Faustina's Aca Writing Comb Slides

UGRC 210
Academic Writing 2
Lecturer: Dr. David Ako Odoi

Contact Information: odoiski@yahoo.com
College of Education
School of Continuing and Distance Education
2014/2015 – 2016/2017
• Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or
otherwise without the permission of the publisher.
• Stella Boateng Norgbe

• David Ako Odoi
• Evershed Kwasi Amuzu
• Language Centre
• University of Ghana
© Copyright reserved
Slide 2
• Published by Institute of Continuing and Distance Education (ICDE),
University of Ghana, Legon. August 2011.
• E-mail iae@ug.edu.gh
• Website: www.ug.edu.gh
•
• Tel: (233) 21 501789
• Fax: (233) 21 500931
• Module Titles
• Unit 1 Overview of Grammer
• Unit 2 Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a Paragraph
• Unit 3 Reading II Practical Session
• Unit 4 Presentations
• Editorial Board
Slide 3
• Editorial Board
• Prof. Yaw Oheneba Sakyi

• Rev. Prof. Elom Dovlo
• Prof. W.A. Asomaning
• Prof. O. A.T. Frimpong Kwapong
• Dr. D. Oduro-Mensah
• Dr. S.K. Badu-Nyarko
• Dr. Michael Tagoe
• Dr. H. B. K. Kwashie
• Dr. T. Tefe
• Ms. Clara Benneh
• Mr. R.A. Aggor
• Kenneth Adda
• Nathanial Anibra
• Typesetting
• Irene Boakye-Yiadom
• Michael Ntiamoah
• © Copyright reserved
Slide 4
• Acknowledgement
• It is a pleasure to thank all those who have helped us in one way or another during
the preparation of this course book. Special thanks are due to the Centre for
Distance Education, University of Ghana, for not only giving us the
opportunity/challenge to write this course book but also for ensuring that we get
the necessary training and motivation to do our best. We also wish to thank Dr.
Gordon Adika, the Director of the Language Centre, for giving generously of his
time whenever we needed to consult him on aspects of the book. Many thanks
also go to Dr. Vera Arhin, who was part of this team initially, for the quality of
contributions she continued to make and for the generosity with which she
opened her personal library to us: indeed, many of the references cited in this
work were borrowed from her library. We have not forgotten the rest of the
(teaching as well as non-teaching) staff at the Language Centre; we thank each one
of them for being there for us whenever we needed their assistance. Last but not
least, many thanks go to our families; they have been wonderfully patient
throughout the many hours (and sometimes days) we had to spend away from
them in order to get this job done. We, however, reserve our ultimate praise to
God: thank You!
Slide 5
• Contents
• Course Overview v
•
Unit 1 Overview of Grammar
• Introduction
Section 1 Subject Verb Agreement
• Section 2 Shits and Mixed constructions
• Section 3 Sentence Fragments
• Section 4 Run on Sentences/Comma Splices
• Section 5 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
• Section 6 Commonly confusing Words
• Assignment 1
• Unit summary
•
• Unit 2 Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a Paragraph
• Introduction
• Section 1 The Process Approach to Writing
• Section 2 Writing Introductions
• Section 3 Writing Body Paragraphs
• Section 4 Writing Conclusions
• Section 5 Revising your essays
• Section 6 Editing Common Errors
• Assignment 2
• Unit summary
Slide 6
• Unit 3 Reading Techniques
• Introduction
• Section 1 Process Analysis
• Section 2 Narration
• Section 3 Description
• Section 4 Cause and Effect
• Section 5 Comparison and contrast Pattern
• Assignment 3
• Unit summary
•
•
• Unit 4 Presentation
• Introduction
• Section 1 Types of Presentations: Presenting to Inform
• Section 2 Types of Presentations: Presenting to

• Persuade Source in Essays
• Section 3 Preparing for your Presentation
• Section 4 Selecting and Arranging Content
• Section 5 Speaking on Special Occasions
• Assignment 4
• Unit summary
Slide 7
• Course Overview
• Welcome to the Academic Writing course!
• This course is to help you with the communication skills that will enable you to
succeed in writing good essays in the academic discourse community. This
community consists of yourself, me, your colleague students, your tutors and
lecturers, and the rest of the university community and those beyond. The
community demands that you think critically. For this reason, you will need to
acquire some skills. I will take you through strategies for reading and writing
paragraphs as well as taking and making effective notes. All these strategies, and
others, will help you write good academic essays.
• The course is divided into four units. In Unit 1, I will introduce you to the Overview
of Grammar. In Unit 2, you will continue with Methods of Developing a Controlling
Idea in a Paragraph. This time I will teach you the different methods that writers
use to clarify the idea they wish to express in a paragraph. Then, in Unit 3 I will
teach you ways to achieve effective reading to cope with undergraduate studies. In
Unit 4 I shall introduce you to aspects of public speaking and making
presentations. The following, then, is the outline of the course:
Slide 8
• Unit 1 Overview of Grammar
• Unit 2 Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a
Paragraph
• Unit 3 Reading II Practical Session
• Unit 4 Presentations
• It is important that you follow the units step by step. This
is because the course has been designed in a way to
guide you to acquire one skill before another. You will
experience through taking this course that writing and
speaking make an exciting Journey.
• Best of luck as you begin your journey.
Slide 9
• Objectives
• By the end of this course, you should be able to read and

identify a writer’s main ideas from the details he provides
• write well-structured paragraphs and academic essays in
which you guide readers to follow your train of thought
effortlessly
• write good notes that you may use in organizing and writing
your essays
• acknowledge sources of information in essays
• edit and proofread essays
Slide 10
Dr. Richard Boateng, UGBS Slide 11
UGRC 210
Academic Writing 2
UNIT 1 - Overview of Grammar
Lecturer: Dr. David Ako Odoi Language Centre

2014/2015 – 2016/2017
Overview of Grammar
• Introduction
• Once again, welcome to another exciting journey!
• Hello student, you are most welcomed to the very first unit of the Academic
Writing II course. I believe you learned a lot in Academic Writing I (UGRC110)
course which has helped you a lot in improving upon your writings in your new
discourse community.
• In this Unit, we are going to revise some of the grammar issues we discussed in
Academic Writing I, discuss into more details some of the issues we touched on,
and in addition, add a few new grammar issues.
• This unit will have 6 Sections in all. In the first section, I will teach you what is
known in English grammar as Subject-Verb Agreement. This simply means that
your verbs must agree with the subjects in your sentences. Some are simple to
recognise and construct. Others, however, can be confusing. In the second Section,
I will teach you how to avoid shifting from one verb tense to another in your
sentences. Section three, four, and five will focus on sentences. You learned a lot
about sentences in Academic Writing 1 but there is still a lot more to learn about
sentences. In the final section, we will look at some words in English which are
commonly confusing because they either look alike or sound alike.
Slide 2
• Grab your pen, paper, and dictionary and read along with me.
• This unit will cover the following sections
• Section 1 Subject Verb Agreement
• Section 2 Shifts and Mixed Constructions
• Section 3 Sentence Fragments
• Section 4 Run on Sentences/Comma Splices
• Section 5 Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers
• Section 6 Commonly Confusing Words
•
• Objectives
•
• Upon the completion of this unit, you should be able to: make your verbs agree with the subjects in
sentences
• avoid shifting from one verb tense to another in the same sentence
• recognise sentence fragments and avoid them in your sentences
• recognise run on sentences and comma splices and avoid them in your sentences
• place your modifiers at the right place in your sentences
• be able to recognise some commonly confusing words
Slide 3
Section 1 Subject Verb Agreement
• Introduction
• Welcome to the first section of the first Unit. As the section title suggests, we are
going to discuss a very important issue in English grammar – Subject- Verb
Agreement.
• Almost every day, we come across a situation that requires us to reach an
agreement with someone. For example, you and your friend may have to agree on
which movie to see, or you and your manager at work might have to agree on how
many days you can take as your leave days. Whatever the issue, agreement is
essential in most aspects of life – including writing.
• In this section, you will learn how to resolve conflicts in your sentences by making
sure your subjects and verbs agree.
•
• Objectives
• By the end of this section, you should be able to:
• recognize mistakes with regards to verbs that do not agree with their subjects
• make your verbs agree with their subjects in your sentences
Slide 4
• Subject-Verb Agreement
• Subject-verb agreement simply means that a singular subjects must be paired with
a singular verbs and plural subjects with plural verbs in sentences. In other words,
subjects and verbs in the present tense must agree in number. We use an –s or –es
ending on the verb when the subject is the third person singular (Recall UGRC110,
Unit1, Section3) Look at this example:
• Singular: She lives in Kumasi.
• The subject she is singular because it refers to only one person. The verb lives is
singular and matches the singular subject. Here is the same sentence in plural
form:
• Plural: They live in Kumasi.
• The subject they is plural (more than one person) and the verb live is also plural.
Let us look at a few more examples:
• John runs every morning.
• Race car drivers drive at very high speed.
• The strangers were helpful to the stranded motorist.
• Mike is a talented football player.
Slide 5
• With sentences that are as simple and direct as
above, it is easy to check that the subject and the
verb agree. But problems can arise when words
come between the subjects and the verbs. In other
words, subject verb agreement errors occur in
complicated sentences; in sentences with compound
subjects, or in sentences when the subject and verb
are separated by other words or phrases.
Slide 6
• Separation of Subjects and verbs
• Sometimes, a word, phrase, or clause separates the subject from the verb.
Make sure the verb agrees with the subject, not with the words that come
between the subject and verb. Here are some examples:
• The number of farm workers has remained constant over several decades.
• Telephones that were made in the 1930s are now antique artifacts.
• In sentence 1, the subject number is singular and requires a singular
subject, even though the prepositional phrase, of farm workers appear
between the subject and the verb. In sentence 2, the subject, Radios is a
plural subject is separated from the verb are by the relative clause that
were made in the 1930s.
• The important thing to do is to read each sentence carefully for meaning.
Cross out any word, phrase, or clause that separate the subject from the
verb. Before we continue our discussion, I would like you to try the
following activity.
Slide 7
• Activity 1.1
• Underline the verb that agrees with the subject in each of the following sentences. Cross out any
phrase or clause that separates the subjects and the verbs.
• The oranges in that bowl (tastes, taste) sweet.
• The instructions on the package (is, are) in French and Japanese.
• Our new community centre, which has a swimming pool and tennis court (makes, keep) everyone
happy.
• All the CD players on that shelf (comes, come) with a remote control.
• A movie that lasts more than three hours usually (puts, put) me to sleep.
• The two nurses who check blood pressure (enjoys, enjoy) chatting with the patients.
• The green lizard on the wall (hasn’t, haven’t) moved for hours.
• One of her many talents (is, are) dancing.
• Roman architecture still (influences, influence) architecture today.
• The reports on my desk (belongs, belong) to the finance department.
• I hope you were able to identify the subjects and the verbs that agree with them. Did find, for
example, that subject in sentence 2 is instructions and the verb is are? And in sentence 5, the
subject is movie and the verb is puts? Well done!
• Let us now continue with our discussion.
Slide 8
• More Than One Subject
• Sometimes, a subject consists of more than one person, place,
thing or ideas. These subjects are called compound subjects.
Use the following three rules when matching a verb to a
compound subject.
• Use a plural verb when compound subjects are joined by and.
For example:
• Kwame and Esi were my best friends.
• Professor Boateng, Reverend Epson and Doctor Amoah visit
the orphanage frequently.
• In the above sentences, the singular subjects (two in the first
sentence and three in the second sentence) are joined by and
therefore, they need plural verbs.
Slide 9
• Use a singular verb with most collective nouns. A collective noun
refers to a group as one unit acting together. However, use a plural
verb when the members of the group act as individuals such as
family, couple, and class. You can add the word members to make
their meaning clearer, and to avoid awkwardness. For example:
• Vinegar and oil is great on salad.
• The Jury has reached a verdict.
• The members of the jury are divided and unable to reach
consensus.
• In sentence 1 above, the subject vinegar is one item and oil is one
item, but one is not eaten without the other so they form a single
unit, and therefore requires a single verb is. In sentence 2, the jury
acts as a single unit and also requires a singular verb has. However,
the same subject acts as individual members in sentence 3 and this
requires a plural verb are.
Slide 10
• has misplaced the bill. the waiter or the customer
• Neither the father nor mother visits him at school.
• However, when one plural and one singular subjects are joined by the
conjunctions above, the verb should agree in number with the subject
closest to it. For example:
• Either my daughters or my wife waters the plant When two or more
subjects are joined by or, either …or, or neither … nor, use a singular verb.
For example:
• Mathematics or accounting appears to interest you most.
• Either daily.
• Either my wife or my daughters water the plant daily.
• Neither the sailors nor the boat was harmed in the storm.
• Neither the boat nor the sailors were harmed in the storm.
• Note that in the sentences above, the verb agrees with the subject closest
to it. It now time for another activity.
Slide 11
• Activity 1.2
• Underline the verb that agrees with its subject in each of the following sentences.
• Wine and cheese (is, are) a good appetizer.
• Neither your smile nor your laughter (cheers, cheer) me up.
• The brakes and alignment (needs, need) adjusting.
• The cupboards and refrigerator in this house (is, are) empty.
• Chicken and fries from Papaye (is, are) my favourites.
• Neither man nor bullets (harms, harm) Superman.
• Bread and gravy (is, are) a wonderful breakfast.
• My aunt and uncle (live, lives) in Takoradi.
• Pens and pencils (belongs, belong) in the third drawer.
• Neither bananas nor chicken (was, were) available at the store.
• I hope it was not very difficult for you to decide whether the singular verb or the
plural verb agrees with the subject. Well done! Let us move our discussion
forward.
Slide 12
• Indefinite Pronouns
• Indefinite pronouns do not refer to anyone or
anything specific. Some indefinite pronouns are
always singular and some are always plural. A few
can be either singular or plural, depending on the
other words in the sentence. Here is a list of
indefinite pronouns:
Slide 13
• Always Singular – Another, other, somebody
someone, something, anybody, anyone, anything,
each, either, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing,
one, everybody, everyone, everything, little
much
• Always Plural – Both, few, many,others, several
• Either Singular or Plural – all, any, more, most, some
Slide 14
• When an indefinite pronoun is the subject of a sentence, the verb
must agree with the pronoun.
• Singular: 1. Something changes at home every day.
• Everybody hates this weather.
• Plural: Several have made it to the top of the mountain.
• Many stay longer than necessary.
• The pronouns that can be either singular or plural are singular when
they refer to singular nouns and plural when they refer to plural
nouns. To decide which verb to use, treat the indefinite pronoun as
singular if it refers to something that cannot be counted and as
plural if it refers to more than one of something that can be
counted.
• Some of Akua’s fear was gone.
• Some of her friends were at her graduation.
Slide 15
• Verbs before Subjects
• When a subject follows its verb, the subject may be hard
to find, which makes the process of agreement very
difficult. Subjects come after verbs in two particular
situations – when the sentence begins with here, or there
or with a prepositional phrase. In such sentences, look
for the subject after the verb and make sure the subject
and the verb agree. Here are some examples:
• Here are the contestants for the game.
• There is paper in the cabinet.
• Under the stairs lurks a solitary spider.
Slide 16
• Antecedent PRONOUNS
• When a relative pronoun (who, which, that) refers to a
singular noun, use a singular verb. When it refers to a
plural noun, use a plural verb. For example:
• Wole Soyinka, who enjoys unique success as both a
popular and literary author won the Nobel Prize.
• Who refers to Wole Soyinka and because it is a singular
noun, the verb is also singular.
• Look for stores that display this sign.
• That refers to stores, a plural noun and therefore must
have a plural verb.
Slide 17
• Using one of the often leads to errors in subject-verb
agreement. The phrase plus a noun is plural. For example:
• A pigeon is one of the two birds that drink by suction.
• That refers to birds, and since birds is plural, the verb drink is
plural.
• However, only one of the plus a noun is singular and must
have a singular verb. For example:
• The cheetah is the only one of the big cats that has non
retractable claws.
• This brings us to the end of this section. Before we draw the
curtains to an end, I want you to try the last activity in this
section.
Slide 18
• Activity 1.3
• Read the following paragraph and underline the subjects and the verbs in the
sentences. Correct the errors you may find with subject-verb agreements.
• It is very strange, but I loves the smell of oil, gas, and exhaust from cars. Most says
these things smell like burning fumes, but for me they smell of warm, carefree
days spent with my dad. Dad has a passion for fixing up old cars, and I am his
assistant. Dad and I spends our summer days in the shed behind the house. Either
he is underneath the car or under its hood. Hovering nearby are his willing
assistant, me, with wrenches, oil, rags – anything Dad need. Sometimes by midday,
the shed gets so hot that I can actually see the fumes from the oil, gas, and
exhaust in the air. I breathe deeply; There are the smell of my father and me. My
gang of friends do not understand why I spend my summer in a hot shed with my
dad. But I knows this: Here is my fondest memories.
• I hope the activity was not very difficult. This activity brings us to the end of this
section. I will see you in the next section, where we will continue to talk about the
verb. Bye!
Slide 19
• Summary
• We have come to the end of the first section in this Unit. In
this Section, you learned how to make your subjects and
verbs agree by:
• Making sure the verb agrees with the subject, not with the
words that come between them
• matching a verb to a compound subject
• making sure the verb agrees its pronoun.
• Paying attention to verbs before subjects
• Paying attention to antecedent pronoun
• I hope you have enjoyed the lesson. Thanks for staying with
me, and I will see you in the next section. Bye!
Slide 20
Section 2 Shifts and Mixed
Constructions
• Introduction
• Hello student, you are welcome to another section in which we are going
to continue talking about verbs. As you may have observed so far, verbs
communicate the action and time of each sentence. So it is important that
you use verb tenses consistently.
• In this section I will discuss some other problems that writers face in
constructing their sentences. Sometimes, people unknowingly mix tenses
and also shift from one voice to another in sentences. This section will
help you identify and correct shifts and mixed constructions in your
sentences. Read along with me and learn something new.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section, you should be able to identify mixed
constructions
• use verb tenses consistently
• avoid shifting from one voice to another
Slide 21
• Shifts
• A shift is a sudden, unexpected change in point of view, verb
tense, voice, or level of diction that may confuse your readers.
Let us start our discussion by looking at the following text.
• A bank commonly owes more to its customers that is held in
reserve. They kept enough assets to meet reasonable
withdrawals, but panicked customers may demand all their
deposits. Then demand will exceed supplies, and banks failed.
These days, a person’s losses are not likely to be great
because the government insures your deposits.
• Now, upon first reading, you may think that there is
everything right with the short paragraph above but there are
a lot of inconsistencies in the area of verb tense, person, and
voice. Now let us revise the paragraph.
Slide 22
• Revised
A bank commonly owes more to its customers that it holds in
reserve. It keeps enough assets to meet reasonable
withdrawals, but panicked customers may demand all their
deposits. Then demands will exceed supplies, and the bank
will fail. These days, the losses of customers are not likely to
be great because the government insures their deposits.
Shifts like those in the first draft are likely to occur while you
write. When you edit your work, make your sentences
consistent in grammatical elements. Proofread your work on
your own, looking carefully for inconsistencies. The following
are the steps you can take to avoid inconsistencies in your
writing:
Slide 23
• Shifts in Person
• Person in grammar refers to the distinction among the person
talking (first person), the person spoken to (second person),
and the person, object, or concept being talked about (third
person). (Recall UGRC110, Unit 1, Section 3). Most shifts in
person occur because we can refer to people in general,
including our readers, either in the third person ( a person,
one, people, they) or in the second person (you). Person
shows the writer’s point of view. Look at the following
examples that share the same meaning but written from
different points of view.
• People should not drive when they have been drinking.
• One should not drive when he or she has been drinking
• You should not drive when you have been drinking.
Slide 24
• Although any of the possibilities is acceptable in an
appropriate context, a mixture of them is inconsistent:
• Shift: If a person works hard, you can gain
recognition.
• Revised: If you work hard, you can gain recognition.
• Revised: If a person works hard, he or she can gain
recognition.
• Better: If people work hard, they can gain recognition.
• The first sentence is a bad one because there is a shift in
person. The three revised ones are good but the third
revised one is better than all of them. Pay attention to
your choice of pronouns in your sentences.
Slide 25
• Shifts in Number
• Number refers to the distinction between one (singular)
and more than one (plural). Inconsistency in numbers
occurs most often between a pronoun and its
antecedent. For example:
• If a student does not understand a lesson, they should
consult the instructor. (shift)
• If students do not understand a lesson, they should
consult the instructor. (revised)
• OR
• A student who does not understand a lesson should
consult the instructor. (revised)
Slide 26
• You should note that generic nouns and most
indefinite pronouns take singular pronouns with a
definite gender: he, she, or it. Whenever you use a
generic noun like student or person or an indefinite
pronoun like everyone or each, include both males
and females. To indicate this meaning, use he or she
or better still, rewrite in the plural.
Slide 27
• Shifts In Tense
• Maintain consistency in verb tense throughout a paragraph or
an essay, unless the the meaning requires you to change
tenses. Changes that are not required by meaning distract
readers. Lets look at an example:
• The virus mutated so quickly that it develops a resistance to
most vaccines. (inconsistent)
• The virus mutates so quickly that it develops a resistance to
most vaccines. (revised)
• The city’s crime rate continues to decrease, but experts
disagreed on the reasons. (inconsistent)
• The city’s crime rate continues to decrease, but experts
disagree on the reasons
Slide 28
• Use the present tense consistently to describe what an author has
written, including the action in literature or film. Shifts between the
present and the past are among the most common shifts writers
make. You can, however, change verb tense when you want to
indicate an actual time change. Notice the intentional shifts in the
following passages. The verbs are underlined.
• Every spring migratory birds return to cooler climates to raise their
young. This year, a pair of blue jays is occupying a nest in my
backyard, and I spy on them. The hatchlings are growing larger and
developing furthers. Last spring, robins built the nest that the jays
now call home, and I watched them every morning until the young
birds left home for the last time.
• As the event switch from this year (present) to the previous year
(past), the writer changes from the present tense to the past tense.
• It is now time for an activity.
Slide 29
• Activity 2.1
• Revise the following sentences to make them consistent in person,
number and tense.
• A plumber will fix burst pipes, but they won’t repair waterlogged
appliances.
• When a person is expecting a delivery from the mail, you begin to
notice what time the mail carrier arrives.
• When tax payers does not file their returns early, they do not get a
refund quickly
• The contestants will be arriving tomorrow morning and needed
room allocations.
• The dog keeps scratching his ear and will need medical attention.
• I believe you were able to find the shift in person (2 sentences),
shift in number (1 sentence), and shift in tenses (2 sentences)
Slide 30
• Shift in Voice
• When a verb is in the active voice, the subject is the actor of the activity described
by the verb (Adjoa passed the salt.)and when a verb is in the passive voice, the
subject names the receiver of the action (The salt was passed by Adjoa).
Unnecessary shifts between the active voice and passive voice can disorient your
readers and create confusion. Look at the following shifts and their revised
versions.
• Internet newsgroups cover an enormous range of topics for discussion. Forums for
meeting people with like interests are provided in these groups. (inconsistent)
• Internet newsgroups cover an enormous range of topics for discussion. And
provide forums for meeting people with like interests. (revised)
• Drought and windstorms made farming impossible and many families were forced
to leave Okom village due to starvation.
• Drought and windstorms made farming impossible, and starvation forced many
families to leave Okom village.
• In the sentences above, the inconsistent ones have shift in voice from the active
voice to passive. Avoid such shifts in your sentences.
Slide 31
• Shift in Mood
• Mood indicates whether the sentence states a fact or asks a
question (indicative mood), gives a command or direction
(imperative mood), or expresses a condition or a suggestion
(subjunctive mood). Shifts in the mood of verbs occur most
frequently in directions when the writer moves between imperative
mood (Unplug the appliance.) and the indicative mood (You should
unplug the appliance). For example:
• Cook the mixture slowly, and you should stir it until the sugar is
dissolved. (inconsistent)
• Cook the mixture slowly and stir it until the sugar is dissolved.
(revised)
• Directions are usually clearer and more concise in the imperative,
as long as its use is consistent. Let us try another activity.
Slide 32
• Activity 2. 2
• Correct the shifts in person, verb tense, voice and mood in the following paragraph.
• Driving on a muddy road need not be dangerous if you practice a few rules. First, one should
avoid fast starts, which prevent the wheels from gaining traction and may result in the car’s
getting stuck. Second, drive slowly than usual, and you should pay attention to the feel of the
car: if the steering feels unusually loose or the wheels did not seem to be grabbing the road,
slow down. Third, avoid fast stops, which lead to skids. One should be alert for other cars and
intersections that may necessitate that the brakes be applied suddenly. If you need to slow
down, the car’s momentum can be reduced by downshifting as well as by applying the
brakes. When braking, press the pedal to the floor only if you have antilock brakes;
otherwise, the pedal should be pumped in short bursts. When you feel the car skidding, the
brakes should be release and the wheel should be turned into the direction of the skid, and
then the brakes should be pressed or pumped again. If one repeated this motions, the skid
would be stopped and the speed of the car would be reduced.
• I hope you were able to identify each kind of shift errors that we have discussed so far. Now
we will turn our attention to another grammar issue which is also closely related to what we
have discussed so far.
Slide 33
• Mixed Constructions
• A mixed construction contains phrases or clauses that do not work
together logically and that cause confusion in meaning. For example:
• The fact that the marathon is twenty-six kilometres, a length that explains
why I never have finished it.
• The sentence above has mixed constructions. The sentence starts with a
subject (the fact) followed by a dependent clause (that the marathon is
twenty-six kilometres). The sentence needs a predicate to complete the
independent clause; instead it includes a noun (a length) and another
dependent clause (that explains why I never have finished it). The
independent clause that begins with The fact is never completed.
• The sentence could be revised to read as the following:
• The marathon is twenty-six kilometres long, which is why I never have
finished running it.
Slide 34
• To avoid mixed constructions in your writing, it often helps to check
the words that connect clauses and phrases, especially prepositions
and conjunctions. You can take the following steps to avoid mixed
constructions:
• Make sure your subjects and predicates are consistent. faulty
predication occurs when a subject does work grammatically with its
predicate. For example:
• Faulty: The most valued attribute in an employee is a person who
is loyal
• Revised: The most valued attribute in an employee is loyalty.
• The first sentence is wrong because a person is not an attribute.
• Avoid constructions: is when or is where or reason … is because.
Slide 35
• Faulty
• Indigestion is when you cannot digest food.

