Enhancing and Expanding Conventional Simulation Models of Improved Correlations

ENHANCING AND EXPANDING CONVENTIONAL SIMULATION MODELS OF
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS FOR IMPROVED CORRELATIONS
Dissertation
Submitted to
The School of Engineering of the
UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
The Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering
By
Haithem Abualasaad Murgham
Dayton, Ohio
December, 2018
Name: Murgham, Haithem Abualasaad
APPROVED BY:
David H. Myszka, Ph.D. Kevin P. Hallinan, Ph.D.

Advisor Committee Chairman Committee Member
Associate Professor, Department of Professor, Department of Mechanical
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering and Aerospace Engineering
Andrew Chiasson, Ph.D. Rajan Rajendran, Ph.D.

Committee Member Committee Member
Associate Professor, Department of Vice President, Emerson Climate
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Technologies
Robert J. Wilkens, Ph.D., P.E. Eddy M. Rojas, Ph.D., M.A., P.E.

Associate Dean for Research and Innovation Dean, School of Engineering
Professor
School of Engineering
ii
© Copyright by
Haithem Abualasaad Murgham
All rights reserved
2018
ABSTRACT
Name: Murgham, Haithem Abualasaad

University of Dayton
Advisor: Dr. David H. Myszka
This research presents engineering models that simulate steady-state and transient operations
of air−cooled condensing units and an automatic commercial ice making machines ACIM, respec-
tively. The models use easily-obtainable inputs and strategies that promote quick computations.
Packaged, air-cooled condensing units include a compressor, condensing coil, tubing, and fans,
fastened to a base or installed within an enclosure. A steady-state standard condensing unit system
simulation model is assembled from conventional, physics-based component equations. Specifi-
cally, a four-section, lumped-parameter approach is used to represent the condenser, while well-
established equations model compressor mass flow and power. To increase capacity and efficiency,
enhanced condensing units include an economizer loop, configured in either upstream or down-
stream extraction schemes. The economizer loop uses an injection valve, brazed-plate heat ex-
changer (BPHE) and scroll compressor adapted for vapor injection. An artificial neural network
is used to simulate the performance of the BPHE, as physics-based equations provided insufficient
accuracy. The capacity and power results from the condensing unit model are generally within 5%
when compared to the experimental data.
iii
A transient ice machine model calculates time-varying changes in the system properties and ag-
gregates performance results as a function of machine capacity and environmental conditions. Rapid
”what if” analyses can be readily completed, enabling engineers to quickly evaluate the impact of
a variety of system design options, including the size of the air-cooled heat exchanger, finned sur-
faces, air flow rate, ambient air and inlet water temperatures, compressor capacity and/or efficiency
for freeze and harvest modes, refrigerants, suction/liquid line heat exchanger and thermal expansion
valve properties. Simulation results from the ACIM model were compared with the experimental
data of a fully instrumented, standard 500 lb capacity ice machine, operating under various ambient
air and water inlet temperatures. Key aggregate measures of the ice machine’s performance are:
1) cycle time (duration of freeze plus harvest modes), 2) energy input per 100 lb of ice, and 3)
energy usage during 24 hours. For these measures, the model’s accuracy is within 5% for a variety
of operating conditions.
Different strategies for improving the ACIM efficiency are explored. The improvement strate-
gies focus on compressor efficiency and reducing energy during harvest mode. The primary compo-
nent of ACIM energy use is the compressor, which accounts for approximately 80% of energy input
per 24 hrs. The explored strategies includes compressor efficiency, electric heaters to assist harvest,
and a waste heat recovery scheme. In waste heat recovery strategy, the wasted energy during the
freezing mode is stored in a storage media and used during the harvest mode. As a result, harvest
time is reduced up to 48.8%.
iv
For whom words are certainly not enough to thank them: my father and mother.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
It is my honor to express my thanks to those who supported and helped me to make this thesis
possible.
First, I thank my family for inspiring me. Special thank for my son Laith and my daughter Juri
who are my world.
Secondly, I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. David Myszka, who guided and
supported me all along my Ph.D journey. I consider myself lucky to pursue my Ph.D research with
him.
Last but not least, I would like to thank Dr. Kevin Hallinan, Dr. Andrew Chiasson and Dr. Rajan
Rajendran for their help and support.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Review of Related Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1.1 Steady-State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Transient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
CHAPTER II. STEADY-STATE MODEL OF CONDENSING UNIT . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1 Condensing Unit Model Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.1.1 Standard System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.2 Economized Condensing Unit with Upstream Extraction . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1.3 Economized Condensing Unit with Downstream Extraction . . . . . . . 13
2.2 System Component Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.3 Brazed Plate Fluid to Fluid Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Simulation Model Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1 Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2 Standard Unit Model Simulation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3.3 Upstream Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.4 Downstream Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.4 Steady-State Model Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
CHAPTER III. TRANSIENT SIMULATION OF AN AUTOMATIC COMMERCIAL ICE

