ASSESSMENT OF

IMPLEMENTATION STATUS OF JANATA AWASH PROGRAM IN

RUPANDEHI DISTRICT OF NEPAL

A Final Thesis Submitted in Partial Requirement of M.Sc. Degree in Construction

Management Awarded by Pokhara University

By
Sandeep Parajuli
Symbol No: 17060053
P.U.Reg. No: 2016-1-06-0096
Lumbini Engineering Management & Science College, Bhalwari, Rupandehi,
Pokhara University
November, 2019
 ABSTRACT

The overall objective of this study is to assessment of implementation status of Janata Awash
Program in Rupandehi, Nepal, where program is scattered over 13 VDC and 4 Municipality
(before readjustment of local level).
Questionnaire survey and interview were conducted with the selected, non selected construction
completed and construction not started yet applicants of Program of the study area to assess the
current housing scenario and their perception about the fulfilment of the housing need. Likewise
the questionnaire survey and interview were carried out with planners, implementers and
concerned organisations to find out the most important factors influencing the housing need of
the low income groups (dalits and poor musalmans) and also to explore the appropriate measures
to address their housing problem and need.
Analysis were carried out in order to find out number of housing units and the perception of the
low income groups about the fulfilment of their housing need. Similarly Relative Importance
Index (RII) has been calculated to find out the hierarchy of important factors and appropriate
approaches for addressing the housing needs for low income groups (dalits and poor
musalmans).
Over 65% of the people of the low income groups (dalits and poor musalmans) in the study area
were found very poor housing condition and uneducated. The improvement in the education
level brings awareness, better employment opportunity and consequently improves their
economic status and housing condition. The major factors of housing need are as: Neighborhood
and community attachment, Place of living currently, Geographical location, Easy access to the
family’s occupation, Family’s income respectively to importance.
2214 numbers of applicants were filed for Program in fiscal year 2073/74 which seems to be a
very large number. This number is very large and the location and area are different so it is not
wise to say that only one approach will be suitable to meet the housing need of the entire low
income groups. Hence different suitable approaches have been considered to address the housing
needs. Janata Awash Program only fulfils the housing need by only one approach i.e. by
constructing new small hosing unit for one household.
Different approach for fulfilling their housing need may be Improvement of the physical
infrastructure of the existing housing (On-site upgrading), Construction of new public housing
by the government, Construction of own new house at another place (Resettlement), Providing
land at subsidized rate with planned basic infrastructure services (site and services),
Collaboration with NGOs for the subsidized loan for constructing new house respectively to
importance.
Up to last fiscal year around 430 houses are completed through Janata Awash Program phase I
and 18 houses are added in second phase and remains 52 houses are cancelled due to different
reasons. In phase II 13 houses are cancelled and 125 are on implementation phase and near to
compete. Earned value analysis has been carried out based on physical progress and financial
progress which shows that program is behind the planned schedule and under budget.

i
 Declaration

I hereby declare that this study entitled Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata
Awash Program in Rupandhi District of Nepal is based on my original research work. Related
works on the topic by other researchers have been duly acknowledged. I owe all the liabilities
relating to accuracy and authenticity of the data or any other information included hereunder.

Signature:
Name of the Student: Sandeep Parajuli
Date:

ii
 Recommendation

This is to certify that this thesis entitled, Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata
Awash Program in Rupandhi District of Nepal prepared and submitted by Sandeep Parajuli,
in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Master of science (M.Sc.) in
Construction Management awarded by Pokhara University, has been completed under my
supervision. I recommend the same for acceptance by Pokhara University.

Signature:
Name of the supervisor: Dr. Anjay Kumar Mishra
Organization: School of Engineering, Madan Bhandari Memorial Academy, Pokhara University
Designation: Assoc. Prof.
Date:

iii
 Certificate

This thesis entitled Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata Awash Program in

Rupandhi District of Nepal prepared and submitted by Sandeep Parajuli has been examined
by us and is accepted for the award of the degree of Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Construction
Management by Pokhara University.

Er. Shailendra Shrestha …………………….. ……………………

External Examiner Signature Date Signed

Dr. Anjay Kumar Mishra …………………….. ……………………

Associate Professor and Signature Date Signed
Program Co-coordinator
Thesis Supervisor

Er. Shiva Raj Baral …………………….. ……………………

Representative of Research Committee Signature Date Signed

iv
 Acknowledgements

This is my great pleasure to have the opportunity to submit this thesis on Assessment of
Implementation Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandhi District of Nepal. I would
like to express my gratitude to Lumbini Engineering College for granting me a very precious
opportunity to study the Master’s of Science (M.Sc.) in Construction Management under
Pokhara University.

I express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Anjay Kumar Mishra, for his continuous
support, inspiration and patience throughout the research. He provided valuable guidance while
under taking the research. Without his effort, this thesis couldn’t be finalized.

Also, I wish to extend gratitude to team of DUDBC, Rupandehi (old office); Chunamanni
Gautam, Engineer of MOPID province No 5; Senior Divisional Engineer, Govinda Gautam of
UDBO Rupandehi; Sub Engineer, Tilak Bhandari and Social Mobilizer, Mr. Mohan Yadav of
UDBO Rupandehi for support during data collection and valuable suggestion help to complete
my thesis.

I would like to convey my sincere thanks to all respondents and social Persons that involved in
this research work.

Finally, a word of profound gratitude goes to my family and relatives for their direct/indirect
support and encouragement throughout this research.

Sandeep Parajuli
Symbol No: 17060053

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Table of Contents Page No.

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... i
Declaration..................................................................................................................................... ii
Recommendation.......................................................................................................................... iii
Certificate ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... v
List of Figures.................................................................................................................................x

List of Photos.................................................................................................................................xi

List of Tables................................................................................................................................xii

List of Annexes............................................................................................................................xiv

Abbreviation and Acronyms ...................................................................................................... xv

Chapter1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of Problem ....................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 2
1.5 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 2
1.6 Scope and Limitation ....................................................................................................... 3

Chapter 2
LITRETUREREVIEW
2.1 Housing Scenario ............................................................................................................. 4
2.2 The Low Income Groups.................................................................................................. 9
2.3 Housing Needs for the Low Income Groups .................................................................... 9
2.4 Approaches for the fulfillment of the housing need ....................................................... 12
2.4.1 On-Site Upgrading .................................................................................................. 12

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 2.4.2 Re-settlement .......................................................................................................... 12
2.4.3 The Government-Built New Public Housing .......................................................... 13
2.4.4 Site and Services ..................................................................................................... 13
2.4.5 City Wide Housing Strategy ................................................................................... 13
2.4.6 Rental Housing........................................................................................................ 14
2.4.7 Private Sector Housing ........................................................................................... 14
2.4.8 Land Sharing ........................................................................................................... 14
2.5 The National Plans of Nepal .......................................................................................... 14
2.5.1 Initiatives undertaken regarding housing during different national plans .............. 14
2.5.2 The Fourteenth Plan (2016 – 2018) ........................................................................ 17
2.6 National Shelter Policy 2012.......................................................................................... 18
2.7 National Housing Plan 2014 .......................................................................................... 19
2.8 National Urban Policy 2007 ........................................................................................... 20
2.9 National Urban Development Strategy 2015 ................................................................. 20
2.10 Housing need fulfillment practices in International Context ......................................... 21
2.10.1 Housing need fulfillment practices in India ............................................................ 22
2.10.2 Housing need fulfillment practice in Pakistan ........................................................ 26
2.10.3 Housing need fulfillment practice in Bangladesh ................................................... 26
2.10.4 Housing need fulfillment practice in China ............................................................ 27
2.11 Initiatives Undertaken for fulfilling the housing need in Nepal..................................... 28
2.11.1 People Housing Program (Janta Awash Karyakram) ............................................. 28
2.11.2 Lumanti Housing .................................................................................................... 29
2.11.3 Ichangu Housing ..................................................................................................... 30
2.11.4 Housing Program executed by Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI) .......... 30
2.11.5 The UN-HABITAT Resettlement Project .............................................................. 30
2.11.6 Shelter and Local Technology Development Centre (SLTDC) Low Cost Housing
Units.......................................................................................................................................30
2.11.7 The Ex-Kamaiya Neighborhood ............................................................................. 31
2.11.8 National Housing Company (Rastriya AAwash Company) ................................... 31
2.12 People Housing Program Implementation Guideline..................................................... 32

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Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Process ............................................................................................................ 33
3.2 Study Area ...................................................................................................................... 33
3.3 Population Selection and Sampling................................................................................ 33
3.4 Data Collection ............................................................................................................... 36
3.5 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 36
3.5.1 Relative Importance Index ...................................................................................... 36
3.5.2 Analytical Research ................................................................................................ 37
3.5.3 Earned Value Analysis ............................................................................................ 37
3.6 Summary of Research Process ....................................................................................... 38

Chapter 4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Characteristics of Low Income Groups .......................................................................... 39
4.1.1 The Concept of Housing Need ................................................................................ 39
4.1.2 Household size and population ............................................................................... 39
4.1.3 Income Status .......................................................................................................... 40
4.1.4 Earlier Housing Condition ...................................................................................... 40
4.1.5 Land Used Condition .............................................................................................. 41
4.1.6 Level of Housing Need ........................................................................................... 41
4.2 Perception of the Low Income Group about their Housing Need .................................. 43
4.3 Opinion and View about Program .................................................................................. 44
4.3.1 Opinion of Local Leader ......................................................................................... 44
4.3.2 Housing Condition of Applicants ........................................................................... 44
4.3.3 Problems in Planning and Implementation Phase ................................................... 45
4.4 Suitable Approaches ....................................................................................................... 47
4.5 Financial mobilization and Implementation Status ........................................................ 50
4.5.1 Work Progress and Implementation Status ............................................................. 50
4.5.2 Financial Mobilization ............................................................................................ 53
4.6 Earned Value Analysis of Program ................................................................................ 55

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Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 58
5.2 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 59
5.3 Recommendation for the Further Study ......................................................................... 60

REFERENCES
ANNEXES

ix
List of Figures
Figure 3.1 Research Process

Figure 4.1 Household Size

Figure 4.2 Earlier Housing Condition (Before Program)

Figure 4.3 Important Factors Influencing the Housing Need

Figure 4.4 Different Approaches for Fulfilling the Housing Need

Figure 4.5 Problems in Planning Phase of PHP

Figure 4.6 Problems in Implementation Phase of PHP

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List of Photos

Photo 2.1 Single Family House

Photo 2.2 Manufactured Home

Photo 2.3 Condominium

Photo 2.4 Cooperative Housing

Photo 2.5 People Housing Program, Rupandehi

Photo 2.6 People Housing Program, Chitwan

Photo 3.1 Map of Rupandehi District

xi
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Housing Aspect

Table 2.2 Type of Housing by Length of Stay

Table 2.3 Types of Housing by Level of Support

Table 2.4 Types of Housing by Type of Assistance

Table 2.5 Types of Housing by Design

Table 2.6 Types of Housing as Described in National Shelter Policy 2012

Table 2.7 Initiatives Undertaken Regarding Housing during Different National Plans

Table 2.8 Programs Proposed in the National Housing Plan 2014 to fulfill the Housing Need of

Low Income Groups

Table 2.9 Revision in People Housing Program Implementation Guideline 2009

Table 3.1 Respondents of Primary Data for the Questionnaire Survey

Table 3.2 Summary of Research Process

Table 4.1 Income Status of Applicants in Janata Awash Program 2073/074

Table 4.2 Earlier Housing Condition (Before Program)

Table 4.3 Land Used Condition

Table 4.4 Households by Ownership of House/housing Unit in Use in Rupandehi

Table 4.5 Households by Foundation of House/Housing Unit

Table 4.6 Households by Roof of House/Housing Unit

Table 4.7 Households, Population and Average Household Size

Table 4.8 Ranking of Important Factors Influencing the Housing Need

Table 4.9 Opinion about Program by Local Leader

xii
Table 4.10 Condition of Targeted Group of People in Rupandehi before Starting Program in

View of Implementation Level Staff

Table 4.11 Existing Housing Condition of Non Selected Applicants

Table 4.12 Problems in Planning Phase

Table 4.13 Problems in Implementation Phase

Table 4.14 Different Approaches for Fulfilling the Housing Need

Table 4.15 Working through Status of Phase I

Table 4.16 Working through Status Phase II

Table 4.17 Total Applicants Status of Janata Awash Karyakram in Rupandehi

Table 4.18 Area Wise Implementation Status and Progress Report of Phase I

Table 4.19 Selected Applicants Distribution in Phase II

Table 4.20 Election no Wise Implementation Status and Progress Report of Phase II

Table 4.21 Total Work Progress and Implementation Status of UDBO Rupandehi

Table 4.22 Financial Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi

Table 4.23 Financial Mobilization Stage Phase I

Table 4.24 Financial Mobilization Stage Phase II

Table 4.25 Election Area Wise Amount Spent to Users in Phase II of Rupandehi

Table 4.26 Earned Value Analysis

xiii
List of Annexes

Annex A Set of Questionnaires

Annex B Janata Awash Sample Drawing

Annex C Photographs of Janata Awash Housing Unit (Constructed House)

xiv
 Abbreviation and Acronyms

ADA Ahmadabad Development Authority

ADB Asian Development Bank
BAP Bagmati Action Plan
BPL Below Poverty Level
BPM Building Project Management
CBOs Community Based Organizations
CBS Central Bureau of Statistics
CIUD Centre for Integrated Urban Development
CODI Community Organization Development Institute
CPI Cost Performance Index
CNSA Construction Not Started Applicants
CPM Construction Project Management
DDA Delhi Development Authority
DOK Division Office Kathmandu
DUDBC Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
EAC Estimate at Completion
ETC Estimate to Compete
EV Earned Value
EWS Economically Weaker Section
FAR Floor Area Ratio
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GNP Gross National Product
GoI Government of India
GoN Government of Nepal
HDA Hyderabad Development Authority
HIG High Income Group
HOMBSAT Homebuyer Satisfaction
HUDCO Housing Udyog Development Corporation
IEE Initial Environmental Examination
IHP Indian Housing Policy

xv
INGOs International Non-Government organizations
KHP Kirtipur Housing Project
KPI Key Performance Indicator
KVDA Kathmandu Valley Development Authority
KVWSMB Kathmandu Valley water supply Management Board
LCH Low Cost Housing
LIG Low Income Group
LSGA Local Self Governance Act
MfDR Managing for Development Results
MoPID Ministry of Physical Infrastructure Development
MoPPW Ministry of Physical Planning & Works
MoSTE Ministry of Science, Technology &Environment
MoUD Ministry of Urban Development
NCCN National Construction Company Nepal
NLSS National Living Standard Survey
NNHS Nepal National Housing Study
NNBC Nepal National Building Code
NSP National Shelter Policy
NUDS National Urban Development Strategy
NUP National Urban Policy
NUHSP Nepal Urban Housing Sector Profile
PHP Public Housing Program
PI Professional Interview
PV Planned Value
RII Relative Importance Index
RSI Relative Satisfaction Index
SD Standard Deviation
SPI Schedule Performance Index
TCPI Total Cost Performance Index
TDA Town Development Act
TDC Town Development Committee
UDBO Urban Development Building Office
UNDP United Nations Development Program
xvi
VDC Village Development Committee

xvii
 1 Chapter1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
There are three basic needs for the human being; they are food, clothes and shelter. Housing
being one of the basic need of the people, it is necessary to make the provision for providing the
adequate housing facility to the people of all the groups including the people of low income
group, poor and excluded group in order to pave the path for the sustainable and equitable
development of the nation.
In Nepal, there is a tradition of constructing housing generally through self-efforts by utilizing
own resources and means. However, the supply of housing to the majority of families, especially
to the families who have marginal and low income, has become a complicated problem in the
current situation. The housing problem seen in the urban and rural areas for the reasons, such as
internal migration, rapid urbanization, increasing pressure of population, the families displaced
by the conflict, natural calamities and degrading environment etc., appears to have become a
serious challenge to the nation.

The Government of Nepal has implemented a special housing program called ‘People Housing
Program’ (Janata Awash Karyakram) targeted especially for the dalits (untouchables) deprived
and backward groups like Chepang, Bankariya and deprived class of Terai Madhesh (Southern
Plain). The program was started in the Fiscal Year 066/067, and has adopted the policy of
implementing this program also for the Raute, Kusunda as well as the badi communities.

The program is focused to the deprived class and marginalized ethnic groups of the society. And
also government of Nepal has aim to construct 22647 units of house in whole country in last year
(DUDBC, 2076).These houses are constructing under supervision of division office. This
program is now widely spread in 74 districts of Nepal.

1.2 Statement of Problem

The need of inclusion is advocated in most of the sectors of Nepal, but its implementation is very
weak in almost all the sectors. One of the reasons for the weak implementation of the inclusion
might be the lack of willingness and commitment of the policy makers and the concerned bodies
and the other reasons might be the complication in the implementation process of inclusion. In
such a situation, the provision of adequate housing facilities for the poor becomes essential to
take initiation towards the inclusion. Housing is the one of the basic need for all the people and
the inclusion must be focussed in the process of providing the housing facilities to the people.

Janta Awash in Rupandehi has wide spread work area than other districts. It covers 13 village
development committee and four municipalities. So during beneficiaries' selection and formation
of user committee before construction may create different problems and challenges also on
construction stage. Due to this problem, construction speed and progress is directly affected. And
also the people thought about the program are different from the goal of government.

1
The perception of the low income groups on the appropriate method of fulfilling their housing
need and present condition of housing implementation project has also not been studied yet,
which is one of the important factors to solve the housing problem for the low income groups in
a proper way. Hence, it is necessary to obtain all these information and prepare a concrete
framework to address the problem of housing need and finding out the status, planning and
implementation challenges for the low income group of people in Rupandehi district in a proper
way.