• Gravitation is where one body is being attracted by another.
• The reason I enjoy skipping is because it provides outdoor exercise.
• Revised
• Indigestion is the inability to digest food.
• Gravitation is the attraction of one body for another.
• I enjoy skipping because it provides outdoor exercise.
I hope you will remember the lessons in this section when writing.
Slide 36
• Summary
• All too soon, we have come to the end of another
section. In this section, you learned how to improve
upon your writing by paying attention a common
error that writers often commit; shift and mixed
constructions. This is a very important lesson
because it is sometimes difficult to identify these
errors. You have to read over your essays over and
over again to be able to correct these kinds of errors.
See you soon!
Slide 37
Section 3 Sentence Fragments
• Introduction
• Dear student, you are welcome to Section three of this
Unit. In the previous unit you learned about improving
your writing by avoiding mixed constructions, and shifts
in sentences. In this section we want to take a look at
another important aspect of our language use and so we
want to delve into SENTENCE FRAGMENTS.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section, you should be able to identify
Sentence fragments
• write sentences that do not have fragments
Slide 38
• Let us begin by asking the question: What is a sentence?
• We would want to answer that a sentence is a group of words that
express a complete thought. We may also say that a sentence has
a subject and a verb. All sentences have at least an independent
or main clause.
• A sentence fragment is a group of words-a phrase or a dependent
clause that is punctuated like a sentence. It however does not
express a complete thought or idea. Let us take this example
• When I was going home
• By the coconut tree
• The above examples may seem to be complete sentences since
they end with a full stop but as I stated earlier, they a do not
express a complete thought or idea. Therefore we need to revise
the by adding a main or independent clause for the sentence to
give the required information.
Slide 39
• Let us consider the revised versions below:
• When I was going home (incorrect)
• When I was going home, I met the doctor (revised)
• Example (a) is a fragment and example (b) is a
complete sentence where the fragment has been
joined to a main clause, which I have underlined, to
give it a complete thought. Let us also consider the
second fragment I gave as an example earlier on.
• By the coconut tree. ( incorrect)
• I hid the money by the coconut tree. (revised)
Slide 40
• You may have noted that I placed the main clause first
before attaching the sentence fragment. On the whole,
the revised sentence provides something meaningful,
that which I call a complete thought.
• We expect that your essays or your writings should be
free of sentence fragments since sentence fragments do
not make a complete meaning.
• One way of identifying a sentence fragment is by looking
for conjunctions that are not followed by complete ideas.
Let us look at the following examples:
• He ate the food. And drank the soup.
• He ran up the hill. Because there was a fire.
Slide 41
• The two conjunctions written in italics And and
Because are not followed by complete thoughts and
so we must recognize what follows as a fragment.
We can therefore revise these to read:
• He ate the food and drank the soup.(revised)
• He ran up the hill because there was a fire.(revised)
Slide 42
• Let us try an activity
• Activity 3.1
• Briefly explain what a sentence fragment is.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….............................
• Write out a sentence that contains a sentence fragment.
• Correct the sentence and explain briefly what you have done to make the
sentence meaningful.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………......................
• I believe this was not difficult at all. If it was, please read the section again. If you
were able to do the activity successfully, congratulate yourself.
• Basically the rule is to link any dependent clause or any fragment to a main or
independent clause.
Slide 43
• I believe this was not difficult at all. If it was, please read
the section again. If you were able to do the activity
successfully, congratulate yourself.
• Basically the rule is to link any dependent clause or any
fragment to a main or independent clause.
• Summary
• In this section I drew your attention to group of words
that pretend to offer a complete thought. These are
called sentence fragments. I also said that to avoid such
fragments, you should link the fragment to a main or
independent clause for it to express a complete thought.
Bye for now.
Slide 44
Section 4 Run on Sentences /
Comma Splices
• Introduction
• Welcome to Section 4 of this Unit. In the last section you learned
about sentence fragments and reasons why these should not
appear in your writing. In this Section you and I will learn about
another important part of our writing which needs some attention
for what we write to look and sound good. These are ‘Run on’
sentences and ‘comma splices’. These writing problems come about
because of hasty writing and not doing any proper editing of our
work or essays.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this Section you should be able to identify run on
sentences and comma splices
• rewrite sentences which are run –on for them to read well
• avoid using comma splices in writings
Slide 45
• One way of making our sentences to read well is by the avoidance of ‘Run-on’
sentences. Run –on sentences, according to Buscemi, Nicolai and Strugala(2000)
are also called fused sentences. This situation occurs when two or more
independent clauses are joined without the appropriate punctuation or the use of
the correct conjunction.
Look at the examples below:
• Kofi went to the party. Ama stayed at home.

• Today is Ghana’s Independence Day. We went to the parade.
In example (a) the run on sentence may be revised to read

Kofi went to the party but Ama stayed at home. OR
• Kofi went to the party. Ama stayed at home.
What I have done in bullet one is to introduce the conjunction but in between the
two independent clause thereby joining them to read as one sentence.
Slide 46
In bullet two, I introduced a full stop (.) between the first independent
clause and the second one. Let us revise the sentence
‘Today is Ghana’s Independence Day. We went to the parade.’
• Today is Ghana’s Independence Day so we went to the parade.(revised)

• Today is Ghana’s Independence Day. We went to the parade.(revised)
What has happened in these revised sentences is similar to the revision of

the first example.
We can also revise the sentences in these ways:
• Place a semicolon between the two independent clauses
• Today is Ghana’s Independence Day; we went to the parade.
Slide 47
• Use a comma and a conjunction
• Today is Ghana’s Independence Day, so we went to
the parade.
• Use an adverb between the two main clauses.
• Today is Ghana’s Independence Day; therefore, we
went to the parade.
• In the above revision in italics, note the use of
punctuations and conjunctions which are combined
to make the sentence to read well.
• Now let us shift and learn about Comma Splices.
Slide 48
Comma Splices
Comma splices are quite similar to run on or fused sentences.
The difference lies in the fact that the comma slice connects
or joins two independent clauses with a comma alone. Let us
consider this example.
• Kofi spoke to the man, he did not really know him.
We note in the above example that there are two independent

clauses and they are separated by a comma. We want to note
here that the comma splice can be revised to read well just
like the run on sentence:
• Kofi spoke to the man although he did not really know
him.(revised)
Slide 49
What I have done here is to make one of the previously
independent clauses a subordinate clause buy
introducing the word although. This is a subordinator.
We can also revise this sentence by having two
independent clauses with a full stop separating them. For
example:
• Kofi spoke to the man. He did not know him. (revised)
The use of the full stop and the second independent clause
starting with a full stop makes the sentence to read
better that it originally is.
Slide 50
Another way of revising the original sentence for it
to read well is by introducing a semi-colon between
the two independent clauses.
Example:
• Kofi spoke to the man; he did not know him.
I hope you have understood the lessons on sentence
fragments, run on sentences and comma splices.
It is now time for an activity.
Slide 51
• Activity 4.1
• Rewrite the following paragraph and remove sentence fragments, run on
sentences and comma splices it contains.
• As infant and child. You probably interacted first, most often, and most intensely
with members of your immediate family-a parent or parents, perhaps a guardian,
and, if you had them, brothers and sisters. By contrasting yourself to these
individuals. You began to develop an ego, the Latin word for I. At the same time
that you were establishing psychological differences from those nearest to you,
you were nonetheless incorporating much from them that went beyond your
genetic inheritance. Your present temperament, tastes, and values have roots in
your childhood, in what you learned, consciously or unconsciously, from persons
closely related to you during those formative years. Those from whom you
probably learned most, your parents or guardians once learned in turn from their
parents who had learned in turn, from their parents. In short, the roots of who you
are run deep, though you have undoubtedly branched from those roots, as did
your predecessors, by expressing your individuality in diverse ways.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
Slide 52
• I hope this exercise was simple. Were you able to spot some
fragments, comma splices and run on sentences? I know you
were able to. Congratulations.
• This brings us to the end of our study on run on sentences
and comma splices.
• Summary
• In Section four of this Unit, I have taught you what run on
sentences and comma splices are. I informed you that these
writing problems come about because of hasty writing
without any proper editing. We also learned some methods of
avoiding run on sentences and comma splices. I hope that
with this study, your writing will show some improvement.
Good luck and good bye for now.
Slide 53
Section 5 Misplaced and Dangling
Modifiers
• Introduction
• You are welcome to Section 5 of this Unit. In the previous
section, you learned some useful lessons on your writing.
You learned about run on sentences and comma splices.
In this section, I will pay attention to some other
important aspects of our writing for it to read well. I will
talk about misplaced modifiers and dangling modifiers.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section, you should be able to identify
misplaced and dangling modifiers
• write to avoid misplaced and dangling modifiers
Slide 54
• We sometime write essays and we are so confident that
our work should pass well. We however do not take our
time with editing our work to avoid ambiguity or to make
the work say exactly what we mean.
• Let us consider the following sentences:
• Walking into the house, the phone rang.
• While watching the movie their car was stolen.
• The piano was sold to an old lady with crooked legs
• They sent a parcel to his mother wrapped in silver foil.
• He bought a watch from a shop which runs on small
batteries.
Slide 55
• These sentences at the first instance look good enough! I
however want you to closely look at the sentences.
Sentence (a) for instance can be read to mean that it was
the telephone that was walking into the house!
Sentence (b) can be understood to mean that it was the
car watching the movie. Also sentence (c) may mean
that the old lady had crooked legs. We do not mean to
be rude to the old lady so we cannot say this. In sentence
(d) we cannot mean that it is his mother that was
wrapped in a silver foil. Sentence (e) may mean that it is
the shop that runs on small batteries and not the
watch.
Slide 56
These explanations show levels of impossibility as well as telling us to be
care not to show rudeness.
So let us do some revisions of the sentences for them to read well and
make meaning.
• Walking into the house, the phone rang. (dangling)
We can revise this sentence to read:

• While they were walking into the house, the telephone rang. (revised)
What I have done is to introduce the subordinator of time ‘while’ and I have
also introduced a subject ‘they’. I have therefore made the first part of the
sentence a subordinate clause and have attached it to the main clause
‘the telephone rang.’ So now we note that it is human beings that were
doing the ‘walking’ and not the telephone.
Slide 57
Let us now deal with the second sentence.
While watching the movie their car was
stolen.(dangling)
We can revise this sentence to read:
While Kofi and Collins were watching the movie, their
car was stolen.
Again, you will note that I have introduced a subject
‘Kofi and Collins’ to the first part of the sentence to
make it a full subordinate clause to be attached to
the main clause ‘their car was stolen’.
Slide 58
Again, you will note that I have introduced a subject
‘Kofi and Collins’ to the first part of the sentence to
make it a full subordinate clause to be attached to
the main clause ‘their car was stolen’.
Now we shall tackle sentence (c).
(c)The piano was sold to an old lady with crooked
legs.(misplaced)
will revise this to read:
c)The piano with crooked legs was sold to an old lady,
(revised)
Slide 59
What I have done is to move the modifier ‘with crooked legs’ and
place it just after the word ‘piano’ and before the verbs ‘was sold’.
So, we now know it is ‘the piano’ that has crooked legs and not the
old woman.The next sentence has also used misplaced modifiers.
d)They sent a parcel to his mother wrapped in silver foil.
We will revise it to read:

(d)They sent a parcel wrapped in silver foil to his mother.
What has happened is that I have moved the modifiers ‘wrapped in

silver foil’ and I have placed them right after the word ‘parcel’. I
guess you realize that this gives a more logical meaning than the
original sentence.
Slide 60
Now let us tackle the last sentence:
He bought a watch from a shop which runs on small batteries.(misplaced)
This sentence can be revised to read

(d) He bought a watch which runs on small batteries from a shop.
You now note that the sentence has become clearer than the original. I
have moved the modifiers ‘which runs on small batteries’ and I have
placed it directly after the word ‘watch’. We now understand that it is the
watch that runs on small batteries and not the shop.
I hope these aspects of grammar, that is, dangling and misplaced modifiers
have been understood.
Slide 61
• Let us try an activity.
• Activity 5.1
• Read the following sentences and correct any dangling or misplaced modifiers that
you find in them.
• Changing into my working clothes, the foreman told me to relax.
• Before replacing an engine part, the ignition must be turned off.
• To be cooked well, you must steam vegetables.
• I saw a monkey going to Accra.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
That was not difficult!
Slide 62
• Activity 5.2
• Now, explain what changes you made to make the sentences you just
worked on to read well.
• ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………
• Congratulations.
• Summary
In this section you and I have looked at Dangling modifiers and Misplaced
modifiers. I told you that sentences may have more than one meaning if
the modifiers dangle or are misplaced. We had some examples and did
some corrections to place modifiers properly. I hope you found this lesson
interesting.
Now let us meet in the next section and talk about commonly confusing
words.
Slide 63
Section 6 Commonly Confusing
Words
• Introduction
• Welcome to the sixth section of this Unit. In the previous Section, you learned
about misplaced and dangling modifiers. I explained that if certain modifiers are
not made to be full dependent clauses or if some modifiers are placed close to
nouns that they are not meant to modify, then the sentence become difficult to
immediately understand.
• In this section I want to draw your attention to some words that may sound the
same but mean different things. Some of the words may not necessarily sound the
same but are often used that they become confusing. There is the temptation not
to check the meaning of the words we use from the dictionary before we use
those words and in the end, we have sentences that are not meaningful or tend to
confuse our readers.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this Section you should be able to note words that confuse
• write such words correctly
• find the meaning of a confusing word
• use the correct word each time
Slide 64
• Let us consider these few pair words
• Loose
• Lose
• Aisle
• Isle
• Bough
• Bow
Slide 65
• You may have noted that these words generally sound the
same. The problem here is that each word means a different
thing. For instance Loose means ‘not firmly fixed’, ‘not tied
together’ or ‘free to move around’. This different in meaning
from Lose which means ‘ to be unable to find’ among others
with close associations. Therefore, it will be confusing to use
one word in place of the other.
• Similarly, the word Aisle means ‘a passage between rows of
seats in a church, theatre or train’ and this word is different
from Isle which is an ‘island’. So couple about to be married
will be said to soon “Walk down the aisle’ because they will
march between the pews in church. Instead of saying this and
a speaker says ‘They will walk down the isle’, we are to expect
a walk on an island instead of a bridal march in church!
Slide 66
• The word bough refers to ‘a large branch of a tree’
and ‘bow’ refers to ‘a sign of respect where the top
part of the body is moved forward a bit’. So, these
words sound the same but their spelling and
meanings are different. So there is the need to spell
words rightly and know which word we want to use
any moment we are writing. Now let us do an activity
to reinforce what I have said so far.
• Now let us try an activity.
Slide 67
• Activity 6.1
• Pick your dictionary and find out the meaning of these pairs of words.
• Rein
• Reign
• Cite
• Site
• Been
• Being
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Good work done. I hope you realized that each word had a different meaning. So,
do not use one word in place of the other.
• Let us do a follow-up activity.
Slide 68
• Activity 6.2
• Write meaningful sentences with all the words whose meaning you have found from the dictionary
in the previous activity.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
• Congratulations. You must know that the use of the dictionary is very important. This is because it
helps you to know the spelling of words as well as their meaning. The use of the dictionary will
make you know which word you want to use and the meaning you wish to convey each time.
• Summary
• This Section has been devoted to the use of words such that they do not confuse your reader. Some
words sound the same but mean differently. Some words are also used wrongly. Therefore, we
must know the spelling of a word, what it means and use it correctly.
• Assignment 1
• Identify twenty words that mean differently but have similar pronunciation. Form a sentence(s)
with each word.
Slide 69
• Unit summary
• This unit drew your attention to some aspects of Grammar which
are important and needful for your writing to read well.
• Make your verbs agree with the subjects in sentences.
• I drew your attention to how to avoid shifting from one verb tense
to another in the same sentence.
• I also noted how to recognise sentence fragments and avoid them
in your sentences.
• I taught you about run on sentences and comma splices. Attention
was also drawn to modifiers at their right places in sentences.
• I finally dealt with some commonly confusing words. I
• I hope that these aspects of Grammar will make your essays richer
and easily readable. Good bye for now.
Slide 70
LANG 100/200 Academic Writing
Copyright
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or otherwise without the permission of the publisher.
Evershed Kwasi Amuzu

Stella Boateng Norgbe
David Ako Odoi
Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Published by Centre for Distance Education, Institute of Adult Education (IAE), University of
Ghana, Legon. October 2007
Copies of the publication may be obtained from:
Institute of Adult Education
University of Ghana
Legon, Accra.
Ghana.
E-mail iae@ug.edu.gh
Website: www.ug.edu.gh
Tel: (233) 21 501789

Fax: (233) 21 500931
Module Titles:
Unit 1: Paragraph Structure
Unit 2: Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a Paragraph
Unit 3: Reading Techniques
Editorial Board:
Prof. W.A. Asomaning
Prof. K. Anyidoho
Dr. G. Adika
Dr. D. Oduro-Mensah
Mr. K. Siabi-Mensah
Dr. S.K. Badu-Nyarko
Dr. Michael Tagoe
Ms. Clara Benneh
Mrs. A.T.F. Olivia Kwapong
Graphic Artist:
Mr. Benard Akuoko
Typesetting:
Caroline Asiedu-Danquah
Irene Boakye-Yiadom
ISBN 978-9988-8395-4-5
Printed by Institute of Adult Education, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
ii Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Acknowledgement
It is a pleasure to thank all those who helped us in one way or
another during the preparation of this course book. Special thanks
are due to the Centre for Distance Education, University of Ghana,
for not only giving us the opportunity/challenge to write this course
book but also for ensuring that we got the necessary training and
motivation to do our best. We also wish to thank Dr. Gordon Adika,
the Acting Director of the Language Centre, for giving generously of
his time whenever we needed to consult him on aspects of the book.
Many thanks also go to Mrs. Vera Arhin, who was part of this team
initially, for the quality of contributions she continued to make and for
the generosity with which she opened her personal library to us:
indeed, many of the references cited in this work were borrowed from
her library. We have not forgotten the rest of the (teaching as well as
non-teaching) staff at the Language Centre; we thank each one of
them for being there for us whenever we needed their assistance.
Last but not least, many thanks go to our families; they have been
wonderfully patient throughout the many hours (and sometimes days)
we had to spend away from them in order to get this job done. We,
however, reserve our ultimate praise to God: thank You!
Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon iii

Contents
Course Overview v
Course Outcome vi
Unit 1 Paragraph Structure

Introduction 2
Section 1 Structure of the Single Paragraph 4
Section 2 Paragraph Unity and Completeness 11
Section 3 Paragraph Coherence Logical Order 17
Section 4 Paragraph Coherence Cohesive
Device 23
Section 5 Multiple Paragraph Structure 28
Section 6 Revising Paragraph Introduction 35
A s s i g n m e n t 1
41
Unit summary 42
Unit 2 Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a

Paragraph
U n i t I n t r o d u c t i o n
45
Section 1 Illustrations 46
Section 2 Process Analysis 52
Section 3 Definitions 58
Section 4 Comparison and Contrast 63
Section 5 Cause & Effect and Problem & Solution 69
Section 6 Classification and Division 78
83
Unit summary 83
Unit 3 Reading Techniques

U n i t I n t r o d u c t i o n
86
Section 1 Adjusting Reading Rates Factors
Which Influence Reading Speed 88
Section 2 Reading Skimming and scanning
96
Section 3 Reading-SQ3R/PQ4R Study Technique 105
Section 4 Reading for General Information 113
Section 5 Critical Reading 121
Section 6 Vocabulary 128
136
Unit summary 141
iv Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Course Overview
Welcome to the Academic Writing course!
This course is to help you with the communication skills that will enable
you to succeed in writing good essays in the academic discourse
community. This community consists of yourself, me, your colleague
students, your tutors and lecturers, and the rest of the university
community and those beyond. The community demands that you think
critically. For this reason, you will need to acquire some skills. I will
take you through strategies for reading and writing paragraphs as well
as taking and making effective notes. All these strategies, and others,
will help you write good academic essays.
The course is divided into six units. In Unit 1, I will introduce you to the
structure of a paragraph and show you how to ensure that your
readers follow your train of thought in the paragraph effortlessly. In Unit
2, you will continue learning strategies for writing good paragraphs.
This time I will teach you the different methods that writers use to
clarify the idea they wish to express in a paragraph. Then, in Unit 3 I
will teach you ways to achieve effective reading to cope with
undergraduate studies. In Unit 4 I teach you various information
gathering techniques that you will definitely need in order to keep track
of what you learn. Unit 5 deals with the ultimate in Academic Writing,
namely the academic essay. In this unit I will make it clear to you that
the true academic essay is one which is an outcome of research and
that, in writing such an essay you need to patiently follow some
specific steps. The final unit, Unit 6, takes up a burning issue in
Academic Writing: the incorporation and documentation of sources in
your essays. The following, then, is the outline of the course:
Unit 1 Structure of the single paragraph
Unit 2 Methods of development of controlling ideas
Unit 3 Reading Techniques
Unit 4 Extracting information from texts
Unit 5 The Academic Essay
Unit 6 Incorporating and Documenting Sources in an Academic
Paper
It is important that you follow the units step by step. This is because
the course has been designed in a way to guide you to acquire one
skill before another. You will experience through taking this course that
writing is indeed an exciting journey.
Best of luck as you begin your journey!
Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon v

Course outcome
By the end of this course, you will be able to:
 read and identify a writer's main ideas from the details he provides
 write well-structured paragraphs and academic essays in which
you guide readers to follow your train of thought effortlessly
 write good notes that you may use in organizing and writing your
essays
 acknowledge sources of information in essays
 edit and proofread essays
vi Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Unit
Paragraph Structure

LANG 100/200 Academic Writing Unit 1 Paragraph Structure
Introduction
Hello, you are welcome to the first step in your Academic Writing
journey. You may have several ideas that you would like to share with
your audience. In everyday conversation you make all kinds of points
and assertions. You say for example, “My boss is a hard person to
work for” or “Poor study habits keep getting me into trouble”. The
people you are talking to do not always challenge you to give reasons
for your statements. They may know why you feel as you do, or they
may already agree with you, or they simply may not want to put you
on the spot; so, they do not always ask “why?” But the people who
read what you write do not know you, or agree with you. If you want to
communicate effectively with readers, you must provide solid
evidence of any point you make. One method that writers adopt to
help readers understand their work is to pay attention to the structure
of the paragraphs they write. The paragraph is a mini essay because
it has all the characteristics of the essay. This unit introduces you to
the structure of a paragraph and all its parts.
A paragraph is well organized when all the sentences in it relate to a
single idea (i.e. when there is paragraph unity), when that single idea
is fully developed to the understanding of the reader (i.e. when there
is paragraph completeness), and when efforts are made to hold the
sentences within the paragraph together in such a way that the reader
can follow the writer's train of thought effortlessly (i.e. when there is
paragraph coherence). Therefore, this unit also introduces you to
paragraph unity and completeness and paragraph coherence. We
shall also go beyond the single paragraph to look at how unity and
coherence are achieved in multiple paragraph texts.
2 Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to
 write well-structured paragraphs (i.e. paragraphs with all the
relevant parts)
 appreciate the roles of each part of the paragraph
 achieve coherence by following a logical order and using
transitional devices to link sentences and paragraphs together
 achieve unity and coherence across paragraphs
This unit will cover the following topics

Section 1 Structure of the Single Paragraph
Section 2 Paragraph Unity and Completeness
Section 3 Paragraph Coherence: Logical Order
Section 4 Paragraph Coherence: Cohesive Devices
Section 5 Multiple Paragraph Texts
Section 6 Revising Paragraphs
Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon 3

Section 1 Structure of the Single Paragraph

Introduction
Welcome to the first section of this unit. All good paragraphs are made
up of several well-defined sentences which are carefully written to
ensure clarity of thoughts. This section will first of all define what a
paragraph is. It will then discuss the various parts of a paragraph and
their roles in developing the paragraph.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to
 identify what a writer's main idea in a paragraph is
 distinguish that main idea from its supporting details
 write clear topic sentences and supporting details
 use a single paragraph to develop an idea or a point
What is a Paragraph?
The paragraph can be described as a group of related sentences that
develop one idea or point. It is a unit of information that has a
controlling idea. It usually consists of an opening sentence called a
topic sentence followed by a series of sentences that support the point,
and a closing sentence. Now, here is a short passage to illustrate what
a paragraph is:
Even though two cooks may use one recipe to prepare a particular
dish, it is likely that each cook's dish will not taste exactly the same.
There may be several reasons for this. Sometimes one cook may
overcook the ingredients while the other carefully selects the right
temperature in order to retain the natural flavour and juices of the
ingredients used. There are times also, when you find one cook
eliminating altogether a particular ingredient or substituting an
ingredient with another simply because the ingredient suggested by
the recipe is not readily available on the market. Take the green

pepper for example, overcook it and the flavour will be lost

eliminate it and you will find no real substitute for it. If dishes
should taste the same, the recipe must be strictly followed.
Activity 1.1
Write the main point of the paragraph above.
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Which sentence best expresses the main idea?
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Write two sentences in which the writer has provided details about the
main idea you have identified
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Did you find this activity difficult to do? If so, do not worry. Subsequent
lessons will help you understand what to do. On the other hand, if you
were able to answer the questions, congratulate yourself.
The Parts of a Paragraph

Generally, a paragraph has three main parts; the topic sentence, the
supporting details and the closing. In defining a paragraph, I said that
all sentences in a paragraph must develop a single idea or point.
Again, I said this idea is called the controlling idea. The controlling idea
captures the summary of information presented in a particular
paragraph. It is therefore the central idea that is developed in a
paragraph. Note that it is the controlling idea which restricts the
information that may be included in a paragraph. In academic writing, it
is usually found at the beginning of paragraphs.