MAKER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Ice Maker Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.2 ACIM Simulation Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Model Operation Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
vii
CHAPTER IV. SIMULATION OF EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS TO AN ACIM . . . 46
4.1 Enhanced ACIM Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4.1.1 Ice Formation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.1.2 Water Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.3 Harvest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.4 Heat Loss in Connecting Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Strategies for Improving ACIM Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.1 Increasing Compressor Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.2 Auxiliary Electric Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3.3 Waste Heat Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
viii
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Basic refrigeration system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 Typical condensing unit [1]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Standard condensing unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3 Condensing unit with upstream extracted economizer loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Condensing unit with downstream extracted economizer loop. . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.5 Experimental local heat transfer coefficient for condensation of various refrigerants
and test conditions [2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.6 Four-section lumped method for air-cooled finned-tubes heat exchanger. . . . . . . 17
2.7 Straight fins of uniform cross section [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8 Artificial neural network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.9 Artificial neural network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.10 Brazed plate heat exchanger’s function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.11 Brazed plate heat exchanger’s function results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.12 Straight fins of uniform cross section [4] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.13 Steady-state condenser model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.14 Simulation results vs. experimental data for a standard condenser unit. . . . . . . . 32
2.15 Simulation results vs. experimental data for a downstream economized condenser
unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1 Schematic of an ACIM that produces batches of cubes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Ice machine model operating in freeze mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
ix
3.3 Ice machine model operating in harvest mode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Graphical representation of the transient comparisons at 110/100◦ F. . . . . . . . . 45
3.5 Graphical representation of the transient comparisons at 90/70◦ F. . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 Schematic of an evaporator tubing coil (in black) and the ice formation grid divided
into NCV = 56 control volumes (in grey), having NR = 7 and NC = 8. Grid
control volume k and evaporator element j numbering convention is shown. . . . . 47
4.2 Graphical representation of the transient comparisons at 110/100◦ F. . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Schematic of an ACIM with a waste heat reclamation circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4 ACIM with a waste heat recovery system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
x
LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Comparison of summary results between experimental results and simulation model. 44
4.1 Comparison of simulation results between ACIMs using compressors with increased
efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2 Comparison of simulation results between ACIMs using ice formation grid heating
coils of various capacities (in Watts). Scenarios are presented with the compressor
turned ON or OFF during harvest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3 Comparison of results between running the model using the waste heat recovery
with running the model without the recovery unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
xi
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The experimental investigation of refrigeration systems can be very complicated due to the large
number of variables in the system and the long time required to prepare for the experiment and to
collect the data. There are four main components in basic refrigeration system as shown in Figure
1.1. The compressor compress the superheated refrigerant and send it to the condenser (1-2). The
condenser is a heat exchanger that condensing the hot gas into a liquid (2-3). The liquid refrigerant
goes to the metering valve that forces the refrigerant to go through a small area. The pressure and
temperature drop as a result of that (3-4). The cold low pressure refrigerant is directed into the
evaporator which is another heat exchanger that boils the refrigerant by taking the heat from the
surrounding. Then, the superheated gas is send to the compressor to start a new cycle (4-1). Any
other components such as the brazed plate heat exchanger are called accessories.
Financially, the experimental investigation cost adds more complexity. Computer simulation
model reduces the cost and helps understanding the phenomena related to the problem. Physics-
based simulation strategies can be divided into two strategies: the steady-state and transient. The
steady-state usually reached after some time in running the system. Steady-state models are suf-
ficient for most refrigeration applications, where the system achieves a stable operating mode and
continues to run in that mode for a majority of time. The transient state starts from the beginning
of the event until establishing the steady state. The advantage of steady-state models are there short
run time and simplicity to use. The transient models are generally used to model more complex
1
dynamic models where the variables change with time. These models continue to serve as the basis
for more recent enhancements such as alternative refrigerants [5] and complex system circuits [6].
Figure 1.1: Basic refrigeration system.
Improving the refrigeration systems in order to achieve the optimum design has been the goal
for the engineers. Computer simulation models provide the engineers the tool required to achieve
that goal. Rapid “what if” analyses can be readily completed, enabling engineers to quickly evaluate
the impact of a variety of system design options, including the size of the air-cooled heat exchanger,
finned surfaces, airflow rate, ambient air temperature, compressor capacity and/or efficiency, refrig-
erants, suction/liquid line heat exchanger and thermal expansion valve properties.
The goal of this research is to develop a steady-state and transient computer simulation mod-
els of refrigeration systems based on fundamental principles, generalized and custom correlations.
Once established, the simulation model enables prediction of component conditions, loads under
different operating environments, and assessment of system design changes. This research provides
2
unique contribution to modeling refrigeration systems by requiring only basic inputs, creating cal-
ibrated functions that reduce simulation time. After this powerful tool is established, it is used to
identify the potential improvements in the design to provide more efficient system.
Microsoft Excel visual basic (VBA) is used to develop a steady-state model for an air-cooled
condenser with a brazed plate heat exchanger. Lumped-parameter method is used to model the air
heat exchange where it is divided into several elements that approximate the system behavior. A
physics model and calibrated functions are developed to model the brazed plate heat exchanger.
MATLAB artificial neural network is used to calculate the weights and the bias that are used to
develop the VBA functions. Transient commercial ice machine simulation model is created using
MATLAB Simulink and Simscape library. New blocks have been created and added to the simscape
library. The model calculates time-varying changes in the system properties and aggregates perfor-
mance results as a function of machine capacity and environmental conditions. All fluid properties
are obtained using REFPROP [7]. Once established, the models are used to have a better under-
standing between the inputs and the outputs and used this understanding to develop a better design.
The transient model is used to explore strategies for improving ACIM energy efficiency. The
investigation focused on increasing the efficiency during harvest mode. The strategies that have
been explored are increasing the compressor efficiency, using auxiliary electric heater, and waste
heat recovery.
1.1 Review of Related Work
First practical refrigerating machine was designed by Oliver Evans in 1805 [8] and built in
1834 by Jacob Perkins [9]. After a decade, John Gorrie has built a refrigerator to produce ice [10].
The refrigerating system continued to grow and large plants installed all over the world. Along
3
with the blooming in refrigeration system industry, computer simulation model start getting more
attention. Physics-based simulation models for the steady-state operation of a vapor-compression,
refrigeration systems have been established several decades ago [11, 12].
1.1.1 Steady-State
Physics-based simulation models for the steady-state operation of vapor-compression refriger-
ation systems have been established several decades ago and repeatedly modified over the years.
Hiller and Glicksman 1976 evaluated system performance with a lumped-parameter model that di-
vided the condenser to three and evaporator to two distinct regions, which required user-specified
fixed evaporator temperature, sup-erheat and subcooling degree [13]. In 1977, Fukushima et al.
formulated a heat pump model that required the condensing/evaporating pressures and enthalpies
to be specified [14]. In 1984, Domanski and Didion enhanced a heat pump model that required
the evaporator saturated temperature, inlet quality, and superheated degree [15]. In 1992, a detailed
model created by Stefanuk required evaporator saturated temperature, inlet quality and condensing
temperature [16]. In 2002, Hui and Spitler formulated a heat pump model with two zones for both
condenser and evaporator, using constant heat transfer coefficients and no subcooling [17]. In 2008,
Winkler, Aute, and Radermacher performed a comprehensive investigation in three algorithms used
to simulate a steady-state vapor compression system [18].
1.1.2 Transient
Research on transient simulation can be traced back to 1978 when a fixed time step transient
simulation model of a vapor compression system was developed by Dhar [19]. In 1982, Chi and
Didion proposed air-to-air heat pump model using the moving boundary method. First finite volume
discretization approach was used in the simulation in 1984 by MacArthur. In 1995, Vargas and
4
Parise developed a variable speed heat pump model to study the effect of ON-OFF control strategy
on the system efficiency. In 1998, Williatzen et al. used moving boundary approach to study ON-
OFF control influence on a system. Real time air-cooled simulation model was established by Rossi
and Braun in 1999. In 2008, Thermosys MATLAB/Simulink was used by McKinley and Alleyne
to develop a moving boundary transient model for a crossflow heat exchanger with a single pass.
In 2011, Zhang created a variable refrigerant flow (VRF) model. He did a regression analysis
to an experimental data to model the compressor and expansion valve. In 2016, Tianzhen Hong
developed a new VRF model using EnergyPlus for a heat pump operating in heating or cooling
[20]. In 2018, Dongsu Kim presented detailed procedures for model calibration of a (VRF) system
with a dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS)[21].
Engineering models for the ice machine presents a particularly challenging application. The
ice machine exhibits entirely transient behavior, as the operation continually cycles between the ice
formation mode and ice harvest mode. In 2008, Bendapudi et al. discussed various approaches for
transient simulation models. Of particular interest for ACIM modeling include refrigeration systems
during variable evaporator load [22], startup conditions [23] and hot-gas bypass [24] as used during
ice harvest mode. Transient models for the heat exchange between refrigerant flowing through the
evaporator tubing to water flowing over an ice forming grid do not exist in the literature and were
developed.
1.2 Contribution
The simulation models outlined in this research allow the engineers to have a better understand-
ing of how the system responds to the change in wide range of variables. The contributions can be
stated as:
5
1. Generated an accurate steady-state model of condensing unit with brazed plate heat exchanger
is developed based on fundamental, physic-based principles of individual system components.
Artificial Neural Network is used to model the brazed plate heat exchanger.
2. Modeling super-critical carbon dioxide air-cooled heat exchanger.
3. Created a transient simulation model of refrigeration systems that uses system geometry vari-
ables as inputs to minimizing the need of defining some of the refrigerant properties before
the execution. In the model, the evaporator grid is divided to limited control volumes to
improve the evaporator’s temperature distribution and to model the water flowing over the
evaporator grid. The ACIM simulation model has been patented [25] where I was the primary
contributor.
4. A journal paper ”Simulation of Efficiency Improvements to an Automatic Commercial Ice
Maker” [26]. This paper presents a new design for the ice machine maker which increases
the over all system efficiency by decreasing the energy consumption and the time required for
the harvest mode.
5. Publishing a paper ”Simulation Model of an Automatic Commercial Ice Machine” [27]. A
physics-based transit simulation model for ACIM to estimate the system behavior is outlined
in this paper.
6. Publishing a paper ”Steady-State Modeling of Condensing Units with an Economizer Loop”
[28]. Physics-based principles, and generalized and custom correlations
7. The enhanced transient ice machine model is used to explore strategies for improving the
efficiency. The explored strategies are: increasing compressor efficiency, using auxiliary
electric heat during harvest, and wasted heat recovery.
6
8. Invented a new ACIM design to increase the ice machine efficiency. In the ACIM and during
harvest, the heat generated by the compressor is used to release the ice from the grid. The
new design stores the wasted heat during freezing mode in a storage medium and uses it to
release the ice during the harvest mode. The process steps are:-
• During freezing cycle, the discharge line exchanges heat with the storage medium.
That will make the refrigerant enters the condenser at lower temperature and increase
the storage medium temperature.
• During harvest cycle, the heat stored in the storage medium is used to release the ice.
The next freezing cycle will start at the same time when harvest cycle starts and will be
used to pre-cool the water in the sump. That means, less freezing and harvest time.
The new invention is in the process of being patented [29]. The absence of the need for the
compressor heat to release the ice during the harvest cycle allows the high efficient compres-
sors to be used in ACIM.
7
1.3 Nomenclature
The following nomenclature is used throughout this dissertation.
A surface area
Di inside diameter
Do outside diameter
f Darcy friction factor
h enthalpy
k thermal conductivity
L tube length
m number of elements in one control volume
ṁ mass flow rate
M mass
Nc number of columns in the formation grid
NCV number of control grid volumes
Ne number of elements along evaporator tube
NR number of rows in the formation grid
NTU number of transfer units
p pressure
Pr Prandtl Number
Q̇ heat transfer rate
R thermal resistance
Re Reynolds Number
s ice thickness
t time
δt simulation increments through time
T temperature
U internal energy
V̇a condenser fan volume flow
V volume
Ẇ k compressor work
ws effective contact width of the tube
xIk ice mass fraction
8
Greek symbols
Xtt Lockhart–Martinelli parameter
ρ density
ω compressor speed
ηv volumetric efficiency
ηd isentropic efficiency
∆ percent absolute value
α heat transfer coefficient
χ condenser volume ratio
µ dynamic viscosity
Subscripts
a ambient
b bubble point
c condenser
co condenser outlet
d compressor discharge
e evaporator
e evaporator outlet
f final
g evaporator grid/plate
i injection
I ice
in inlet
j evaporator tube element
k control volume
l liquid
LI BPHE liquid line inlet
LO BPHE liquid line outlet
o initial
out outlet
p sump water
r refrigerant
s suction line
sh evaporator super-heated
su water supply
sup condenser superheating degree
sub condenser subcooling degree
sc subcooling
SI BPHE vapor line inlet
t tube
tp two-phase
VO BPHE vapor line outlet
v vapor
w water
x quality
9
CHAPTER II
STEADY-STATE MODEL OF CONDENSING UNIT
Heating, ventilation, air-conditioning, and refrigeration (HVACR) systems are essential for food
preservation, indoor human comfort, and process cooling, such as pharmaceuticals and electronic
equipment. Typical HVACR systems utilize a vapor compression system that includes four basic
elements: a compressor, condenser, expansion valve and evaporator. For installation, preference is
given to split vapor compression systems, where the cooling evaporator unit is packaged separately
from a remote condenser unit. Evaporator units are often tailored for the specific application and
integrated within the device, such as a delicatessen display case, a walk-in cooler, or soda machine.
The other half of the split system is the condensing unit (often air-cooled) which includes a com-
pressor, condenser coil, liquid receiver, connecting tubing, and fans, assembled into a modularized
package. A Condensing unit is an important component in refrigeration and air conditioning sys-
tems. The overall system efficiency will be affected by the condenser performance. A commercial
condensing unit is shown in Figure 2.1. Economized condensing units also include a brazed plate
heat exchanger, injection valve and a scroll compressor adapted for vapor injection. While con-
densing units do not have an evaporator, their capacity is rated by the amount of heat that could be
absorbed if an evaporator was present.
2.1 Condensing Unit Model Description
The simulation model is constructed in a manner that is compatible with the standard test meth-
ods for rating condensing units [30]. The ambient air used to cool the condenser is designated by
10
Figure 2.1: Typical condensing unit [1].
its temperature Tain and the volumetric flow rate V̇a produced by the cooling fan. To designate
a cooling condition, an evaporator refrigerant dew point temperature Te , and subcooling tempera-
ture of the refrigerant exiting the condenser coil Tsc are specified. Vapor return to the compressor
is specified with a suction temperature Ts . The compressor suction pressure pe is the dew point
pressure associated with Te . Condensing units are configured as either standard or economizer,
with upstream and downstream extraction options. The various condensing unit configurations are
discussed in the following sections.
2.1.1 Standard System
A typical condensing unit schematic is shown in Figure 2.2. Refrigerant vapor is presented
to the compressor suction inlet at temperature Ts and pressure pe . The compressor produces a
refrigerant mass flow ṁd , and discharges a high temperature Td refrigerant that is directed to the
condenser. The condenser is a heat exchanger that removes heat from the refrigerant, changing
the hot gas into a warm liquid. The condenser has de-superheat, saturation, and subcool zones.
Based on the design of the coil and fins, along with Tain and V̇a , a steady-state temperature Tc
and corresponding saturation dew point pressure pc is attained within the saturation zone of the
11
condenser. The temperature of the refrigerant exiting the condenser Tco is related to the specified
sub-cooling and condenser bubble point temperature Tcb , Tco = Tcb − Tsc . The liquid receiver is a
storage vessel that contains excess refrigerant not in circulation. The refrigerant stored in the liquid
receiver accommodates varying operational conditions. The liquid receiver does not significantly
alter performance of the condensing unit and is not included in the model.
Figure 2.2: Standard condensing unit.
2.1.2 Economized Condensing Unit with Upstream Extraction
An economized vapor compression cycle is able to provide more cooling than a standard cycle
by increasing the amount of subcooling. Figure 2.3 shows an economizer loop added to the standard
system, with upstream extraction. Notice that a portion of the subcooled liquid exiting the condenser
is expanded through a valve, reducing its pressure pSI with a correspondingly lower saturation tem-
perature TSI . After expansion, the extracted portion is routed into one side of a counter-flow, brazed
plate heat exchanger (BPHE). The extracted portion is ultimately injected into an intermediate pres-
sure port within a scroll compressor, and aptly termed the injection mass flow ṁi . The remaining
portion of refrigerant exiting the condenser, at Tco ,pc , and flow rate ṁd , is routed into the other
side of the counter-flow BPHE. Since TSI < TLI , heat is exchanged from the high pressure, warm
12
liquid to the cool saturated refrigerant. Thus, the BPHE acts as a subcooler, reducing the liquid
temperature from Tco to TLo and provides additional system cooling capacity.
Figure 2.3: Condensing unit with upstream extracted economizer loop.
2.1.3 Economized Condensing Unit with Downstream Extraction
Figure 2.4 illustrates a schematic of the downstream extraction configuration of an economized
condensing unit. With downstream extraction, a portion of refrigerant is removed after passing
through the BPHE. The performance of the two configurations are very similar. Downstream ex-
traction ensures that only liquid enters the injection control valve which improves its operation.
However, the injection mass passes through the heat exchanger twice and the higher liquid-side
mass flow increases the pressure loss. In addition, more connections and tubing are required on
the subcooled liquid side, all of which need to be insulated to ensure minimal heat gain. While the
operational aspects are similar, the simulation model must account for the different configurations.
13
Figure 2.4: Condensing unit with downstream extracted economizer loop.
2.2 System Component Models
The steady-state simulation model developed in this research incorporates algebraic equations
for the system components as identified below. These individual component models are assembled
into a comprehensive simulation for the condenser unit configurations described above. That com-
prehensive simulation methodology is presented in Section 2.3. In formulating component models,
the state postulate of thermodynamic properties is repeatedly used to determine the condition of
the refrigerant. The state postulate asserts that the state of a compressible substance is completely
defined by two independent properties [3]. That is, two given properties of a superheated refrigerant
are sufficient to determine any other thermodynamic property. For instance, with values of Ts and
pe at the compressor inlet, the compressor suction density ρs and enthalpy hs can be determined by
using refrigerant databases such as RefProp 9.1 [7].
2.2.1 Compressor
The amount of mass flow rate ṁd delivered by the compressor to the system components is a
function of compressor speed ω, compressor suction density ρs , displacement Vd and volumetric
14
efficiency ηv [31] is
ṁd = ηv ω ρs Vd (2.1)
A polytropic approach can be used to determine power consumed by the compressor, which
is influenced by the evaporator pressure pe , condenser pressure pc , compressor efficiency ηd , and
polytropic exponent k,
pc (k−1)/k