1.3 Research Questions

The research shall be conducted to answer the following questions that are focussed on the
context as stated above:
I. What are the concept, level and housing need of dalits and poor musalmans in Rupandehi
district?
ii. What are the the perception of the targeted group of people regarding the fulfilment of their
housing need and formation of user committee?
iii. How is the financial mobilization and work progress (Implementation) status of Janata
Awash Program?
iv. What are appropriate ways to address the housing need for the targeted group of the people in
Rupandehi?
1.4 Research Objectives
The main objective of the study is to assess and analyze implementation status of Janata Awash
program. The specific objectives are as following:
i. To find out the concept, level and housing need of dalit and poor musalmans in Rupandehi
district.
ii. To find out the perception of the targeted group of people regarding the fulfilment of their
housing need and formation of user committee.
iii. To find out the financial mobilization status and work progress and appropriate way to
address the housing need for the targeted group of the people in Rupandehi.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Although there are many studies conducted regarding the need of housing in the Kathmandu
Valley, but this type of studies have not been conducted on Rupandehi (outside valley district)
the adequate housing facilities for the poor and low income group of people(specially for dalits
and poor musalmans). This study will be useful to the policy makers, implementers of housing
project and NGOs and local bodies to study and analyse the present status of Janata Awash
Karyakram and also for choosing the appropriate ways to address the need of the housing
facilities for the low-income income group of the people in the Rupandehi, at the reasonable cost
for further program.
This research will find how a little (effort) investment of Government in such Housing projects
impacts a lot in the People's life socially and economically. This study will also analyze the
method of selection of Beneficiaries and sort out the weaknesses in the process to support the
DUDBC for necessary modification in the People Housing Program Implementation Guideline
and the process of implementation of the program in the future.

2
Moreover, this study will also be helpful tool to the policy makers, implementers of housing
project and NGOs and local bodies to focus the inclusion in the process of providing the housing
facilities to the people.

1.6 Scope and Limitation

The study mainly focuses only in Rupandehi distrct though it deals with the overall plan and
implementation condition of the program. It is assumed that the problems and prospectus of the
program in Rupandehi district will approximately represent the status overview of whole Janata
Awash Karyakram in Nepal. This study mainly focus on housing need, level, concept and
implementation statusand not focused on technical design details of low cost housing.

3
 2 Chapter 2

LITRETUREREVIEW
2.1 Housing Scenario
Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival. For a normal citizen owning a
house provides significant economic and social security and status in society. For a shelter less
person, a house brings about a profound social change in his existence, endowing him with an
identity, thus integrating him with his immediate social milieu. It is one of the top priorities for
most people, regardless of their income levels. Many poor village women consider housing as
their most important need above food, health care and education for their children. Without the
security and comfort of home, there are no escaping difficulties resulting from poverty. Poor
people do not have financial means to buy or construct houses with their saving and therefore
they live in their ancestral huts, those rented from landlords (with ensuring obligation), or
government supplied house.
Table2.1 Housing Aspects

Aspects Description
Single Family This kind of house where just one family lives in it and most likely
with a fence surrounding it is called a single-family house
Manufactured Home This is the kind of house that is built at a factory and then
transported to its final destination. They are made in sections with
some homes being just one section wide and others being two or
three sections wide.
Condominium A condominium is one unit in a multi-unit building. This means
that if you own a condo, you probably share a wall or two with
your neighbors
Cooperative Housing Instead of purchasing their own house or condominium, prefer to
purchase real estate with a group of other people. This type of real
estate ownership is referred to as cooperative housing
((https://study.com/academy/lesson/types-of-housing-overview-examples.html))

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 Photo2.1 Single Family House Photo2.1 Manufactured Home

Photo2.2 Condominium Photo2.3 Cooperative Housing

Source: (Home base for Housing, 2015)

Different types of housing are as below:

Table2.1 Type of Housing by Length of Stay

Type of Housing Description

Permanent Housing This just means that there is no time limit on how long you can
reside in the housing or receive the housing assistance. It is meant
to be long-term. “Permanent supportive housing” (or PSH) is just
permanent housing that makes support services available to help
you maintain your housing and access community resources.
Transitional Housing This means that there is a time limit on how long you can stay in
the housing or receive the housing assistance. HUD defines

5
 transitional housing as stays of up to 24 months (but stays can be
shorter).
Short-Term or Temporary This means that the housing situation is intended to be very short-
Housing term or temporary (30, 60, or 90 days or less).
Emergency Shelter Provides a place to stay or bed to sleep in overnight if you become
homeless or otherwise experience a housing crisis and have no
place to go.
Source: (Home base for Housing, 2015)

Table2.2 Types of Housing by Level of Support

Type of Housing Description

Independent Living This means that you are able to live on your own without help with
daily living. Most housing is designed for independent living.
Assisted Living This type of housing provides on-site services to help people with
their daily living when they are not really able to live on their own.
It can be permanent or for a period of time. Examples include:
nursing homes, long-term care facilities, assisted living facilities,
special care facilities, and hospice/respite care facilities.
(Source: Home base for Housing, 2015)

Table2.3 Types of Housing by Type of Assistance

Type of Housing Description

Market Rate Housing Refers to properties that are rented or owned by people who pay
market rent to lease the property or paid market value when they
bought the property. There is no subsidy for the housing.
Affordable Rate Housing This type of housing provides on-site services to help people with
their daily living when they are not really able to live on their own.
It can be permanent or for a period of time. Examples include:
nursing homes, long-term care facilities, assisted living facilities,
special care facilities, and hospice/respite care facilities.
Subsidized Housing Provides a voucher to you to choose where you want to live in
Housing(Tenant Based) the community and lease from a private landlord that will accept
the voucher. The program then pays an ongoing monthly subsidy
to help you with your rent and utilities. You are usually required to
pay at least 30% of your income toward your rent and utilities, and
usually your subsidy is limited by fair market rent (FMRs). Since
it is tenant-based, the assistance is tied to your voucher. So, if you
move, the voucher typically moves with you to another property.
Examples include these subsidy programs:
• Section 8 Housing Choice Voucher
• ESG Rapid Re-Housing
• HOPWA Tenant Based Rental Asst
• Shelter Plus Care TBRA
6
 • SHP TBRA
• HOME TBRA
Subsidized Housing Project-based housing assistance requires you to live in a
(Project-Based) housing unit at the property that is being subsidized. You are
usually required to pay at least 30% of your income toward your
rent/utilities. Since it is project-based, the assistance is tied to the
property. So, if you move, you lose your housing assistance.
Examples include:
• Section 8 Public Housing
• Homeless Project-Based Units
• HOPWA Facility-Based Housing

Homeless Prevention Provides assistance for persons who have their own apartment
or house to prevent them from becoming homeless. This type of
assistance helps with past due rent, mortgage, or utility bills.
Example include:
• ESG Homeless Prevention, HOPWA Short-Term Rent,
• Mortgage, and Utility Assistance (STRMU),
• Other Financial Assistance or Temporary Financial Aid
Programs (e.g., assistance provided by churches and
other faith-based organizations)
Housing Placement Provides help for you to get into new housing (when you
move-in). This can include things like rental application fees,
security deposits, first and last month’s rent, utility connection
fees, and utility deposits. Depending on the program, it may or
may not include moving costs (like moving company, truck rental,
storage costs, etc.)
(Source: Home base for Housing, 2015)

Table2.4 Types of Housing by Design

Type of Housing Description

Multi-Family Dwellings This housing is designed for many families to live on the property
where each family only has exclusive use of the portion of the
property (unit) that they are leasing or own (for example,
apartments, condominiums, lofts, and co-ops).
Single Family Dwellings A single family dwelling refers to a dwelling (house) on a property
designed to be occupied by only one family
Single Room Occupancy An SRO unit is a single room designed to house only one person at
(SRO) a time. It may be smaller than a typical bedroom, and may only
include a bed and storage space for personal belongings. An SRO
unit provides living and sleeping space for the exclusive use of the
tenant, but requires the tenant to share bathroom and/or kitchen
areas.
Manufactured Home (or A manufactured home is a mobile home that is connected to
Mobile Home) permanent utility hookups, is located on land is owned by the
home owner or on land at which he/she leases a space (such as a
7
 mobile home park), and is attached to real property (with a
permanent foundation). This includes mobile homes,
but excludes motor homes, trailers, recreational vehicles or RVs,
and other like vehicles with wheels on the ground.
Boarding Homes, Rooming A boarding (or rooming) house is an establishment primarily
Houses, or Group Homes engaged in renting rooms, with or without board, on a long-term
basis. A rooming house typically provides only for the rental of
rooms, while a boarding house provides meals and may offer such
amenities as maid service and laundry service. A boarding or
rooming house may be a single family dwelling or a larger
structure in which the owner rents out rooms to multiple families.
They may be a lease. Group homes tend to look like boarding
homes, but they are typically a state-licensed facility intended for
occupancy by elderly persons and/or persons with disabilities.
Hotel or Motel (including A hotel or motel is an establishment primarily engaged in renting
extended stay) rooms for overnight stays for a short period of time, but can be
extended stays. The customer typically does not have a written
lease or occupancy agreement for the space.
Shared Housing People who have a roommate are said to be living in “shared
housing.” For example, if you share your 2-bedroom apartment
with another person who is not part of your family, then you are
living in shared housing – meaning there are two families living
there, you and your roommate. This is important because, if you
seek help with your housing expenses, a program will likely only
assist you with your part of the expenses, not your roommate’s
part.
(Source: Home base for Housing, 2015)

Table2.5 Types of Housing as Described in National Shelter Policy 2012

SN Types of Housing Description

Permanent structure for purely residential purpose, the full

1 Permanent Housing
ownership of which would remain with he user.
Multi-story permanent structure for purely residential purpose,
2 Common Housing which would remain under the common or joint ownership of
two or more users.

Permanent structure for purely residential purpose, constructed

3 Mixed Housing
so as to be able to carry out non residential activities as well.

Permanent structure for purely residential purpose, which

4 Rental Housing require payment of charges for using it and which does not
remain under the ownership of the users.

8
 The housing, which is made available to the families displaced
by the reason of natural calamities or conflict, before their
5 Temporary Housing permanent resettlement, as an immediate relief, and of the
types such as huts or camps that may be used only for some
time.
(Source: National Shelter Policy 2012)

2.2 The Low Income Groups

According to the World Bank reports, the groups of people with daily income less than US $
1.25 are considered as the low income groups or the poor groups. There are also many other
official standard definitions of the low income groups or the poor groups based on calorie intake
and proportion of the expenditure on food (70% of the expenditure on food) exists. One of the
Indian Philosophers, Amartya Sen has stated that are five prime factors responsible for poverty,
which are; (i) Over population, (ii) Imbalance of distribution of resource, (iii) Insufficient
education, (iv) Low opportunity for employment and (v) Environmental degradation.
Similarly, Satterwaire in 2002 A.D., stated that there are eight aspects of poverty which provide
a range of possible policy responses, and they are; (i) Shelter (ii) Provision of public
infrastructures (iii) Income (iv) Asset base (v) Provision of social services (vi) Protection of
public right through law enforcement (vii) Lack of safety net to ensure access to shelter and (viii)
Powerless political system.
According to the Nepal Living Standard Survey (2012), the estimation of poverty is based on the
cost of the basic need approaches where the poverty line can be defined as the expenditure value
( in terms of local currency), required by the individuals to meet their basic needs in terms of
both food and non food items. By estimating the expenditure on food of the poor, the food basket
of the poverty line is constructed. As there is a calorie anchor guiding the estimation of the food
poverty line, no objective minimum non-food requirement exists a priori. Following the
international standard, it is assumed that a household, whose food consumption is close to the
food poverty line, will spend the minimum on the required minimum calorie requirement of
2,200 Kcal per day to fulfill the non food needs. In 2011 A.D., the average price of the poverty
line was estimated as NRs. 19,261.00; the food poverty line as 11,929.00 and the non food
poverty line as NRs. 7,332.00. Whereas for the Kathmandu Valley, the average price of the
poverty line was estimated as NRs. 40,933.00; the food poverty line as NRs. 26,323.00 and the
non food poverty line as NRs. 14,610.00 (NLSS, 2012).
Regarding the composition, on average, 62% of the household consumption is spent on the food
expenditures in the country. The Share of housing consumption is 11%, that of education is 5%
and the rest 22% is accounted for by other non-food items. However, the households of the
Kathmandu valley tend to spend more on house, rent and education relative to the other urban
and rural areas (NLSS, 2012).
2.3 Housing Needs for the Low Income Groups
The pace of urbanization has remained faster and is likely to remain so in the future. Nearly,
17.1% of Nepal’s population resided in 58 designated urban areas according to the 2011 census.
However, with the addition of 131 municipalities in 2014, 38.26% of Nepal’s populations reside
in 191 designated urban areas. There have been fluctuations in inter-censual urban growth rates.
Although the growth rate in the inter-censual decade was 3.43%, the average annual growth

9
between 1981and 2011 has remained at a high rate of 5.3%. Urban rural growth differential in
2011 is 2.4% (NUDS, 2015).

Kathmandu valley is the hub of Nepal’s urbanization. Over half of Nepal’s urban populations
reside in the hills and the rest in the Terai. The Central Development Region (CDR) including
the capital region of Kathmandu harbors half of Nepal’s urban population. The EDR and WDR
share 17% - 18% of urban population each. Regional levels of urbanization differ markedly
across ecological and development regions. The level of urbanization is highest in the hill region
(21.7%) compared to the Terai (15.1%) and the mountains (2.8%). Among development regions,
CDR has highest urbanization level of 23.5%. Distribution of urban population as well as the
level of urbanization is relatively low in the MWDR and FWDR. Physiographic and connectivity
characteristics are important determinants of urbanization which result wide variation in the
regional levels of urbanization. The level of urbanization in the Kathmandu valley (three
districts) and Pokhara valley (Kaski district) comes to 96.97% and 79.52% respectively, while it
is only 18.28% for the rest of the hills. Similarly, inner Terai valleys have a level of urbanization
of 41.97% compared to 38.94% for the rest of the Terai (NUDS, 2015).
Urbanization picture is dominated by few large and medium cities. Kathmandu is the only city
with over a million people. In terms of size class of urban centers, 14 urban centers (4 in the
hills, 10 in the Terai) in 58 municipalities, and 2 urban centers (in the hills) in recently added 131
municipalities with over 100,000 population have 33.53% of Nepal’s urban population. The rest
66.47% live in 175 municipalities. This distribution shows an urban hierarchy that is truncated
towards the lower end notwithstanding the fact that urban boundaries are notorious both for
including large rural tracts on the one hand, and ignoring urban sprawl beyond municipal
boundaries, on the other. The fact that municipal status is a political decision rather than a
technical one, it has also contributed to this picture, between 1991 and 2011 to the number of
municipal areas (NUDS, 2015).

After conducting the national housing survey in 1988, no other survey regarding the housing has
been conducted in Nepal. However, the conduction of housing in rural and urban areas has been
presented in the subsequent censuses and living standard surveys of Nepal. According to the
national housing survey of 1988, there were 3 million residential houses in Nepal including those
urban and rural areas. A total of 47, 67,196 houses/buildings or residential structures have been
found in the preliminary result of the national census 2011. A total of 56, 59,984 families appear
to have settled there in. Thus, the ratio of family and houses has been 1.2:1. The number of
families was 42, 53,200 ten years ago. In this way 10, 06,764 families appear to have been added
during the last 10 years. In regard to the size of the family, there are 4.7 members per family in
2011, which were 5.44 in the year 2001. 4.05 persons on average have been found in the families
in the urban areas, while this number is 4.86 persons in the rural areas; this number was 4.86 and
5.65 persons respectively 10 years ago. In observing the population growth of the last ten years,
it appears that the population of Nepal has increased by 15 percent, whereas the population of
Kathmandu Valley appears to have been increased by 52 percent. In this way, it has now
become indispensible to address the growing problem of housing in the Kathmandu valley (NSP,
2012).
According to the census of 2001, there was 41,74,374 houses /buildings or residential structures
in total, out of which about 1.3 million houses in the rural area and about 1 hundred thousand in
the urban area were temporary in nature, which means that about 33 percent of the total

10
residential houses appear to have been constructed in a temporary manner. According to the
standard of living survey of Nepal, 2003/04, the population living in the houses of their
ownership was about 91.6 percent and those living on rent was 5.4 percent, whereas, these
numbers appeared to be 92.8 percent and 2.2 percent respectively in the year 1995/96. From the
result of Fiscal Year 2009/10, these numbers appear to be 90 percent and 8 percent respectively.
In this way, the number of population living in a rented house has increased from 2 percent to 8
percent compared to the first Standard of Living Survey, i.e. during the period of 15 years (NSP,
2012).
According to the Nepal Standard of Living Survey2003/04, the condition of housing in the urban
areas appears to be better in the comparison to the same in rural areas. In the urban areas, it
appears that about 72 percent families reside in their own houses, 23.5 percent on rent. 3.8
percent of the population lives without paying rent and the remaining in other ways such as
unsystematic settlements (squatters). But in the case of Kathmandu Valley this number appears
to be increasing surprisingly, about 35 percent of the population lives on rent in the Kathmandu
Valley (NSP, 2012).
Whereas in 2011, it appears about 69.2 percent families reside in their own houses, 26.5 percent
on rent and 4.3 percent of the population live without paying rent and the remaining in other
ways such as unsystematic settlements (squatters) in the urban areas of Nepal. But in the case of
Kathmandu District this number appears to be increasing surprisingly, about 51.9 percent of the
population lives on rent in the Kathmandu Valley (NLSS, 2012).
The number or population living on rent has been increased by 3 percent; the population living
without paying rent by 0.4 percent and in unorganized shelter from 2003 to 2011.The number of
population living on rent and in unorganized shelter is increasing fast since the last decade.