The Topic Sentence

The controlling idea of a paragraph is usually introduced in a sentence.
It is this sentence which is called the topic sentence. The topic
sentence presents the main idea to be developed or explained in the
paragraph, that is, the topic sentence introduces the topic as well as
the controlling idea of the paragraph. Each sentence in the paragraph
should therefore relate to the topic and also develop the controlling
idea.
A good sentence usually has two parts. As I have already mentioned,
one part introduces the topic and the other mentions the writer's
controlling idea about that topic. Now, here are some examples
Kofi is a responsible student.
Topic: Kofi
Controlling idea: he is a responsible student
A dog is a household pet which freely gives companionship to its
owner.
Topic: Dog
Controlling idea: freely gives companionship to its owner
The topic sentence is not always placed at the beginning of a
paragraph. Sometimes, it can be found in the middle or at the end of a
paragraph. In other cases too, the topic sentence is not explicitly stated
in a sentence. It is only suggested in a paragraph or it is implied by the
subject matter.
When writing academic essays, however, it is advisable to place the
topic sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. By doing this, the
topic sentence guides your writing and helps you to carefully select
ideas which support the topic sentence.
Now, let us take a look at the topic sentence below:
University Education is Expensive

Clearly, university education can be identified as the underlined topic
while the fact that it “is expensive” is the controlling idea in the topic
sentence. In developing the controlling idea only points which show
how “expensive” university education is can be included in the
paragraph.

Now, it is time to write your own topic sentence and to identify the
topic from the controlling idea about that topic.
Activity 1.2
Write two topic sentences. Circle the topic and underline the
controlling idea in both topic sentences.
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Supporting Details
When your topic is clearly defined by including a clear controlling idea
in your topic sentence, it is now your duty to develop or support your
controlling idea with facts, examples or a detailed description of the
subject matter. These pieces of information which further explain your
controlling idea, may be sought from magazines, books, journals and,
perhaps, from your own observations. This part of your paragraph,
which helps to make your topic sentence clear, is called the
supporting sentences. It is the supporting sentences which help to
throw more light on the idea you wish to express. They help your
reader to understand your point better.
Activity 1.3
Support the topic sentence with at least three sentences which
explain the point. Remember to include facts and examples to prove
your point.
University education is expensive
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Types of Supporting Sentences

There are two types of supporting sentences. They are the Major
Supporting Sentences and the Minor Supporting Sentences.
The Major Supporting Sentence provides new information or
evidence which helps to make the Topic Sentence clearly
understood by readers. A Minor Supporting Sentence on the other
hand develops the Major Supporting Sentence (i.e. the evidence). In
doing this, the minor supporting sentence indirectly supports the
controlling idea in the paragraph. In other words, the minor
supporting sentence still says something which is related to the idea
contained in the topic sentence.
TOPIC SENTENCE 
MAJOR SUPPORTING SENTENCE 

(Points that illustrate controlling idea)
Minor Supporting Sentence

(Further examples that explain major supporting sentence)
The point I have made so far is that it is important to support your

controlling idea and to make sure you have more convincing support
sentences to help make your idea clear to your reader.

Activity 1.4
1. Write a paragraph on any topic of your own in the space provided

below.
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 Underline the Topic Sentence
 Put a ring around a Major Supporting Sentence
 Put two ticks (√√) in the margin of your major supporting
sentence(s).
 Mark an asterisk (*) in the margin of your minor supporting
sentences.
Now that you have finished working on the first-two parts of the
paragraph, I shall introduce you to the last part, the Closing Sentence.
Closing Sentence
Sometimes a paragraph needs a Closing Sentence and sometimes it
does not.
Just as a full essay has a well-defined structure, one can say that a
paragraph also has a well-defined structure. It has a beginning,

middle, and an end. In other words, a paragraph has an introduction,

supporting statements and sometimes a conclusion.
After you have read your paragraph aloud and discover that the end is
abrupt, add a closing sentence that gives a sense of closure. If a
closing statement will repeat what you have already discussed, then
the closure will be considered unnecessary.
For Academic Writing, the following may be seen as an ideal structure
of a paragraph.
Introduction: Topic Sentence with a controlling idea
Supporting Sentence 1
Etc
Conclusion: A concluding statement or Closure
Summary
In this section you have learned that
 a good paragraph contains a clearly stated controlling idea
 the controlling idea is explained in major supporting sentences
 the points in the supporting sentences may be further explained or
illustrated in minor supporting sentences
 the paragraph may concluded in a closing sentence
I hope you have enjoyed studying this section. You now have an
overview of the structure of the paragraph. In the next section you will
learn about how a good writer (which is what you are aiming to
become) ensures that his/her readers understand fully the ideas that
he/she expresses in his/her paragraphs.

Section 2 Paragraph Unity and Completeness

Introduction
Dear student, you are welcome to the second section of this unit. By
studying the previous section, you have now acquired many of the
skills necessary for writing good paragraphs. For example, you have
learned that for your paragraph to be considered a good one, it has to
contain only one main idea that you have developed with relevant
supporting details. In this section, I will draw your attention specifically
to two additional very important characteristics of a good paragraph,
paragraph unity and paragraph completeness.
Objectives
 achieve paragraph unity by making all sentences in the paragraph
relate to the controlling idea in the topic sentence
 achieve paragraph completeness by ensuring that you have
developed the controlling idea fully with relevant details before
moving on to another controlling idea, that is, to another paragraph.
What is Unity?
Unity is oneness. This means all the sentences in the good paragraph
work together as one whole. Therefore, every sentence in a paragraph
must develop and support the controlling idea of the paragraph, which,
as you know, may be summarized in one sentence, the topic
sentence. For example, if your controlling idea about the city of Accra
is that it is “a very busy city”, then all your supporting sentences have
to be about this idea. The following paragraph exhibits paragraph
unity. After the initial topic sentence expressing the controlling idea
about Accra, Sentences 2 - 5 provide details about that controlling
idea while Sentence 6, the closing sentence, restates the controlling
idea.
(1) Accra is a very busy city. (2) The roads are always busy. (3) The
shops are full of people from the time they open until closing time.
(4) Its multitude of restaurants and discos are filled to capacity
throughout the week. (5) People are forever

rushing. (6) In fact there appears to be hustle and bustle in

every sphere of life in Accra.
Now, consider the following version of the above paragraph.
Again, notice that all the sentences, including the new
sentences, are unified by the controlling idea that Accra “is a
very busy city”, which is what we are told in the first sentence:
(1) Accra is a very busy city. (2) The roads are always busy.
(2a) There are traffic jams everywhere. (2b) Mammy lorries and
petrol tankers not to mention overloaded and over-speeding
buses vie with private cars to reach their destinations in the
quickest possible time and by improvised 'short cuts'. (2c)
Hawkers who should confine their wares to pavements (if
they're allowed there at all) invariably overspill into the roads
thus making them even more crowded and difficult to negotiate.
(3) The shops are full of people from the time they open until
closing time. (3a) Whether supermarket, boutique or spare
parts store, there is a continuous stream of customers to give
the salesmen/women plenty to do. (4) Accra's multitude of
restaurants and discos are filled to capacity throughout the
week. (4a) In the midst of hardship people still seem to find the
money to go gay. (4b) Streams of cars, their bright lights
breaking the gloom of the night, can be heard sweeping into
their drive-ways followed soon after by the noise of car doors
banging shut and the abandoned laughter and chatter of merry-
makers. (5) People are forever rushing. (5a) Nobody seems to
walk sedately anymore. Indeed one stands in real danger of
being swept away by the jostling crowd if one's progress is too
slow. (5b) Moreover, there's the constant menace of the ever
present, ever watchful bag or briefcase snatcher. (5c) Briskness
of thought and movement therefore appear to be a must in
Accra. (6) In fact there appears to be much hustle and bustle in
every sphere of life in Accra.
Remember that no sentence that does not develop the
controlling idea of a paragraph can be included in that
paragraph. This is why every single sentence in the above
paragraph throws light on the fact that Accra is a very busy
place! In other words, the paragraph has unity.
Now, read the following paragraph carefully paying attention to the
controlling idea it develops:
Mr. Akakpo loves his children. He works at Standard Chartered

Bank, where he has risen to the position of branch manager, after
just five years of service. Still just forty years of age, it seems only
the sky is

his limit. Despite his busy schedule at work, which keeps him regularly
away from home, he makes time to play with the children. He makes it a
point to go through their homework with them every evening before they
go to bed. He makes weekends something they look forward to. You will
often see him driving them off to the beach or to shopping or to some
function or the other in town. I even heard that he loves cooking their
favourite meals. One thing is for sure, he dislikes loud music.
Activity 2.1
Write down in the space provided below the sentences which do not
develop the controlling idea of the above paragraph:
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The controlling idea of the above paragraph is “Mr. Akakpo loves his
children.” Therefore, only sentences that show that he indeed loves his
children are acceptable in this paragraph. Sentences 2, 3 and the last
sentence, deviate from this controlling idea and should be left out. All
the remaining sentences are unified by the controlling idea.
Activity 2.2
Write a paragraph on the controlling idea “It is no longer difficult to

contact people without meeting them face to face.'
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Do all sentences following the initial one, that is, “It is no longer
difficult to contact people without meeting them face to face” help to
explain the claim you are making? If no, then consider cancelling the
sentence(s) that do not explain this claim. If yes, well done, for you
have achieved what we have been calling 'paragraph unity'!
Paragraph Completeness
Every paragraph must provide adequate and convincing evidence that
supports the topic sentence. The evidence can be facts, explanations,
examples, or any other pieces of information that make the statement
in the topic sentence both understandable and believable to the
reader. Let us look at the following example together.
Email and instant messaging are important technological advances,
but they have hidden limitations, even dangers. It is too easy to avoid
talking to people face to face. Using email can be addictive too. Plus,
they encourage people to ignore others while typing on a keyboard.
(McWhorter, 2003: 134).
In the above paragraph, the topic sentence is underlined. In addition
to the topic sentence, the paragraph also includes skeletal ideas
supporting the topic sentence but these ideas are not explained into
details. For example, the paragraph does not explain why email and
instant messaging are important or provide any evidence of how or
why email can be addictive. Let us now compare the paragraph above
with the one below.
Email and instant messaging are important technological advances,
but they have hidden limitations, even dangers. While email and
instant messaging allow fast and efficient communication and
exchange of information, they provide a different quality of human
interaction. It is too easy to avoid talking to people. It is easier to click
on one’s “Buddy List” and check to see if she wants to meet for
dinner than it will be to look up her number and actually talk to her.
Online you can post a “be right back” message, avoiding an intrusion
into your life. In fact, using these services can become addictive. For
example, some students on campus are obsessed with checking their
email several times throughout the day. They spend their free time
talking to email acquaintances across the globe while ignoring
interesting people right in the same room. Because computer
interaction is not face to face, email and instant [messaging] addicts
are short-changing themselves of real human contact. There is
something to be said for responding not only to a person's words, but
to their expressions, gestures and tone of voice (McWhorter, 2003:
134).
Notice that, unlike the first paragraph, the second paragraph explains
how email and instant messaging allow for fast and

efficient communication and gives further information about the

addictive qualities of email. It also explains the qualities of face-to-face
interaction that are absent from online communication.
In a well developed paragraph, the topic sentence must be backed up
by details or examples. To determine whether your paragraphs are
well developed, ask yourself whether you have given your readers
enough information to make your ideas understandable and
believable. Make sure you have provided specific supporting details
and provide exact details that answer the questions; who, what,
when, where, how, and why.
The example paragraph below has a clear controlling idea: the three
reasons why the writer admires his friend. But the controlling idea is
not completely developed. After four sentences, the writer has
provided little more than the information that he gave in the topic
sentence.
Activity 2.3
Re-write the paragraph in the space provided below and ensure that
you have completely developed the controlling idea.
I admire my friend Richard because he is so talented, intelligent and
kind. He is also very intelligent and can understand complex problems
very quickly. Above all he is very kind to others. I admire my friend for
all these reasons.
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I hope you have been able to give relevant evidence of your friend's
talent, intelligence and kindness. If you have, then you've done very
well; you've just written a completely developed paragraph.

Summary
In this section you have learned how to achieve unity and
completeness in paragraphs. Now, I hope that whenever you write you
will remember:
that you should not deviate from the central idea of your paragraph
but make sure that all sentences in your paragraph relate closely to
the controlling idea in the topic sentence (i.e. your sentences should
be united by the controlling idea)
that you cannot abandon the controlling idea of your paragraph
(i.e. you have to develop that idea completely to the understanding
of your reader).

Section 3 Paragraph Coherence Logical Order

Introduction
As Ebest et al (2003:399) explains, 'Coherence enables readers to
follow a writer's train of thought effortlessly because the relation of
each idea to those before and after it is clear.' It means that the
content of your sentences should lead the reader from the beginning
of your paragraph (or essay) to the end in some logical order. Many
things contribute to coherence. We will focus on three of them:
organisation (or logical order), transitions and repetition. In this section
we will concentrate on how you can achieve logical order in your
paragraphs. Generally, there are three types of organisation or logical
order, namely spatial order, chronological order, and order of
importance.
Objectives
By the end of the section you should be able to
 recognize paragraphs in which spatial order/chronological
order/order of importance has been expressed
 write paragraphs that express each of these types of logical order
Spatial Order
When you use spatial order in a paragraph, you organize sentences in
the paragraph in a way that space is, as it were, arranged or ordered
(from top to bottom, left to right, and so on). For example, if you are to
describe a house with the following layout

To your reader, you might not want to describe the living/dining room,
the kitchen, the bath, the main entry, the master bedroom, etc. The
reader is likely to be confused and will hardly picture this layout. A
logical option might be to start from the main entry and proceed to the
living/dining room and then to the kitchen. You might then move to the
door leading to the corridor which is to the left of the living room and
from there continue to describe each bedroom and their shared
bathroom, etc. This organisation is not the only option. You might
want, instead, to start from the bedrooms 1 and 2, proceed to the
living/dining room and the Master Bedroom, etc, before describing the
main entry. The important point here is that whatever plan you choose
to describe space, it should have a logical orientation to the space
itself.
The spatial order is useful when we are writing descriptive, narrative or
technical essays. Let us look at this narrative paragraph:
The jockey came to the doorway of the dining room, then after a
moment stepped to one side and stood motionless,

with his back to the wall. The room was crowded, as this was
the third day of the season and all the hotels in the town were
full. In the dining room bouquets of August roses scattered their
petals on the white linen and from the adjoining bar came a
warm, drunken wash of voices. The jockey waited with his back
to the wall and scrutinized the room with pinched creepy eyes.
He examined the room until at last his eyes reached a table in
a corner diagonally across from him, at which three men were
sitting. As he watched, the jockey raised his chin and tilted his
head back to one side, his dwarfed body grew rigid, and his
hands stiffened so that his fingers curled inward like grey
claws. Tense against the wall of the dining room, he watched
and waited in this way (Carson Mac Cullers, The Jockey).
You will notice that the author pays close attention not only to what
the Jockey does but also to where he is and who what are also at the
scene. We learn about his entry into a room via the doorway of the
dining room, and we are told about his standing motionless with his
back to the wall and from there he surveys the entire room. Then we
learn about drunken voices coming from an adjoining bar and also
about three men sitting in the said room, at a table in a corner
diagonally across from the Jockey. These descriptions conjure before
our mind's eyes a stage and make the characters actors. The
descriptions also turn us into (unwilling??) eye witnesses/audiences
of the silent drama unfolding. Ultimately, we are compelled to also
wait, like the Jockey, to see what will happen next.
You can also write like this when you feel that it is important to make
your reader 'see' the scene of the story you are telling. At this
juncture, it is time for an activity.
Activity 3.1
Describe the location of at least three items (e.g. pieces of furniture)
in your house or any house you are familiar with.
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Now, read your paragraph and try to picture the scene you have
described. Can your reader locate each item independently from your
description? One strategy you can use to ensure that he/she can
picture the scene is the use of place adverbials. The following are
examples: beside, in front of, right behind, near the extreme
window to the left of the room, etc.
Chronological Order
When you organise your paragraph chronologically, it means you
arrange events in the order in which they actually occur. For example,
you would begin by telling what happens first and then what happens
second and so forth until you get to what happens last the end.
The following paragraph demonstrates chronological organisation of
events. As you read, take note of the words and phrases I have
italicized: they are useful time adverbials.
The greeting ceremony when one bird of the pair, after having been
away at the feeding grounds, joins its mate is also beautiful. Some
little time before the human watcher notes the other's approach, the
waiting bird rises on its branch, arches and spreads its wings, lifts its
airgrettes into a fan and its head-plumes into a crown, bristles up the
feathers of its neck, and emits again and again a hoarse cry. The
other approaches, settles in the branches near by, puts itself into
similar position, and advances toward its mate; and after a short
excited space they settle down close together. This type of greeting
is repeated every day until the young leave the nest; for after the
eggs are laid both sexes brood, and there is a nest-relief four times in
every twenty-four hours. Each time the same attitudes, the same
cries, the same excitement: only now at the end of it all, one steps
off the nest, the other on. One might suppose that this closed the
performance. But no: the bird that has been relieved is still
apparently animated by stores of unexpected emotion; it searches
about for a twig, breaks it off or picks it up, and returns with it in beak
and present to the other. During the presentation the greeting
ceremony is again gone through; after each relief the whole
business of presentation and greeting may be repeated two, or
four, or up to ten or eleven times before the free bird flies away.
(Julian Huxley. Essay of a Biologist)
Note that the writer does not only enable us to picture what the birds
do from the beginning of the greeting ceremony to the end by using
appropriate time adverbials; he also keeps reminding us about the
topic of discussion, the greeting ceremony, which I have underlined.

