etc., investigation of the
exceeds 100 nm, it is a ‘bulk solid’  Textiles mineralogy of the rocks and soils on Mars, analysis
 Though nano and bulk solids have same chemical 6. What is robotics? of elements found in rocks and soils
composition, nano form of the material shows  Robotics is an integrated study of mechanical 11. Write a note on nano robots.
strikingly different properties when compared to engineering, electronic engineeting, computer Nano robots :
its bulk counterpart. engineering and science.  The size of the nano ronots is reduced to
3. Give the interdisciplinary nature of nano  Robot is a mechanical device designed with microscopic level to perform a task in very small
technology. electronic circuitry and programmed to perform a spaces.
 Nano science and technology is the specific task.  In future nano robots are used in the medical
interdisciplinary area covering its applications in 7. What are the components of robotics? fields.
various fields. They are,  The robotic system mainly consists of  Nano robots in blood stream to perform small
(1) Physics (1) Sensors surgical procedures, to fight against bacteria,
(2) Chemistry (2) Power supplies repairing individual cell in the body.
(3) Electrical & Mechanical Engineering (3) Controm systems  It can travel into the body and once after the job is
(4) Material science (4) Manipulators performed it can find its way out.
(5) Molecular Biology (5) Necessary softwares 12. Why steels are preferred to make robots?
(6) Applied Mathematics & Computer science 8. Give the types of robots.  For robots, aluminum and steel are the most
4. Explain how nano structures are made in the (1) Human robot : common metals.
laboratory?  Certain robots are made to resemble humans  Aluminum is a softer metal and is therefore easier
Nano in laboratories : in appearance and replicate the human to work with it.
 The nano structrures made in the laboratory activities like walking, lifting and sensing etc  But steel is several times stronger and because of
mimic some of the nature’s amazing nano (2) Industrial robots : the inherent strength of steel, robot bodies are
structrures.  Six main types of industrial robots are made using sheet, bar, rod, channel and other
 There are two ways of preparing the Cartesian, SCARA, Cylindrical, Delta, Polar and shapes.
nanomaterials. They are. Vertically articulated. 13. What is particle physics? Write down its recent
(1) Top - Down approach  They are ideal for Arc welding, Spot welding, development.
(2) Bottm - Up approach Material handling, machne tending and other Particle physics and its development :
(1) Top - Down approach : applications.  The study of the theory of fundamental particles
 Nano materials are synthesized by breaking 9. What is artificial intelligence? What are its work? of nature is called particle physics.
down bulk solids in to nano sizes.  The aim of artificial intelligence is to bring in  Initially it was thought that atom is the
(e.g) Ball milling, sol-gel, lithography human like behaviour in robots. fundamental entity of matter. But in 1930, it was
established that atoms are made up of electrons,  Sensors
protons and neutrons
5 Marks Quentions & Answers  Coatings for windscreen and car bodies
 In 1960, it was discovered that protons and 1. Explain Nano structure in nature with examples. Chemical industry :
neutrons were made up of quarks. Nano in nature :  Fillers for paint systems
 Later it was found that quarks interact through (1) Single strand DNA :  Coating systems based on nanocomposites
gluons.  It is the basic building block of all living  Impregnation of papers
 Recently in 2013, famous Higgs particles also things.  Switchable adhesives
known as God particles were discovered which  It is about 3 nm wide  Magnetic fluids
gives mass to many particles like protons, (2) Morpho butterfly : Engineering :
neutrons etc .,  The scales of the wings of this butterfly  Wear protection for tools and machines
14. Write a note on Cosmology. contains nano structures.  Lubricant-free bearings
 Cosmology is the branch that involves the origin  When light wave interact with this giving the Electronic industry :
and evolution of the universe. wings brilliant metallic blue and green hues.  Data memory
 It deals with the formation of stars, galaxy etc. (3) Peacock feathers :  Displays
15. What are called gravitational waves?  They get their iridescent coloration from light  Laser diodes
 The disturbances in the curvature of space-time is interacting with 2 dimensional photonic  Glass fibres
called gravitational waves. Its travels with speed crystal structres just tens of nanometers thick  Optical switches
of light.  Similar nano structrures are made in lab to  Filters (IR-blocking)
 Any accelerated charge emits electromagnetic glow in different colors  Conductive, antistatic coatings
waves. Similarly any accelerated mass emits (4) Parrot fish : Construction :
gravitational waves.  It crunches up coral all day.  Construction materials
 But these gravitational waves are very weak even  The source of powerful bite is the interwoven  Thermal insulation
for masses like earth. fibre nanostructure.  Flame retardants
 The strongest source of gravitational waves are  Crystals of a mineral called fluorapatite are  Surface-functionalised building materials for