Nowadays, the valley is undergoing an urban explosion rather than managed urban growth.
Urban areas are expanding at the rate of 6.67% annually at present. A statistical report of World
Bank stated 23% of urban population is poor & live irregular and substandard housing with
inadequate infrastructure and services. It is stated in the Directive Principles and the policies of
the State in the constitution of Nepal: "The State shall pursue a policy of raising the standards of
living of the general public through the development of infrastructures as education, health,
housing and employment of the people" Housing has been identified as a national problem.
There is a need to find solutions to address the problem (Rajbhandari, 2009, 16 September).
Recent trends in the Housing sector shows that housing companies generally erect apartments
within ring road while stand-alone houses that require wider space are built outside ring road.
Increasing number of customers buy apartments as an investment rather than for self-
consumption. Many buyers have been renting out apartments to ensure growth in the housing
business; developers need to encourage buyers to live in the apartments. There is a substantial
increment in the number of Companies and projects over the period of ten years. The number of
Companies involved in this sector, within the valley currently stands at about 150, according to
the membership roaster of Nepal land & Housing Developers Association. The no. of Companies
registered as Housing Developers is about 40-50. Out of them, 8-10 companies are embarking on
new projects after completing their previous ones, while some have launched their maiden
projects and others are either on the pre-sales or sales of their maiden projects. Land & Housing
Development Act Issuances covering a wide range as Ownership rights of Customers
Operational management Buyer's Duties Developers Liabilities etc Are mentioned and governed
by Apartment Act 2003 and By-laws 2004 Registered Projects (After 2004) According to this

11
list, there are a total of 60stand-along housing units, registered after the year 2004. So, this
number may increase in units. There are a total of 1697 apartment units registered according to
this data. Obviously, there are more units in the market which either are not registered or are in
the process of registration, because today we have 1000 units being launched by a single project
(Rajbhandari, 2009, 16 September).
Although the private housing companies have been playing the significant role in providing the
housing facilities for the people in the Kathmandu Valley since the last few decades by
constructing the high rise apartment buildings and housing units, they are more focused on
providing the housing facilities for the high income group of people only. The housing facilities
are yet beyond the access for the urban poor through these private housing companies because
the housing companies charge more profit on the housing units to sell them. The housing
companies are running the housing business for their economic benefit only rather than meeting
the need of the adequate and safe housing service for the urban poor. Hence there is an instant
need to address the housing problem for the urban poor in Kathmandu Valley in a proper way.

2.4 Approaches for the fulfillment of the housing need

There are five main approaches for the fulfillment of the housing need. They are also known as
shelter packages. They are as defined below.
2.4.1 On-Site Upgrading
In this approach, the improvement of physical, social and economical environment of the
existing informal settlement are carried out, without displacing the people living in it. It is one of
the least expensive approaches and the most humane way of enhancing the city’s much needed
stock of low-cost housing, instead of destroying it. In this approach, both the local people and the
government support the process of upgrading the informal communities.
It is carried out with the improvement of the existing houses and rebuilding them, by regularizing
and securing their settlements for long term land tenure, upgrading their jobs, earning capacity
and small business, improving their infrastructure services such as safe drinking water, drainage,
sewerage etc. and access to the education and health care (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.4.2 Re-settlement
This approach is generally applied where there is vulnerable living condition such as prone to
landslide, flood etc. or when the land captured is high in the commercial value, illegally.
Generally, the resettlement is carried out when there is no other option for the better living
condition at the existing settlement , and most of the residents should be agreed and support the
process for its successful implementation, without which the resettlement can become a forced
eviction.
The resettlement projects are mostly carried out in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia and
Philippines.
In India, the railway relocation projects in Mumbai proved that the improvements of
infrastructures of the city need not to be done by forcefully eviction of the residents. But it can
be positive for the city to provide security and permanent houses for the poor people who are
displaced by the project, with some investment of creativity, co-operation and co-ordination.
The land chosen for the resettlement plays an important role for the successful implementation of
the project. The site for the resettlement should be near to the job opportunity, with the easy
access to the public services such as schools, clinics, banks and transportation linkage because

12
the new location must enable the residents to maintain, or rebuild their livelihoods, social
networks and survival strategy with minimum disruption (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.4.3 The Government-Built New Public Housing
In this approach, the low cost housing for rent or sale are designed, constructed and delivered to
the targeted groups by the government, which should be normally seen as a way of ensuring
affordable housing for the low income group of people. However the construction cost and
management cost must be subsidized at the maximum possible extent. But this approach is
proven to be much expensive for the government in most of the countries around the world
(Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.4.4 Site and Services
In this approach, the government generally provides cheap and vacant land with basic services
such as roads, electricity, drinking water, drainage, etc. in a planned manner, for the residential
purposes. The individuals build their houses on the land as per their own affordability. This
approach is an attempt to achieve the balance between minimum socially acceptable housing
condition and the affordability of the beneficiaries. Its strategy is to share the responsibility for
providing decent affordable housing in the urban areas between the government and the people.
The responsibility of the government is to prepare the residential plots and facilitate them with
certain basic infrastructures. Then, the individual plots are sold, leased or allocated to the
targeted groups and the responsibility of the beneficiaries is to build their houses; sometimes
with the soft loans, basic building materials and technical support provided by the project, and
sometimes on their own financial management.
The construction and maintenance of the infrastructures and services are generally cheaper and
cost effective since they are planned in a systematic and scientific manner. It is based on an idea
of most government’s ability to provide adequate and affordable housing to the urban poor
households who really need it. The government plays the role of facilitator rather than the
provider for the self help housing effort by the low income group of people themselves.
For example; In India, the Hydrabad Development Authority (HDA) adopted the strategies that
poor communities constructed their houses and the HDA facilitated them by removing the
exploitative elements of the process. As a result, HDA completed the project successfully (Shah,
S. K., 2016).
2.4.5 City Wide Housing Strategy
In this approach, all the stakeholders of the nation; the local and the national governments, the
financing agencies, the supporting NGOs, the technical groups and the communities themselves,
involve in the process to find out the collaborative way and develop the innovative solutions for
the improved living conditions.
For example; the ‘Community Mortgage program in Philippines’, the subsidized land and
housing program helped squatter communities to buy the land which they had been occupying
and provide them the financial support for the and improvement of the infrastructures. The
process of buying and registering of the land was done by the supporting NGOs on behalf of the
beneficiary communities.
Another example can be taken as ‘Baan Mankong Program’ in Thailand, which was executed by
the ‘Community Organization Development Institute (CODA). The CODA is an autonomous
public organization under the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security, which

13
encourage the municipalities for the collaboration and co-operation with urban poor community
organizations in such upgrading initiatives in several manners (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.4.6 Rental Housing
In this approach, rental housing units are made available to the urban poor through a variety of
building types by the private sectors as well as the public sectors. The supply of the rental
housings are generally facilitated by the private and public sectors in order to fulfill the housing
need of the urban poor who cannot afford to by the housing units. Sometime, the rental housing
also facilitates the adequate shelter for the people who come to the urban areas for a specific time
period of one or two years, for certain jobs or specific works. The ‘National Urban Rental
Housing Policy’ has recently been implemented in India. In Nepal, the formulation of the policy
for the rental housing is under process and worked upon. So, the policy about the rental housing
is unclear and uncovered issues related to the various aspects of rental housing taking into
consideration for the welfare of the tenants and the rent providers (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.4.7 Private Sector Housing
In this approach, the housing facilities are provided to the urban poor through the private sector
land and housing development schemes. The interventions for providing shelter by the private
sector housing companies could be carried out by; provision of 10% of the developed plots as
subsidized price through cross-subsidy mechanism by the private developers, within a
framework of corporate social responsibility (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.4.8 Land Sharing
In this approach, the intervention for the land sharing can be carried out in the following forms,
depending upon the characteristics and situation of the settlement:

➢ The land sharing with the urban families need to be relocated due to the vulnerable living
condition in their original settlements.
➢ The land sharing with the private land owner whose land has been occupied within the
informal settlements so that the portion of his land can be returned back to him by arriving at
acceptable solutions for both the parties.
After proper planning, some area can be blocked again to free some land for sale to subsidize the
project. Through proper planning a certain percentage of the developed land (5%-10%) can be
allocated in the land development schemes (land pooling, site and services) for the urban poor
families (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.5 The National Plans of Nepal

2.5.1 Initiatives undertaken regarding housing during different national plans

The importance of housing and resettlement has been recognized since the beginning of the first
development plan of Nepal. The major works carried out regarding housing in different national
plans are mentioned in the table 7.
Table2.6 Initiatives Undertaken Regarding Housing during Different National Plans

S.N. National Plans of Works done regarding housing

Nepal
1 The First Plan ➢ The resettlement of the farmers of overcrowded area was focused
14
 (1956-1961) in order to protect the cultivated and fertile agricultural land from
being further degraded.
➢ Rapti Valley Multi-purpose Project was initiated that was focused
on the resettlement.
➢ Planning of other resettlement projects were also conducted in the
areas such as Tokhu, Birta in Jhapa, Koshi Tappu, Kamal Konch,
Teen Patan, Chitwan, Kumari Ko Jhari, Sunwar Tappu and
Kailali.
2 The Second Plan ➢ Well-organized shelter was provided to 6,000 people, in 50
(1962-1964) thousand acre of land.
➢ The co-operative consisting of a rural region with 400 to 500
families having four to five number of villages with one hundred
families in each village was proposed.
3 The Third Plan ➢ The problem of housing was recognized in Kathmandu and Patan.
(1965-1969) ➢ The advance salary for three years was provided to the
government employees for the construction of houses.
➢ The necessary incentives were provided to the private sectors for
constructing 400 new houses for the low income groups in
Kathmandu.
➢ 51.28 hectors of land was acquired for the new residential plots
with the utilities such as water supply, electricity, schools etc. to
sell them to the low income groups of people on installment basis.
4 The Fourth Plan ➢ The problem of housing was recognized in Bhaktapur, along with
(1970-1975) Kathmandu and Patan.
➢ ‘Building Department’ was re-organized and named as
‘Department of Housing and Physical Planning’.
➢ ‘The Physical Development Plan of Kathmandu Valley’ was
prepared to guide the policy formulation.
➢ Physical development plan of Pokhara, Biratnagar and Birgunj
and improvement and development of Bharatpur and Dharan
were prepared.
➢ Housing development in Kalimati to Balaju corridor of
Kathmandu Valley was carried out.
➢ Housing development in Pokhara and Biratnagar was carried out.
5 The Fifth Plan ➢ 55 residential buildings were also constructed for the low income
(1975-1980) groups of government employees.
➢ Survey, studies and sample collection of the local building
materials found in and around Dhanakuta, Surkhet, Pokhara,
Tansen, Butwal and Bhairahawa were also carried out.
6 The Sixth Plan ➢ The land use policies and rules were developed and implemented
(1980-1985) for the housing development sectors in the urban area for the
proper and well organized development of the housing.
➢ Some residential houses were also built and sold to the low
income groups.
7 The Seventh Plan ➢ It was recognized that the urban population and its annual growth
(1985-1990) rate was increasing since 1956 to 1985 due to the increase in

15
 number urban areas (Town Panchayat). The number of Town
Panchayat had increased from 7 to 29 during this period.
➢ The ‘Department of Housing and Physical Planning’ was
separated into two departments, namely; Department of Housing
and Urban Development, and Department of Building.
➢ A total loan assistance of Rs. 35 millions was made available to
the Town Development Committees of Dipayal, Bharatpur,
Lahan, Jaleshwor and Dhulikhel municipalities for housing
development projects.
➢ Guided Land Development (GLD) projects were also
implemented in the targeted areas of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and
other few municipalities.
➢ The Nepal Resettlement Company was renamed as the ‘Rural
Housing and Settlement Development Company’ to prepare
various plans and programs and to be economically self-sustained
within a few years.
8 The Eighth Plan ➢ Settlement facilities were provided to 25,000 families in co-
(1990-1995) ordination with the poverty alleviation program.
➢ 7,000 plots of land were developed under the housing and public
service program in the market centers for the low income groups.
➢ The existing laws related to the housing and land development
was revised and necessary laws were made to regulate the sale
and purchase of lands, construction of buildings, land tax,
construction of houses for rent etc.
➢ The repair and maintenance of the existing housings, expansion
of water supply, sanitation and healthy environment in and
around the house premises in low income group areas for 15,000
families were carried out.
➢ The national policy on Housing would be finalized, and attempts
would be made to strengthen institutional capability of concerned
bodies and co-ordination mechanism for gradual implementation
of the policy.
9 The Ninth Plan ➢ The land development necessary for 14,000 housing plots were
(1995-2000) launched for developing planned settlements and market centers
in different parts of the country through the Rural Housing
Company.
➢ A model village development program for 750 families in each of
the five development regions to support village development by
developing a commodious model village for human habitation.
➢ Cost effective and cheap plots were provided to 50,000 families
of backward, minorities of the society, landless farmers and
genuine squatters.
10 The Tenth Plan ➢ Five areas were developed as pilot program of high density
(2000-2005) settlement of 10 to 15 families in each group.
➢ Group housing and joint housing development were carried out in
four cities by involving the private sectors, and housing loans

16
 were provided to 1199 families.
11 The Eleventh Plan ➢ Rs. 245.50 millions of the budget was allocated for the housing
(2007-2009) sector development programs, which included the different
programs such as the construction and distribution of cost
effective housing, rehabilitation of displaced families, land and
housing development programs to fulfill the housing demand,
physical improvement of housing by using earthquake resistance
technology, model settlement development program, physical
environment improvement program in squatter settlements,
subsidized loans to poor families through finance companies etc.
12 The Twelfth Plan ➢ 4850 units of low cost housing were constructed for the poor,
(2010-2012) disadvantaged and excluded groups under the People Housing
Program (i.e. Janata Awash Karyakram).
➢ Reconstruction of the buildings damaged during the political
dispute, construction of the government buildings,
implementation of land development program in Kathmandu
Valley and other municipalities, strengthening of buildings
according to the National Building Codes was also done.
13 The Thirteenth ➢ 2237 units of low cost housing were constructed for the poor,
Plan disadvantaged and excluded groups under the People Housing
(2013-2015) Program.
➢ 130 housing units were constructed for the urban poor groups.
(Source: NPC Reports)

Although the housing has been identified as an important sector since the implementation of the
first plan in 1956 in Nepal, they were more focused towards fulfilling the housing need for the
government offices and quarters only, till the fifth plan. The sixth plan (1980-85) had made some
initiations for fulfilling the housing need for the low income group for the first time in Nepal.
During the sixth plan the land use policies and rules were developed and some residential houses
were also built and sold to the low income group of people.
2.5.2 The Fourteenth Plan (2016 – 2018)
There are altogether 47, 67,000 residential buildings in Nepal in which 54,27,000 families reside.
Among them, 85.26% of the families reside in their own house while 12.81% families reside on
rent. So regarding the housing and building sector, the long term vision of the fourteenth plan is
to provide the housing which is safe and affordable for all by encouraging and activating the
private sectors (NPC, 2016).
The main objectives of the fourteenth plan for the housing and building development are as
following:
1. To construct and develop the building which is safe, economic, environmental friendly
and earthquake resistance.
2. To promote the housing that is safe, economical and affordable for all income groups of
people.
During the fourteenth interim plan, it is expected to construct 20,000 housing units for the poor
and excluded groups through the ‘People Housing Program’ i.e. Janata Awash Karyakram. 14
numbers of special housing, housing for old aged people and community housing will be
constructed. Similarly, 70 numbers of integrated settlement will be developed (NPC, 2016).

17
2.6 National Shelter Policy 2012
The Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning of Nepal Government published and
implemented the National Shelter Policy in 1996 for the first time, on the basis of detailed survey
and study of about two years, in order to develop the housing facility in a planned way. Although
this policy had tried to address the housing need for the people to a considerable extent, it was
silent about many emerging problems related to the housing need. In this National Housing
Policy 1996, the policy for the rural and urban areas was not mentioned separately in a clear
manner. The housing problem for the poor and deprived families of the rural areas was also not
mentioned. Similarly, this policy was also silent about the housing problem for the families
living on rent in the urban areas, and the responsibility of the state was also not mentioned in a
clear manner. Likewise, the interest of the land owners was not addressed in the land pooling
program, due to which it was beyond the access of the general people. This policy was also not
able to address the housing problem of the low income group of people settling in the urban
areas (NSP, 2012).
Considering all these problems, this policy was revised in 2012, and as a result, the National
Shelter Policy 2012 was introduced in order to manage the housing problem in an effective way.
The long term vision of the National Shelter Policy 2012 was to provide housing, which safe,
adequate and as per living standard, to all. There were three main objectives of the National
Housing Policy 2012, which are listed below (NSP, 2012):
1. To increase the housing production, suitable to all income groups, safe and environment-
friendly, and to upgrade the quality of existing housing.
2. To effectively mobilize the financial resources required for the development of housing.
3. To carry out institutional reforms by clarifying the roles of governmental and non-
governmental organizations, private sectors and communities.
In order to achieve the first objective mentioned above, the National Housing Policy 2012 has
adopted the strategies, according to which the housing has been classified into five categories as
mentioned below:
1. Permanent Housing
It includes the permanent structures for purely residential purpose, the full ownership of
which remains with the user.
2. Common Housing
It includes the multi-storey permanent structures for purely residential purpose, which
remains under the common or joint ownership of two or more users.
3. Mixed Housing
It includes the multi-storey permanent structures for residential purpose, constructed so as
to be able to carry out non-residential activities as well.
4. Rental Housing
It includes the permanent structures for residential purpose, which requires payment of
charges for using it and which does not remain under the ownership of the users.
5. Temporary Housing
It includes the housing, which is made available to the families displaced by the reasons
of natural calamities or conflict, before their permanent resettlement, as an immediate
relief, and of the types such as huts or camps that may be used only for some time.