Activity 3.2
Now, write your own paragraph, on how you spent the previous
weekend. Remember to use relevant time adverbials to guide your
reader to follow the sequence of activities in the story you narrate.
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For your paragraph to be a good one, your activities over the weekend
need to be arranged in the order in which they took place. Read over
your paragraph and find out whether you need to rearrange some
sentences to reflect a better sequence of the things you did. Now,
what about time adverbials? Have you used any to guide your reader
to follow your story line? If yes, well done! But if no, consider making
use of a few in the way they were used in the example paragraph
above.
Order of Importance
Organising in order of importance means arranging points from the
least important to the most important or from the most important to the
least important. The following paragraph demonstrates the
arrangement of points from the least important to the most important:
Training a dog requires three major attributes. A dog trainer must

understand the reactions of dogs. What does it mean when a dog
wags a tail, wrinkles its lips, or rolls over on its back? These may
be mixed signals. A wagging tail can mean a greeting or a nervous
reaction, a wrinkled lip can mean indecision about whether the dog
is threatened or is threatening, and rolling onto the back may mean
submission or desire to have an itch scratched. In addition to

understanding actions, a dog trainer must also be consistent. If

a dog licks and the trainer scolds one time and praises another,
the dog will be confused and consequently unruly. If the trainer
rewards the dog with praise and goodies when the dog sits on
command and does not scold the dog for doing the same thing,
the dog will learn that it is a good thing to sit when commanded,
Sit. Finally, and most important, a trainer must be patient and
loving. Dogs, like children and adults, make mistakes.
Overreaction and brutality or screaming can cause a dog to
lose confidence in the trainer and self and consequently cause
the dog to refuse or to be unable to learn. A trainer's consistent,
calm relationship with the dog will increase confidence and
make the learning process much easier. (Dial-Driver, A Guide to
College Writing: 16-17).
As you have seen, the above paragraph opens with the information
that a dog trainer must possess three attributes. The writer begins with
the least important of the attributes, that a dog trainer must
understand the reactions of dogs. He then presents the next,
more important, attribute: a dog trainer must also be consistent.
He reserves the most important attributes as the last point: Finally,
and most important, a trainer must be patient and loving. With this
organization the writer ensures that the reader will keep the most
important point in mind.
Activity 3.3
Write a paragraph on the reasons why you are doing a degree course.
You may choose to arrange your reasons from the least important to
the most important as was done in the above example paragraph, or
from the most important to the least important
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What type of order of importance have you used in your paragraph?
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Summary
In this section, you have learned to identify various types of
organizational patterns or logical order in paragraphs. These include
spatial order, chronological order and order of importance. I have
encouraged you to practise writing each of these types of
organizational pattern. I hope you won't forget these lessons, for you
will need to build upon these skills in the next section, which is also on
paragraph coherence, particularly the use of cohesive devices.

Section 4 Paragraph Coherence Cohesive

Devices
Introduction
We said in the introduction to Section 3 that achieving coherence in
a paragraph involves using writing skills that ensure that your reader
follows your train of thought effortlessly. We said using clear logical
order in your presentation of details about the controlling idea of the
paragraph is one sure way to achieve paragraph coherence. In this
section we turn to other strategies that may be used: cohesive
devices. These include repetition of key terms and ideas, use of
pronouns and a host of words and phrases called transitions.
Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to
 Achieve coherence, that is, connect sentences in each of your
paragraphs together by using one or more of the following
cohesive devices
 Repetition of key terms and ideas
 Sign posts or transitional terms
 Pronouns Recognize when a writer has used any of these
devices to help you follow his train of thought.
Repetition of Key Terms and Ideas

Repetition is writing something again, and one important means by
which you may achieve coherence is by repeating key words or
ideas in your paragraph.
In the paragraph about the dog trainer in the previous section,

you must have realized that the writer repeated the words trainer
and dog several times. This helps tie the paragraph together,
because they remind us constantly that the two are the subjects
of the discussion. Note also that in that paragraph the first
attribute of a dog trainer that the writer pointed out was that A
dog trainer must

understand the reactions of dogs. Before he introduces the

second attribute, i.e. a dog trainer must also be consistent, note
that he repeated the first attribute thus: In addition to
understanding actions, a dog trainer must also be consistent.
This repetition effectively enables the reader to recall the first
attribute and can now watch out for the new one the writer is
introducing.
You may also achieve coherence through the use of repetition of
ideas by re-expressing them in synonyms. The words
dissatisfaction and discontent are used in this way in the
paragraph below:
Through peaceful demonstrations, these students have been
expressing dissatisfaction with the way their grievances against the
in-out-out-out accommodation policy are being handled. Their
discontent will certainly boil over into violence if no immediate
steps are taken to negotiate with their leaders.
You may also repeat an idea by using summary words or phrases.
For example:
During the last ten years, the government built many roads,
schools, and hospitals in rural localities. This infrastructural
development improved the quality of life for the rural folks
immeasurably.
In the paragraph above, note that roads, schools, hospitals are
collectively described as infrastructural development.
Activity 4.1
Adopt one of the repetition strategies mentioned above (i.e.
repetition of key words, repetition of ideas in synonyms, or summary
words) to achieve coherence in a paragraph that opens with the
topic sentence, More than 60% of the Ghanaian workforce are
into agriculture.
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Transitional Terms
A transitional term is a word or a phrase that connects one sentence
to another and shows the relationship between the ideas they
express. There are several types of transitional terms. Below are just
some of them:
Transitional terms
Relationship Transitional words and Example

phrases
Illustration or for example, for instance, Doing exercise regularly
example specifically, in particular, is a sure way to keep
that is your weight down.
Skipping for fifteen
minutes, for instance, is
enough to help you.
Addition Also, and, too, in addition, He loves tennis very
furthermore, first, further much. I understand he
also enjoys swimming.
Time and Now, then, before, after, He was an absolute
Sequence earlier, later, soon, finally, vegetarian. Then he met
next Mina and everything
changed: he now
Devours lumps of meat
by the hour.
Space Near, next to, away from, The hotel is to the left of
beside, inside, to the left, the lorry station. Directly
alongside, beside, directly opposite to the hotel is a
opposite to vast rubbish dump.
Comparison Similarly, likewise, in the A topic sentence contains
same way/vein, in like the main idea of a
manner, just as paragraph. Similarly, an
introductory paragraph
contains the main idea(s)
of an essay.
Contrast However, in contrast, but, The government purports
still, on the contrary, on to care for every citizen
the one hand…. on the yet they have confined
other hand, nevertheless, development projects to
yet only parts of the country.
Emphasis Indeed, in fact, surely, The Headmaster was an
certainly, without a doubt astute investigator.
Indeed, he always knew
where everyone was at
anytime of the day.

Study the illustrations of the transitional terms in the above table

carefully before you attempt the following activity.
Activity 4.2
Now, place each of the following transitional terms in its correct slot in
the passage: yet, and, for example, and in fact:
There is no Nobel Prize for mathematics, and mathematics rarely
makes the headlines. It is not a glamorous profession. There are,
…………………, no exotic, expensive pieces of equipmentno
cyclotrons, body scanners, or electron microscopesfor the public to
identify with. …………………, research tools are plain. Pencil,
paper, chalk, and a calculator are about all one needs.
………………… in a time when some scientists' namesEinstein, Jung,
Freud, and othershave become household words, few people could
name even one great modern mathematician. …………………
mathematics is so basic to most scientific subjects that it has been
called the language of all experimental dialogue. (Schiffhorst and
Schell, The Short Handbook for Writers: 109)
How did you fare? If you placed for example after there are…, then
you did well. The other transitional terms, in the order of their
appearance in the passage, are: in fact, and, and yet.
Pronouns
A pronoun can also be used in one sentence as a link to a previous
sentence. A linking pronoun points to details you mentioned earlier,
details expressed by a noun called its antecedent. By using a
pronoun, you keep your reader's attention on the details without
having to repeat the same noun. Study the following paragraph and
pay attention to the writer's use of the pronoun its in place of the
antecedent, Latin American culture:
Latin American culture has been and is a dynamic element in the

development of our own. It has, for example, furnished more than 2000
place names to the Unity States postal directory. Its languages have
influenced American English, as such simple examples as rodeo and
vamoose indicate. Its customs are part of our Westerns on television. Its
housing, its music, its dances, its scenery, its ruins and its romance
have been imitated and admired in the United States. One third of the
continental are of this republic was for a long period, as modern history
goes, under the governance of Spanish viceroys or of Mexico. The largest
single Christian church in the United States is identical with the

dominant church in Latin America. (Howard Mumford Jones, Goals

for Americans, Saturday Evening Post)
The repetition of its ties the paragraph together because it documents
the numerous aspects of Latin American culture and the influence it
has on American culture.
Activity 4.3
In the following paragraph, you will find that the names Mr. Akakpo
and the children have been repeated so many times that the reader
gets bored before long. To improve the paragraph, cross out each
inappropriate noun and write on top of it the relevant pronoun.
Mr. Akakpo loves his children. Despite Mr. Akakpo's busy schedule at work,
which keeps him regularly away from home, Mr. Akakpo makes time to play
with the children. Mr. Akakpo makes it a point to go through the children's
homework with them every evening before the children go to bed. Mr.
Akakpo makes weekends something the children look forward to. You will
often see Mr. Akakpo driving the children off to the beach or to shopping or to
one function or the other in town. I even heard that Mr. Akakpo loves cooking
the children's favourite meals.
I hope you fared very well in this task. You can find out how well you
did by looking up an earlier version of the paragraph in Section 2
above.
Summary
In this section you learned how to use various strategies to bind the
points we make in different sentences within a paragraph together so
that your reader can keep pace with your train of thought. First, you
learned about effective use of repetition of words, and repetition of
ideas in synonyms or summary expressions, to achieve this binding
effect that we have called coherence. Next, you learned how
appropriate transitional terms can be used to link points across
sentences together in order to emphasize the logical connection
among them. Finally, you learned effective usage of pronouns to keep
your readers' attention focused on the subject under discussion
without having to repeat some nouns unnecessarily.
I am sure you have noticed how I have used the sequence transition
words first, next and finally to remind you about what we did in this
section. You may also have noticed my repetition of you learned to
emphasise this key objective that we fulfilled together. From now on,
do pay close attention to how you guide your readers

around your paragraph, because they need this guide most of the
time!

Section 5 Multiple Paragraph Structure

Introduction
Welcome to Section 5 of this unit. You have all along been looking at
the single paragraph structure. In this section you will move a step
forward to look at the multiple paragraph texts to see how good writers
guide their readers to follow their train of thought.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to move a step ahead
from writing single paragraphs to writing multiple paragraphs texts.
Specifically, you will be able to:
 determine when to end one paragraph and begin another one
 have control over the development of the controlling idea in each
paragraph
 provide adequate transitions that guide your reader to follow your
train of thought as you move them from one paragraph.
From Single to Multiple Paragraph

As noted in the previous sections, every paragraph must be complete
in itself. The paragraph should read like a shorter form of a
composition. This means that the paragraph as much as possible must
have its own Introduction, Body and Conclusion. These are about
equal to what we have earlier on described as the topic sentence,
supporting sentences and the concluding sentence respectively. What
we want to note in this section is that in essays we cannot have a
single paragraph but rather a series or a number of paragraphs each
complete in itself but linked to one another by a common idea referred
to as the thesis statement found in the introduction of the essay.
We earlier on learned that the paragraph should have unity,

completeness and coherence through the use of such items as
transitional words, pronoun references and repetition among others. In
dealing with multiple paragraphs, the key item here is the use of
transitional words, phrases or even sentences which help

with unity in the totality of the essay. Let us see an example of what I
am trying to make you understand.
In the lives of most children are influential adults or parents. In
the case of Camara Laye in The African Child, the mother is
most significant in the training of her son. Although the father is
also important, the mother plays a specific role as a nurturer and
protector in his life. The poem at the beginning of the text is a
strong testament to the close relationship he had with his
mother, and it also pays homage to mothers in general. It
honours the woman who nursed him, oversaw his first steps,
opened his eyes to the beauties of the world, dried his tears,
and who was patient at times when he was mischievous. In
addition the book is a monument to extensions of the mother
(the grandmother, the aunt, and the guardian), who also function
as nurturers.
However, Laye's work lacks penetration into the inner lives of
the feminine characters. In this narrative by a masculine author,
writing from the point of view of a young boy, we are not
presented with the interior world of the women. We do not read
their private triumphs, the intimate frustrations and difficulties,
the dreams and unspeakable fantasies, or of the complex
relations of females. (Deborah Weagel).
In these two paragraphs I want you to note that there is a level of
connectivity. In the first paragraph the writer sets out to praise Camara
Laye for writing a book dedicated to a mother's influence over her son
whom she nursed and nurtured. In the second paragraph, the writer
sees problems or pitfalls in the same work by identifying that it is
almost impossible for a man to write about women since a man cannot
feel like a woman. The writer looks at Laye's work critically to come up
with what she has written in the two paragraphs. What holds the two
paragraphs together is the book The African Child as it addresses
issues related to women in the book. The paragraphs essentially deal
with contrast (signalled by the transitional word however at the
beginning of the second paragraph) so as to offer another side of
Laye's work which may be overlooked if one looks at just one side of
that work.
Multiple paragraphs may alternatively deal with addition of information,
comparison, cause and effect, etc (each of which I will discuss into
detail in Unit 2). You may have noticed that most of the lessons learned
in the last section become important when dealing with multiple
paragraphs. Now let us try an activity, on the addition type of multiple
paragraphs.

Activity 5.1
Here are two topic sentences that relate to the benefits of TV. Develop
each of them into a complete paragraph:
First of all, watching TV is entertaining.
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In addition to being entertaining, TV is educational.
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I hope you did not have many challenges.
When to Begin a New Paragraph

You may have noticed from our previous discussions and interactions
that the paragraph is something you cannot do without. Many up and
coming writers include so many things within one paragraph with the
result that their paragraph lacks direction.
Good writing takes thinking and planning. When you are sure of the
overall topic or subject to write on, you must decide all what is special
or important about the overall topic. You will find out that there are a
number of different things you will want to say about the subject.
Since you want each important point to come out clearly, you will have
to talk about each important point in a different paragraph.
Now let us look at an example text together.

Word processing is the transformation of ideas or words into forms

that can be transmitted to others and stored for later use. This
transformation occurs through the combined use of procedures,
equipment, and people. The aim is to communicate the ideas or words
as quickly, accurately, and economically as possible. The processing
power of a computer is used in word processing to help make
language-use decisions about the appearance of a document. At the
current level of technology, it is worth stressing that word processing
provides options to help the user make good decisions. It may
highlight that a word you have keyed is not in the dictionary, but it
cannot really decide alone if the word is simply a rare one or
misspelled.
Computers that are used in word processing software duplicate many
of the features associated with ordinary typewriters. At their simplest,
they provide away to turn the spoken word or written draft into
mechanically produced characters. Some functions, such as using a
tabulator key to move across a set number of spaces, are also
available. However, because the input is stored in electronic form it
remains much more flexible.
For one thing, the user can adjust the input readily. When necessary,
the operator can edit the input by adding or deleting individual
characters or whole chunks of text. Text can also be moved into
different positions to give a different appearance.
More complex instructions in software also allow the computer to
actually perform automatic processing. For example, the word
processing software offers the option of changing from single spacing
to double spacing, adjusting formats, or selecting automatic centering
or right-justified text.
Some of the more sophisticated programmes offer advanced editing
capabilities. These include moving or copying chunks of text,
searching for selected words and either highlighting them so the user
can review them or replacing with a given alternative. As mentioned
above, some will check all the words used in the document with an
electronic dictionary to suit their needs. In some cases, word
processing software contains a thesaurus and will suggest words with
similar meaning for the word to be selected. It is possible to have the
word processor produce an index based on some selected key words,
a table of contents from all the main headings used, or a more
detailed outline including all the heads and subheads. It can merge
set paragraphs from a bank of information into new text, such as
merging a standard letter with individualized names and addresses.
Some word-processing packages include Math functions that perform
calculations as required on numeric data.

Computer technology for word processing represents an important

advance over older technology because it has text-editing capabilities
that allow the user to correct and change documents without the task
of rewriting by hand or by re-keying. Typewriter manufacturers are
responding to the challenge from computer technology by offering
some text-editing features on their machines. (Information
Management: Margaret J. Stewart and Douglas Westgate,1989)
I hope you enjoyed reading the passage! Now, let us look at how the
paragraphs are organized.
 In paragraph one we note that the authors talk about 'word
processing' in general and its advantages in the present day of
computer technology
 Paragraph two deals with the similarity of the computer to the
ordinary typewriter and highlights the major difference between the
two pieces of equipment: the electronic form of storage, which the
writer perceives as a superior characteristic.
 Paragraph three continues with the superiority of the computer in
word processing.
 Paragraph four delves into the more complex functions of the
computer.
 Paragraph five moves a step forward to discuss the even more
sophisticated functions that the word processing software has.
 Paragraph six notes the importance of computers in word
processing and the challenges this poses to typewriter
manufacturers.
You will realise that each paragraph represents a different idea about
the use of computers in word processing. I believe that you will agree
that if all these ideas were put together in one paragraph the whole
passage may be boring and we may not see each of the important
points that the authors want to make.
What I want you to learn from this example is that whenever you have
something important to say that is not the same as what you have just
said BUT is related to the overall subject then that is when you begin a
new paragraph!