k−1
W˙ k = ηd ω Vd p e 1 − (2.2)
k pe
Alternatively, compressor manufacturers conventionally provide rating information across an
operating map in accordance with AHRI Standard 540 [30]. The compressor performance values
are tabulated over a range of evaporator saturation temperatures Te and condenser saturation tem-
peratures Tc . The tabular data is fit to a ten-coefficient, third-order polynomial equation of the form
X = C1 + C2 Te + C3 Tc + C4 Te2 + C5 Te Tc + C6 Tc2 + C7 Te3 + C8 Te2 Tc + C9 Te Tc2 + C10 Tc3 (2.3)
where X can represent power consumption W˙ k or mass flow rate ṁd . The appropriate rating
coefficients Ci are commonly provided by compressor manufacturers for engineers designing a
system or components. Dabiri and Rice, (1981) developed adjustments to the capacity version of
Equation (2.3) for the level of suction gas superheat (Ts − Te ) [32]. Fischer and Rice, (1981)
established a compressor shell loss factor fq to compensate for heat transfer through the compressor
wall to the ambient air [12]. An energy balance is applied on the compressor to determine the
discharge enthalpy hd as shown in Equation (2.4).
Ẇk (1 − fq ) + ṁi (hvo ) + ṁd (hs )

hd = (2.4)
ṁc
Knowing hd and pc , a refrigerant database is used to determine the compressor discharge tem-
perature Td .
15
2.2.2 Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger
The heat exchanger is analyzed using a lumped method [2], where the total heat exchanger
volume Vc is divided into a few limited control volumes. An average heat transfer coefficient (HTC)
and pressure drop (∆P ) are determined for each control volume. HTC and (∆P ) calculations are
related to the heat exchanger geometry and air/refrigerant input properties. The single-phase regions
(desuperheat and subcool) have a little variation of HTC with the temperature when the mass flow
rate is constant. Therefore, each single-phase region is modeled as a single control volume, Vsup
and Vsub , respectively. In the two-phase region, the HTC is affected by the refrigerant quality and
varies along the tube. Refrigerant quality below 0.4 is observed to have a major change in HTC
as shown in Figure 2.5; Therefore, the two-phase region is divided into two control volumes, from
saturated vapor to 0.4, represented as Vsat1 , and from 0.4 to saturated liquid, represented as Vsat2 .
Figure 2.5: Experimental local heat transfer coefficient for condensation of various refrigerants and
test conditions [2].
16
Air-cooled condensers usually have several circuits where the tubes are arranged in different
ways according to the design. The detailed tube arrangement is not required in lumped approach.
However, the condenser geometry and other inputs such as fin type, fin pitch, fins density, tube inner
diameter, and airflow rate are required. The air / refrigerant flow is considered a cross-flow. The
refrigerant flow rate leaves the superheated control volume (Vsuper ) to the saturated control volumes
(Vsat1 ) and (Vsat2 ) to the subcooling control volume (Vsub ) as shown in Figure 2.6. The ratio of
each control volume to the total volume Vc is χ1,...,4 .
Some assumptions have been considered before applying conservation equations for each con-
trol volume. These assumptions are: system is in steady-state, air mass flow rate is uniformly
distributed over the condenser and no conduction heat transfer in the direction of the tube axis.
Figure 2.6: Four-section lumped method for air-cooled finned-tubes heat exchanger.
• The refrigerant side: The refrigerant side satisfies the mass conservation by the steady state
assumption. The pressure drop calculations is used to represent the momentum equation in
each control volume. The energy balance for the k th control volume is
Q̇k = ṁd (hink − houtk ) (2.5)
17
where hink and houtk are the inlet and outlet refrigerant enthalpy at the k th control volume
respectively. At a specific condenser pressure, hink and houtk are known since the quality at
each interface in known.
– Single phase: For the single phase control volumes, V1 = Vsup and V4 = Vsub , Gnielin-
ski correlation is used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient α1,4 as shown in Equation
2.6. The correlation is valid for Prandtl number 0.5 ≤ P r ≤ 2000 and Reynolds num-
ber 3000 ≤ ReD ≤ 5 × 106 [3, 2]. The pressure drop ∆Pk is calculated using Darcy
Weisbach equation.
!
kk (fk /8)(ReDk − 1000)P rk
αk = 2/3
, k = 1, 4 (2.6)
Di 1 + 12.7(fk /8)1/2 (P rk − 1)
ρk vk2

χk L
∆Pk = fk (2.7)
2 Di
where k is the thermal conductivity, Di is the tube diameter, and v is the refrigerant flow
velocity, ρ is the refrigerant density, L is the tube length, and f is Darcy friction factor.
– Two phase: In two phase regions, Dobson and Chato correlation provided the best
prediction for the heat transfer coefficient [3] as shown in Equation (2.9). The two-
phase pressure drop ∆Pk can be expressed as a function of the mass flow rate ṁd , the
tube length, and two-phase friction factor ftp as shown in Equation 2.8.
2
2ftpk χk L (4 ṁd )/(πDi2 )

∆Pk = , k = 2, 3 (2.8)
Di
" #
0.8 0.4 2.22
αk = 0.023 ReL k
P rL k
1 + 0.98 (2.9)
Xttk
18
0.9 0.5 0.1
1 − xk ρLk µLk
Xttk = (2.10)
xk ρvk µvk
The average refrigerant heat transfer coefficient in the tube is:
Z xoutk
1
F1k (1 − x)0.8 + F2k xk0.8 dx

hmk = (2.11)
xoutk − xink xink
where
0.8
Gdi 0.4 kLk
F1k = 0.023 P rL (2.12)
µLk Di
2.22 x0.8
k
F2k = 0.445 (2.13)
µLk 0.089