18
2.7 National Housing Plan 2014
The National Housing Plan 2014 has been prepared and approved by the Government of Nepal
under the initiation of Ministry of Urban Development to provide the practical and objective
plans and programs for the next ten years by identifying the necessary and suitable programs in
order to achieve the goals and objectives of the National Shelter Policy.
According to the National Housing Plan 2014, 85% of total 5423297 families reside in their own
house and 12.81% reside on rent. In urban areas, 56.80% of total 1045575 families reside in their
own house and 40.22% of the families reside on rent. Although there are many apartment
housings and joint housings being constructed in Kathmandu Valley and other urban areas since
last three decades, they are only focused toward addressing the housing problems of the high
income groups of the people (NHP, 2014).
It has been estimated that altogether 390000 numbers of housing units will be required for the
low income group of people only till 2030. Among these, 90,000 housing units may be fulfilled
by addition of floors, and repairs and maintenance of existing houses and 300000 numbers of
new housing units will be required to be constructed to fulfill the housing need for the low
income groups of people (NHP, 2014).
In order to fulfill this need of housing for the low income group of people, the National Housing
Plan 2014 has proposed the following programs for the next ten years:

Table2.7 Programs Proposed in the National Housing Plan 2014 to fulfill the Housing Need of Low Income Groups

S.N. Program Description Unit Target

1 People Housing Program i.e. Janata Awash Karyakram Residential 30,000
(3,000 units per year) Building
2 Housing for poor families residing in slums and Families 1,000
squatters according to Millennium Development Goal
(100 families per year)
3 Apartment housing for urban poor (25 families in 10 Families 2,500
cities per year)
4 Co-operative housing program (500 families per year) Families 5,000
5 Housing facility program through rehabilitation center Person 1,000
(100 units per year)
6 Low cost rental housing program Families 5,000
7 Private housing program (1000 developed residential
Developed 10,000
plots per year) residential
plots
8 Addition of floors and repair and maintenance of Residential 1,10,000
existing residential houses houses
9 Construction of private houses Residential 2,25,000
houses
Total 3,90,000
(Source: NHP, 2014)

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The proposed ten years programs have been prepared by dividing the housing facilities under the
following three sectors:
1. Housing facility through institutional sector (specially for low income groups)
2. Housing facility operated by private sector
3. Capacity building for housing sector

2.8 National Urban Policy 2007

The National Urban Policy has been approved in 2007 by the Ministry of Physical Planning and
Works in order to control the haphazard urbanization and to develop the urban area in a planned
and well organized way. It is an integrated and coordinated effort for responding the challenges
posed by the haphazard urbanization going on in the country (NUP, 2007).
The National Urban Policy 2007 has recognized that Kathmandu centered urbanization process is
one of the major cause for the imbalance in national urban structure. The physical, social and
economical infrastructures and services are mostly centered in Kathmandu and in limited number
in other large urban areas due to which the rate of migration from rural areas and small towns to
the large urban centers, especially to the Kathmandu Valley is increasing day by day. As a result,
the urban poverty and squatter settlements are increasing rapidly.
The National Urban Policy 2007 has also recognized the key issues related to the urbanization
trend in Nepal, which are as following:
1. Unbalanced Urban Structure
2. Weak rural-urban linkage
3. Environmental deterioration
4. Lack of clarity in the National Policy
5. Urban poverty
6. Weak municipal institutions
The main objectives of the National Urban Policy 2007 are as following:
1. To achieve a balanced national urban structure through proper guidance to physical
infrastructure development and investment.
2. To achieve healthy, secure and economically vibrant urban environment in order to bring
about improvement in living standards of the urban residents.
3. To strive towards effective urban management: through legal empowerment an
institutional strengthening of the local government bodies, and through effective
coordination among, and capacity building of, the agencies associated with urban sector
development.
Among the three objectives mentioned above, the second objective is related to the housing
problem for the urban poor, and the strategy adopted regarding this problem, mentioned in the
National Urban Policy 2007, is as following:
1. To develop a system for supply of affordable land and dwelling units accessible to the
different income groups including those who are economically deprived.
2.9 National Urban Development Strategy 2015
The National Urban Development Strategy has been prepared in 2015 in order to guide the
urbanization process in a planned and well-organized way. It reviews the institutional framework
to facilitate the implementation and monitoring of National Urban Policy 2007 and proposed
urban development strategy. It is also expected that the implementation of the National Urban
Development strategy 2015 will make a considerable support to Nepal’s effort to graduate from
the Least Developed Country (LDC) to the Developing County (DC).
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The main objective of the National Urban strategy is to develop medium and long term strategic
vision of a desirable national/regional urban system based on existing trends and regional
resource potentialities.
The National Urban Development Strategy is guided by five basic principles; namely, that the
urban centers should be:
1. Sustainable
2. Inclusive
3. Resilient
4. Green
5. Efficient
In 2011 census, the urban population of Nepal was about 19% of the total population of the
country, concentrated in 58 municipalities. In 2014, 133 new municipalities were added bringing
the total number of municipalities to 191 and the urban population to 38.26% of the total
population of the country (NUDS, 2015). 26 numbers of municipalities were further added in
2015 and the total number of municipalities increased to 217 and the urban population is
expected to be increased to 42% nearly.
The medium growth rate is estimated to be 2.8% per annum for the population projection in
urban areas during 2011 to 2031. However, the rapidly urbanizing municipalities are expected to
have growth rate of 3.5%. By 2031, the projected population in urban areas is 17.9 million
(NUDS, 2015).
The poverty in urban areas is increasing rapidly. In 2003/4, about 10% of the urban population
was below the poverty line, which increased up to 15% in 2010/11.
The lack of affordable housing and increasing squatter settlements are major concerns in the
urban housing sector, due to there is growing deficit in housing and increasing percentage of
squatter settlement in the urban areas. The squatter comprises about 10% of the urban
population.
So, the main objective of the National Urban Development Strategy in the urban housing sector
is to provide affordable, adequate and safe housing.
The National Urban Development Strategy includes the facilitation of the private sectors to
provide service to the low income group of people, regularize the standard of group housing, and
promotion of innovative, economic and environment friendly buildings. It also includes the
strategies to discourage the squatter settlements and encroachment; encourage the cooperative
mechanisms to produce housing for the low income groups and facilitate the production of
service land through public-private/community partnership (NUDS, 2015).

2.10 Housing need fulfillment practices in International Context

The urbanization is increasing rapidly worldwide. The urban population of the world has been
doubled in 20 years since 1990. In 1990, the urban population of the world was about 1.5 billion,
which increased up to 3.6 billion in 2011, and much of the urban population growth is
concentrated in the developing countries. Nearly, one billion of the world’s urban population
lives in the slums which are characterized by the inadequate physical infrastructures, high
population density and confined quarters. These urban slums are not expected to be the
permanent solution of the housing problem for the urban poor, but rather the result of poverty
trap. The housing programs of the United States have also begun to give priority to
neighborhoods’ housing quality in the recent day. The developing countries such as Indonesia,
China, Brazil, Thailand, Kenya, Nigeria and India have taken good initiatives to respond to the

21
housing problems of the low income groups of people with housing opportunities at the
periphery of the cities (NBER, 2015).
2.10.1 Housing need fulfillment practices in India
A major change in the housing perspective came with the launching of the first five year plan
(1951-56) in 1951in India, with the acknowledgement that the public sector must play a positive
role to fulfill the housing need. The first plan also recognized that the low income groups of
people could not afford even the minimum housing cost, and the government took up the
initiative to provide the housing services to the low income group of people, which was later
extended also to the middle income group of people in the second plan (1956-61).
The implementation of the explicit policy on granting security and tenure to the urban poor in
India could be taken as the useful lesson that can be learnt from it. It was realized that
regularizing the squatter settlements would be the most suitable approach for extending the
security and land tenure to the urban squatters. The first state of India to implement this policy
was Madhya Pradesh, and later on it was gradually applied to the other states of India. This was
done through the unique legislation, widely known as ‘Patta Act’, which was enacted in 1984
and provided the basis for granting leasehold right to the Pattas to every house with the physical
improvement such as water taps, latrines, roads, drainages etc (Pough, 1990).
The public sector is still playing a remarkable role for ensuring the access for the urban poor to
the serviced land and housing, in India. The method of land supply through the acquisition
process by the public sector was more popular and traditional preferred. However, due to the
growing unwillingness of the land owners and increasing land price, this land acquisition method
is becoming more difficult nowadays. So, a variety of alternative methods are being
implemented on the basis of the three types of public interventions for making the land
accessible for the urban poor. The three types of public interventions are as following:

❖ Use of regular framework to create conditions for land supply for the poor through the
market.
❖ Providing Institutional finance on reasonable terms for land assembly and development
for the poor and making better use of existing public land services.
❖ By spreading cost and lowering initial cost through incremental land development.

The Housing Policy of India

The aim of the housing policy of India is to promote the development of cost effective, quality
building materials and technologies with view to bringing down the cost of EWS/LIG houses.
80.7 million People are below poverty line in India which is about one fourth of the total urban
population of the country. The urban poor constitute 26.7% of the total poor in the India. So, the
housing policy of India has also facilitated to provide the flow of large funds from the
government and private sources to address the housing needs by designing and encouraging the
innovative financial investments (Shah, S.K., and Mishra, A.K., 2018).

National Urban Rental Housing Policy 2015

This policy focuses on the promotion of rental housing in urban areas which has been recognized
by the National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy (NUHHP), 2007. It intends to promote the

22
sustainable development of ownership as well as rental housing stock in the country with a view
to ensure equitable supply of rental housing at affordable prices to all section of the society. the
National Urban Rental Housing Policy (NURHP), 2015 also focuses on a multipronged approach
such as enabling legal and regulatory measures, encourage involvement of Private Sector,
Cooperative, Non-Governmental Sector, Industrial Sector (for labor housing) and the
Services/Institutional Sector (for employee housing), to promote rental housing. The Policy
seeks to promote various types of public-private partnerships for promotion of rental housing in
the country which will act as a catalytic force to achieve the overall goal of Housing for All by
2022 (NURHP, 2015) .

The main vision of this policy is ‘To create a vibrant, sustainable and inclusive rental housing
market in India’.

The broad objectives of the NURHP, 2015 are:

1. To create adequate rental housing stock by promoting Social Rental Housing (SRH) with
direct or indirect support from Government (State) with special focus on affordability of
vulnerable groups and urban poor.
2. To promote Shelter facilities for the most vulnerable groups within the homeless
population such as single women and their dependent minor children, aged, infirm,
disabled, mentally challenged etc.
3. To promote Social Rental Housing for urban poor (EWS and LIG as defined by
Government of India from time to time) as a viable alternative housing option.
4. To promote Need Based Rental Housing (short/mid/long term basis) for specific target
groups such as migrant labor, single women, single men, students (any other target group
as defined by the State) who have the ability to pay only up to a certain amount of
monthly rent.
5. To promote Market Driven Rental Housing (MDRH may or may not be eligible for direct
benefits from government):
6. To promote Private Rental Housing (PRH) as an interim measure towards aspirational
home buyers.
7. To enable Institutional Rental Housing (Hostels/PGs/dormitories) for working class with
special focus on low earning employees working with Government/PSUs/Corporate
houses/Industries/NGOs etc (any other category as defined by the State Government from
time to time).
8. To remove legal, financial and administrative barriers for facilitating access to tenure,
land, finance and technology.
9. To enable formalization/regularization of Rental Housing on pan India basis through
adoption of Model Tenancy Act, 2015 of Ministry of HUPA.
10. To facilitate fund flow from government and private sector through innovative financial
Instruments to incentivize rental housing.
11. To promoting Public-Private Partnership (PPP) to construct, manage, maintain and
operate rental housing stock (Cooperative societies, Neighborhood Associations,
Resident Welfare Associations etc.).
The Urban Rental Housing Policy 2015 has also formulated the appropriate targets in order to
meet the objectives mentioned above. Apart from this, this policy has also clearly defined the

23
roles of the Central Government, State Government, Urban Local Bodies and the other
institutions and entities in a separate and distinct manner, in order to ensure equitable supply of
rental housing for all groups of people.
Apart from making plans and policies, India has also launched many projects in order to meet the
housing need of the low income group of people. Some of the popular projects carried out for
providing housing service to the low income group of people are briefly mentioned below:

A. Housing Lottery Scheme in Ahmadabad

The lottery housing scheme is one of the popular project launched by the Indian Government. It
was initially launched in the major cities of India like Delhi, Ahmadabad etc. The objective of
the housing lottery scheme is to provide the housing facility to the low income group of people
living in slums and squatters of the urban areas, at the minimum housing cost and with the
subsidized loan facility. The main feature of this housing scheme is to provide the minimum cost
with tenure security, and at the subsidized interest rate on the loan amount.

This housing scheme was launched in Ahmadabad, which is India’s sixth most populous urban
areas and the largest city in Gujarat. The population of Ahmadabad is about 6.4 million as per
the census in 2011. The housing lottery scheme was initiated in Ahmadabad by the ‘Self
Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)’ with the cooperation of the several government
agencies. The SEWA is a collection of trade groups with membership of over 500000 women in
Gujarat (NBER, 2015).
This scheme was focused towards providing the housing facility to the ‘beedi’ workers of the
city with a monthly income less than US $ 11.28 i.e. IRs. 700. The key motivations of the
housing lottery scheme in Ahmadabad was stated as reducing the housing cost and improving the
tenure security, both of which was believed to contribute to school dropout cost among the beedi
workers’ children. 497 numbers of eligible women entered the lottery scheme who basically
came from two caste groups; Kosthi (35%) and Padmasali (41%), where as Musalmans (10%)
was the third largest group (NBER, 2015).
Six years after the lottery, the SEWA Union worked with the Ahmadabad Urban Development
Authority (AUDA) to construct houses on a vacant land situated 7.5 miles from the city centre.
The housing units were single storey row houses of approximately 200 square feet situated back
to back with a narrow alley running in between. The construction cost of each housing unit was
IRs. 45,000 and the residents paid an initial deposit of IRs. 900. Then they paid IRs 124 in
monthly rent and this rent was guaranteed for 20 years, which was less than half the average rent
at the city area of Ahmadabad (NBER, 2015).

B. Housing for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS), Madras

This program was launched for the low income group of people to provide the housing facility at
the minimum cost. The size of each housing unit was 28.00 square meter and the proposed cost
was IRs. 67,000.00 Per housing unit. The peripheral development was subsidized by the
government of India and the contribution for IRs 20,000.00 per unit was provided by the Delhi
Development Authority (DDA) by taking loan from Plan Funds at the rate of 9%. The
beneficiaries have to pay IRs. 27,000.00 as an initial down payment and the remaining cost in 15
years payback period with the monthly installment of IRs. 399.00 At the interest rate of 9%
(Pough, 1990).

24
The provision of the housing plot is also based on cross subsidy; i.e. 70% of the plot is allowed
for the economically weak sections of the society, 2% for high income groups, 3% for middle
income groups and 25% for the low income group of people.

C. State Housing Board

The Ministry of Works, Housing and Supply of Indian Government developed several housing
schemes that were focused towards providing the housing facility to the different income groups
of people.
The Integrated Subsidized Housing Scheme is one of the housing schemes developed by the
Ministry of Works, Housing and Supply, in which houses are provided for the industrial workers
and economically weak sector of the society, whose monthly income is less than IRs. 350.00. It
is based on the principle of 50% loan, 50% subsidy and 7% interest rate.

Similarly, The Low Income Group Housing Scheme is another housing scheme in which houses
are provided for those whose annual income is less than IRs. 7,200.00 And who are far away
from the housing facility. The individual is provided the loan up to 80% at the interest rate of
7.5% with the payback period of 25 years. The size of the housing unit is 232 sq. ft. to 1200 sq.ft
(Shah, S.K., and Mishra, A.K., 2018).

D. Dharabi Redevelopment Project

The Dharabi Redevelopment Project is located between the two main sub-urban rail lines of
Mumbai. It provides the affordable housing opportunity to those who move to Mumbai to earn
money for their daily life. The cost of the project is IRs.21000 crores and the annual turnover is
estimated to be more than $ 650 million per year. The main objective of this project is to
redevelop and transform the squatter settlements into a modern township.
The residents of Dharabi were provided with the tenements in close proximity of Dharabi or
Dharabi itself in the implementation phase of the project. The developer bears the cost on the
rent of tenements; whereas the slum dwellers bear the expenditure of consumables (water,
electricity, etc). A guarantee of 15 years in the maintenance of infrastructure services within the
apartment buildings is provided by the developers, for the benefit of the residents. The land
owner is facilitated with 70% premium and the investment from the government side is not
offered (Shah, S.K., and Mishra, A.K., 2018).

E. Slum Improvement and Upgrading

One of the major projects which are playing a remarkable role both in slum improvement and in
slum rehabilitation is the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission. The Jawaharlal Nehru
Urban Renewal Mission also provides the security of tenure, affordable housing and basic
services to the low income groups in the urban areas of India.
The provision of a better environment is being encouraged with cross subsidization and special
incentives by the inner city slum redevelopment programs.
For facilitating the land development and improvement of basic amenities in slums, the land
pooling and sharing arrangements would be encouraged.
The provision of housing to the urban poor at their current location or near their work place is
emphasized through the policy. The policy has also made some efforts to ensure that the tenure
rights provided are non-transferable for 10-15 years of time periods.

25
To provide better shelter serviced by basic amenities through thrift and credit based CBOs, the
Groups Cooperative Housing Societies of urban poor and slum dwellers is being formed and
encouraged across the country.
Considering the deficiencies in housing and urban infrastructure emphasizing on the urban poor
and indicates a vision based on various levels of spatial plans along with the investment plan for
their implementation, a 15-20 years perspective plan is prepared at the local levels by the cities
(Shah, S.K., and Mishra, A.K., 2018).
2.10.2 Housing need fulfillment practice in Pakistan
Pakistan demonstrated an emergence of informal slum settlements termed as ‘Katchi Abadis’ in
the process of urbanization in 1980’s and 1990’s. In order to address this problem, well stratified
plan of action was designed to ensure a harmonious resolution of those settlements. Upgrading of
those Katchi Abadis in Pakistan, recognized as sub-system of the overall urban settlement
system, were done through the provision of security of tenure, infrastructure, and community
facilities. The facilities provided through the Orangi Pilot Project launched in one of the biggest
Katchi Abadis in Karachi inhabited by 1 million people, consisted of water supply, sanitation and
street paving; and other facilities such as electricity, education, and community welfare etc. were
provided by respective sectorial resources (Ahmed, 1995).