Activity 5.2
The following passage clearly can be broken into three paragraphs.
Your task is to use what you have learned about paragraphs to break
this passage into the various paragraphs. Use this mark (#) to show
where there should be a break.
In order to become an effective public speaker, one needs knowledge
of the principles of public speaking, some expert criticism, and
numerous opportunities to speak and to hear other speakers. Since a
good course in public speaking supplies these essentials, the best
thing to do is to take such a course. This brief section on public
speaking is intended to supply some guidance and to make the
student feel less at a loss when he has occasion to speak. A good
speech and a good written composition have much in common, and
most of what we have said about writing is applicable to public
speaking. There are certain important differences though between
planning a speech and planning a paper, and there are additional
things to say about practising, delivering, and criticizing speeches. In
planning a speech one needs to keep in mind that the speaker and
the writer have different relationship with their audiences. A writer
may, if he wishes, make his communications so impersonal that one
gets little impression of the man behind it. A speaker cannot; his
audience watches his movements, gestures, and facial expressions
and hears his voice; it judges not the speech but the speaker. A good
speaker gives his audience a sense of participation; he keeps in mind
the information, the loyalties, the attitudes, the common background
that his hearers have or are likely to have; he stresses those things
that he has with his hearers; he points his whole discourse at the
particular selected group that he is addressing.
This activity should be easy! If it was not, then use your knowledge of
paragraph unity and completeness to help you break the passage into
paragraphs. Complete the task by supplying a good title to your work!
If you did the right thing, then you will agree with me that in the first
paragraph the author told us why public speaking is important. Then,
in the second paragraph he told us the similarity and differences
between Public Speaking and Writing. In the third paragraph he told
us the attitude that a public speaker must adopt to make his speech
interesting. You would notice that bundling the three paragraphs
together makes it difficult to see the three

controlling ideas as separate although inter-related points about the

art of public speaking.
Unity Across Paragraphs in a Text

Now, if this writer of the Word Processing passage were to insert a
paragraph about robots controlled by computers or software
programmes used in some manufacturing industry, the unity of the
ideas expressed across the text would have been marred. Unity
among the controlling ideas in paragraphs in a text is therefore an
important rule in writing that you must observe.
Summary
In this section we looked at the relationship among individual
paragraphs in a passage. You learned that each paragraph should
have a controlling idea that you express in a topic sentence and
develop in supporting sentences. In the same vein you learned that
multi-paragraph texts deal with an overall Big Idea known as the
thesis statement. The thesis statement binds the paragraphs in the
text together. In the multi-paragraph the controlling idea of each
paragraph takes up an aspect of the thesis statement that binds all the
paragraphs together. You have learned that in order to present these
various aspects of the thesis statement clearly to the understanding of
the reader you need to decide which order these various aspects of
the thesis should be.
Just as the single paragraph needs to be fully developed so also must
the thesis for the longer text be fully developed. You have learned
therefore to develop the paragraphs in an order that helps to develop
the overall thesis they are contributing to. In order to stick to the
central thesis of your text, I have advised that you do not deviate to
include paragraphs (or parts of paragraphs) that have little or nothing
to do with the central thesis.
I know that you have learned very useful things in this section. Let us
meet again in the next Section.

Section 6 Revising Paragraph Introduction

Introduction
Welcome to Section 6 of this unit. I hope the break after Section 5 was
well spent! In this section we shall revise all that we have learned in
the unit. This is to help your paragraphs read well.
Objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to revise paragraphs to:
 Write well-structured and well-organised paragraphs
 Achieve Unity and Completeness
Limiting the Focus of Paragraph

We must not attempt to write everything in one paragraph. Let us
consider this Topic Sentence:
A student of the University of Ghana must undertake an orientation,
attend lectures and write examinations.
This topic sentence makes three points about orientation, attending
lectures and writing examinations. The problem here is that this topic
sentence is too loaded because each of the points may be developed
in a separate paragraph. It is important that in revising a paragraph,
you need to make sure that you limit the topic sentence so that you
can stay focused and help the reader to understand what you want to
say. In other words the first rule in writing a good paragraph is to limit
the focus of the paragraph.
Let us try to limit the focus of the poor topic sentence above.
Consider this alternative topic sentence:
A student of the University of Ghana must first undertake an
orientation programme.

The revised topic sentence looks at just one of the three points made
in the poor topic sentence. Remember that a paragraph is a unit of
thought that discusses a limited idea and so, as a beginning writer you
need to write clear topic sentences.
Revising for Unity

As noted above, your first point of revision is to limit your topic
sentences. Another important point of revision is that you try to
maintain unity in the paragraph. Let us quickly look at the following
paragraph from Michael Pulsinelle:
(1) 'Run on,' a common way to waste energy and water in
America, is the habit of leaving machines and appliance running
when they don't have to be. (2) Many people in this country
routinely forget to turn off lights, televisions, and radios when they
leave the room. (3) Some take half hour showers day after day when
they know that a five-minute scrubbing will get them just as clean. (4)
And too many of us leave the car running as we wait outside a store
for a friend to finish shopping.
Note how the writer makes a good effort to write a unified paragraph:
 In Sentence 1, the writer defines what he means by Run-on, i.e.
the idea of wasting energy
 In Sentence 2, he gives examples of appliances that people leave
on thereby wasting energy
 In Sentence 3, he focuses on wasting water by letting it run in
showers
 In Sentence 4, he returns to wasting energy when he refers to the
misuse of fuel.
Note also that since the writer is talking about a habit, he uses or
develops this idea by using words like routinely (Sentence 2), day
after day (3) and too many of us (4).
Let us consider the example below which does not satisfy the
paragraph unity requirement:
It is easy to understand why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between 5.45

and 7.45 in the evening. Her two young boys go to school at 7.45 in the
morning, and Mr. Smith goes to work after 8.00. The boys eat lunch at
school and Mr. Smith takes sandwiches to work for his lunch. Therefore
Mrs. Smith is not

usually busy at lunch time. Mrs. Smith's youngest child is only eleven
months old, so she spends most of the afternoon sleeping.
At 5.45 Mrs. Smith has to start cooking because Mr. Smith gets home
at 6.30 and wants his dinner soon after he arrives. At the same time
she has to keep an eye on her two sons to see that they do their
homework. At 6.15 it is time for the baby to be fed, bathed and put to
bed. The two boys have to start getting ready for bed at about 7.15,
and if Mrs. Smith does not watch them carefully, they do not wash
very well. Finally, she has to wash the dirty dishes and tidy the living
room and the kitchen. Only very rarely does she finish this before
7.45. (Chaplen 1979; Paragraph Writing)
In the above paragraph the writer includes several sentences that do
not develop the controlling idea that 'Mrs. Smith is busy between 5.45
and 7.45 in the evening'. You find that Sentences 2 to 5 are irrelevant
because they describe what keeps Mrs. Smith busy before 5.45 in the
evening. In a situation like this when you do not find any relationship
between the information in a given sentence and the controlling idea,
you may simply remove that sentence or expand the topic sentence to
include the 'irrelevant' sentence.
To revise the above paragraph, one option is for you to drop
Sentences 2 to 5. The other option is to revise the topic sentence to be
more inclusive. For example, take the sentence below:
It is easy to understand why Mrs. Smith is busier between 5.45
and 7.45 in the evening than she is earlier in the day.
Now, with the revised topic sentence above, all sentences in the
paragraph are unified because they all describe her day and show the
comparison suggested by the topic sentence.
Activity 6.1
1. Read the paragraph below and revise it for unity.
In general, the closer a region is to the equator the warmer its climate will be
but other factors also have influence on temperature. For example, distance
from the sea is important because although water absorbs heat more slowly
than land, it retains it longer. Consequently, through the cold month of winter
the sea warms the nearby land just as a radiator warms a room. This is why
it takes longer to heat a pound of water through one degree centigrade than
it does to heat a pound of earth the same

amount. Another important factor is the height of the region of a region above
sea level. The higher you go up a mountain, the less dense the air is. Finally,
physical features such as mountains influence the temperature of a nearby
region. If mountains cause rain to fall frequently, the nearby region becomes
clearer than other regions in the same latitude. If mountains block the
passage of cold winds, nearby regions become warmer than unsheltered
regions in the same latitude.
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2. Which option did you use in your revision? Justify your choice.
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I hope that this lesson is clear and that you would always be mindful of
what you learned from it.
When it is Necessary to Break a Paragraph into Two

Sometimes a paragraph can be revised by breaking it into two. Take
the Mrs. Smith paragraph above for instance. We noted that the topic
sentence,
It is easy to understand why Mrs. Smith is always so busy between
5.45 and 7.45 in the evening.
Is too limited to contain all the supporting sentences and needs to be
revised unless the irrelevant supporting sentences are taken out.
There is a third option to revise that paragraph. It can be split into two:
(a) the first paragraph would discuss Mrs. Smith's day up to 5.45 in the
evening when she is less busy and (b) the second paragraph would
discuss her busy time, from 5.45 to 7.45 in the evening.

Revising for Coherence

As you would recall, a paragraph is coherent if all its sentences are
linked together so as to make them easily understood. In the revision
of a paragraph you may need to connect some sentences together by
the use of transition words or other cohesive devices. Transitions are
also known as connectives since they show a connection between one
sentence and another. Let us take this example
 George and Kwame were close friends.
 Their friendship ended in a quarrel over money.
These two sentences can be connected by a transitional word to read:
George and Kwame were good friends until their friendship ended in
a quarrel over money.
The transitional word until, which contains an element of 'time',
connects the two sentences. I have already introduced you to many
more of these transitional words in Section 4 of this unit. Transitions
can indicate 'addition', 'contrast', and 'time' among others.
It is important for you to revise these connectives or transitions so that

sentences in your paragraphs are well connected.
Read the paragraph below:
Only after those words did Foli think to begin pouring out the
schnapps he had been holding in those hands which hate so much to
let hot drink escape. He had kept the spirits waiting like children
begging for the drink of their own libation and thirsty drunkard that he
has always been, even when at last he began to pour it out, he only
let go of little miserly drops far from enough to end the long thirst of a
single one of those gone before. I could see his eyes, with a lot of
white showing underneath, and the black of them stuck almost to their
upper eyelids. Slyly like a thief he was measuring the bottle in his
soul. The less he poured to end the thirst of the ghosts the more the
bottom of the bottle would hold for his own dry mouth. ( Fragments,
Armah 1968)
You may have noted in Section 3 and 4 of this unit that there is good
measure of coherence in this paragraph if you have not got

the point, then I want you to note that the person or subject of this
paragraph is Foli and so the pronouns He and His that we find in the
passage refer to Foli. The writer does not introduce any other name
except that of Foli to make sure that the reader is not confused. The
name Foli is introduced very early in the paragraph to hold the
reader's attention to the fact that he is the subject under discussion.
So, instead of the writer repeating Foli every time in the paragraph, he
uses the pronoun He or His so as not to sound boring.
Using Transitions
You will recall that we studied transitions in Section 4 of this Unit. I
want you to read that section again quickly so that you get adequately
prepared for the task below.
Activity 6.2
Add appropriate transitional devices to make the following paragraph
more explicitly coherent.
The benefits of shale oil production are more numerous than the
drawbacks. Shale Oil has been found to produce an effective fuel, in
both liquid and gaseous forms. Shale oil represents a potential, long-
range source of fairly secure oil and gas. Numerous by-products can
be derived from oil shale processing. There are some disadvantages,
particularly for the environment. These negative features concern
socio-economic impact, surface disturbances, pollution, and water
supply, there are some legal questions concerning government control
of shale oil processing. Experts believe that the future is bright for the
shale oil industry. (Schffhorst and Schell 1991: The short handbook for
writers)
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Revising Logical Order

In Section 3 of this unit, you learned about order of presentation. I
want you to read that section again. Now use the skills you have
reminded yourself of to handle the following task.
Activity 6.3
The sentences in the paragraph below are poorly arranged. Arrange
them into a coherent paragraph and re-number them.
Water
(1) Finally, water and some of the chemicals it carries are responsible for
bodily structure since, on average, 60 percent of the body is water. (2) Like
fibre, water has no nutritional value, yet is a very important food component.
(3) In addition, it acts as a medium for digestion regulates body temperature,
and helps cushion the vital organs. (4) It is used to transport nutrients to the
cells and to remove cellular waste products. (5) An inadequate water intake
will restrict the functions of all body systems.
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I believe you were able to find clues in the paragraph to help you write
out the logical order in it. I want you to note that logical order is very
important when you are dealing with coherence and unity in
paragraphs. This is because, if your paragraph does not have a clear
logical order, then your reader may not follow what you want to say.

Unit 1 Paragraph Structure
Summary
In this section you learned to recognise and revise problems in poor
paragraphs. You learned that
 When the problem has to do with the topic sentence lacking focus,
you need to revise it by limiting the controlling idea.
 When the problem has to do with irrelevant information, in other
words, information that does not relate to the topic, you need to
take it out.
 Alternatively, you may revise the topic sentence so that it takes care
of the sentence with the 'irrelevant' information.
I also taught to how to revise your paragraphs to include cohesive
devices such as transitional words/phrases, pronouns, and repetition.

Assignment 1
Select any textbook recommended for one of your courses and do the
following tasks:
1. Choose any paragraph which deals with a topic of your choice.
Copy the paragraph on a sheet of paper and do the following tasks
concerning the structure of that paragraph:
a. Write out the topic sentence (if applicable) as well as the major
supporting sentences
b. State the controlling idea in your own words
c. What strategies has the writer used to achieve paragraph
coherence?
d. Comment on what makes you feel that the paragraph satisfies
requirements for paragraph unity and completeness
2. Write at least a three paragraph essay on the topic University
education. You are expected to exhibit clear understanding of
paragraph structure, paragraph unity and coherence. Mark is
allocated for good paragraph breaks and transitions.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned skills that are necessary for writing good
paragraphs. For example, you have learned that for your paragraph to
be considered a good one, it has to contain only one main idea that
you have developed with supporting details. Your attention has also
been drawn to two very important characteristics of a good paragraph,
paragraph unity and completeness, and paragraph coherence. Then
we went beyond the single paragraph to work on ways of establishing
the relationship between the key idea in a given paragraph and the key
idea in another paragraph (i.e., we worked on writing multi-paragraph
texts). In the last section we encountered paragraphs that are flawed
one way or the other in terms of structure or in terms of unity or
coherence and we tried to fix the flaws.

I hope that you will remember the lessons because I will, in the next
section, seek to help you build on the skills you have acquired so that
you can write truly good paragraphs.

Unit
2
Methods of Developing a
Controlling Idea in a Paragraph

LANG 100/200 Academic Writing Unit 2 Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a Paragraph
Introduction
One central message sounded several times in Unit 1 was the point
that for your paragraph to be considered a good one it has to
contain only one main idea that you have developed with relevant
supporting details. This unit revolves around methods that are used
in developing (providing supporting details about) the main idea.
You will discover that some ideas are made clearer when supporting
details illustrate or exemplify them. Some other ideas are about
processes, so in order to clarify them you might need to analyse the
different steps or aspects of the processes. For some ideas the
clarification needed is in the form of definition and/or explanation, or
comparison and/or contrast of one thing to another, etc. You might
also develop an idea effectively if you show that one thing causes
another to happen or that one thing constitutes the problem for
which there is (or isn't) a remedy. I shall take you around each of
these methods or patterns of development of controlling ideas, in
separate sections.
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:
 differentiate one method of developing a controlling idea from
another
 explain which method will be appropriate for developing a given
controlling idea
 use successfully each of the methods mentioned in the Unit
This unit will cover the following topics:

Section 1: Illustrations
Section 2: Process analysis
Section 3: Definitions
Section 4: Comparison & Contrast
Section 5: Cause & Effect and Problem & Solution
Section 6: Classification and Division

LANG 100 Academic Writing Unit 2 Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a Paragraph
Section 1 Illustrations
Introduction
Welcome to the first section of Unit 2. In this section, you will learn
to write paragraphs in which illustrations or examples are required
to clarify the main point you wish to express. In our daily
conversations, we often provide examples (i.e. details, particulars,
and specific instances) to illustrate and explain statements that we
make. Illustrations or examples are the building blocks of most
writing.
Now, take your pen and jotter, relax and follow me as we discover
how to develop ideas in this type of paragraph.
Objective
By the end of this section, you will
 be able to provide a series of examples to support your topic or
main idea
 see that examples lend support and authority to all types of
writing
What are illustrations?

An illustration is a means of using specific situations and examples
to reveal the essential points about your topic or to reinforce your
topic sentence. In arguing that horror films are harmful, for instance,
you might mention several films that demonstrate the qualities you
object to. If you want to discuss the topic “bad jobs” for example,
you will have to talk about difficult bosses, low pay, long working
hours, unpleasant co-workers and a poor working environment, to
support your topic.
Look at the following short paragraph, which we encountered
earlier:

Accra is a very busy city. The roads are always busy.