ρLk
ρvk µvk
where kL is the thermal conductivity (W/m K), G is the mass flux (kg/m2 s), µ is the
dynamic viscosity, and x is the quality.
• The air side: For the air side, the mass conservation is satisfied with a constant air mass
flow rate ṁa = ρa V˙a , where ρa is the density of the ambient air. The momentum equation is
represented by the pressure drop calculations. The heat transfer is described as a function of
air mass flow rate ṁa , isobaric heat capacity Cpa , air inlet temperature Tain , and air outlet
temperature Taout .
Q̇ = ṁa Cpa (Tain − Taout ) (2.14)
Wang correlations are used to calculate Colburn j-factor, which is used to calculate the airside
heat transfer coefficient αair as shown in Equation 2.7. Wang 1999 is used for louvered fin
[33] and wavy fin [34], Wang 2000 for Plain fin [35], and Wang 2001 for Enhanced(Slid) fin
[36].
19
Figure 2.7: Straight fins of uniform cross section [3].
j CpGmax
αair = (2.15)
P r2/3
where Gmax is the mass flux of the air through the minimum area between the tubes and fins,
As is the secondary (finned) surface area.
Wang correlations have tube spacing restrictions 0.5 in < longitudinal tube spacing <1.1 in
and 0.7 in < transverse tube spacing <1.2 in, fin pitch is limited to 4 fins/in < FP < 18
fins/in, the air velocity range is limited to 3 ft/s < Velocity < 17.4 ft/s, and for the louver
fin, the louver height is restricted to 0.031 in < Lh < 0.055 in, and the louver pitch 0.067 in
< LP < 0.147 in.
• The overall heat transfer coefficient: The overall heat transfer coefficient in each control
volume is determined by accounting for conduction and convection resistances between the
fluid, tube wall, and the air as shown in the Equation (2.16).
1 1 ln(Do /Di ) 1
= + + , k = 1...4 (2.16)
(U A)k αref k χk Aref 2π k χk L αair ηo χk Aair
Heat transfer rate per unit mass can be calculated using Equation (2.17) where ∆Tm is the
mean temperature difference[3].
20
q = U A∆Tm (2.17)
Af
η0 = 1 − (1 − ηf ) (2.18)
A
where the Af is the entire fin surface area and ηf is a single fin efficiency.
tanh(mL)
ηf = (2.19)
mL
where L is the fin length.
hP
m2 = (2.20)
kAc
Hong and Webb proposed a modify equation to improve the accuracy in 1996.
tanh(m Re Φ)
ηf = cos(0.1 m Re Φ) (2.21)
Re Φ
In 2003, Perrotin and Clodic proposed a modified Φ parameter as shown in Equation (2.24).
m (Re − rt )
H1 = (2.22)
2.5
0.3
Re
H2 = 0.26 − 0.3 (2.23)
rt


1Re
  
1.5 −
Re  
 ln Re 
12 rt  
Φ= −1  1 + 0.3 + H2 H
1 (2.24)
rt    rt 
where rt is the outside tube radius.
21
2.2.3 Brazed Plate Fluid to Fluid Heat Exchanger
Brazed plate heat exchangers (BPHE) were developed in the 1970s for the refrigeration indus-
try [37]. They are designed to transfer heat from one fluid to another fluid across a solid surface.
It is constructed from a series of thin plates that are brazed together [38]. The two fluids are al-
lowed to flow through alternating passages created between the thin plates. Geometric features on
the plates are optimized to promote efficient heat transfer at a minimal pressure loss. A BPHE is
more efficiently implemented in a counter-flow arrangement, as is shown in Figures 2.3, and 2.4.
When configured in the economized condensing unit, a flow of refrigerant ṁLI exiting the con-
denser enters the warm side of the BPHE with liquid-in temperature TLI and pressure pc , and exits
at a liquid-out temperature TLO . The cool refrigerant flow ṁi enters the other side of the BPHE at
saturated-in temperature TSI and pressure pSI , and exits at a vapor-out temperature TV O . Physics-
based models of the BPHE were created calculating the evaporation and condensation heat transfer
coefficient [39]. Heat transfer coefficients and pressure drops in single phase, boiling and conden-
sation regions are calculated using different approaches [40]. The physics-based model provided
unacceptable accuracy as shown in Figure 2.8a.
Wilson (1915) developed a method, which has been modified over the years, for calibrating
overall HTC of the theoretical model with experimental data. The Wilson Plot method is widely
used in HVACR research, which utilizes prescribed heat transfer relationships and establishes a
curve fit for the HTC. Alternatively, an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) was used to calibrate the
BPHE [41]. ANNs are a class of techniques that provide advantages to other data-driven modeling
techniques such as the Wilson plot. They have the ability to detect non-predefined relations, such as
nonlinear effects and/or interactions. Over 2.4 million, manufacturer-supplied data points were used
to train the ANN. Three functions were created to model the BPHE behavior for different models
using a wide range of refrigerant properties for upstream and downstream extractions.
22
(a) Physics based model. (b) ANN model.
Figure 2.8: Artificial neural network.
Artificial Neural Network
The beginnings of Neural Network was in 1943 when McCulloch and Pitts published a re-
search article that showed a simple neural network can solve a logical functions. The golden age of
Neural Networks was in 1950s when the first successful neuro-computer was developed. In 1980s
researchers became more interested in exploring Neural Networks [42]. ANNs consist multiple
nodes connected by links, which allow them to interact with each other. Each link is associated
with weight, where it’s value changes during ANNs learning. The results are then passed to other
neurons.
The purpose of Neural Network training is to minimize the output errors on a particular set
of training data by adjusting the weights. In principle, any raw input-output data can be used to
train our networks. However, in practice, it often helps the network to learn appropriately if some
pre-processing of the training data is carried out before feeding it to the network. The best number
23
of hidden units depends on a complex number of factors, including: number of training patterns,
number of input and output units, amount of noise in the training data, the complexity of the function
or classification to be learned, and training algorithm. Too few hidden units will generally leave
high training and generalization errors due to under-fitting. Too many hidden units will result in low
training errors, but will make the training unnecessarily slow, and will result in poor generalization
unless some other technique is used to prevent over-fitting.
Figure 2.9: Artificial neural network.
Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger’s Function
The results from the training process, ”weights (W) and Bias (B)”, are used to build three func-
tions that predict how the BPHE behaves. The outputs from each process or layer U(k) are the
inputs for the next process or layer. Where L is number of Layers and k is number of neurons.
Short simulation time and the results accuracy as appears in figure (2.11) were the main reason for
choosing this method.
24
Figure 2.10: Brazed plate heat exchanger’s function.
Figure 2.11: Brazed plate heat exchanger’s function results.
25
The ANN function for the injection mass flow that generates heat transfer necessary to achieve
the specified injection superheat TV O − TSI is
ṁi = f (BP HEgeometry, P N, TLI , ṁLI , TV O − TSI , Pc , Tc , ρLI , CpLI , VLI , KLI ) (2.25)
The injection pressure that, with ṁi , achieves the necessary TV O is
pi = (BP HEgeometry, P N, TLI , ṁLI , ṁi , TV O − TSI , Pc , Tc , ρLI , CpLI , VLI , KLI ) (2.26)
The warm, liquid-side outlet temperature,
TLO = (BP HEgeometry, P N, TLI , ṁLI , ṁi , TV O − TSI , Pc , Tc , ρLI , CpLI , VLI , KLI ) (2.27)
In the three functions of Equations 2.25, 2.26, and 2.27, the BPHE geometry includes the di-
mensions of the plates, P N is number of plates, Pc and Tc are the critical pressure and temperature,
respectively, ρLI , CpLI , VLI , and KLI are the density, isobaric heat capacity, kinematic viscosity,
and thermal conductivity at the liquid line, respectively. The ANN fits the training data points with
R-squared 0.99985. The data used in the training includes SWEP models from B8TH to B14TH,
plate number from 6 to 30, liquid line inlet temperature from 65 to 175 o F , mass injection flow rate
from 2.5 to 3442 lb/hr, injection superheat degree from 1 to 21 o F , and refrigerants properties for
R409A, R408A, R411A, R414B, R404A, R507A, R407A, R407C, R407F, R32, R134A, R410A,
R448A, R449A, R452A, R513A, R450A and R22. The results of the ANN applied to the liquid-out
temperature are shown in Figure 2.8b.
2.3 Simulation Model Methodology
2.3.1 Inputs
Condenser simulation model starts with specifying the inputs which are divided into four sec-
tions as follows:
26
1. Operating condition: Te , Tain , Tco , Ts , V̇a and refrigerant name.
2. Condenser geometry inputs: Number of tubes, Do , Di , finned length L, fin type, and fin
density as shown in Figure 2.12.
3. Economizer loop information, including extraction type and BPHE geometry.
4. Compressor physical parameters: ω, Vd , ηv , ηd , or empirical constants: Ci .
Figure 2.12: Straight fins of uniform cross section [4]
27
2.3.2 Standard Unit Model Simulation Method
After all the required input values are specified, the simulation model starts as follows:
1. The air heat transfer coefficient αair and overall heat exchanger surface efficiency ηo are
determined from Equations (2.15) and (2.18), respectively. The air-side heat transfer does not
change with the state of the refrigerant, therefore, does not need to be included within the
convergence iterations.
2. Use the saturation pressure of the evaporator pe , suction temperature Ts and refrigerant
database to obtain the suction enthalpy hs and density ρs .
3. Assume an initial condenser temperature of Tc = Tair + 10 o F , and determine the associated
saturation dew pressure pc .
4. Use Equation (2.4) to determine the compressor discharge enthalpy hd . Using refrigerant
database, the discharge temperature Td is obtained.
5. Knowing the inlet and outlet refrigerant conditions for all control volumes in the condenser,
the heat transfer from the superheated and the two two-phase regions Q̇1,2,3 are determined
using Equation (2.5).
6. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient in the condenser superheated and subcooling regions
α1,4 from Equation (2.6), and the two two-phase regions α2,3 using Equation (2.9).
7. Using Q̇1,2,3 from Step 5, along with Equations (2.16) and (2.17), the condenser volume ratios
for the superheated region χ1 and the two two-phase regions χ2,3 are calculated.
8. Determine the subcooling region volume ratio χ4 = 1 − (χ1 + χ2 + χ3 ).
28
9. The pressure drop in each condenser region ∆P1,..,4 is calculated using Equation (2.7) for
the superheated and subcooling regions and Equation (2.8) for the two two-phase regions.
Chisholm, (1983) approximates the single-phase and two-phase pressure drop in a bend by
simply substituting the equivalent length of the bend for the straight pipe length [43].
10. Calculate temperature Tco that leaves the subcooling region by solving Equations (2.16),
(2.17) and Q̇4 = ṁc Cp(Tc − Tco ).
11. Calculated condenser subcooling Tsub = Tcb − Tco .
12. Compare the calculated condenser subcooling Tsub with the value user-specified Tsc . If
|Tsub − Tsc | is below a convergence tolerance ε, the simulation will continue to Step 13.
If |Tsub − Tsc | > ε, the condenser temperature Tc will be adjusted Tc = Tc ± ∆ and the
simulation flow will go back to Step 4. The value of ∆ is based on the error value.
13. Determine condenser unit capacity, Q̇ = ṁd (hs − hLO ), where hLO = hco for standard
condensing units.
2.3.3 Upstream Extraction
As shown in the system schematic in Figure 2.3, the refrigerant mass flow rate that exits the
condenser ṁc is divided into evaporator ṁd and injection mass flow rate ṁi ; ṁc = ṁd + ṁi . The
flow rate entering the liquid side of the BPHE continues to the evaporator. Thus, ṁLI = ṁd in
Equations (2.25), (2.26), and (2.27). In operation, the injection valve is either a thermal expansion
valve (TXV) or electronic expansion valve (EXV) and is set to provide a certain level of injection
superheat. That is, TV O − TSI is specified in the simulation. Assuming a constant enthalpy process
across the injection expansion valve, hSI = hco .
29
Figure 2.13: Steady-state condenser model.
30
2.3.4 Downstream Extraction
As shown in the system schematic in Figure 2.4, the refrigerant mass flow rate that exits the con-
denser flows directly into the BPHE. Thus, ṁLI = ṁc in Equations (2.25), (2.26), and (2.27). The
refrigerant mass flow rate that exits the BPHE is divided to injection mass flow rate and evaporator
mass flow rate. Again, TV O − TSI is specified in the simulation. Since hSI = hLO which are both
unknown, downstream extraction typically requires convergence, since the liquid-out conditions
require convergence of both condenser and BPHE models.
2.4 Steady-State Model Results
Results from the steady-state simulation model are compared with experimental results from
different refrigeration systems. The model results are in general within 5%. Figure 2.14 shows a
comparison between the model results and the experiment data for a refrigeration system with no
brazed plate heat exchanger. Figure 2.15 shows the comparison between the model results and the
experimental data for a refrigeration system with brazed plate heat exchanger.
31
(a) (b)
Figure 2.14: Simulation results vs. experimental data for a standard condenser unit.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.15: Simulation results vs. experimental data for a downstream economized condenser unit.
32
CHAPTER III
TRANSIENT SIMULATION OF AN AUTOMATIC COMMERCIAL ICE MAKER
A self-contained automatic commercial ice makers(ACIM) that produce a batch of cube ice at
regular interval is a major segment of the ACIM market. These machines, known as cubers, are
primarily used in restaurants, hotels, convenience stores, and hospitals. Cube ice weight typically
range from approximately 1/6 to 1/2 oz. and each manufacturer usually produces a unique shape
(cubic, rectangular, crescent, and pillow) to distinguish themselves from other manufacturers [44].
To assist in the design of ACIM systems, Varone developed an empirically based simulation model
[45]. Since the design changes necessary to improve the ACIM will likely exceed the bounds of
an empirical model, a physics-based ACIM simulation model is desired to assess the performance
implications.
3.1 Ice Maker Description
A schematic of an ”cuber” is given in Figure 3.1. This ACIM consists of two major subsystems:
the vapor compression refrigeration system and water supply/circulation/purge system. The typical
refrigeration system components include a compressor, air-cooled condenser, thermostatic expan-
sion device, liquid line/suction line interchanger, and an evaporator that consists of copper tubing
attached to copper or stainless-steel grid forming the ice making surface. During harvest, a hot-
gas solenoid valve switches and channels refrigerant directly from compressor to evaporator, which
melts a boundary layer and releases the ice. The water system consists of a water sump, circulation
pump, plastic tubing and an evaporator water distributor. A potable water supply connection supply
33
Condenser
Condenser Fan
Hot Gas Valve
Evaporator Grid
Expansion
Valve Compressor
Heat Exchanger
Circulation Drain
Water Fill
Pump
Figure 3.1: Schematic of an ACIM that produces batches of cubes.
control valve and purge drain controls water inflow and from the ice maker. The basic ice making
process is a batch process and is described as follows [44]
1. Water fills the sump. The sump usually contains 10 - 40 percent more water than required to
make a given batch of ice.
2. The freeze mode is activated. The hot gas valve is closed, causing the compressor to pull
refrigerant from the evaporator and push the flow into the condenser. About 80% of ACIMs
have air-cooled condensers, as is considered in this research. The condenser fan and water
circulating pump are commanded to operate during the freeze mode. The pump circulates the
water, passing it through a manifold which distributes the flow over the ice formation grid.
3. The water temperature flowing over the formation grid reduces and begins to freeze. Ice
gradually builds up in the grid until a full cube is formed as detected by a sensor measuring
either the thickness of ice in the grid, sump water level, or compressor suction pressure.
34
4. Upon reaching the prescribed ice weight, the machine switches to the harvest mode.
5. Most machines use hot gas harvest, in which hot refrigerant vapor is sent directly from the
compressor to the evaporator to warm the evaporator and melt enough ice to free the cube
from the plate. Typically, about 5 - 10 percent of the ice is melted during the harvest process.
Once free, the ice falls by gravity into the storage bin below. During the harvest process, the
condenser fan for air-cooled machine is off and the water circulating pump may be operat-
ing, depending on the design. Some machines use a limited amount of hot gas for melting
combined with mechanical means for removing the ice.
6. Water fills the sump and the system returns to the freeze mode as detected by evaporator
temperature and/or time.
3.2 ACIM Simulation Model Theory
The transient ice machine model incorporates a combination of algebraic and time-based dif-
ferential equations for the main components [46]. The specific operating conditions include the
ambient air temperature Ta and the supply water temperature Tsu . Throughout the analysis, refrig-
erant properties must be determined. One approach is to use a database such as RefProp [7]. To
reduce computation time, Laughman (2012) demonstrated the use of lookup tables that store ther-
modynamic properties for selected refrigerants that are generated from a database [47]. The lookup
table approach is used in the ACIM simulation model.
• Compressor: The compressor has the fast transient behavior in start-up and shutdown oper-
ations. During these two events, the simulation time step is very small (1 × 10−3 sec) until
it reaches the semi steady-state. The compressor mass flow rate is calculated from equation
(2.1) or (2.3). Compressor work can be calculated using equation (2.2) or (2.3). The conser-
35
vation of energy principle is applied to the compressor to find the outlet enthalpy as shown
below [48].
h i
V2
∂ m u+ 2
2
Vin
2
Vout