Fahad Square, which built 10 years ago, is an apartment complex with 248 housing units for low
income group of people, located near the city centre. It is different from the other sites, as it is
not a settlement consisting of houses on individual plots but a developer-built apartment
complex. It is located in an urban-development project in sub-urban Karachi, and is designed by
the Karachi Development Authority (KDA) on 26,000 acre (65,000 ha.) land. It is built on 1.5
acre (0.60 ha.) of land and consists of 248 apartments and 56 shops. Each apartment has three
rooms and a covered area of 68.2 sq. meters. The whole apartment is a walk up affair of ground
plus four floors. The average household size is 5.72 persons per apartment, yielding a density of
2,329 persons per hectare. The housing units in the apartment complex are also different from
those in other case study as they have balconies, attached bathrooms with glazed tiles and
‘American Kitchen’, and they project a different culture and way of life, which is imposed by the
developer (Ahmed, 1995).
2.10.3 Housing need fulfillment practice in Bangladesh
In the scenario of the rapid urbanization and increasing urban poverty, the national constitution
of Bangladesh has recognized the housing as a basic need for the people. As a result, the
National Housing Policy was formulated and implemented in 1993 A.D. in order to guarantee the
housing right to every people. However, the access of poor and marginalized groups to the
proper housing is still insufficient.
In the recent decades, the urbanization has reached a critical level due to insufficient
infrastructure services and employment. Specially in Dhaka, 55% of its 6,00,000 per year
population is increasing due to in-migration from rural areas. In 1991, 46% of the population of
Dhaka were in-migrants and most of them had to face economic crisis and absence of accessible
and affordable shelter and services, and pushed them to shelter in the slums and squatter, which
they locally called as ‘bastees’. The number of population living in the bastee was realized to be
increasing in uncontrolled way, in 1971 for the first time (Rahman, 2010).

26
As a result, the formulation of plans and policies were prepared and implemented to solve the
housing problems for the poor, and many projects were implemented to manage the housing for
urban poor in an effective way.
Among such initiations, the ‘Grameen’ is one of the micro-financing organizations in
Bangladesh, which is dedicated to provide loans to the low income groups of people without
conventional individual collaterals. This concept was introduced in 1979 and the system is
implemented in forty three countries now. It is based on a philosophy that poor does not create
the poverty but it is created by the institutions and policies that surrounds them. It also explains
that, it is not only the lack of skills which makes people poor (Shrestha, 2011).

2.10.4 Housing need fulfillment practice in China

The commercialization of housing in urban areas has been promoted by the Chinese Government
since 1978. The housing and property development has become large business in China, with
new cities and suburbs building up with new apartments, and the prices of the housing units have
been increased surprisingly in the few recent years.
Rental housing
The old flats are provided on rent at a very low price by the government of China. The flats are
locally called 'Lian Zu Fang', which literally means 'low-rent house' or 'low-rent housing’ in
Chinese language. The government of China has also implemented another popular scheme
called the “Public Rental Housing” (PRH) scheme which is the first initiation to use non-
ownership housing to solve the housing problem of people, primarily focusing on providing the
housing facilities to the local young staff and migrant workers who have relatively low income
(NURHP, 2015).
The Chinese government has also initiated a variety of tax exemptions for companies responsible
for constructing and managing public rental-housing projects, on state. The government of China
has also led Low-income rental housing, using rent subsidies and direct providing low-rent
housing. Rental housing subsidies mean that the government provides different rent subsidies to
eligible family based on rent standards, through the rental housing subsidies schemes. Fund
mobilization for rental housing is done through the following ways:
➢ The governmental fiscal budget has made the provision of a special fund for the rental
housing;
➢ A low-rent housing guarantee fund has been created for it;
➢ The management cost, maintenance fee and capital cost are paid by rent, after the
completion of the construction work of the public rental housing project.
➢ The new ways of expanding the financing channel such as Real Estate Investment Trusts
(REITs) are also being explored by the country, for public rental housing.
➢ The private funds for increasing the funds excessively for public rental housing have also
been facilitated.
➢ The developers and investors are provided with the incentives to participate in the
construction of public rental housing. The local government is forced to provide a variety
of preferential policies to attract more companies to join because of the price difference
between public rental housing and commercial housing.
Some of the incentives are
➢ The negotiation between the developer and the authority is done about land price in case
they are building rental housing;
➢ No any tax is imposed on urban land use for land developed for public rental housing.
The government does not impose stamp duty for the construction of such projects, and
27
 waives both taxes and stamp duties in cases where a property-management organization
or firm purchases apartments for the public rental housing use.
➢ The government also offers exemptions on deed tax and property tax.
➢ Some beneficial rules for public rental housing are also offered, like the discount of 50%-
70% for land transfer fee, and 1.5 to 2 times of residential floor area ratio comparison
with commercial housing.
2.11 Initiatives Undertaken for fulfilling the housing need in Nepal
Like other developing countries, Nepal has also recognized the problem of housing need for the
low income group of people according to which several initiatives for the fulfillment of the
housing need have been undertaken since long ago. However these attempts are of small scale
compared to the scale of the increasing housing problem of the people.
Several models of land development programs were launched in the mid seventies such as Site
and Services (S&S), Guided Land Development (GLD) and Land Pooling (LP), by the Nepal
government. These programs were conducted within the legislative framework in the form of
Town Development Act 2045 (1988). Although these programs achieved a considerable progress
in serving a population of the urban areas, with 7665 developed plots, they were meant only for
the middle and high income groups of people and as a result, the low income groups were still
far away from the access of the adequate housing facilities (Malla, 2004). Although the private
housing companies, the commercial banking sector and other agencies are playing an active role
for providing the housing facilities in the urban areas, they are more focused on the high and
middle income groups of people rather than the low income groups.
2.11.1 People Housing Program (Janta Awash Karyakram)
The ‘People Housing Program (PHP)’ also known as ‘Janta Awash Karyakram’ has been
launched in 2009, by The Department of Urban Development and Building Construction
(DUDBC), Ministry of Physical Planning and Works of Nepal Government. This program has
been initiated in order to meet the objectives set by the Interim Constitution 2006 of Nepal. The
Nepal Government included the program in its budget of fiscal year 2009/10. The main objective
of this program is to provide access to the adequate housing facility for the poor and excluded
groups of the society. In order to meet this objective and to implement the program in an
effective way, first of all ‘People Housing Program Working Policy 2006’ was prepared which
provided a well planned and structured procedures for the beneficiaries selection, fund
disbursement and institutional mechanism for the execution of the program. The Nepal
Government allocated the budget of NRs. 300 million in 2009 for the execution of the program
by constructing the low cost housing units for the excluded groups (dalits) and disadvantaged
Musalmans of the three districts; Saptari, Siraha and Kapilbastu. Initially, the project had
targeted to construct 1,000 housing units in each of the three districts by the end of fiscal year
2010/11. However, the construction work of 999 housing units in Saptari district, 848 units in
Siraha district and 426 units in Kapilbastu were initiated, among which 999 housing units in
Saptari district, 324 housing units in Siraha district and 80 units in Kapilbastu district were
completed by the end of fiscal year 2010/11 (DUDBC, 2011).
Then after, the program was continued and expanded in other districts also. The program has
been implemented in 33 districts, and a total of 5,981 number of housing units have been
constructed, whereas 2,388 housing units are under construction till the end of fiscal year
2014/15.

28
The plinth area of each housing unit is 30.16 sq. m., comprising of two rooms with a verandah
and a small cooking space. The cost of each housing unit is NRs. 1,49,280.00, among which the
beneficiaries have to contribute NRs. 10,000.00 in term of cash or kind and the remaining
amount is distributed directly to the account of the beneficiaries as a grant from the Government
of Nepal (GoN).

Photo2. 5 People Housing Program, Rupandehi Photo2. 6 People Housing Program, Chitwan

(Shah, S.K., and Mishra, A.K., 2018) (Shah, S.K., and Mishra, A.K., 2018)

2.11.2 Lumanti Housing

Lumanti is a non-government organization dedicated to the poverty alleviation in Nepal, through
the improvement of housing condition for the poor people. Its establishment is related with the
first national workshop on ‘The issues of squatter settlements’ organized in 1990. The key
person for organizing this workshop was Dr. Ramesh Manandhar, who died in a Thai airbus
crash in 1993. In order to take forward his dream of ‘secure shelter for the poor’, the Lumanti
was established in 1993, which literally means the ‘memory’ in Newari language.
The vision of Lumanti is to ‘make safe, secured and sustainable communities where people have
their rights respected leading to a dignified life’. Its goal is to ‘provide secured housing through
sustainable enhancement of living condition of the poor through social, physical and legal
transformation (LUMANTI, 2008).
The Lumanti has been established with a mission to alleviate poverty and hardship through
advocacy and improvement in housing and socio-economic conditions including access to
WASH facilities. Realizing the problem of housing services faced by many low income groups
of people, Lumanti has been initiating many housing programs in many urban centers of Nepal,
since its establishment. In association with the municipalities, the Lumanti has currently
launched a ‘Program for improvement of the housing and living condition of the urban poor in
Nepal’. It is also facilitating the role in aiding two individual dwellers federation in 30 districts in
securing housing rights for the poor communities in Nepal. The Slum Upgrading Forum, an
informal network of the organizations involved in slum and squatter improvement, initiated by
Lumanti, has also been set up and meeting is held occasionally to discuss the related issues (UN-
Habitat, 2010).

29
Among the various housing projects launched by Lumanti, some of the major housing projects
are mentioned below:
2.11.3 Ichangu Housing
The Nepal Government brought 20% of allocated land for the urban poor from the Ichangu Land
Pooling Project, in which 233 units of cost effective apartments are being constructed. The whole
housing project was implemented in two phases. In the first phase, 130 housing units in 3 blocks;
B1, B2 and B3 with housing units 40, 45 and 45 respectively were constructed. The construction
work of the first phase of Ichangu Housing has been recently completed, where as the second
phase of this project, with 103 housing units is ongoing. The buildings of both the phases are of 5
storey, in which RCC frame structure with hollow concrete block as infill material and are being
built on the land of 4-3-1-3 (21416.53 sq. m.) for the first phase and 3-4-0-0 (17797.00 sq. m.)
for the second phase (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.11.4 Housing Program executed by Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI)
The Habitat for Humanity International (HFHI) has been focusing on assisting to solve the
housing problem in the rural areas of several districts of Nepal, by working with the local
agencies. Their housing module consists of; housing development from a basic module of two
rooms with additional one room, and the construction work is carried out by step by step
approach promoting the locally available materials with cost effective technology and transfer of
knowledge (UN-Habitat, 2010). In 2009, The Habitat for Humanity International worked on
5,000 units of urban slums upgrading project in Kavre district, in the partnership with the local
saving cooperatives.
Apart from this, The HFHI has also assisted 1000 families through better housing program, and
recently it has planned to construct 1,00,000 housing units over next 5 years in the partnership
with the microfinance institutions, banks, cooperatives and self-help groups (HFH, 2012).
2.11.5 The UN-HABITAT Resettlement Project
The UN-Habitat carried out the resettlement project for the families affected from the Koshi
flood of August 2008 in the Eastern Nepal, funded by UNDP and UN-Habitat, and executed
through the collaboration with the local government, communities, the NGOs like Lumanti and
HFHI, and the other concerned organizations. The approaches of the project can be summarized
in the term of several aspects such as working in partnership, facilitating and supporting the
participatory approach and pro-poor approaches (UN-Habitat, 2010).
2.11.6 Shelter and Local Technology Development Centre (SLTDC) Low Cost Housing
Units
The Shelter and Local Technology Development Centre (SLTDC) applied mainly the following
technologies to decrease the construction cost of the housing units:
1. The hollow concrete block masonry was used, which was cheaper than traditionally used
brick masonry by 37.5%
2. The precast concrete system was used which eliminated the use of huge formwork and
economized the construction cost of the RCC slab by 25%. Additionally, it allowed
reducing the cost of ceiling plaster economizing the cost by 10%. It also reduced the time
taken for the construction work.
3. The masonry projection for doors and windows frame was applied which reduced the
cost up to 70%.

30
Initially, 1 unit of the housing was constructed for demonstration, at Satungal, Kathmandu. Its
construction cost was just NRs. 50000000 including the cost of land too (Shrestha, 2011).
2.11.7 The Ex-Kamaiya Neighborhood
The Ex-Kamaiya has been focused by the Nepal Government and INGOs, after they have been
liberalized from slavery system. The Nepal Government facilitated them with the land to
construct their houses, begin farming and lead their life freely. Similarly, several INGOs like
Action Aid Nepal (AAN) and Habitat for Humanity (HFH) supported the ex-kamaiyas by
building the houses for them. The construction cost of each housing unit was NRs. 75,000.00
($1,000), excluding the cost of infrastructures such as electricity, toilet, water, roads and
drainage.
The management committee was formed including the ex-kamaiyas, which was responsible for
channeling of funds and coordinating with the local government to get wood from the forest. Out
of 40,000 ex-kamaiyas, 10,000 of them received the small plots of infertile land. Yet the living
standard of the ex-kamaiyas was not improved as it was expected, since providing free land was
not enough, additionally the skill development training and interest free loan are also needed to
facilitate them with employment opportunities (Shah, S. K., 2016).
2.11.8 National Housing Company (Rastriya AAwash Company)
The National Housing Company, initially named as ‘National Resettlement Company’, was
established in 1963, with the following main objectives:
➢ To arrange houses for the homeless, helpless and disaster affected families by securing
resources from relevant institutions.
➢ To promote the planned settlement. The government share is 52% and the remaining 48%
for the public subscription. The share for the public share has not been issued yet, and
hence it is a fully government owned company. The company is generating its resources
from the sale of housing plots and has made provision for the development and general
expenditure also. Although the Nepal Government does not make the regular budget
available, the encroached public land is used to launch the housing and market area
development program.
The conditions for the cost recovery include; the beneficiary has to pay back the cost of the
house within 10 years period i.e. maximum 120 installment in monthly basis. If an individual
fails to pay 5 installments continuously, the company takes the late charge and if in case it is
found to be ignored, the house is transferred in the name of the new beneficiary. Nepal
government has now proposed to expand the scope of the company in the urban areas too.
The National Resettlement Company completed ten resettlement projects in seven districts till
1989 by converting the forest areas into the productive farmland. 19076 families in total were
resettled in 26347 hectors of land in 26 years from its establishment. In 1989, the National
Resettlement Company was re-organized and named as Rural Housing Company. The Rural
Housing Company has been running the five major projects in the following areas of Nepal:
1. Kakarvitta, Jhapa
2. Kavrepalanchowk
3. Nabalparasi, Makar
4. Bardia, Tara Tal
5. Kanchanpur, Parasan, Tribhuwan Basti
In 2012, the Rural Housing Company realized that it was necessary to expand its activities in the
urban areas too. Accordingly, the company was affiliated through the Ministry of Urban

31
Development and the office of the Company Resister, and it was restructured and named as
‘National Housing Company (i.e. Rastriya Awash Company)’

2.12 People Housing Program Implementation Guideline

In order to implement the people housing (Janata Awash Program) in the selected settlements,
the 'People Housing Program Implementation Guideline 2009' was approved by GoN,
Ministerial cabinet on the date 2066/11/05. It has six sections and 23 clauses with 4 annex. Till
the date of approval It has been amended four times by GoN, Ministerial cabinet meeting on
different dates. Finally, province 5 of Nepal has also revised the 'People Housing Program
Implementation Guideline 2073' and named as 'Province No 5 People Housing Program
Implementation Guideline 2075'.
Table2.8 Revision in People Housing Program Implementation Guideline 2009

Name after amendment

Amendment Serial No
1
People Housing Program Implementation Guideline 2068
2
People Housing Program Implementation Guideline 2069
3
People Housing Program Implementation Guideline 2071
4
People Housing Program Implementation Guideline 2073
5 Province No 5 People Housing Program Implementation Guideline
2075

32
 3 Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Process
In order to meet objectives of the study, different literatures related to social parameter and
housing condition of urban area and rural area, housing situation and their demand in these area,
Plans, policies, rules and regulations related to the housing need in context of Nepal an existing
implementation condition of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi have been collected and
studied, which provided the secondary data relevant to this study. After the collection of the
information and data required for the case study, the data have been analyzed, synthesised,
interpreted and assimilated to solve the need of the housing facilities for the dalits and poor
musalmans and assessment of implementation condition of Janata Awash Program in
Rupandehi.After the analysis of the data from the different dimensions, different alternative ways
for the solutions have been identified among which the best alternative solution for meeting the
need of the housing facilities for dalit and poor musim and present implementation condition of
Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi have been recognised.
But for this study, the group of people co related with only Janata Awash Program are
considered as the low income groups, since the study is focussed on the housing needs, concept
and level of housing need of for the dalits and poor musalmans who are either selected
beneficiaries or non selected beneficiaries and also the implementation status of program.
The whole process of the methodology for this study can be schematically demonstrated by the
help of the figure 3.1.

3.2 Study Area

In Rupandehi, program is widely spread in to large area within (17 VDC and 4 Municipality
before rearrangement of local levels).Study areas are those areas where program is scattered.
Study areas are listed below and shown on Photo 3.1 (DUDBC R. D., 2076) .
1. Devdaha 5.Bodhabar 9. Sktahan 13. Mainahiya
2. Tilottama 6. Karauta 10. Bagaha 14. Hatbangai
3. Sainamaina 7.Dhakadhai 11. Basantapur 15. Binupura
4. Lumbini 8. Pokharbhindi 12. Bogadi 16.Suryapura
17. Rayapur

3.3 Population Selection and Sampling

A sample is a part of the population that was actually examined in order to gather the
information of the whole population.
For this study, the files related to Janata Awash Program being implemented in Rupandehi will
be reviewed at UDBO Rupandhi. Moreover diversified types of respondent will be selected. The
respondent will be present and former Senior Divisional Engineers, Engineers, Sub Engineer,
Social Mobilizer, Section Officer from DUDBC Rupandehi division, UDBO Rupandehi and
Ministry of Physical Infrastructure Development, Province No 5.

33
 Local Leaders under concern local authority, selected beneficiaries, Non Selected Applicants and
Construction Not Started Applicants are selected as respondents.
Out of total population total no of sample size selected for primary data collection is 99 as shown
below in Table 10. 5 set of questionnaire for different group of respondents shall be prepared and
distributed.