The shops are full of people from the time they open
until closing time. Its multitude of restaurants and discos
are filled to capacity throughout the week. People are
forever rushing. In fact there appears to be hustle and
bustle in every sphere of life in Accra.
The examples given in the above paragraph clarify the statement
that “Accra is a very busy city”. In essay writing too, explanatory
examples make ideas concrete by connecting them to situations
within the reader's experience. An unfamiliar term or an abstract
idea becomes clear once an example is provided. Go back to
section two of Unit 1 to read the expanded version of the above
paragraph. Take note of how each major support sentence (each
illustration) is further supported by specific examples.
Activity 1.1
Take a few moments to recall occasions during the past week when
you have used examples to explain or defend a position, or to
entertain. Write about one of those instances, summarizing the
situation in one or two sentences.
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How many examples did you use?
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How much detail did you go into?
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Characteristics of illustrations
You need to use examples to support general statements.
Examples are an effective way to support general statements. You
already know that most paragraphs begin with topic sentences,
which tell what the paragraph will be about. When we develop a
paragraph by using major and minor supporting details (recall
lesson in Section 1, Unit 1), we are providing examples to support
our topic sentence. For example, if I make the statement “most adult
students are energetic, ambitious and eager to get ahead in life”, I
need to describe several students who demonstrate energy and
ambition: some students work full-time or part-time to cover tuition
cost; one of them is the mother of two young children, and another
one never misses classes despite the distance that he needs to
travel to get to school.
In writing illustrations therefore, you need to do the following:
 Use examples to explain or clarify
Unfamiliar Topics
When your audience has little or no knowledge of your topic, you
need to use examples to help them understand it.
Difficult concepts
Many concepts are difficult for readers to understand by definition
alone. For instance, a reader might guess that the term
'urbanization', a key word in society, has something to do with cities.
Defining the concept as say 'the process by which an area becomes
part of a city' will explain it up to a point. But giving examples of
formerly sub-urban areas that have become urban would make the
concept immediately understandable.
Abstract terms
Abstract terms refer to ideas rather than to people or to concrete
things you can see and touch. Terms such as truth and justice are
abstract, and therefore, difficult to understand. Examples, then, will
help to clarify them. In other cases, however, abstract terms mean
different things to different people. Suppose you use the term 'unfair'
to describe how your father treats you and your siblings, your
readers might have different ideas of fairness. Providing

examples of your father's unfair treatment would make your

meaning clearer.
 You should also use carefully selected examples
The examples you use to explain your topic sentence or main idea
should be carefully chosen. Select examples that are relevant,
representative, accurate and striking.
 Relevant examples are those that have a direct and clear
relationship with your main idea.
 An example is representative when it shows a typical or real-life
situation, not a rare or unusual one.
 In addition, be sure that the examples you include are accurate.
Report information as exactly as it is and provide your readers
with enough information about the source so that they can
evaluate the reliability of that information if they want to.
 Finally, choose examples that are striking and dramatic and that
will make a strong, lasting impression on your readers.
Activity 1.2
The following words are abstract words and difficult concepts. Write
examples that illustrate their meanings.
1. Phobia
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2. Influence
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3. Gender role
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4. Sexual harassment
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Will the illustrations you have provided clarify each of these terms to
anyone who doesn't know their meaning? If they will not, then they
are not good enough. Test your answers on some of your friends
and take note of their reactions.
Activity 1.3
1. Write at least two examples that support each of the following

general statements.
a. Television offers some programs with educational or social
values.
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b. Today's parents are not strict enough with their children.

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c. The favourite pastime of most men is watching sports on

television.
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Activity 1.4
Now, write a full paragraph using any one of the topic sentences
above.

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Read your paragraph again and make sure that apart from
illustrating the main idea it satisfies the requirements of a good
paragraph unity, completeness and coherence.
Summary
In this section, you have learned
 to write good illustration paragraphs by yourself by using

 examples to clarify or explain difficult concepts, abstract
terms, and unfamiliar topics
 carefully selected examples that are relevant, representative
and accurate
In the next section, I will discuss another pattern of development
process analysis type of paragraph.
 to appreciate the advantages that come with providing a series of

examples to support your main idea in a paragraph: i.e. they help
your readers to fully understand your point

Section 2 Process Analysis
Introduction
In this section we shall turn to a second type of paragraph
development, process analysis. Everyday we perform many
activities that are processes, that is, series of steps that are carried
out in a definite order. Many of these processes are familiar and
automatic, for example, preparing 'fufu', loading a film into a camera
or driving a car. You are not always aware of the sequence of steps
that make up each activity you undertake. But in writing about them
you might need to spell such steps out. In other cases, for example
when you ask someone for a direction to a particular place or when
you read and follow instructions to fix a new gadget, you may be
very conscious of the whole series of steps involved in the process
and in writing about such directions you will, of course, have to spell
out the steps clearly. I will teach you how to do this in this section.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should learn how to write a process
analysis paragraph to explain:
 how something is done
 how something works
What is process analysis?

A process analysis explains in step-by-step the manner in which
something works or how something is done. It provides readers with
practical information. For example, directions for assembling
equipment or instructions for registering for courses at the university
are all processes. In addition, sometimes process analysis informs
people about things that affect their lives, such as an explanation of
how a medication works. Whatever the purpose, the information that
you provide in a process analysis must be accurate, clear, and easy
to follow.

Explaining a process is useful in many ways. For example, on the

job, most people regularly learn new procedures or find themselves
explaining them to others. In school, you will often be explaining
processes. Look at the following paragraph:
Using a new computer program can enhance your
productivity if you learn into details all that the program
can do. First of all, you need to decide on how you plan to use
the software. Secondly, look at the instruction manual to learn
the program's capabilities and major features. Next, use a
tutorial program to get familiar with the program's functions and
shortcuts. The next step is to practise using the new software,
particularly, those features you expect to use frequently. When
in difficulty, consult the instruction book, a technical adviser or a
colleague. (Mcwhorter 2003, Successful College Writing)
Your primary purpose in writing a process analysis paragraph is to
present the steps in the process clearly and completely so that your
readers can perform the task you describe or to present the steps in
the process clearly enough so that your readers can fully
understand it.
Stop and think for a moment about a process that you have seen or
practised.
1. Write out at least six steps a friend could follow to complete the
action or to understand it.
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Now that you have worked on a process analysis paragraph that
describes how something is done, let us examine another process
analysis paragraph that describes how something works. In the
following paragraph, the writer describes how the washing machine
works:

The Washing Machine

The washing machine is a fantastic robot that relieves me of the
job I hate most: washing dirty clothes. Once the machine is
started, it draws enough water to soak the dirty clothes for
some 5 minutes. You then hear sharp spins from within that
gives you the impression that it is 'whipping' the dirt out of your
dear clothes. This can go on for 30 to 40 minutes depending on
the washing programme you have chosen. It then drains away
the dirty water only to draw fresh water to re-soak the clothes.
After some 5 or so minutes, you begin to hear the 'whipping'
sound again, this time for 10 minutes or so. As you would
expect, it drains away this water too and what it does next has
always reminded me of marathon races: it goes on a last victory
lap the fastest it can. You hear a quick spinning sound that
seems never to end. When this sound finally dies, you know
that your clothes are clean again and are ready for the drying
line.
The author opens the above paragraph with a topic sentence that
informs you that the washing machine relieves him/her of the job of
washing dirty clothes. He/she then devotes the rest of the paragraph
to spelling out details about how the machine works by describing
systematically what it does to get clothes clean again.
Let us consider another example of process analysis paragraph. In
the following paragraph, the breathing process, also called
respiration, is described:
The body must have a constant supply of oxygen to stay alive,
and the respiratory system supplies the body with the oxygen
through breathing. Air enters the lungs when you inhale, and
the oxygen in the air is transferred to the blood. The blood
carries the oxygen to all parts of the body. Air is forced from the
lungs when you exhale, and carbon dioxide and other waste
gases are expelled. An adult breathes about 500 ml of air per
breath. The average resting adult breathes about 10 to 20 times
per minute. This ongoing breathing process is involuntary and
is controlled by the brain. (Adapted from First Aid, Responding
to Emergencies, 15-16, Australian Red Cross).
The author opens the above paragraph with a sentence containing

background information about the importance of oxygen to the body
and follows it with the topic sentence with a controlling idea

that the respiratory system supplies the oxygen. Notice that the
author devotes the rest of the paragraph to spelling out details about
how the respiratory system works. Air containing oxygen is inhaled
and air containing carbon dioxide and other waste gases is exhaled,
a process that is cyclical and controlled by the brain.
As you can see, whether you are describing how something is done
or how something works, your main task would necessarily be to
inform your reader about the systematic order in which the thing is
done/works. In the next sub-section, I will give you some guidelines
about how to develop your process analysis paragraphs.
Guidelines for developing process analysis

Paragraphs
Use chronological organization
Organise the steps in the process in a chronological order, that is,
the order in which the steps are normally completed. You should
present what happens first and what happens next and so on and
so forth. When we try to understand or perform an activity, we need
to know all the important steps. When you are in doubt as to how
much your reader knows about the subject, include more
information, not less.
Define technical terms

You should assume in most cases that your reader is not familiar
with the technical terms that are associated with the process that
you are describing. In some processes, your reader(s) may also
need background information to understand the process. Just
because a word is familiar to you or many others does not mean
that everyone else knows it.
Describe necessary equipment

If your reader needs a special equipment to perform or understand
the process, you should describe the equipment for your reader.
Anticipate trouble spots and offer solutions

You also need to anticipate potential trouble spots or areas of
confusion and offer advice on how to avoid or resolve them. You
should also warn your readers of any difficult, complicated or

critical steps so that they pay attention to the difficult step(s) or to

take extra care in performing the critical ones.
Here are important points you need to keep in mind:
 List all the necessary steps in the order in which they occur.
 Explain the steps thoroughly, giving reasons and warnings.
 Define all technical terms.
 Describe all necessary equipment.
Activity 2.1
Write a process analysis paragraph on any one of the following
topics
1. How to prepare a particular dish.
2. How to change a flat tyre.
3. How the heart works.
4. How children learn to walk
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I hope the task was not too difficult for you. For instance, 1 and 2
relate to things you do daily. The only difference is that now you
have to write it down for someone to be able to follow the steps.
You've also observed how children learn to walk regularly, don't
you?

Summary
In this section, you have learned to explain how something works or
how something is done and the process that we go through to
actually perform it. You have learned that to achieve this you must
do the following:
 organize your details chronologically
 define technical terms that may be difficult for your readers to
understand
 describe necessary pieces of equipment that may be needed in
performing a step in the process
 anticipate trouble spots and offer solutions

Section 3 Definitions
Introduction
Hello student, I hope you have had some rest after our previous
lesson and that you are energized and ready for our next lesson.
In the previous two sections, you learned how to develop ideas in
two types of paragraphs, illustrations and process analysis
paragraphs. In this section, I am going to teach you another type of
paragraph development: Definitions.
When we talk to other people in our everyday conversation, we
sometimes offer informal definitions to explain just what we mean by
a particular term. Suppose I say to a friend My little sister is
talkative, I may have to explain what I mean by 'talkative' by saying
for example that “She is always saying one thing or another. She
can talk without stopping for two hours even when nobody seems to
be listening to her. She even talks in her sleep.” Likewise, when we
write we may need to define terms and the result could be a
definition paragraph. In such a paragraph we need to make clear in
a more complete and formal way our own understanding of a term.
Objectives

 appreciate definitions in texts
 write a paragraph in which you define a term or idea in order to
help your reader conceptualize the frame of reference within
which you may wish to make further discussion.
What is a definition?
You use definitions everyday in a variety of situations. A definition is
a way of explaining what a term means or which meaning is
intended when a word has a number of different meanings. Often,
but not always, a definition is intended for someone who is
unfamiliar with the thing or the idea. For example, you may define

mixed cropping to someone who is unfamiliar with farming or

diving to someone who is unfamiliar with swimming. Definitions,
therefore, are an important part of daily communication that helps us
avoid misunderstandings and confusion. Many academic and even
work situations require that you write definitions.
Look at the following definition of the term ATM Machine.
An automatic teller machine that is connected to a bank's main
computer and is designed to perform simple banking functions
such as deposits, withdrawals and transfers without any human
intervention.
You will have many occasions to use definitions in your writing.
When you feel your reader may not understand a key term, offer a
brief definition.
Activity 3.1
Write a standard definition of the following terms.
Hero
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Giraffe
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Friendship
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Sometimes just a standard definition may not be adequate to

explain the meaning of an idea or concept. You may need to write a
paragraph or an entire essay to define a term. For example, if I ask
you to define the term joy, you will probably find it difficult to come
up with a brief definition because the emotion is experienced in a
variety of different situations. Such a lengthy detailed definition is
called an extended definition.

How extended definitions are written

First of all, you need to include a brief explanation of the term.
Almost any kind of essay will include the definition of an important
term. Your readers will find it useful to have a brief definition to help
them begin to understand the concept. A brief or standard definition
is the kind found in a dictionary and normally consists of a three-part
definition, namely
 The term itself
 The class to which the term belongs
 The features that distinguish the term from all others in its class
Below is an example of this three-part definition structure:

Term: fork
Class: cutlery
Features: two or more prongs used for serving, picking and
eating food
You will have to describe the class as specifically as possible
without using the term or forms of the term as part of your definition.
For example, it will not be appropriate to define the term 'mastery' as
“it means one has mastered a skill”. Synonyms or other words
which are similar in meaning may be helpful.
You should also include enough distinguishing features so that your
readers will not mistake the term for something similar within the
class. Look at the following paragraph definition of the term 'bully'
from a magazine article on the topic. As you read, pay attention to
the highlighted words:
The term bully does not have a standard definition, but Dan Olweus, a
professor of Psychology at the University of Bergen, has honed the
definition to three core elements bullying involves a pattern of repeated
aggressive behaviour with negative intent directed from one child to
another where there is a power difference. Either a larger child or
several children pick on one child, or one child is clearly more dominant
than the others. Bullying is not the same as garden-variety aggression;
although aggression may involve similar acts, it

happens between two people of equal status. By definition, the

bully's target has difficulty defending him or herself, and the
bully's aggressive behaviour is intended to cause distress.
(Hara Estroff Marano, “Big. Bad. Bully.”)
In the above paragraph, the term is 'bully' and it is defined as
'repeated aggressive behaviour with negative intent … where there
is a power difference'. The writer then went ahead to give an
example of power difference as Either a larger child … is clearly
more dominant than others. The writer also distinguishes this term
from similar terms by saying Bullying is not the same as garden-
variety aggression …bully's aggressive behaviour is intended
to cause distress.
Extended definitions are therefore, particularly useful in exploring a
topic, in examining its various meanings. It also combines with other
patterns of development in an essay.
Activity 3.2
Write a paragraph definition on the following topics.
1. Democracy
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2. Culture
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I hope you have handled this task expertly. Remember to satisfy the
requirements of a good paragraph: unity, completeness and
coherence.
Summary
In this section I discussed the importance of definitions in both our
daily interactions as well in our writing. I drew your attention to the
fact that you might not present an idea well unless you first define
certain key terms you may have used. I taught you that there are
different ways of defining key terms. First, you should define a term
by describing the class to which it belongs as specifically as possible
without using the term itself. Additionally you should include enough
distinguishing features that differentiate the term from related terms.
You will realize that in writing academic essays the skill of writing
good definitions will come in handy when you need to clarify a term
so that you can confidently carry your reader into the argument you
wish to develop.

Section 4 Comparison and Contrast

Introduction
Welcome to another section. The pattern of paragraph development
you are about to study in this section is called Comparison and
Contrast. We all have a wealth of experience with comparing and
contrasting, as we use these skills daily. Comparison and contrast are
two thought-processes we go through constantly in our everyday lives.
When you compare two things, you show how they are similar and
when you contrast two things, you show how different they are. You
may want to compare Amstel Malt and Malta Guinness, Areeba and
Onetouch, two of your courses, or even two friends. The purpose of
comparing or contrasting is to understand each of the two things more
clearly and perhaps to make a judgement about them.
I hope you'll find this section interesting and useful.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to write a paragraph in
which you will compare and contrast two things in order to
 Bring out their similarities and/or differences
 Use those similarities and/or differences to support a claim you
have made
What is comparison and contrast?

Comparison and contrast involve looking at both similarities and
differences. They are two thought-processes that we go through in our
everyday lives. For example when you compare and contrast two cars,
you will consider how they are similar (in terms of size or body type)
and how they are different (in terms of price, colour, or engine size).
You make comparisons when you go shopping for a pair of jeans,
select a type of biscuit in the shop or choose a television or radio
program to watch or listen to. You also compared options and
alternatives when you made those important decisions about which
university to attend and which courses to read. The purpose of
carefully and, at times, to make judgements about them.

Here is an example of a comparison and contrast paragraph in which

the author compared secondary school to the university.
Ordinary studying during the term is another area where I've
made changes. In secondary school, I let reading
assignments go. I told myself that I would have no trouble
catching up on two hundred pages in fifteen minutes.
University courses have taught me to keep pace with the
work. Otherwise, I feel as though I'm sinking into a sea of
unread materials. When I finally read the secondary school
reading assignment, my eyes would run over the words but
my brain would be plotting how to manage to run away to
jam on Saturday night. Now I use several techniques that
force me to really concentrate on my reading.
The above paragraph compares two styles of studying, that is how he
approached his studies at the secondary school and how he does it
now in the university. It looks at the differences in his approach to
studies. Read the paragraph again and take note of the underlined
words.
Now it's your turn to do some activity.
Activity 4.1
Compare and contrast two means of travel or transportation
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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………

Features of a comparison and contrast paragraph

Consider subjects with things in common.
You cannot compare or contrast two things unless they have
something in common. For example, we cannot compare a goat with a
piece of cloth, but we can compare a mosquito with a housefly, or
handball with volleyball. When making a comparison therefore, you
need to identify the basis for the comparison.
Identify the focus of the paragraph

You need to examine the similarities, differences, or both fairly
depending on the purpose of your writing. However, when focusing on
similarities, you may want to mention one or two differences to make
your readers know that you are aware of those differences. Likewise,
when focusing on differences, you may mention a few similarities.
Highlight the relevance of the comparison

There should be a relevant point for making the comparison and
contrast. And this point should spark your readers' interest. Your topic
sentence should therefore have the following functions:
i It should identify the subject being compared and contrasted.
ii) It should state whether the focus is on similarities, differences, or
both.
iii) It should state the main point of the comparison.
Consider the following topic sentences.
a. Accra and Kumasi, which are two major cities in Ghana, demonstrate
i. subjects
two different cultures and life styles.
ii. differences iii. main point
b. Ford has a better warranty, although Ford and Chevy cars are similar in
iii. main point i. subjects
many ways,
ii. Similarities

Note that the two topic sentences tell us the subjects being compared
or contrasted and why it is meaningful or worth noting.
Now, I would like you to practise on your own.
Activity 4.2
1. Construct two topic sentences of your own that will satisfy all the
three functions that we have discussed.
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2. Identify the three functions that we have discussed in the following
topic sentences.
a. Similar appeals in commercials for three herbal medicines reveal
Ghanaians obsession with physical strength.
Subject:…………………………………………………………………
Focus:……………………………………………………………….
Main point of Comparison:…………………...................................
b. Although different in purpose, weddings and funerals each draw

families together and confirm family values.
Subject:…………………………………………………………………
Focus:……………………………………………………………………..
Main point of comparison:………………........................................