black holes. woven together in a chain mail-like wood, floors, stone, facades, tiles, roof tiles, etc.
 The recent discoveries of gravitational waves are arrangement. This structure gives parrot fish  Facade coatings
emitted by two black holes when they merge to a teeth incredible durability.  Groove mortar
single black hole.  It provides a blue print for creating ultr- Medicine :
 In 1915, Albert Einstein theoretically proposed durable synthetic materials that could be  Drug delivery systems
the existence of gravitational waves. After useful for mechanical components in  Active agents
100 years, it is experimentally proved that his electronics and in other devices that undergo  Contrast medium
predictions are correct. repetitive movement, abrasion and contact  Medical rapid tests
16. Write a note on black holes. stress  Prostheses and implants
Black holes : (5) Lotus Leaf surface :  Antimicrobial agents and coatings
 Black holes are end stage of stars which are highly  Scaning electron micrograph (SEM) gives the  Agents in cancer therapy
dense massive object. nano structures on the surface of a leaf from a Food and drinks :
 Its mass ranges 20 times mass of the sun to 1 lotus plant.  Package materials
million times mass of the sun.  This is the reason for self cleaning process on  Storage life sensors
 It has very strong gravitational force such that no lotus leaf.  Additives
particle or even light can escape from it. 2. Discuss the applications of Nanomaterials in  Clarification of fruit juices
 The existence of black hole is studied when the various fields. Energy :
stars orbiting the black hole behave differently Automotive industry :  Fuel cells
from the other stars.  Lightweight construction  Solar cells
 Every galaxy has black hole at its centre.  Painting (fillers, base coat, clear coat)  Batteries
 Sagittarius A* is the black hole at the centre of  Catalysts  Capacitors
the Milky Way galaxy.  Tires (fillers)
Textile/fabrics/non-wovens : 4. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of (2) Precision medicine :
 Surface-processed textiles Robotics.  Precision medicine is an emerging approach
 Smart clothes Advantages of robotics : for disease treatment and prevention that
Household :  The robots are much cheaper than humans. takes into account individual variability in
 Ceramic coatings for irons  Robots never get tired like humans. Hence genes, environment, and lifestyle for each
 Odors catalyst absenteeism in work place can be reduced. person.
 Cleaner for glass,  Robots are more precise and error free in (3) Health wearables :
 ceramic, floor, windows performing the task.  A health wearable is a device used for tracking
Cosmetics :  Stronger and faster than humans. a wearer's vital signs or health and fitness
 Sun protection  Robots can work in extreme environmental related data, location, etc.
 Lipsticks conditions: extreme hot or cold, space or  Medical wearables with articial intelligence
 Skin creams underwater. In dangerous situations like bomb and big data provide an added value to
 Tooth paste detection and bomb deactivation. healthcare with a focus on diagnosis,
Sports/ outdoor :  In warfare, robots can save human lives. treatment, patient monitoring and prevention.
 Ski wax  Robots are significantly used in handling materials (4) Articial organs :
 Antifogging of glasses/goggles in chemical industries especially in nuclear plants  An articial organ is an engineered device or
 Antifouling coatings for ships/boats which can lead to health hazards in humans. tissue that is implanted or integrated into a
 Reinforced tennis rackets and balls Disadvantages of robotics : human.
3. What are the possible harmful effects of usage of  Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience.  It is possible to interface it with living tissue
Nanoparticles? Why?  They lack empathy and hence create an or to replace a natural organ. It duplicates or
Possible harmful effects of nano particles : emotionless workplace. augments a specic function or functions of
 The major concern here is that the nanoparticles  If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the human organs so that the patient may return
have the dimensions same as that of the biological humans will just sit and monitor them, health to a normal life as soon as possible.
molecules such as proteins. They may easily get hazards will increase rapidly. (5) 3D printing :
absorbed on to the surface of living organisms and  Unemployment problem will increase.  Advanced 3D printer systems and materials
they might enter the tissues and fluids of the body.  Robots can perform defined tasks and cannot assist physicians in a range of operations in
 The adsorbing nature depends on the surface of handle unexpected situations the medical field from audiology, dentistry,
the nanoparticle. Indeed, it is possible to deliver a  The robots are well programmed to do a job and if orthopedics and other applications.
drug directly to a specific cell in the body by a small thing goes wrong it ends up in a big loss to (6) Wireless brain sensors :
designing the surface of a nanoparticle so that it the company.  Wireless brain sensors monitor intracranial