Research conceptualization

Setting out the objectives and scope

Data Collection
L
i
t
e
Primary Data Secondary Data
r
a
t
u
Unstructured r
Scheduled National Policies and Publications
Interview Population other related and websites e
Questionnaire with different
problem and housing documents
stakeholders census
of program reports R
e
Local Leaders Applicants and
v
Housing Books Research
and i
beneficiaries of Requirement and and
implementation e
program Journal seminar
staff
s papers w

Synthesis and Compilation of Data

Data Analysis

Result and Discussion

Conclusion
Figure3.1 Research Process

34
 Table 3.1 Respondents of Primary Data for the Questionnaire Survey

SN Category of Respondents Number Percentage

1 Implementation Level Staff 11 11.11
2 Local Leaders 14 14.14
3 Beneficiaries Under Construction/Complete Construction 50 50.51
4 Non Selected Applicants 15 15.15
5 Construction Not Start Applicants 9 9.09
Total 99 100

Photo 3.1 Map of Rupandehi

Source: http://ddcrupandehi.gov.np/en/district-profile

35
3.4 Data Collection
Both the primary data and the secondary data were collected to carry out this study. To fulfil the
first objective of the study, the primary data were obtained from the expert consultation while
secondary data have been obtained from the study of National Census Reports of Nepal. The
study of the plans, policies and other related document will also be carried out. The study of the
National Census Reports of Nepal, plan and policies related to population growth and
urbanization pattern have been focussed towards finding out the number of population, housing
level and condition of Rupandehi district. The expert consultations have been focussed towards
finding out the scenario of the housing need for the low income groups.
To fulfil the second objective of the study, the primary data have been obtained from the
questionnaire survey and interview with the experts and the local groups (selected, non selected,
construction not started). The questionnaire survey and interview with the experts and the local
poor groups have been focussed towards finding out the perception of the local low income
groups for the fulfilment of their housing needs.
To fulfil the third objective of the study, the questionnaire survey as well as the consultation with
the concerned experts and with the local people have been carried out which provide the primary
data for the study. Similarly, the interview with the concerned government agencies ( DUDBC,
Ministry of Physical Infrastructure Development etc.), policy makers and implementers have
been also been conducted which yield the primary data required for finding out the appropriate
approach to fulfil the housing needs for the low income groups, at the reasonable cost.
Apart from the primary data, the secondary data have been also obtained to fulfil the third
objective of the study. For this purpose, the study of different factors affecting the appropriate
method for the fulfilment of the housing need for the poor musalmans and dalits have been also
be carried out.

3.5 Data Analysis

In this research data analysis was done at different stage using statistical tools as following.
3.5.1 Relative Importance Index
Regarding the second and third objective of the study, the hierarchy of the important factors
influencing the housing needs, and appropriateness of the methods for the fulfillment of the
housing need were identified using the Relative Importance Index (RII). The participating
respondents have provided numerical scoring expressing their opinions on the degree of
importance of each Indicator. The data collected were analyzed using various statistical methods.
The relative importance of the different option have been identified using the relative importance
index (Aibinu and Odeyinka, 2006)

RII = ∑ i=1
5 Wi Xi Average Importance
or x 100% (Mishra, A.K., 2019)
Axn 5
Where,
Wi =the weight given to the ith response: i=1, 2, 3, 4,5,
Xi = frequency of the ith response,
A= the highest weight (5 in this study), and
n= the number of respondents.

36
3.5.2 Analytical Research
In this study the descriptive research was also be carried out. The analytical research was mainly
focussed for the first and third objectives of the study. The analytical research was helpful to find
out the number of housing units required to be built for the fulfilment of the housing need in
Rupandehi for dait and poor musalman. Analytical questionnaire survey was also used to find
out, analyse and summarize the perception, level and condition of poor musalman and dalits in
study area.
3.5.3 Earned Value Analysis
Earned value analysis was carried out to find out the relation between the financial progress and
physical progress. Data obtained from Ministry of Physical Infrastructure Development Province
No5 was used for this analysis (MOPID.P5, 2076).
Planned Value(PV)
Earned value(EV)=value of the % of work complete
Actual cost(AC)
BAC
Cost variance (CV)=EV-AC
Schedule Variance(SV)=EV- PV
Cost Performance Index(CPI)=EV/AC
Schedule Performance Index(SPI)=EV/PV=
If there is no variance at all:
Estimate at Completion (EAC)=BAC
Estimate to Compete(ETC)=EAC-AC
If there is no variance and it is expected to continue:
Estimate at Completion (EAC)=BAC/CPI
Estimate to Compete(ETC)=(BAC/CPI)-AC
If there is variance ,but now it's gone:
Estimate at completion(EAC)=AC+BAC-EV
Estimate to Compete(ETC)=BAC-EV
Variance at Completion (VAC)=BAC-EAC
i. If there is no variance at all:
VAC=BAC-EA
ii. If there is no variance and it is expected to continue:
VAC=BAC-EAC
iii. If there is variance ,but now it's gone:
VAC=BAC-EAC
Total Cost Performance Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)
i. If there is no variance at all:
To Complete Performance Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)
ii. If there is no variance and it is expected to continue:
To Complete Performance Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)
iii. If there is variance ,but now it's gone:
To Complete Performance Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)
Note: BAC= Budget at Completion

37
3.6 Summary of Research Process
The summary of whole research process is shown in the table 3.2.
Table3.2 Summary of Research Process

S.N. Objectives Information Data Collection Data Analysis

required
1 To find out the concept, level Scenario of Government Bodies, Analytical
and housing need of dalit and population of NGOs, INGOs Analysis
poor musalman in Rupandehi the low dalit and Primary data.
district and poor
mulsims in
Rupandehi..

2 To find out the perception of Factors Field study and Relative

the targeted group of people affecting Government Bodies, Importance
regarding the fulfilment of different NGOs, INGOs and Index (RII).
their housing need and approaches of Primary Data.
formation of user committee. the housing
needs.

3 To find out the financial Progress Government Bodies, RII and Earned
mobilization status and work report and NGOs, INGOs. Value
progress and appropriate way status and Analysis.
to address the housing need other data
for the targeted group of the
people in Rupandehi.

38
 4 Chapter 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Characteristics of Low Income Groups
In order to fulfill the objectives of the research, the concept, level and housing need of dalits and
poor musalmans groups of the study area has been studied and analyzed. The study of different
characteristics were related to household size and population, Ethnic composition of the
settlements, occupation, economic status, education, status of occupancy, migration, housing
condition, housing type and roofing material were studied which are mentioned below:
4.1.1 The Concept of Housing Need
Housing demand refers to the willingness and ability to purchase a house. Housing need refers to
the number of houses required, given growth in households, itself derived from household size
and population growth. If those who need houses are unable to afford houses, they don't buy or
demand them.
At present, 91.6 per cent and 72 per cent of the people own houses in the country and urban areas
respectively. In Nepal 2.5 million new houses meaning a total of 250,000 new houses are being
constructed per year and about 17 per cent (43,653 new units every year) of them in urban areas
(Shah S. &., 2018).
Rupandehi is the district on terai region of province no 5. D (Shah S. &., 2018)uring study, we
found a great need of proper housing for poor musalmans and dalits. Most of the dalits and
musalmans are deprived from well maintained house so that we can say clearly there housing
and living standard condition was extremely poor.
Housing need of Rupandehi district was partially fulfill by Janata Awash Karyakram from fiscal
year 2073/74 and this program is on implementation phase till the date.
4.1.2 Household size and population
There are total 2214 applicants households in Rupandehi district for Janata Awash Karyakram
for fiscal year 2073/074, Among 2214 applicants household, 950 households having family
member greater than four and 1214 households having family member less than four is shown in
fig 4.1.

Size of household
1400
1200
1000
800
600 No of household
400
200
0
Household>4 Household <4
member member
39
 (Source: DUDBC Rupandehi Division)

Figure 4.1 Household size

4.1.3 Income Status

Income status of applicants of Rupandehi is found very poor .Among 2214 applicants; only 260
numbers of applicants have annual income more than two lakhs, where 691 and 1263 number of
applicants has income less than one l lakhs and between 1 lakhs and 2 lakhs respectively.
Table 4.1 Income Status of Applicants in Janata Awash Program 2073/074

Annual Income AI<1lakhs 1lakhs<AI<2lakhs AI>2lakhs Total

Applcants Nos 691 1263 260 2214
(Source: DUDBC Rupandehi Division)

But in city area inside kathmandu valley of Nepal the the annual income of low income group
was found as;
Most of the households (44.62%) of Thapathali Squatter Settlement have average monthly
income of NRs. 10,000 to NRs. 15,000. 36.92% of the households have monthly income of NRs.
5,000 to NRs 10,000 and 13.85% of them have monthly income less than NRs. 5000; whereas
only 4.62% of them have monthly income more than NRs. 15,000.
In Jagritinagar Squatter Settlement, most of the households (56%) have average monthly income
of NRs. 10,000 to NRs. 15,000. 34% of the households have monthly income of NRs. 5,000 to
NRs 10,000 and 6% of them have monthly income less than NRs. 5000; whereas 4% of them
have monthly income more than NRs. 15,000 (Shah, S. K., 2016).

4.1.4 Earlier Housing Condition

Housing condition of poor dalits and musalmans before starting the program during household
direct survey conducted by DUDBC Rupandehi divison at fiscal year 2073/074 (during 2073
chaitra to 2074 jesth) was found as;
Table 4.2 Earlier Housing Condition (Before Program)

Earlier Housing Condition

Condition of House Numbers
mud wall, floor and dried grass roof 950
Mud wall and CGI sheet roof 380
Brick with mud mortar and dried grass type roof 327
Brick with mud mortar and CGI sheet roof 304
Partially mixed type of all 253
(Source: DUDBC Rupandehi Division)

By analysis this result from survey and after evaluation of output, around 1650 i.e. more than
70% of people pass the minimum requirement to get the housing facilities by Janata Awash
Program.

The pie chart of this tabulated data is shown below as:

40
 Mud Wall, Floor and Dried Grass Root

Mud Wall and CGI Sheet Roof 11%

Brick with Mud Mortar and Dried

14% 43%
Grass type Roof
15%
Brick With Mud Mortar and CGI sheet
Roof
17%
Partially Mixed type of All

Figure 4.2 Earlier Housing Condition (Before Program)

4.1.5 Land Used Condition

Land used condition of poor dalits and musalmans before starting the program during household
direct survey conducted by DUDBC Rupandehi divison at fiscal year 2073/074 (during 2073
chaitra to 2074 jesth) was found as;
Table 4.3 Land Used Condition

Area of Land for home construction Numbers

Sufficient quantity of land available 1929
Land available but not sufficient 184
No availability of land 63
Dispute on land ownership 38
Yes No
Extra available land for agricultural purpose
1425 789
(Source: DUDBC Rupandehi Division )

4.1.6 Level of Housing Need

Housing need of the people is expressed based on different perspectives. Some important
perspectives are discussed and presented below based on different consequences.

Table 4.4 Households by Ownership of House/housing Unit in Use in Rupandehi

Total Owned Rented Institutional Others

41
 163835 137116 24172 1219 1328
(Source: https://cbs.gov.np/)
In Rupandehi, total no of households are 163835. Among them 137116 households have their
own house, 24172 households have rented house, 1219 family have institutional house and
remains 1328 have no definite housing.

Table 4.5 Households by Foundation of House/Housing Unit

Total Types of foundation

Mud bonded cement RCC with Wooden Others Not
bricks/stone bonded pillar pillar stated
brick/stone
163835 44772 67756 24537 18153 6493 2124
(Source: https://cbs.gov.np/)
In Rupandehi, among 163853 houses, 44772 houses are constructed by mud bounded brick/stone
foundation, 67756 houses are constructed by 67756 cement bounded brick/stone foundation,
24537 houses are constructed by RCC with column foundation, 18153 houses are constructed by
wooden pillar foundation, 6493 houses are constructed by other foundation materials and 2124
houses are constructed by non specified foundation materials.
Table 4.6 Households by Roof of House/Housing Unit

Roof of the House

Total Galvanized Wooden Not
Thatch/straw Tile/slate RCC Mud Other
iron planks stated
163853 14665 25350 19440 100815 441 0 624 2500
(Source: https://cbs.gov.np/)

In Rupandehi, among 163853 households, 14665 houses are of thatch/straw roof, 25350
households are of Galvanized iron roof, 19440 houses are of tile/slate roof, 100815 are of RCC
roof, 441 houses are of wooden planks roof, no houses are of mud roof, 624 houses are of other
materials roof and 2500 houses are of not specified materials roof.
From above these tables more than 15% of household don't have their own house.
Table 4.7 Households, Population and Average Household Size

Population
Household Average
Total Male Female
Household
size
163,916 880,196 432,193 448,003 5.37
(Source: https://cbs.gov.np/)

Above table shows that average size of household is 5.37 and total female population is greater
than male populations. As per latest census data musalmans population is 880196 and population

42
of dalits is more than that. A small amount of housing need in Rupandehi district is targeted to
fill by Janata Awash Program i.e. 500 houses in I phase and 138 houses in II phase.

4.2 Perception of the Low Income Group about their Housing Need
The housing is one of the basic needs of the human being. The access to adequate shelter is the
human right for all. So the low income groups also need the housing facility and they also have a
wish to live in the adequate shelter. So this study has also intended to find out the perception of
the low income groups as well as the perception of the experts and planners to fulfill the housing
need of the low income groups.
The low income groups expect that the government or the donor agencies should help them
financially to improve their existing housing condition. Many of the low income groups of
Thapathali Squatter Settlement also do not want to move elsewhere since they do not have to pay
for the shelter. They say that why to go elsewhere if we can live here free of cost. They say so
because they are economically very weak and their education level is also low. But according to
the experts and planners the rental housing would be the appropriate approach and it should be
initiated by the Government of Nepal with the support of NGOs and private housing companies.
The Government alone cannot fulfill the housing need of the low income groups in a sustainable
way (Shah, S. K., 2016).
There are many factors that influence the housing need for the low income groups in the urban
areas. However the important that influence the housing need of low income groups in
Kathmandu Valley have been considered in this study such as Family’s income, access to the
occupation, access to the market area, neighborhood and community attachment, geographical
location, place of living currently, composition of new settlement, land price and cost of building
construction. The Relative Importance Index has also been applied to find the most important
factors that influence the housing need for the low income group in the Kathmandu Valley
(Shah, S. K., 2016).
In Rupandehi, the result from RII based on different factors of housing need are as below in
table 4.8 and their comparison are shown in figure 4.5.

Table 4.8 Ranking of Important Factors Influencing the Housing Need

S.N. Factors NSA HCB CNSA Average Importance

RII Rank RII Rank RII Rank RII Rank
a Family’s income

33.333 5th 71.2 4th 0 5th 34.84 5th

b Easy access to the
family’s occupation
33.11 6th
45.333 3rd 54 6th 0 5th
c Easy access to the
market area 45.333 3rd 59.6 5th 48 3rd 50.97 4th
d Neighborhood and
community attachment 78.667 1st 76.8 3rd 90 1st 81.82 1st
e Geographical location 40 4th 82.2 2nd 68 2nd

43
 63.4 3rd
f Place of living
currently 70.667 2nd 83.6 1st 68 2nd 74.08 2nd
g Composition of new
settlement 0 6th 5.2 7th 6 4th 3.73 7th
h Land price and
Construction cost of
housing 0 6th 0 8th 6 4th 2 8th

This result of RII based on housing need was found as drastically different from the Kathmandu
valley. Here, our study finally conclude that the poor musalmans and dalits wants to live with
neighborhood and community attachment because they are emotionally attached with community
and that place where they birth, play and still living and another most important factor is
geographical location, really they don't want to live their life on another region basically due to
climatic factor and community aspects.

4.3 Opinion and View about Program

4.3.1 Opinion of Local Leader

All local leader expressed their view about program is too much appropriate and more other
peoples of all ethnic groups should be included in the program as much as possible and also
Selection process is fully trustworthy and people are satisfied from this program. Table 20 shows
the details view about opinion of local leaders are shown below on table 4.9 as:
Table 4.9 Opinion about Program by Local Leader

Opinion About Program by Local Leader

Opinion in
Opinion About Program Frequency
percentage
a. Is in favor of dalit and poor musalmans 3 21%
b. This government effort deserves appraisal 3 21%
c. At least some people are benefited 7 50%
d. Others : Include all group 1 8%

4.3.2 Housing Condition of Applicants

Condition of targeted group of people in Rupandehi before starting program was found as Poor
condition (with mud floor/ Unhygienic living condition/ poor infrastructure) from questionnaire
survey as shown in table 4.10 below.

44
 Table 4.10 Condition of Targeted Group of People in Rupandehi before Starting Program in View of Implementation
Level Staff

Condition of Targeted Group of People in Rupandehi Result in

Frequency
Before Starting Program percentage
Poor condition (with mud floor/ Unhygienic living
condition/ poor infrastructure) 11 100%
Fair condition (with cement floor/ Unhygienic living
condition/ good infrastructure) 0 0
Good condition (with cement floor/ Hygienic living
condition/ good infrastructure) 0 0

Table 4.11 Existing Housing Condition of Non Selected Applicants

Existing Housing Condition of Non Result in

Frequency
Selected Applicants percentage

Poor condition (with mud floor/

Unhygienic living condition/ poor
infrastructure) 11 100%
Fair condition (with cement floor/
Unhygienic living condition/ good
infrastructure) 0 0
Good condition (with cement floor/
Hygienic living condition/ good
infrastructure) 0 0
As per sample taken for the study (non selected applicants) all of them housing condition were
found as poor condition but as per the data evaluated from the household survey poor housing
condition was only 65%.