= ṁin hin + − ṁout hout + − Q̇comp + Ẇcomp (3.1)
∂t 2 2
Where u is the internal energy, V is the velocity, h is the enthalpy, Q̇ is the heat transfer rate
from the compressor, and Ẇ is the compressor work.
• Expansion Valve: The expansion valve operates during the freeze portion of the cycle and
involves only algebraic equations. The valve restricts flow and creates a pressure differential
between the low-side evaporator and the high-side condenser. Since refrigerant liquid at
temperature Tl and density ρl is expected through the expansion valve, a one-dimensional,
incompressible flow equation is used to model the device [49],
p
ṁl = Al 2 ρl (pc − pe ) (3.2)
An effective valve flow area of Al is fixed for an orifice or capillary tube expansion valves.
Thermal expansion valve (TXV) or electronic expansion valve (EXV) provides a feedback
system (mechanical or electronic) that alters Al to maintain a certain level of evaporator su-
perheat ∆Tsh = Teout −Te , where Teout is the temperature of the vapor exiting the evaporator.
The feedback gain Gl and time constant τv serve as input into the expansion valve model,
Al = Ass + Gl [(Tb − Teout ) − ∆Tsh ] (3.3)
where the Tb is the sensing element (thermobulb) temperature and Ass is a steady state flow
area. Since the feedback for a TXV is purely mechanical, a time delay is associated with the
temperature response of the sensing bulb. The response lag is modeled by
dTb /dt = (Tb − Teout )/τv (3.4)
36
• Air-Cooled Heat Exchanger: Developing a transient air-cooled heat exchanger can be done
by integrating the equations of conservation of mass, conservation of energy and conservation
of momentum, represented in equations (3.5, 3.6 and 3.7) respectively [48].
dm
= ṁin − ṁout (3.5)
dt
h i
V2
∂ m u+ 2 + gz 2
Vin
2
Vout

= ṁin hin + + gzin − ṁout hout + + gzout − Q̇
∂t 2 2
(3.6)
(dmV )
= ṁin Vin − ṁout Vout + mg cos θ + (Pin − Pout ) Acs + Ff ric V ol (3.7)
dt
1 1 2
Ff ric = f ρV (3.8)
D 2
where f is the Darcy friction factor, ρ is the density, g is the acceleration of gravity, P is the
pressure, V ol is the volume, z is the distance (parallel with the gravity vector) and θ is the
angle between refrigerant line and vertical.
• Evaporator: Heat transfer from the water and into the refrigerant within the evaporator in-
cludes the interfaces through the water, ice, evaporator grid, plate, tubing and refrigerant.
As with the condenser, the refrigerant within the evaporator tube is divided into N discrete
elements. A lumped resistance model is used to determine the evaporator heat flow,
N
X 1
Q̇e = (Tei − Tw ) (3.9)
RTi
i=1
Where Tei is the refrigerant temperature in the ith element of the evaporator, Tw is the time
varying circulation water temperature, and RT is the effective resistance. The thermal re-
sistance involves: 1) convection from the flowing water, 2) conduction through the ice being
37
formed, 3) conduction through the evaporator tubes, 4) the convection to the refrigerant within
the evaporator tubes. These individual interface components are
R1 = 1/ (hw Aw ) R2 = s/ (kI AI ) (3.10)
R3 = tg / (kg Ag ) R4i = 1/ (hei Ae )
with the cumulative resistance being
RTi = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4i (3.11)
1) The convection coefficient for a flowing liquid over a plate is denoted hw and Aw is the
surface area of ice in contact with the flowing water. 2) The thermal conductivity of ice is kI ,
AI is the surface area of the grid, and s is the ice thickness. 3) The thermal conductivity of
the evaporator grid and plate is kg , Ag is the surface area of the plate, and tg is the effective
thickness of the evaporator plate. 4) The convection coefficient for the two-phase refrigerant
in the ith element of the evaporator is hei and Ae is the surface area of the evaporator tube.
The ice thickness s is zero at the start of the freeze cycle and increases in relation to the
P
cumulative evaporator heat transfer Q̇e ∆t. The conduction through the ice is observed to
be the dominant resistance.
• Circulating Water: At the start of the freeze cycle, the circulating water has a total mass
Mw at a temperature Tw0 . At the end of the freeze cycle, an amount of water has been
transformed into ice, having mass MI . The remaining water in the sump has a mass Mw −MI
and temperature Twf . Prior to the start of the subsequent cycle a mass Msu of water at a
temperature Tsu is supplied to the sump. Since the amount of water circulating is constant
for each freeze cycle, Msu = MI . As the supply water mixes with the remaining water in the
sump, the resulting temperature of the circulating water at the start of the freeze cycle is
Msu Tsu + (Mw − MI ) Twf