adsorbs specifically on to the surface of the target  If a robot malfunctions, it takes time to identify pressure and temperature and then are
cell. the problem, rectify it, and even reprogram if absorbed by the body. Hence there is no need
 The interaction with living systems is also affected necessary. This process requires significant time. for surgery to remove these devices.
by the dimensions of the nanoparticles.  Humans cannot be replaced by robots in decision (7) Robotic surgery :
 Nanoparticles can also cross cell membranes. It is making.  Robotic surgery is a type of surgical
also possible for the inhaled nanoparticles to  Till the robot reaches the level of human procedure that is done using robotic systems.
reach the blood, to reach other sites such as the intelligence, the humans in work place will exit.  Robotically-assisted surgery helps to
liver, heart or blood cells. 5. Comment on the recent advancement in medical overcome the limitations of pre-existing
 Researchers are trying to understand the diagnosis and therapy. minimally-invasive surgical procedures and to
response of living organisms to the presence of (1) Virtual reality : enhance the capabilities of surgeons
nanoparticles of varying size, shape, chemical  Medical virtual reality is effectively used to performing open surgery.
composition and surface characteristics. stop the brain from processing pain and cure (8) Smart inhalers :
soreness in the hospitalized patients.  Inhalers are the main treatment option for
 It helps in the treatment of Autism, Memory asthma. Smart inhalers are designed with
loss, and Mental illness. health systems and patients in mind so that
they can offer maximum benefit.
 Smart inhalers use Bluetooth technology to Muscle wires:
detect inhaler use, remind patients when to  They are thin strands of wire made of shape
take their medication and gather data to help memory alloys. ey can contract by 5% when
guide care. electric current is passed through them.
6. Discuss the functions of key components in Piezo Motors and Ultrasonic Motors:
Robots?  Basically, we use it for industrial robots.
Functions of key components of Robots : Sensors:
 Most robots are composed of 3 main parts:  Generally used in task environments as it provides
(1) Controller information of real-time knowledge.
(2) Mechanical parts Robot locomotion:
(3) Sensors  Provides the types of movements to a robot.
Controller :  The different types are
 It is also known as the "brain" which is run by a (a) Legged
computer program. (b) Wheeled
 It gives commands for the moving parts to (c) Combination of Legged and Wheeled
perform the job. Locomotion
Mechanical parts : (d) Tracked slip/skid
 It consists motors, pistons, grippers, wheels, and
gears that make the robot move, grab, turn, and
lift.
Sensors :
 It tells the robot about its surroundings. It helps to
determine the sizes and shapes of the objects
around, distance between the objects, and
directions as well.
7. Explain the various components of robotics.
Power conversion unit:
 Robots are powered by batteries, solar power, and
hydraulics.
Actuators:
 Converts energy into movement. The majority of
the actuators produce rotational or linear motion.
Electric motors:
 They are used to actuate the parts of the robots
like wheels, arms, fingers, legs, sensors, camera,
weapon systems etc.
 Different types of electric motors are used. The
most often used ones are AC motor, Brushed DC
motor, Brushless DC motor, Geared DC motor, etc.
Pneumatic Air Muscles:
 They are devices that can contract and expand
when air is pumped inside.
 It can replicate the function of a human muscle. ey
contract almost 40% when the air is sucked inside
them.

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PHYSICS - VOL 1 UNIT - 1

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

 In Cu - Fe thermocouple, the junctions A and B are

11. Explain Thomson effect.

 With key K2 open, the balancing point J is found

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 Let an electric charge ‘q’ of mass ‘m’ enters in to a

from the centre of the conductor. ⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 0° = B ∫ 𝑑𝑙 = B 𝒉

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victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

Inductive reactance (𝑿𝑳 ) :

with high voltage in to an alternating current with 𝑽𝑺 𝑵𝑺 𝜋

electric field of the capacitor. Stage - 4 : Inductance ‘L’ Mass ‘m’

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

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victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

 Let 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are the two light waves meeting at a

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victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

jhä‹ òWtJ cy»‹ òw¡f©L

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

nfoš éG¢bršt« fšé bahUt‰F

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

 A P-N junction is formed by joining N -type and

 The direction of arrows indicates that the light is

 There are four important regions in the curve

bršt¤J£ brštŠ bré¢bršt« m¢bršt«

victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,

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