4.3.3 Problems in Planning and Implementation Phase

Planning is the process of thinking about the activities required to achieve a desired goal. Low
budget, more number of beneficiaries, Lack of awareness on the part of beneficiaries,
Beneficiaries not interest for contribution the major problems found in the planning process of
Janata Awash Program. Result from questionnaire survey is shown below on table 4.12 and
figure 4.3.
Table 4.12 Problems in Planning Phase

Result in
Problems in planning process Frequency
Percentage
a. No difficult at all 0 0

b. Difficulties as mentioned below

Difficulties in identifying beneficiaries 4 36.3636364

45
 Low budget, more number of beneficiaries 9 81.8181818
Lack of awareness on the part of beneficiaries 8 72.7272727
Political influence 1 0.09090909
Beneficiaries not interest for contribution 8 0.72727273
Difficulties to get site 0 0

Low Budget and Large no of

Beneficiaries
13% Lack of Awareness on Part of
3%
Beneficiaries
30%
Beneficiaries Not Interest for
Contribution

Political Influence
27%

Difficulities in Identifying
Beneficiaries
27%

Figure 4.3 Problems in Planning Phase of PHP

Implementation is the realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model and

design. Time overrun, Cost overrun and Problems in quality achievements are the major three
problems during effective implementation of Janata Awash Program. Result from questionnaire
survey is shown below on table 4.13 and figure 4.4.

User expressed their view the major problem is lack of materials sometimes in rainy season and
lack of skilled mason.
Table 4.13 Problems in Implementation Phase

Result in
Problems in Implementation Frequency
Percentage
a. No difficult at all 0 0
b. Difficulties as mentioned below
Problems in quality achievements 8 72.7272727
Less technicians, more no of houses 3 27.2727273
46
 Time overrun 10 90.9090909
Cost overrun 9 81.8181818
Late budget release 0 0
Difficulty in steering committee meeting 0 0

Problems in Implementation Phase of PHP

10%
Time Overrun
34% Cost Overrun
26%
Problems in Quality
Achievements
Less Technicians,More no
of Houses
30%

Figure 4.4 Problems in Implementation Phase of PHP

4.4 Suitable Approaches

There are many approaches identified to address the housing need for the low income groups in
the urban areas. However the important approaches to meet the housing need of low income
groups in Kathmandu Valley have been considered in this study such as Improvement of the
physical infrastructure of the existing housing (On-site upgrading), Construction of own new
house at another place (Resettlement), Construction of new public housing by the government,
Providing land at subsidized rate with planned basic infrastructure services (site and services),
Collaboration with NGOs for the subsidized loan for constructing new house, Rental Housing,
Private Sector Housing and Land Sharing. The Relative Importance Index has also been applied
to find the most suitable approaches to meet the housing need for the low income group in the
Kathmandu Valley.
This study shows that the rental housing is the most appropriate approach for addressing the
housing need for the low income groups according to the low income groups and the experts,
planners, implementers and NGOs. The table above also shows that the improvement in physical
infrastructures and housing condition of the existing housing (On-site upgrading) is also mostly
preferred by the low income groups. The low income groups expect that the government or the
donor agencies should help them financially to improve their existing housing condition.
According to the experts and planners the rental housing would be the appropriate approach and
it should be initiated by the Government of Nepal with the support of NGOs and private housing
companies.

47
Similarly, the On-site upgrading approach would also be suitable at some places and settlement
as per the location, nature and need of the squatter settlement according to the experts and the
planners (Shah, S. K., 2016). But, in Rupandehi the result from RII based on different
approaches for fulfilling the housing need are as below in table 4.14 and figure 4.6.

Table 4.14 Different Approaches for Fulfilling the Housing Need

NSA CNSA Average Importance

S.N. Approaches
RII Rank RII Rank RII Rank
Improvement of the physical
a infrastructure of the existing 84 1st 88 1st 86 1s
housing (On-site upgrading).
Construction of own new
b house at another place 48 3rd 36 3rd 42 3rd
(Resettlement)

Construction of new public

c 58.667 2nd 48 2nd 53.33 2nd
housing by the government
Providing land at subsidized
rate with planned basic
d
infrastructure services (site and 4 4th 36 3rd 20 4th
services)
Collaboration with NGOs for
e the subsidized loan for 0 5th 2 4th 1 5th
constructing new house.
f Rental Housing
0 5th 2 4th 1 5th
g Private Sector Housing 0 5th 2 4th 1 5th

h Land Sharing 0 5th 2 4th 1 5th

This result of RII based on different approaches fulfilling housing need was found as drastically
different from the Kathmandu valley. Improvement of the physical infrastructure of the existing
housing (On-site upgrading), Construction of new public housing by the government and
Construction of own new house at another place (Resettlement) are the best top three important
approaches for fulfilling the housing need of poor musalmans and dalits in Rupandehi.

48
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

NSA

HCB

CNSA

Figure 4.5 Important Factors Influencing the Housing Need

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
NSA( Non Selected
Applicants)

CNSA(Constructio
n Non Started
Applicant)

Figure 4.6 Different Approaches for Fulfilling the Housing Need

49
4.5 Financial mobilization and Implementation Status

4.5.1 Work Progress and Implementation Status

4.5.1.1 Status of user committee

Among 500 numbers of total selected applicants 448 numbers of applicants joined on different
construction having committee members ranging from 5 to 18. In second phase also among 138
numbers 124 numbers joined on different user committee as same process of phase i based on
Implementation Guidelines of Janata Awash Program. Details are shown below on table 4.15 and
4.16.
Table 4.15 Working through Status of Phase I

Rupandehi Phase I
Total
Worked through User Worked through single
Houses Cancelled
Committee beneficiaries
No.
500 448 4 52
(Source: UDBO, Rupandehi)

Table 4.16 Working through Status Phase II

Rupandehi Phase II
Total
Worked through User Worked through single
Houses cancelled
Committee beneficiaries
No.
138 124 11 13
(Source: UDBO, Rupandehi)

Cause of cancelations and details of progress of single applicants are documented and presented
on annex. There are around 58 numbers of user committee expressed their view the process of
implementation of through user committee is very much effective and they felt very easy to work
on group

4.5.1.2 Jati Wise Selected Detail of Applicants in Phase I

The details of Jati wise distribution of applicants in phase I of program based on distribution area
are presented below on table 4.17.
Table 4.17 Total Applicants Status of Janata Awash Karyakram in Rupandehi

Total Selected
SN Location Applicants Applicants Hindu Musalmans
No's No's Selected Selected
Applicants Applicants
1 DEVDAHA 281 60 57 3

50
 2 TILIOTTAMA 165 29 28 1
3 SAINAMANA 184 43 43 0
4 LUMBINI 338 85 50 35
5 BODHABAR 261 63 55 8
6 DHAKADHAI 78 17 12 5
7 POKHARBHINDI 32 5 2 3
8 SIKTAHAN 144 36 32 4
9 BAGAHA 62 11 7 4
10 BSANTAPUR 32 8 6 2
11 MAINAHIYA 66 13 11 2
12 HATIBANGAI 56 7 7 0
13 BISNUPURA 80 22 16 6
14 SURYAPURA 91 22 19 3
15 BOGADI 82 20 20 0
16 RAYAPUR 68 19 17 2
17 KARAUTA 194 40 23 17
Total 2214 500 405 95
(Source: UDBO, Rupandehi)

4.5.1.3 Area Wise Implementation Status of Phase I

Area wise implementation status and progress report of Janata Awash Program of phase (I) are
shown in table 4.18.

430 numbers of houses are completely constructed and handover to the related households, 3
numbers of houses are under construction and rests of 500 are cancelled. Among canceled
houses 18 numbers of houses are selected and again started to construct through second phase
and still on implementation phase.
Table 4.18 Area Wise Implementation Status and Progress Report of Phase I

Progress Status
Cancelled
Total Selected
due to
SN Location Applicants Applicants
DPC Wall Roof All completed different
No's No's
reason

1 DEVDAHA 281 60 49 11
2 TILIOTTAMA 165 29 22 7
3 SAINAMANA 184 43 40 3
4 LUMBINI 338 85 1 76 8
5 BODHABAR 261 63 57 6
6 DHAKADHAI 78 17 7 10
7 POKHARBHINDI 32 5 2 2 1
8 SIKTAHAN 144 36 34 2
9 BAGAHA 62 11 11 0
10 BSANTAPUR 32 8 8 0

51
11 MAINAHIYA 66 13 11 2
12 HATIBANGAI 56 7 0 7
13 BISNUPURA 80 22 13 9
14 SURYAPURA 91 22 22 0
15 BOGADI 82 20 19 1
16 RAYAPUR 68 19 19 0
17 KARAUTA 194 40 40 0
Total 2214 500 3 430 67
(Source: UDBO Rupandehi)

4.5.1.4 Election Area wise Selected Applicants distribution in Phase II

During panning of second phase, program is planned to distribute in all election area and total no
of houses to be constructed on different election areas were decided first as shown below on
table 4.19. This table also shows the number of hindus and musalmans selected numbers of
household.
Table 4.19 Selected Applicants Distribution in Phase II

SN Election Area No Hindu Musalmans total

1 1ka 8 2 10
2 1kha 6 4 10
3 2ka 10 0 10
4 2kha 0 0 0
5 3ka 0 0 0
6 3kha 6 2 8
7 4ka 14 6 20
8 4kha 20 0 20
9 5ka 28 2 30
10 5kha 18 12 30
Total 110 28 138
(Source: UDBO Rupandehi)

4.5.1.5 Election No Wise Implementation Status and Progress Report of Phase II

In second phase among 138 selected numbers of beneficiaries, 13 numbers of houses are
canceled, one houses is on DPC complete phase, another is also on wall complete phase ,76
numbers of houses are on the phase of roof completion , finally 53 numbers of houses are on the
phase of toilet completion and finally three number of houses are ready to hand over until last of
the fiscal year 2075/76. Details of elections wise progress status is shown below on table 4.20.
Table 4.20 Election no Wise Implementation Status and Progress Report of Phase II

Election No. of Not

Total DPC Wall Roof Toilet All
S.N. Region started
Houses completed completed Completed completed completed
No. houses
1 1(1) 10 1 1 4 3 1

52
2 1(2) 10 1 6 3
3 2(2) 10 1 5 4
4 3(2) 8 4 4
5 4(1) 20 12 8
6 4(2) 20 10 10
7 5(1) 30 1 19 6 4
8 5(2) 30 19 10 1
Total 138 1 1 67 53 3 13
(Source: UDBO Rupandehi)

4.5.1.6 Work Progress and Implementation status of UDBO Rupandehi

The total implementation status and progress of Rupandehi, Kpilbastu, Argakhanchi, Palpa,
Nawalparasi (Susta-West) up to Fiscal year 2075/076 implemented through UDBO Rupandehi is
shown below on table 4.21.
Table 4.21 Total Work Progress and Implementation Status of UDBO Rupandehi

Building Office Rupandehi

Progress Level No of Housing Units
Plinth level completed 18
Wall Level completed 14
Roof work Complete 76
Toilet work Remained 405
All Completed 1134
(Source: UDBO Rupandehi)

4.5.2 Financial Mobilization

4.5.2.1 Financial mobilization of Fiscal Year 2075/076

As per the data obtained from the Ministry of Physical Planning and Infrastructure Development
province No 5, financial progress and physical progress and budget details are shown below on
table 4.22.
Table 4.22 Financial Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi

Allocated Spent Financial Physical

Program Name
Budget Budget Progress Progress
Rs Rs
Janata Awash Program 61.63% 75%
74774000 45877800
(Source: MOPID Province No 5)

4.5.2.2 Financial Mobilization and Payment Stage

53
 Table 4.23 Financial Mobilization Stage Phase I

I phase 2073/074 Program

Financial Mobilization Amount in
Stage Rs
First Installment 53810
Second Installment 64570
Third Installment 75330
Final Installment 21529
Contingencies 10761
Total 226000
(Source: UDBO Rupandehi)

Table 4.24 Financial Mobilization Stage Phase II

II phase 2075/076 Program

Financial Mobilization Amount in
Stage Rs
First Installment 83125
Second Installment 99750
Third Installment 116375
Final Installment 33250
Contingencies 17500
Total 350000
(Source: UDBO Rupandehi)

Above table 4.23 and 4.24 clearly showed the installment details of program during
implementation stage of both phase I and II. First installment is provided to beneficiaries after
the work completion of plinth level and simultaneously other installments are provided after the
completion of wall erection ,roof completion and finally successfully construction of toilet and
set up windows and door.

4.5.2.3 Financial Status Based on Election Area

Payment for new agreement, Payment for old agreement, total allocated budget in F/Y 2075/076
and remaining in allocated budget details based on different election area are shown clearly
below on table 4.25.
Table 4.25 Election Area Wise Amount Spent to Users in Phase II of Rupandehi

Total
Election Remaining
Total Payment for new Payment for old Allocated
S.N. Region in Allocated
Houses agreement agreement Budget in
No. Budget
F/Y2075 -76
1 1(1) 5449085 1320183 736345
2 1(2) 2034900 235369 45315696.00 232750

54
 3 2(2) 1879225 395211 199500
4 3(1) 1197000 41980 133000
4 3(2) 2394000 82200 232750
5 4(1) 5985000 665000
6 4(2) 5985000 665000
7 5(1) 8079750 164540 897750
8 5(2) 9875250 197003 1097250
Total
42879210.00 2436486.00 4859345.00
(Source: UDBO Rupandehi)

4.6 Earned Value Analysis of Program

As per data from Ministry of Physical Infrastructure Development, Allocated budget and Spent
budget for F/Y 2075/76 was Rs. 74774000 and Rs. 45877800 respectively. Also the physical
progress was found as 75% where financial progress as 61.63%.

In this program (PHP), Schedule variance was found as Rs -18693500; it means program is
behind the schedule, Cost variance was found as Rs 10202700; it mans program is under budget.

Here, the value of CPI is 1.223, i.e. Higher than 1, then it indicates the project is under budget.

Here, the value of SPI is 0.75 i.e. less than schedule it indicates the project is performing only
75% of work on schedule.

If there is no variance at all: the value of EAC (Estimate at completion) was found as Rs
74774000; it means Rs 74774000 is estimated amount for completion of work, the value of ETC
(Estimate to complete) was found as Rs 28896200; it means Rs 28896200 will be required for
the completion of remaining work, here in this case no variation is considered so VAC is zero,
the value of TCPI (To complete performance index) was found as 0.64691; it means we can
continue with cost performance index of 0.64691 to complete the project.

If there is variance and it is expected to continue: the value of EAC (Estimate at completion) was
found as Rs 61170400; it means Rs 61170400 is estimated amount for completion of work, the
value of ETC (Estimate to complete) was found as Rs1529260; it means Rs 1529260 will be
required for the completion of remaining work, the value of VAC(variance at completion) is Rs
1360360; it means the project will be under budget by Rs 1360360, the value of TCPI (To
complete performance index) was found as 1.22; it means that for the remainder of project, for
each budget rupees spent there must be a gain of Rs 1.22 of earned value.

If there is variance ,but now it's gone: the value of EAC (Estimate at completion) was found as
Rs 6457130; it means Rs 6457130 is estimated amount for completion of work, the value of ETC
(Estimate to complete) was found as Rs1869350; it means Rs 1869350 will be required for the
completion of remaining work, the value of VAC(variance at completion) is Rs 1020270; it
means the project will be under budget by Rs 1020270, the value of TCPI (To complete

55
performance index) was found as 1; it means that project has just enough funds to complete the
work.

Other details calculation and their values EAC, ETC and TCPI based on three various cases of
variation are calculated below on table 4.26.
Table 4.26 Earned Value Analysis

AS per data from Ministry of Physical

Infrastructure Development
74774
Allocated Budget= 000
45877
Spent Budget= 800
Physical Progress= 75%
61.63
Financial Progress= %
Project Duration=12 months
74774
Planned Value(PV)= 000
56080
Earned value(EV)=value of the % of work complete= 500
45877
Actual cost(AC)= 800
74774
Budget at completion(BAC)= 000
10202
Cost variance (CV)=EV-AC= 700
-
18693
Schedule Variance(SV)=EV-PV= 500
1.222
Cost Performance Index(CPI)=EV/AC= 389
Schedule Performance
Index(SPI)=EV/PV= 0.75
If there is no variance at all:
74774
Estimate at Completion (EAC)=BAC= 000
28896
Estimate to Compete(ETC)=EAC-AC= 200
If there is variance and it is expected to
continue:
61170
Estimate at Completion (EAC)=BAC/CPI= 400
Estimate to Compete(ETC)=(BAC/CPI)- 15292
AC= 600

56
If there is variance ,but now it's gone:
Estimate at completion(EAC)=AC+BAC- 64571
EV= 300
18693
Estimate to Compete(ETC)=BAC-EV= 500
Variance at completion(VAC)=BAC-EAC
i. If there is no variance at all:
VAC=BAC-EAC= 0
ii.If there is variance and it is expected to
continue:
13603
VAC=BAC-EAC= 600
iii. If there is variance ,but now it's gone:
10202
VAC=BAC-EAC= 700
Total Cost Performance
Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)
i. If there is no variance at all:
To Complete Performance 0.646
Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)= 919
ii. If there is variance and it is expected to
continue:
To Complete Performance 1.222
Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)= 389
iii. If there is variance ,but now it's gone:
To Complete Performance
Index(TCPI)=(BAC-EV)/(EAC-AC)= 1
Note: All amounts are in Rs.

57
 5 Chapter 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Although housing is one of the basic needs of human being, affordable housing for the low
income groups (especially for dalits and poor mulims) is a major problem in Nepal. Rupandehi
being the sprinkling star of province no 5 of Nepal, all kinds of opportunities is experiencing
intense in-migration and being urbanized and industrialized very rapidly in the recent years.
Along with the rapid urbanization and industrialization, the lifestyle and economical condition
slightly increasing day by day in city area of Rupandehi. Behind these most of the population
exist in rural and far area of district also. They are economically and socially back warded still
today and they are deprived from proper housing, so their living condition and hosing status is
very poor. In this study we also found the same. But the government of Nepal had started a
'people Housing Program' ( Jnata Awash Karyakram) to fulfill their housing need and increase
their living and social status, from fiscal year 2073/074 and this program is also on
implementation phase and program was extended and extra budget added in fiscal year
2075/076. So the main objectives of the study are to to find out the concept, level and housing
need of dalit and poor musalman in Rupandehi district;to find out the perception of the targeted
group of people regarding the fulfilment of their housing need and formation of user
committee;to find out the financial mobilization status and work progress and appropriate way to
address the housing need for the targeted group of the people in Rupandehi .
The case study of Jnata Awash karyakram gives the existing scenario of the living condition,
housing situation of the low income groups (dalits and poor musalmans) along with
implementation status of program.