Tw0 = (3.12)
Mw
38
• Liquid/Suction Line Heat Exchanger: Suction line heat exchanger heat flow Q̇s between
the compressor suction line at Ts and the condenser liquid line at temperature Tco . The value
Q̇s is based on an effective contact width ws of the tubing, the length of contact Ls and an
appropriate heat transfer coefficient hs [3],
Q̇s = hs Ls ws (Ts − Tco ) (3.13)
• Connection Tubing: Customary relationships are used to account for heat transfer from the
connection tubing to the ambient air [50].
• Hot Gas Valve: As the ice machine simulation switches to harvest mode, an alternate flow
path permits refrigerant discharged from the compressor to flow through a bypass restric-
tion defined by Av and directly into the evaporator. The condenser and expansion valve are
bypassed. The governing equations for each the components remain unchanged in harvest
mode.
p
ṁv = Av 2 ρd (pd − pe ). (3.14)
The state postulate is an important principle of thermodynamics that is required to assemble
the equations describing each component. The state postulate asserts that the state of a com-
pressible substance is completely defined by two independent properties [51]. That is, two
given properties of a superheated refrigerant are sufficient to determine any other thermody-
namic property. For instance, with values of Ts and pe at the compressor inlet, the suction
density ρs , enthalpy hs and entropy ss can be determined by using refrigerant databases such
as RefProp. To enhance computation time, look-up tables that store thermodynamic prop-
erties for selected refrigerants are generated from a database [47] and used to determine the
state variables of the refrigerant as it flows through the components.
39
The theories and equations presented above are general and equally apply to the freeze cycle
and harvest, when heat removed from the ice and into the evaporator.
The simulation will increment through time t until a specified number of freeze and harvest
cycles are encountered. Implicit routines within the SimScapeTM modeling environment [52]
are used to solve set of overall algebraic and differential equations as needed such, that Kirch-
hoff’s first and second laws are satisfied at the nodes where components are connected. That
is, all through variables (mass flow rate and heat flow rate) need to sum to zero and all the
across variables (pressure and enthalpy) should be equal.
3.3 Model Operation Overview
The model of the ACIM contains:
1. Simulation begins with a specified the parameters:
• Operating conditions include the temperature of the ambient air Ta and supply water
Tsu . Empirical equations are used to determine the density of supply water ρsu at Tsu
[3].
• Compressor parameters include displacement Vd , speed ω, volumetric efficiency ηv and
isentropic efficiency ηd , or 10 performance-based coefficients [30].
• Sizing parameters include dimensions necessary to determine the volume of the con-
denser Vc , evaporator Ve , connecting tubes Vt , ice formation grid Vg , and water sump
Vp . The total system refrigerant volume Vr is calculated from Vc , Ve , Vt , and Vd . The
mass capacity of ice MIf that can be formed within the evaporator grid during the freeze
mode is calculated using Vg and the density of ice. The mass of water in the sump Mpo
is determined from ρp and sump capacity.
40
• System design settings include the refrigerant charge Mr and condenser fan volume flow
rate V̇a . Settings for the condenser consist of fin style and geometry. Settings for the
expansion valve are a desired evaporator superheat Tsh , steady state flow area, feedback
gain, and time constant. Design parameters for liquidline/suction-line heat exchanger
include the length of contact Ls , and diameters of liquid and suction tubes.
2. Simulation is initialized by filling the sump with a volume Vsu of water supply at Tsu . It
is assumed that the startup temperatures of the evaporator Teo , and condenser Tco , are in
equilibrium with the ambient, Tco = Teo = Ta . A startup system pressure (evaporator and
condenser) peo = pco is determined by using refrigerant properties with Vr , Mr and Ta .
3. The transient simulation begins with the freeze stage at time to . A schematic of the ACIM
model operating in freeze mode is shown in Figure(3.2).
Environment ܶ௔ , ܸ௔ሶ
Condenser heat rejection: ܳሶ௖
subcool saturated desuperheat ݉ሶௗ
Condenser ‫ܯ‬௖ , ܸ௖ Harvest Valve: ‫ܣ‬௛ =0
Suction line heat exchanger:ܳሶ௦ Compressor:

ܸ௣ , ܰ௣ , ߟ௣ ,
Expansion Valve:, ݉ሶ௩ or 10-coeffs
݉ሶ௘
‫ܣ‬௩ , ‫ܩ‬௩ , ߬௩
saturated superheat
Evaporator ‫ܯ‬௘ , ܸ௘
Evaporator heat gain: ܳሶ௘
Ice MI, TI
Figure 3.2: Ice machine model operating in freeze mode.
41
4. The compressor mass flow ṁd and power Ẇ k is calculated from physics-based equations
[31] using Vd , ω, ηv and ηd , or from performance-based coefficients [30]. When using the
coefficients, ṁd is adjusted for the compressor inlet temperature Ts [32]. An energy balance
on the vapor in the compressor chamber is used to determine the temperature exiting the
compressor Td , which includes shell losses to ambient air [12].
5. The air-cooled condenser heat rejection Q̇c is determined by dividing the total volume of the
heat exchanger into Nc c discrete elements along its length and using a finite-volume method.
Wang and his collaborators developed appropriate models for the heat transfer correlations of
fin and tube heat exchangers that depend on V̇a , fin material and geometry, including smooth
[35], corrugated [34], wavy [36] and louvered [33]. As outlined in Ge and Cropper (2005),
the effectiveness-NTU method is used with refrigerant properties to determine the refriger-
ant temperature Tcj for each discrete element, j = 1, . . . , Nc . The refrigerant properties
within the condenser is governed by a conservation of refrigerant mass and energy along with
pressure drop due to friction [2]. These equations are integrated to remove the spatial de-
pendence, resulting in a lumped-parameter, time-based, ordinary differential equation [53].
Transient system properties determined include the condenser inlet temperature Tcv , pressure
pc , saturation temperature Tc , and exit temperature Tco .
6. The expansion valve operates during the freeze portion of the cycle. The valve restricts liquid
flow ṁl and creates a pressure differential between the low-side evaporator and the high-
side condenser. A one dimensional, incompressible flow equation is used to model ṁl as a
function of pe , pc , the effective valve flow area Al , and the state of the refrigerant. For an
orifice or capillary tube expansion valve, Al is fixed. A thermal expansion valve (TXV) or
electronic expansion valve (EXV) provides a feedback system (mechanical or electronic) that
alters the valve area to maintain a certain level of evaporator superheat Tsh = Tev − Te , where
42
Tev is the temperature of the vapor exiting the evaporator. A steady state flow area, feedback
gain, and time constant, characterize the dynamic response of the expansion valve [49].
7. Evaporator heat flow Q̇e is based on standard refrigerant-side heat exchanger models. Water-
side equations involve custom developed equations for heat transfer from evaporator tube wall
to flowing water through an increasing ice resistance.
8. The freeze cycle simulation will increment through time ti + 1 = ti + ∆t, tracking transient
system properties such as Te , pe , Tev , Td , Tc , pc , Tco , Ẇ k, and MI .
9. Once the ice mass MI reaches the capacity of the formation grid MIf , the harvest mode is
initiated. A schematic of the ACIM model operating in harvest mode is shown in Figure (3.3).
Environment , 0
0
Condenser , Harvest Valve:
Compressor:
, , ,
Expansion Valve or 10-coeffs
, ,
superheat
Evaporator ,
Evaporator heat loss:
Ice MI, TI
Figure 3.3: Ice machine model operating in harvest mode.
10. Hot-gas bypass valve is opened during the harvest cycle, routing the compressor discharge
line mass flow ṁd directly into the evaporator. During harvest, a restriction Ah is inserted
within the bypass valve.
43
11. The harvest cycle simulation will continue to increment through time, tracking Te , pe , Tev , Td , Ẇ k,
and MI . Harvestis complete when a specified percentage of the ice is melted.
12. Water inlet at a designated temperature Tsu is used to replenish the mass of ice harvested ice,
and mixed with existing water in the sump.
13. The simulation returns to the freeze stage (Step 3).
3.4 Results
A 500lb ACIM was equipped with instrumentation to measure the operational characteristics of
the machine. Physical parameters that define the machine are given in Table 3.1. The instrumented
machine was run at various operating points defined by the ambient temperature and the water inlet
temperature. A summary of the experimental values (E) and the predictions made by the simulation
model (S) are given in Table 3.1. Also provided is the percent absolute value of error (∆) between
the experiment and simulation.
Table 3.1: Comparison of summary results between experimental results and simulation model.
Operating Condition: Ta /T su
100/110 F 90/70 F 70/50 F
E S ∆ E S ∆ E S ∆
Cycle time (min) 26.1 25.4 2.6% 18.3 17.4 4.7% 14.5 15.2 4.9%
Ice per 24 hrs. (lbs.) 268 279 4.3% 393 393 0.1% 497 473 4.7%
Energy input (kWh/100lb) 8.8 8.6 2.8% 5.6 5.6 0.0% 4.1 4.2 3.7%
Energy input (kWh/24hr) 23.7 24.0 1.2% 21.9 21.7 1.0% 20.3 20.1 0.8%
The key aggregate measures reported in Table 3.1 are the ice machines performance include the
freeze and harvest cycle time, energy input per 100 lb of ice, and energy usage during 24 hours.
For these measures, the model accuracy is within 5% for variety of operating conditions. Figures
44
3.4 and 3.5 provide a comparison of transient response of pressures, temperatures and compressor
power at various locations on the ice machine.
Figure 3.4: Graphical representation of the transient comparisons at 110/100◦ F.
45
CHAPTER IV
SIMULATION OF EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENTS TO AN ACIM
This chapter presents an enhanced model that extends the transient simulation model of an au-
tomatic commercial ice maker from Chapter III, compares the simulation results to an instrumented
ACIM, and utilizes the model for exploration of strategies to improving efficiency.
4.1 Enhanced ACIM Model Theory
Enhancements are made to the model described above to increase the fidelity and assess the
effect of minor design changes. The primary advances include ice formation, water flow, harvest,
and heat losses through connection tubes, as described in the following sections.
4.1.1 Ice Formation Model
In Chapter III, the entire ice formation grid was treated as a lumped system. The actual ice
formation process and interaction between the grid and evaporator is complex. The lumped model
lacks fidelity to investigate design parameters related to evaporator. The enhanced model discretizes
the grid, which allows more representative simulation of water flow and heat exchange with the
evaporator tubing. The evaporator tubing is typically arranged as a single layer of coils attached
to the back side of the ice formation grid. In modeling the ice formation, the grid is divided into
a rectangular array of NCV control volumes, having NR rows and NC = NCV /NR columns. As
illustrated in Figure 4.1, the evaporator tubing coils are shown in black and the formation grid
control volumes are in grey. Note that in order to maintain symmetry between the control volumes
46
and the evaporator tube, NR is set to the number of rows in the evaporator coil. Also notice that
control volumes are numbered along the evaporator tube. A lumped parameter approach is used for
each control volume. Thus, the k th control volume has water mass Mwk , water temperature Twk ,
ice mass MIk and ice temperature TIk . A grid control volume may include several ice cube pockets.
Figure 4.1: Schematic of an evaporator tubing coil (in black) and the ice formation grid divided into
NCV = 56 control volumes (in grey), having NR = 7 and NC = 8. Grid control volume k and
evaporator element j numbering convention is shown.
As with the condenser, the refrigerant within evaporator tube is divided into Ne discrete ele-
ments along the length of the tube and a finite-volume method is used to calculate heat transfer Q̇e .
The refrigerant model requires finer resolution than the ice, Ne NCV . Thus, each grid control
volume transfers heat with m = Ne /NCV evaporator refrigerant elements, where bxe represents the
integer nearest to x. Correspondingly, the k th grid control volume has a volume of Vk = Vg /NCV
and will contain evaporator tube elements jk = b(k − 1)m + 1e through jk+1 = b(k)m e. Mass
conservation, energy balance, and the momentum equations are satisfied in each control volume.
At the start of the freeze mode, all grid control volumes have the same water properties Twk =
Tw ∀ k, Mwk = Mwk = ρw Vk ∀ k, and no ice mass, MIk = 0 ∀ k. Heat transfer from the water
in the ice formation grid to the refrigerant in the evaporator tube includes the interfaces through the
water, ice, evaporator grid, tubing and refrigerant. The heat transfer in the k th grid control volume
47
is,
jk+1
X 1
Q̇ek = Twk − Tekj (4.1)
RTkj
n=jk
where RTkj is the effective thermal resistance for the j th element in the k th grid control volume,
RTkj = m(Rwk + RIk + Rg + Rt ) + Rrj (4.2)
The number of evaporator elements within a grid control volume is accounted by including m.
The total heat transfer to the ice formation grid is
N
XCV
Q̇e = Q̇ek (4.3)

k=1
The individual thermal resistance components are:
1. Thermal resistance for convection heat transfer from the flowing water,
RWk = 1/(αw Awk ) (4.4)
The convection coefficient for the water flowing over the evaporator grid in each control
volume is denoted αw and Awk is the water surface area in contact with the ice for the same
control volume. An average water heat transfer coefficient is used in Equation (4.4) as the
water thermal resistance is small comparing to the ice resistance.
2. Thermal resistance for conduction heat transfer through the ice being formed,
RIk = sIk /(kl Al ) (4.5)
The thermal conductivity of ice is kl , Al is the surface area of the grid for one control volume,
and SIk is the ice thickness in the k th control volume.
48
3. Thermal resistance for conduction heat transfer through the grid,
Rg = sg /(kg Ag ) (4.6)
The thermal conductivity of the evaporator grid and plate is kg , Ag is the surface area of the
plate in each grid control volume, and sg is the effective thickness of the evaporator plate.
4. Thermal resistance for conduction heat transfer through the evaporator tubes,
Rt = st /(kt At ) (4.7)
where kt is the thermal conductivity of the evaporator tube, At is the tube surface area in each
grid control volume, and st is the effective tube thickness.
5. Thermal resistance for convection heat transfer to the refrigerant within the evaporator tubes
m
Rrj = (4.8)
αrj Ar
where the surface area of the refrigerant within the k th grid control volume is Ar , and the
convection coefficient for the j th refrigerant evaporator element is αrj . Single-phase heat
transfer coefficient for the refrigerant is calculated using Gnielinski correlation for Prandtl
number 0.5 6 P r 6 2000 and Reynolds number 3000 6 ReDi 6 5 × 106 [3].
!
kr (fi /8)(ReDi − 1000)P rj
αrj = 2/3
(4.9)
Di 1 + 12.7(fj /8)1/2 (P rj − 1)
where k is the thermal conductivity, Di is the tube inside diameter, and f is Darcy friction
factor.
For the two-phase refrigerant heat transfer coefficient, Dobson and Chato correlation [3] is
used as shown below. Where Xtt is Lockhart–Martinelli parameter.
49
" #!
kr 2.22
αrj = 0.023Re0.8 0.4
Lj P rLj 1 + 0.98 (4.10)
Di Xttj
Appropriate correlations were selected for the thermal conductivities kt ,kg ,kI , and heat transfer
coefficients αw [3].
Since heat is being exchanged with the water in the k th control volume, water internal energy
U wk will change during each time increment
Q̇ek ∆t
Uwk (ti + ∆t) = Uwk − (4.11)
Mwk
The corresponding water temperature Twk is determined from water property lookup tables with
Uwk and atmospheric pressure. Once Twk reaches the freezing temperature, a mass fraction xIk of
Mwk will be converted to MIk . The latent energy of water is used with Uwk to determine xIk . The
mass distribution in the grid control volume is
MIk = xIk Mwko (4.12)
Mwk = (1 − xIk )Mwko (4.13)
where Mwko is the mass of water at the start of the freeze mode. The corresponding ice thicknesses
SIk increases as the heat transfer from the water. The conduction through the ice is observed to be
the dominant resistance and it increases as the ice thickness increases. In the physical ACIM, ice at
the top of the grid is the last to freeze. A sensor is placed towards the top to measure ice thickness
and signal when the ice is fully formed. In the simulation model, the freeze mode is considered
complete when all water is converted to ice, Mwk = 0 ∀ k.
50
4.1.2 Water Flow Model
To simulate water flowing over the ice formation grid, the water properties in each control
volume is passed to the next control volume in the same column. With the grid numbering scheme
outlined above, the set of control volumes in the cth column include {c = [c, 2Nc − c + 1, c +
2Nc , 4Nc − c + 1, c + 4Nc , .., Ncv − Nc − c], for 1 6 c 6 Nc . The control volumes in the
first row have the same water temperature as the sump from the previous time iteration, Twk = Tp ,
k = 1, . . . , NC . During the heat transfer analysis described in the prior section, water thermal
properties are passed from a control volume to the next control volume in the same column. That
is, at the end of each time increment,
Twr+1 = Twr (4.14)
where r and r + 1 are adjacent members of the set {c .
The water mass in the sump after each time increment is determined by subtracting the ice mass
MIk and water mass Mwk in each control volume from the initial water mass in the sump Mpo .
N
X CV
Mp (ti+1 ) = Mpo − [Mwk + MIk ] (4.15)

k=1
The water in the last control volume in each column is mixed with the water in the sump where
the overall sump water temperature is
 
Ne
1 X
Tp (ti+1 ) = Tp Mp + Twk Mwk  (4.16)
Mp (t + ∆t)
k=Ne −Nc +1
51
Prior to the start of the subsequent cycle, a mass Msu of water at a temperature Tsu is supplied
to the sump. Since the amount of circulating water is constant for each freeze cycle, the supplied
water mass is equal to the mass of ice produced MI in the freezing cycle. As the supply water
mixes with the remaining water in the sump, which will equal for final temperature computed from
Equation (4.14), designated as Tpf . The resulting temperature of the circulating water at the start of
the freeze cycle is

Msu Tsu + MI Tpf
Tp = (4.17)
Mp o
4.1.3 Harvest
As the ice machine simulation switches to harvest mode, an alternate flow path permits refriger-
ant discharged from the compressor to flow through a bypass valve restriction and directly into the
evaporator, bypassing the condenser and expansion valve. Accordingly, the refrigerant mass that is
trapped in the condenser is removed from the total simulation during harvest. Within the condenser
model, Tci , pci , and the state of the refrigerant are determined within each ith finite volume at each
time increment. At the onset of harvest, the refrigerant mass trapped within the condenser is readily
determined and subtracted from Mr when simulating the harvest mode.
4.1.4 Heat Loss in Connecting Tubes
The major heat loos in connecting tubes occurs in the uninsulated compressor discharge line.
The fan airflow crosses the discharge line and cools it before it cools the condenser. Churchill and
Bernstein comprehensive equation is used to calculate heat transfer coefficient for the air crossing
discharge line with outside tube diameter do [3].