5.1 Conclusion
From the research study, following conclusions are made:
➢ 16.38 percentage of household still don't have their own house and 32.5 percentages of
houses are of poor and unhygienic condition in Rupandehi and really they need safe housing
facilities.
➢ Average household size of Rupandehi district is found as 5.37, but in program scattered and
targeted area house hold size greater than four is found as 54.83% and household size less
than four is found as 45.16%( based on total applicants for a program).
➢ Income status of applicants of Rupandehi is found very poor .Among 2214 applicants; only
260 number of applicants have annual income more than two lakhs, where 691 and 1263
number of applicants have income less than one l lakhs and between 1 lakhs and 2 lakhs
respectively.
➢ A small quantity (2.38% of total homeless household) of housing need in Rupandehi district
was targeted to fill by Janata Awash Program ie. 500 houses in I phase and 138 houses in II
phase which is in very less in quantity in comparison with housing demand.
➢ Most of the local leader and selected beneficiaries expressed their view about program is
very good program and it will be extended in future in large number as much as possible for
all group (not only dalit and musalmans) and they are fully satisfied from this program and
happy.

58
➢ The major factors of housing need are found as: Neighborhood and community attachment,
Place of living currently, Geographical location, Easy access to the family’s occupation,
Family’s income respectively to importance.
➢ Different approach for fulfilling their housing need are Improvement of the physical
infrastructure of the existing housing (On-site upgrading), Construction of new public
housing by the government, Construction of own new house at another place (Resettlement),
Providing land at subsidized rate with planned basic infrastructure services (site and
services), Collaboration with NGOs for the subsidized loan for constructing new house
respectively to importance and people are not interested for Rental Housing, Private Sector
Housing, Land Sharing approaches.
➢ The major problem in planning process of Janata Awash Karyakram is found as; Low
budget more number of beneficiaries, Lack of awareness on the part of beneficiaries,
Beneficiaries not interest for contribution, Difficulties in identifying beneficiaries
respectively. Whereas the major problem in implementation phase are time overrun, cost
overrun, and problems in quality achievement respectively.
➢ After study, we found the construction user committee plays the vital role for the successful
implementation of program. 448 and 124 no of beneficiaries are under different
construction committee and among them 430 houses already constructed up to last fiscal
year. Rests of them are on implementation phase except 34 and 13 no of houses. Whereas
four user in I phase and 13 user in II phase are constructing their houses separately.
➢ People really happy from program and they wants to say thanks to government but expressed
their view about house size if slightly large with separate kitchen (especially in musalmans)
will be far better.
➢ After study it also shown that the physical progress is greater than financial progress but
earned value analysis shows that program is behind the planned schedule.

5.2 Recommendations
The recommendations are based on the analysis of the existing housing condition, need, and
level and implementation status of the low income groups (dalits and poor musalmans) in the
Rupandehi through the survey of the study area. This has supported to set a background for the
formulation of the comprehensive plan for addressing the housing need for the low income
groups in the Rupandehi in future. This study has also supported to set background to knowing
about Jana Awash program implementation status in study area and its progress. From the
research study, we can recommend that;
➢ Until today madhesis and dalits or poverty stricken musalmans are lagging behind compared
to other dominant caste and groups. So it very urgent to facilitate them with safe residence
and empower them in terms of social and health status.
➢ Janta Awaas has been working in building new houses for some but are not adequate as we
have seen so far. We have incorporated this finding in our conclusion. It may not be possible
to build new houses for everyone, from the alternative approaches deduced from our research
study to address their housing needs; new programs can be launched for long term resolution
to this issue.
➢ In tasks assigned to users committee, because of incapability or inefficiency of a single
member, programs are turning ineffective, so management should be improvised and
strengthened.

59
➢ As per our study on earn value analysis, delay is significant and behind the schedule. With
physical and financial progress at stake and time management in consideration, with
sufficient resource allocation, resource management, enhancing technical expertise, boosting
awareness among locales, organizing effective mason training sessions , this delay can be
substantially reduced.

5.3 Recommendation for the Further Study

From the research study, we can recommend following areas for the future study
➢ A detail study is required about the relation between the economic status and housing need
of the low income groups to find out the most important factors necessary to change the
housing need into housing demand. So it is recommended that the researchers who are
interested in this field can study the ‘Analysis of housing demand for dalits and poor
musalmans in Rupandehi’.
➢ A detail study about the cost effectiveness analysis of Janata Awash Program houses and
level of beneficiary's contribution can also be study on future by interested personals.
➢ Alternative models and design of major approaches for fulfilling the housing need can be set
up and apply to field by any government bodies, NGOs, INGOs and donor agencies in study
area.

60
 6 REFERENCES

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DUDBC, R. D. (2076). Progress Report 2075/076. Rupandehi,Nepal: DUDBC,Rupandehi

Division.

DUDBC, R. (2074). Progerss Report of Janata awash karyakram. Bhairahawa:

DUDBC,Rupandehi Division.

HFH, (2012). Low cost and environment friendly Shelter: Construction Guidelines. Kathmandu,
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Mishra, A.K. (2019, september). Housing needs fullfilments for low income group. International
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MOPID.P5. (2076). Progress Report F/Y 2075/076. Butwal,Rupandehi: Minstry of Physical

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NUDS, (2015). National Urban Development Strategy (NUDS).:. Kathmandu, Nepal:
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62
 7 ANNEXES
Annex A Set of Questionnaires

Questionnaire for implementation level staff personals

(This questionnaire is prepared to study the “Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi
District” for the partial fulfillment of M.Sc. Degree in Construction Management. This information obtained from this
questionnaire will be solely used for the research purpose. The user of this information fully ensures its confidentiality).

1. How was the housing condition of targeted group of people in Rupandehi before starting
program?
a. Poor condition (with mud floor/ Unhygienic living condition/ poor infrastructure)

b. Fair condition (with cement floor/ Unhygienic living condition/ good infrastructure)

c. Good condition (with cement floor/ Hygienic living condition/ good infrastructure)

2. How is the housing need of targeted group of people in Rupandehi?

a. Most necessary b. Necessary

c. Low necessary d. Not necessary

3. How was your experience during construction implementation process?

a. There is too much easy environment

b. There is very challenging working environment

c. There is no better working environment

d. All regulatory body has been providing sufficient help to us

4. Which level of country is involved to conduct this program?

a. Central level

b. Province level

c. Local level

5. How many units of houses have been constructed in Rupandehi?

......................................................................................................................................................

6. How many units of houses still remains to construct in Rpandehi?

......................................................................................................................................................

7. How many units of houses are still on construction process in Rupandehi?

......................................................................................................................................................

8. How is the total estimated cost for complete construction of one house unit in Rupandehi?
......................................................................................................................................................

9. Based on your experience, fund estimated and separated from government is sufficient to
complete construction in Rupandehi?
a. It is sufficient b. It is not sufficient

63
10. If it is not sufficient, how much amount of extra money is required to complete
construction?
......................................................................................................................................................

11. Beneficiaries are capable to afford their contribution amount?

a. Can afford b. Can't afford

12. If they can't afford, how is it being managed ?(Mention your experience)
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................

13. Did Payment model is effective based on work completion?

a. Most effective b. Effective

c. Less effective d. Not effective

14. How is the response/support from beneficiaries/ local leaders?

a. Only beneficiaries help b. Only local politician help

c. Both help c. None of the both help

15. How is the quality of houses already constructed and houses under construction?
a. As expected by program b. Satisfactory

c. Not satisfactory

16. What are problems in planning process?

a. No difficult at all b. Difficulties as mentioned below

• Difficulties in identifying beneficiaries

• Low budget, more number of
beneficiaries
• Lack of awareness on the part of
beneficiaries
• Political influence
• Beneficiaries not interest for
contribution
• Difficulties to get site

17. What are the problems in implementation?

a. No difficult at all b. Difficulties as mentioned below

• Problems in quality achievements

• Less technicians, more no of houses
• Time overrun
• Cost overrun
• Late budget release
• Difficulty in steering committee meeting

64
18. Have you any other idea of alternative implementation model for this program?
a. Yes b. No

19. If yes,( Mention your idea)

......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................

Name of Respondent .......................................

Post/Level .......................................

Employed Organization .......................................

Date .......................................

Contact Details .......................................

Signature .......................................

65
 Questionnaire for local leaders
(This questionnaire is prepared to study the “Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi
District” for the partial fulfillment of M.Sc. Degree in Construction Management. This information obtained from this
questionnaire will be solely used for the research purpose. The user of this information fully ensures its confidentiality.)

1. What is your opinion on 'Janata Awash Program'?

a. Is in favor of dalit and poors b. This government effort deserves appraisal

c. At least some people are benefited c. Others (Mention)......................................

2. Is this program appropriate at your locality and society?

a. Too much appropriate, more other people should be included

b. Not appropriate, program should be stopped c. Others (Mention).............................................

3. Are you aware about of the beneficiary selection process?

a. Yes b. No

c. A little d. Others (Mention).............................................

4. How have you helped this program?

a. Informing about program b. providing necessary recommendation

c. Coordinating between villagers and related government's staff

d. Others (Mention).............................................................................................................................

5. What cast, ethnic groups should be targeted in your opinion?

.............................................................................................................................................................

6. Was the selection process of this program trustworthy?

a. Yes b. No

c. Others (Mention).............................................................................................................................

7. Are people satisfied with this program?

a. Yes b. No

c. Partially satisfied d. Don't know

8. Is related government office is coordinating with you?

a. Yes b. No

c. We are doing ourself d. Other (Mention)................................................

9. What are your suggestions for this program?

66
.............................................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................................

Name of Respondent .......................................

Post/Level .......................................

Employed Organization .......................................

Date .......................................

Contact Details .......................................

Signature .......................................

67
 Questionnaire for beneficiaries (construction not started yet)
(This questionnaire is prepared to study the “Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi
District” for the partial fulfillment of M.Sc. Degree in Construction Management. This information obtained from this
questionnaire will be solely used for the research purpose. The user of this information fully ensures its confidentiality.)

1. Have you done the construction agreement?

a. Yes b. No

c. Will do soon d. Not interested

2. Why have you delayed the construction? (It's too late)

a. Lack of land plot b. Delayed official service

c. Due to my own problems d. Others (Mention)

3. Are there any other selected beneficiaries around you?

a. Yes b. No

c. Are far away

4. What's the main reason for not starting to build you home?

a. Conflict of land

b. Conflict during formation of construction committee

c. Political obstruction

d. Economic problem

5. When will you start building?

a. As soon as possible b. Will do soon

c. Won't start d. After the problem is solved

6. Did you face any complaint or hindrance?

a. Yes (Still remains) b. No

c. Yes (Resolved) d. Others (Mention).................................

7. If the government offers you (with partial economical support), for the better housing
condition, which approach will you prefer more? Please, provide a number starting from 1 to 5 (1
for the least and 5 for the most preferred approaches and so on).

S.N. Approaches Number

1 2 3 4 5
a Improvement of the physical infrastructure of the
existing housing (On-site upgrading).
68
 b Construction of own new house at another place
(Resettlement)
c Construction of new public housing by the government
d Providing land at subsidized rate with planned basic
infrastructure services (site and services)
e Collaboration with NGOs for the subsidized loan for
constructing new house.
f Rental Housing
g Private Sector Housing
h Land Sharing
i Other, if any. ……………………….

8. What is your perception regarding your housing need?

(Please, provide a number starting from 1 to 5 (1 for the least and 5 for the most preferred
approaches and so on based on your Importance).

S.N. Factors Number

1 2 3 4 5
a Family’s income
b Easy access to the family’s occupation
c Easy access to the market area
d Neighborhood and community attachment
e Geographical location
f Place of living currently
g Composition of new settlement
h Land price and Construction cost of housing
i Other, if any. ……………………….

69
 Name of Respondent .......................................

Registration Number .......................................

Date .......................................

Contact Details .......................................

Signature .......................................

70
 Questionnaire for beneficiaries (under construction/ constructed)
(This questionnaire is prepared to study the “Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi
District” for the partial fulfillment of M.Sc. Degree in Construction Management. This information obtained from this
questionnaire will be solely used for the research purpose. The user of this information fully ensures its confidentiality.)

1. What do you say about this program?

a. Useful for poor b. Not a good program

c. Not appropriate for us d. Failed to be inclusive

2. How do you know about this program?

a. Radio, TV b. Newspaper

c. Neighbor d. DUDBC division office

3. Have you ever thought to be selected in this program?

a. Expected to be selected b. Had a little hope

c. Had no hope d. Had no trust on the program

4. What did you do before starting to build your home?

a. studied about the program b. Just started building

c. Did according to DUDBC division office d. Others (mention)..............................................

5. Do you think this program should be continued?

a. Should be continued b. Better to be discontinue

c. Only selected program should be completed d. Not necessary for this area

6. Did you complete construction as per your agreement deadline?

a. Completed on time b. Couldn't complete

c. Construction ongoing d. Little late completed

7. What would you say about payment of government installment for your construction?

` a. Payment too late b. Payment in time

c. Troublesome bank process d. Better to receive hand cash

8. Have you worked through construction committee or did it yourself?

a. Via construction committee b. Self

9. How did you feel working with construction committee?

a Easier to work in time b. Was too troublesome

71
 c. Installment delayed because of others members working late.

d. Others (Mention)...........................................................................................................................

10. What problems did you encounter very often during construction?

a. Lack of construction material b. Money problem

c. Labor and mason unavailable d. Others ( Mention).............................................

11. Did you complete your house from the government funding?

a. No b. Yes

c. Fund insufficient d. Other (Mention)...............................................

12. What sort of assistance did you provide during construction?

a. Cash b. Labor

c. Construction material d. Others (Mention).............................................

13. Who is responsible for delayed construction at your district?

a. Government of Nepal b. Field staff

c. Construction committee d. Beneficiary self

14. In your view, which way of construction is to be better and faster?

a. Government contract b. Construction committee

c. Beneficiary self d. Others (Mention)..............................................

15. Have you build your house as per government design?

` a. Yes b. No

c. Did on same design as per my requirement

d. Build smaller home because of smaller land plot

16. What design of house do you prefer?

a. Three rooms along with kitchen b. It self ok

c. Little larger on this design d. Other (Mention)...............................................

17. How much extra money did you expense to complete your house?

.............................................................................................................................................................

18. Is the place feasible for you? Yes No

19. If no, why? ………………………………………………………………………….

72
20. What is your perception regarding your housing need?
(Please, provide a number starting from 1 to 5 (1 for the least and 5 for the most preferred
approaches and so on based on your Importance).

S.N. Factors Number

1 2 3 4 5
a Family’s income
b Easy access to the family’s occupation
c Easy access to the market area
d Neighborhood and community attachment
e Geographical location
f Place of living currently
g Composition of new settlement
h Land price and Construction cost of housing
i Other, if any. ……………………….

Name of Respondent .......................................

Registration Number .......................................

Date .......................................

Contact Details .......................................

Signature .......................................

73
 Questionnaire for Applicants (Not Selected)
(This questionnaire is prepared to study the “Assessment of Implementation Status of Janata Awash Program in Rupandehi
District” for the partial fulfillment of M.Sc. Degree in Construction Management. This information obtained from this
questionnaire will be solely used for the research purpose. The user of this information fully ensures its confidentiality.)

1. What's your view regarding this program?

a. It's a good program b. I couldn't benefit, so i don't know

c. There is negligence during selection process d. Selected very few people

2. Did you include all your documents in your application?

a. Yes b. No

c. Some documents were missed

3. Did the staff personals visit your home for survey?

a. Yes b. No

4. What do you think is the reason that deprived you from selection?

a. Provide false information b. too many applicants

c. Unreliable survey d. Other (Mention)

5. Are you the target group for this program? (Poor Musalmans, Madeshi Dalits)

a. Yes b. No

6. If no, which?

a. Mention your group........................................................................................................................

7. Do you own land or building somewhere else? Yes No

8. If yes, where? ……………………………………………………………………….

9. Existing housing condition:

a. Poor condition (with mud floor/ Unhygienic living condition/ poor infrastructure)
b. Fair condition (with cement floor/ Unhygienic living condition/ good infrastructure)
c. Good condition (with cement floor/ Hygienic living condition/ good infrastructure)

10. If the government offers you (with partial economical support), for the better housing
condition, which approach will you prefer more? Please, provide a number starting from 1 to 5 (1
for the least and 5 for the most preferred approaches and so on).

S.N. Approaches Number

1 2 3 4 5

74
 a Improvement of the physical infrastructure of the
existing housing (On-site upgrading).
b Construction of own new house at another place
(Resettlement)
c Construction of new public housing by the government
d Providing land at subsidized rate with planned basic
infrastructure services (site and services)
e Collaboration with NGOs for the subsidized loan for
constructing new house.
f Rental Housing
g Private Sector Housing
h Land Sharing
i Other, if any. ……………………….

11. What is your perception regarding your housing need?

(Please, provide a number starting from 1 to 5 (1 for the least and 5 for the most preferred
approaches and so on based on your Importance).

S.N. Factors Number

1 2 3 4 5
a Family’s income
b Easy access to the family’s occupation
c Easy access to the market area

d Neighborhood and community attachment

e Geographical location

f Place of living currently

g Composition of new settlement

h Land price and Construction cost of housing

i Other, if any. ……………………….

Name of Respondent .......................................

Registration Number .......................................

Date .......................................

Contact Details .......................................

Signature ......................................

75
Annex B Janata Awash Sample Drawing

Plan Details

Roof Plan Details

76
Side Elevation Details

Rafter Purlin Details

77
Corner Vertical Bar Details

Wall Section and Band Details

78
Section at A-A

79
Annex C Photographs of Janata Awash Housing Unit (Constructed House)

80
8

81