 
1/2 5/8 !4/5
0.62ReDo P r1/3

ka  ReDo
αa = 0.3 + 1+  (4.18)
Do [1 + (0.4/P r)2/3 ] 282000
52
4.2 Results
A 500 lb, instrumented ACIM was equipped with sensors to measure the operational charac-
teristics of the machine. The instrumented machine was run at various operating points defined by
the ambient temperature and the water inlet temperature. Figure 4.2 provides a comparison of the
transient response of pressures, temperatures and compressor power at various locations on the ice
machine.
53
4.3 Strategies for Improving ACIM Energy Efficiency
The enhanced simulation model is used to explore strategies for improving the energy efficiency.
The improvement strategies focus on compressor efficiency and reducing energy during harvest.
The primary component of ACIM energy use is the compressor, which accounts for approximately
80% of energy input per 24 hrs. The batch-type ACIMs discussed in this paper use superheated
refrigerant vapor discharged from the compressor to release the ice from the evaporator grid during
the harvest cycle. This strategy is effective, but requires energy to reverse a portion of the freeze
mode. Thus, exploring strategies for improving harvest is warranted.
4.3.1 Increasing Compressor Efficiency
Typically, reciprocating compressors are used in ACIMs, as is the case for the 500 lb ice maker
described in the previous section. Using current technology, compressor efficiency can be improved
5 to 10% by replacing the reciprocating compressor with a scroll, and/or adopting motor enhance-
ments. A comparison in simulation results from 500 lb ACIM model with compressor efficiencies
that are 5% and 10% higher than the production model are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Comparison of simulation results between ACIMs using compressors with increased
efficiency.
100 / 110 o F 90 / 70 o F 70 / 50 o F
Compressor Eff. increase 0% 5% 10% 0% 5% 10% 0% 5% 10%
Freezing (min) 24.6 24.3 24.1 16.4 16.4 16.3 13.8 13.7 13.7
Harvest (min) 0.81 0.85 0.93 1.07 1.10 1.2 1.41 1.61 1.63
Ice per 24 hrs. (lbs.) 279 280 281 393 391 390 473 469 469
Energy input (kWh/100lb) 8.61 8.23 7.82 5.57 5.30 5.10 4.24 4.06 3.88
Energy input (kWh/24hr) 24.0 23.1 22.0 21.9 20.7 19.9 20.1 19.0 18.2
54
With a hot-gas harvest method, the refrigerant vapor temperature depends on the compressor
efficiency. Higher compressor efficiency will increase the system efficiency during the freezing
cycle, but it decreases the vapor temperature during the harvest cycle, increasing the time to release
the ice. The overall energy input decreases by 9.2% per ice mass, which is lower percentage than
compressor efficiency increase 10%. It must be noted that a cost premium is required to realize
these compressor efficiency increases.
4.3.2 Auxiliary Electric Heater
A second efficiency improvement strategy focuses on harvest and involves use of an electric
heater to assist, or replace, the compressor discharge. Table 4.2 shows the simulation performance
results for the 500 lb ACIM model with various levels of electric heat (in Watts) and the compres-
sor being turned ON or OFF during harvest. Table 4.2 Comparison of simulation results between
ACIMs using ice formation grid heating coils of various capacities (in Watts). Scenarios are pre-
sented with the compressor turned ON or OFF during harvest.
Table 4.2: Comparison of simulation results between ACIMs using ice formation grid heating coils
of various capacities (in Watts). Scenarios are presented with the compressor turned ON or OFF
during harvest.
100 / 110 o F 90 / 70 o F 70 / 50 o F
Elec. heater (Watt) 0 500 500 1000 0 500 500 1000 0 500 500 1000
Comp. harvest ON ON OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF ON ON OFF OFF
Harvest (min) 0.81 0.58 1.10 0.71 1.07 0.75 1.44 0.87 1.61 0.89 1.54 0.70
Ice per 24 hrs. (lbs.) 279 281 276 280 393 400 385 398 473 479 458 485
Energy input (kWh/100lb) 8.61 8.66 8.35 8.38 5.57 5.58 5.28 5.30 4.24 4.20 3.95 4.21
The simulation results show that by turning the compressor off and using an electrical heating
coil to release the ice during harvest will decrease the harvest time by up to 19% and decrease the
55
energy input per 24 hr by 2.4% to 7.3%. Moreover, using the heating coil will cause the harvest
cycle to be independent from the compressor, which allows higher efficient compressors to be used
in this type of commercial ice machines to increase the overall system efficiency.
4.3.3 Waste Heat Recovery
A third efficiency improvement strategy introduces a warm-liquid to capture and reclaim a por-
tion of the condenser waste heat. A schematic of this strategy is shown in Figure 4.3, where a
warm-liquid circuit is added to the existing refrigerant and water circuits shown in Figure 4.3. A
heating tank is inserted within the refrigerant circuit between the compressor and condenser. The
compressor discharge tube containing the hot refrigerant enters the heating tank and exchanges heat
with a liquid, prior to entering the condenser to reject any remaining waste heat. During the freeze
mode, the remainder of the system operates as the conventional ACIM. As the ice cubes are fully
formed, the ice maker enters a harvest mode. A pair of harvest bypass valves redirect the flow of
the refrigerant from the ice formation grid to the water sump. Simultaneously, a pair of warm-liquid
valves open and a circulation pump begins flow of the warm-liquid from the heating tank to a second
set of tubes that are formed within the ice formation grid. Thus, the warm-liquid is used to release
the ice while the refrigeration system is used to pre-cool the water that fills the sump.
The results from the simulation model using 1 L of warm liquid and 1m of refrigerant coil within
the heating tank are shown in Table 4.3.
The results shows that using the heat recovery unit saves up to 48.8% of the harvest time and
8.6% of the energy required per ice weight. As a result of decreasing cycle time, the amount of ice
produced per 24 hr is increased by 2.6% to 7.9%.
56
Figure 4.3: Schematic of an ACIM with a waste heat reclamation circuit.
Table 4.3: Comparison of results between running the model using the waste heat recovery with
running the model without the recovery unit.
100 / 110 o F 90 / 70 o F 70 / 50 o F
Recovery system NO YES ∆ NO YES ∆ NO YES ∆
Freezing (min) 24.5 24.2 -1.2% 16.4 16.3 -0.7% 13.8 13.7 -0.2%
Harvest (min) 0.8 0.4 -48.8% 1.1 0.6 -43.9% 1.6 1.4 -14.6%
Ice per 24 hrs. (lbs.) 279 287 2.6% 393 424 7.9% 473 505 6.8%
Energy input (kWh/100lb) 8.61 8.24 -4.3% 5.57 4.78 -14.1% 4.24 3.88 -8.6%
Energy input (kWh/24hr) 24.0 23.6 -1.8% 21.7 20.3 -6.5% 20.1 19.7 -2.1%
57
Figure 4.4: ACIM with a waste heat recovery system.
58
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
5.1 Conclusion
This research outlined a steady-state and transient simulation models of the operation of an air
cooled condenser with brazed plate heat exchanger and an automatic commercial ice maker respec-
tively. The models are based on fundamental, physics-based principles of individual system com-
ponents. An Artificial Neural Network is used to model the brazed plate heat exchanger. Governing
equations for the compressor, condenser, expansion valve, and connecting tubing were adapted from
prior research available in the literature. A custom evaporator model was developed to describe the
heat transfer between the refrigerant and water over an ice formation grid. Simulation results from
the ACIM model were compared with the experimental data of a fully instrumented, standard 500 lb
capacity ice machine, operating under various ambient air and water inlet temperatures. Key aggre-
gate measures of the ice machine’s performance include the freeze and harvest cycle time, energy
input per 100 lb of ice, and energy usage for 24 hours. For these measures, the model’s accuracy is
within 5% for a variety of operating conditions. The simulation model was used to assess strategies
for improving the energy efficiency of the ice maker. Increasing the compressor efficiency by 10%,
decreases the energy input per ice weight by up to 9.2%. Harvest mode become longer and freezing
mode become shorter. Over all, there is almost no change in ice produced per day ±1%. Waste heat
recovery strategy saves up to 8.6% of the energy input per ice weight. The harvest time has reduced
by up to 48.8% and freezing time by up to 1.2%.
59
5.2 Future Work
The models presented in this research provide a powerful tool that can be used to understand
how the overall system responds to the change in any of its components or to the change in the
operating conditions. More saving energy opportunities can be discovered and new system designs
can be assessed by using these models. Future work can improve the model accuracy and add more
features to it.
The work have been accomplished in this research can be extended to include modeling micro-
channel air heat exchangers witch have better performance enhancement than cross fin and tube
heat exchangers [54]. Most vehicles use micro-channel air heat exchangers in their heating systems.
However, they are not commonly used in residential air-conditioner. The extended model can be
used to investigate the potential energy saving in using the micro-channel and to predict the overall
system behavior.
The transient model presented in this research can be extend to include wider range of refriger-
ants. Different generation of refrigerants have been explored since the cooling systems was invented.
The overall cooling system efficiency is depend on the refrigerant characteristic. Part of improving
the cooling system is improving the working medium.
The current ice machine model releases the ice from the evaporator grid after melting a specific
percentage of the ice. Advanced modeling for melting the ice during the harvest mode will allow
the model to be used to investigate how the gird surface roughness, material and shape affect the
energy and time required for the harvest.
60
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Enhancing and Expanding Conventional Simulation Models of Improved Correlations

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ENHANCING AND EXPANDING CONVENTIONAL SIMULATION MODELS OF

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS FOR IMPROVED CORRELATIONS

The School of Engineering of the

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering

Haithem Abualasaad Murgham

REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS FOR IMPROVED CORRELATIONS

Name: Murgham, Haithem Abualasaad

David H. Myszka, Ph.D. Kevin P. Hallinan, Ph.D.

Andrew Chiasson, Ph.D. Rajan Rajendran, Ph.D.

Robert J. Wilkens, Ph.D., P.E. Eddy M. Rojas, Ph.D., M.A., P.E.

Haithem Abualasaad Murgham

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