The comparison and contrast paragraph can be written in two ways.

You can arrange your details in a point-by-point fashion by discussing
one point at a time, giving an illustration from each of the subjects you
are comparing. This is exemplified in an earlier paragraph in which
modes of studies in secondary school and university are compared.
Secondly, you can also arrange your details subject-by-subject, where
you give all the information about one subject first and then follow it
with information about the other subject. You also need to consider a
sufficient number of important characteristics and details. These
details should be significant and relevant to the basis of the
comparison.
Consider the following paragraph:
In Ghana two systems of marriage are still being practised
polygamy and monogamy. Previously the more dominant of the
two, polygamy is practised today mainly in the rural areas. One
man marries more than one woman. You often find the women
living in one house but each owns her own compound and
kitchen. In the olden days, a man's power and wealth is measured
by the number of wives he can boast of. In Muslim communities
even in urban areas, however, one can find polygamous
marriages. Islam permits it. Nowadays, in most urban areas
monogamy is the norm. A man marries only one woman, either
customarily or by ordinance. They have nuclear type of family
living in homes. Now it is monogamous men who are respected.
Christianity encourages and accepts this type of marriage.
Note that the writer has said all that he wants to say about polygamy
before moving on to monogamy.
The following suggestions will help you write a good comparison and
contrast paragraph.
 You need to make a meaningful comparison and contrast by
comparing things that have, at least, something in common.
 Develop each topic thoroughly by examining all subjects fairly.
 State the basis for the comparison or contrast.
It is now time to write your own paragraph.
Activity 4.3
Compare and contrast two means of travel or transportation and say
why one is more efficient than the other.

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I hope you have enjoyed this task. You will need the skills you have so
far acquired in later sections of this unit.
Summary
We have come to the end of another section. In this section you
learned that writers sometimes compare and/or contrast two (or more)
things in order to make clear the point they are developing. In other
words, they point out the differences or similarities between those
things by way of explaining their claim. Accordingly, you have learnt
that in comparing and contrasting things as a strategy for developing
an idea in your paragraph, you
 consider items from a common class
 identify the focus of the paragraph
 state the relevance of the comparison (i.e. what you wish to achieve
by the comparison)
I hope you've enjoyed the lesson. Thanks for staying with me. Take a
good rest, and I will see you in the next section where we will continue
to discuss two more methods of development.
Bye!!

Section 5 Cause & Effect and Problem

& Solution
Introduction
Welcome to yet another section on methods of developing a
controlling idea in a paragraph. In previous sections, you learned how
to develop effective paragraphs using the Illustration, Process
Analysis, Definition and Comparison-Contrast methods of
development. It is important to note that you cannot use the same
mode of paragraph development all the time. There is the need to vary
your paragraphs or sometimes to combine different modes. We
however want to study the different types of paragraphs first before we
combine them!
Before we continue with the discussion, I will like to ask you a few
questions. Why would you like to move out of your parents' house one
day? Why are most African movies full of superstition? If you are given
the opportunity to visit a country outside Africa, to which country will
you go and why? Everyday we ask questions like these and look for
answers. You will realize that many actions do not occur without
causes. In this section I will help you master the use of two inter-
connected methods of development: Cause and Effect and Problem
and Solution.
Objectives
 write the cause and effect type of paragraph, and
 Write the problem and solution type of paragraph
Cause and Effect Pattern

The cause and effect type of paragraph analyses (1) cause (why an
event or phenomenon happens), and (2) effects (what happens
because of the event or phenomenon). Almost everything you do
has a cause, that is, the reason why you do it and it also produces an
effect; that is the outcome of your actions. For example if you skip
lunch because you have to prepare for a test, you will feel hungry, but
at the same time, it may also result in you scoring a higher mark than
you may have scored. You may ask yourself, the following question,
What would happen if I go for that party and hand in my
assignment late? Many everyday

occasions require you to think of causes and their effects, which can
be good or bad. You will also find many occasions to write cause-and-
effect paragraphs in your academic essays. Let us look at this
example together:
There are three reasons why John is not going to the
university. In the first place, his family is poor and since he has
four young brothers and sisters still at school, he feels that he
should help his family financially as soon as possible. Secondly, if
he went to university, his mother would be left alone to look after
the young children. Finally, he has been offered a good job with
excellent chances of promotion. Consequently, although he wants
to go to university very much, John is going to take the job
instead.
In the example above, the topic sentence promises three reasons why
John is not going to university. In other words, three factors cause
John's inability to go to University. They are: the financial handicap
of his family, the possibility that his mother will be lonely at
home, and the fact that he has secured an excellent job. By
introducing the last sentence with the logical result transitional word
consequently, the writer ensures that his reader sees the point there
as the direct effect of the three causes. In writing a cause-and-effect
paragraph, you need to make sure that there is a logical relationship
between what constitutes a cause(s) and what constitutes an effect(s).
Activity 5.1
1. List two possible causes for each of the following phenomena:
a. You have been told your flight has been cancelled.
…………………………………………………………………………………
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b. Your father doesn't want to pay your school fees anymore.

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2. List two possible effects for each of the following events.

a. You have missed an important class test.
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b. You couldn't sleep all night.
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How to write an effective cause and effect paragraph

The paragraph must have a clear purpose which must be stated in the
topic sentence. These may be to inform others about a certain issue,
or to persuade them to do something. For example, you may write to
express your feelings about the effects of the death of a close relative.
A written material about the sources of pollution of a river in your
locality could be informative and persuasive at the same time.
It must also include a clear topic sentence that identifies the topic and
states clearly whether the paragraph focuses on causes, effects, or
both. For instance, the topic sentence, 'Marrying while still teenagers
can be a bad decision that can create many problems for young
couples', clearly indicates the topic which is marrying while still a
teenager. In addition, it indicates that the paragraph is about the
effects. By contrast, in the topic sentence, 'The most common causes
of asthma are exposure to allergens and allergic reactions', the focus
is on the causes of asthma.
It is also important to arrange your information in a logical order. If, for
instance, you are dealing with a series of causes of a single effect,
you may arrange the causes chronologically to highlight their order of
occurrence, or you may arrange them in order of importance, etc. Very
often, too, you might have to provide details about each cause and
effect in a way that will make your reader understand your train of
thought. That is to say, you might sound more convincing if you clarify
each cause/effect with examples, facts, descriptions, comparisons,
statistics, etc. Let us now study various types of cause and effect
paragraphs.

Types of cause and effect paragraphs

There are different types of cause and effect paragraphs. We can have
multiple causes leading to a single effect, as we find in the diagram
below:
Multiple causes Single effect

Course intended to do
Distance from home secondary
school attended
Cost
Reputation
The paragraph on the reasons why John is not going to the university,
which we saw earlier in this section, also exemplifies this pattern.
We can also have a single cause that leads to multiple effects:
One cause Multiple effects

More time to study
Quit your job Less money in your pocket
Less pressure
More time for leisure

The following paragraph is an example of a single cause leading to

multiple effects.
Working as a literacy volunteer as a requirement of a
community service course taught me more about learning
and friendship than I ever expected. When I first went through
the training program to become a literacy volunteer, I learned
about the process of learning- that is, the way in which people
learn new words most effectively. The training I received, though
excellent, was no substitute for working with a real student. When
I began to discover what other people's lives are like because
they cannot read, I realized the true importance of reading. For
example, before meeting my student, a 44 year old single mother
of three, she used to travel three miles away to a supermarket to
buy her grocery because there prices of the items are mentioned
on request instead of the nearby supermarket where the prices
are displayed on the items. In addition, as time went by, my
student and I developed a friendship that became permanent.
Because we saw each other several times a week, we spent a lot
of time getting to know each other and we discovered we had
certain things in common. In fact, as a literacy volunteer, I learned
a great deal about learning, teaching and helping others. I also
established what I hope will be a life long friendship.
In this paragraph, a single cause, the decision to work as community
literacy volunteer, led to several good effects. Note that the effects are
arranged from the least important to the most important.
In some other cases, a series of events form a chain in which each
event is both the effect of what happened before it and the cause of
what happens after it, as we find in the schema below:
Cause Effect/Cause Effect/Cause Effect/Cause

You watched a late night movie You couldn't wake up early
You have to join a queue at the station You were late to school
You miss an important class test Your 'A' average is
lowered to a B average
The following paragraph exemplifies this pattern of development:

The Thousand-Dollar Lesson

While travelling last spring, I learned about the
miserable consequences of speeding. My first
unpleasant experience was actually getting the ticket. I
knew I was in trouble from the moment I saw the red
flashing lights in my rear-view mirror and looked down at
the speedometer to see the needle on eighty-five. I
thought I might be able to talk my way out of it until I saw
the Clint Eastwood look-alike Texas highway patrol officer
step up to my window. “All right, boy, let me see your
license and proof of insurance,” he drawled, cutting off my
“Gee-I-didn't realize-I-was-going-that-fast” line. The officer
seemed to enjoy every second it took him to write that
ticket out, and with an evil smirk he handed it to me,
saying, “Have a nice day.” I'm pretty sure he was the only
one having fun. The next problem was paying the ticket. I
didn't want it on my record since it would crank up my
insurance rates, so I knew it would cost plenty, and it did.
The ticket was only seventy-five dollars but it cost three
hundred to have it “disappear” from my record. But as bad
as that expense was, the next effect was worse. My
parents had been paying my insurance because I was still
living at home and going to college. However, after they
learned of my ticket, they decided to stop helping me with
the coverage. They reasoned that if I had enough money
to speed, then I had enough money to pay for my own
insurance. I never quite figured out their logic, but I got
their point. A thousand dollars for a year's premium is an
expensive lesson. Having to cover the insurance on top of
the ticket, led to the worst consequence of all work, work,
work! I picked up additional hours at the golf course where
I work, but that was not enough. So I turned to my
parents, who were willing to help, they said, with smiles
that reminded me of the Texas highway patrol officer.
There were plenty of odd jobs for me to do on the
weekends around the house: painting the shed, staining
the deck, washing the windows, cleaning out the
garage…. My folks were very creative and have given me
lots of this kind of “help.” Before this last year, I thought I
knew what kind of trouble speeding could cause me, but I
know now, and I am more inclined to think about the
consequences of everything I do now before I act. (Lucas
Eimers In A writer's Workshop: College of the canyons
Edition, 2002: 179)
In the paragraph above, the writer illustrates clearly how a single

cause, over-speeding, leads to many negative effects. But unlike the
previous paragraph where there are individual effects, each

effect in this paragraph is in fact a chain of effects, one leading to

another. Here also the arrangement of points follows a logical order,
that is, the chronological order.
I hope you can identify the various types of development of a cause-
effect paragraph. Remember that in all cases, there is a cause, i.e.
reason(s) why something happens and effects, i.e. the result(s) of the
thing that happened. You will now do another activity but this time, I
want you to write a complete paragraph using the single-cause and
multiple-effects type of paragraph development.
Activity 5.2
Write a paragraph in which you claim that a teenager you know got
pregnant and that led to a number of consequences for her:
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I hope you were able to write the paragraph. There may be a few
challenges but always remember that practice makes man perfect.
Now let us shift the focus slightly to a closely related type of paragraph
development, the Problem and Solution type of Paragraph.
Problem and Solution

People are constantly faced with problems that need solutions.
Imagine a situation where you are in your house and suddenly you
hear a splashing sound from the bathroom. It's the toilet leaking and
you are almost late for school or work. What would you do? Should
you hammer it down, give your father, uncle, or an older sister a call, or
call a plumber? The world we live in is filled with various problems and
these problems have probable solutions.
The problem and solution type of paragraph is somehow linked to the

cause-effect type of paragraph. When a problem arises, a

solution has to be found. Before one thinks of a solution to the problem

one would have to think about what led to the problem (i.e. the cause
of the problem) and also the effect of the type of solution one suggests
for the problem. In other words, each problem has a cause(s) and
each solution will have an effect(s). Now let us look at the following
paragraph together!
We were sitting in a bar at Abossey-Okai when I told, Nii, my
fiancé, that I was pregnant. I had a great shock: he looked blankly
at me for one long minute and walked out, leaving me alone in the
bar. I knew right away that I was carrying an unwanted pregnancy.
I made my decision there and then: abortion. It took me two days
to raise the money. Just as I was about to go to the clinic, Nii
returned to me to apologize for walking out on me the other day.
He proposed that we got married quickly, before the baby was
born. This is how he saved Mona's life.
In this example we can identify a problem i.e. a pregnancy. Although
not stated, we can correctly guess that this pregnancy constitutes a
problem because it is out of wedlock. Two alternative solutions were
named later in the paragraph: abortion and marriage before childbirth.
If they had opted for abortion, we would have had a different set of
effects. But notice the implication that marriage was the adopted
solution (and the stated effect of this solution is that Mona's life has
been saved).
Now, let us consider this activity!
Activity 5.3
Write down, in the space provided, a one-sentence solution to each of
these 'problems':
1. School is reopening soon and I do not have my fees ready.
……………………………………………………………………………
2. The rains are coming and our roof is leaking badly.
……………………………………………………………………………
3. My tenancy agreement is about to expire and my landlord is an
uncompromising fellow.
……………………………………………………………………………

I believe you were able to come up with a solution to each of these

problems. The next thing I want you to do is to pick one of the above
problem-solution pair of sentences and develop it into a full paragraph.
In the space provided below, first develop the problem sentence with
some supporting sentences. Then, write the solution sentence and
develop it with its supporting sentences as well.
Make sure that you write coherent sentences (recall lessons on
coherence in sections 3 and 4 of Unit 1).
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Now, I want you to check your problem sentence and find out whether
the supporting sentences further explain the problem. What about your
solution sentence, do the supporting sentences tell the reader more
about the solution? If you have all these then what you have written
could be interesting to read. Congratulate yourself!
Summary
In this section, you learned how to write the:
 different types of cause and effect paragraphs, by

 making sure you have a clear purpose
 including a clear topic sentence that identifies the focus of the
paragraph
 presenting your information in a logical order, and
 explaining each cause and effect fully
 problem and solution type of paragraphs.

Take a break now. I will see you in the next section where we will look
at paragraphs in which writers mix a number of the methods of
development as they deal with their controlling ideas.

Section 6 Classification and Division

patterns of development
Introduction
Hello student, you are once again welcome to another section on
patterns of developing ideas in paragraphs. This is the last section of
this unit. Therefore, it is the last section on the discussions on patterns
of development. In this section we will discuss the classification and
division patterns.
When you return home from weekly shopping from the market or
supermarket, what do you do with the things you bought? You might
want to separate food items from non-food items (like soap, T-roll,
toothpaste, etc). You may further want to classify the items into
groups: vegetables, tubers, fish, meat, etc. This is just one simple
example of how we always try to organize our environment in one way
or the other. What we actually do is to classify and divide things
according to certain principles or characteristics.
Objectives

 write a classification paragraph where you put items together in
group
 effectively write a paragraph in which you divide items into parts in
accordance with a set principle
What are classification and division?

Classification is a process of sorting ideas, things, or people into
groups or categories to make them easy for people to understand. For
example, the university classifies its courses according to faculties
and departments. Think about how difficult it would have been to
handle timetables if the university had classified its courses according
to alphabetical order instead of by faculties and departments.

Division is similar to classification but instead of grouping items into

categories, division begins with one item and breaks it down into parts.
For example, the Arts Faculty can be divided into various departments
such as History, Linguistics, Modern Languages and Philosophy. At
the same time, the Modern Languages department can further be
divided into units such as Spanish, Russian, Swahili, French and
Arabic.
A classification or division text explains a topic by describing types or
parts respectively. For example, a classification text might explore
types of advertising namely: direct mail, radio, television, newspaper,
etc. A division text might describe parts of a car for example, the body,
engine, wheels, and the booth/trunk. Let us look at the following
paragraph together.
Although media come in a variety of forms, they can be divided
into two major categories. Those two categories are responsible
and irresponsible, as shown by the language of the writers. The
responsible category includes generally what are called
“mainstream” publications, those that are read by a large number
of different kinds of people. Mainstream publications would
include Time, Newsweek, and New Republic. Even though each
of these publications is of a different political slant, each generally
takes responsibility for reporting accurately. Each one's penchant
for responsible journalism is revealed in the language of the
publication. Each one tends to use measured terms and avoid
“loaded” words, words that elicit immediate emotional responses
like “femi-Nazi” and “jerk.” On the other hand, the irresponsible
category includes tabloid-style periodicals and television and radio
shows, like The National Enquirer and some “talk” shows. These
periodicals and shows are watched, read or heard by specific
audiences, occasionally audiences that are isolated from
mainstream society. They tend to skirt the edge of journalistic
ethics, rushing to get a story, if not the facts of the story. Their
tendencies are revealed in the language they sometimes use,
resorting to stereotyping and name-calling; they sometimes use
words like “lesbo-femininst” and “cretin.” This is not word usage
that appeals to reasonable people who are looking for facts and
not for “slams.”(Dial Driver, 1998: A Guide to College Writing).
In the paragraph above the writer uses the principle of credibility in
classifying the media into two major categories according to their style
of reportage. He could have used another principle, e.g. whether a
media organization is electronic or print. In that case, radio, television
and the internet would have fallen into one group while the print media
constitutes another group.

Activity 6.1
1. Read the paragraph below and revise it for unity.
In general, the closer a region is to the equator the warmer its
climate will be but other factors also have influence on temperature.
For example, distance from the sea is important because although
water absorbs heat more slowly than land, it retains it longer.
Consequently, through the cold month of winter the sea warms the
nearby land just as a radiator warms a room. This is why it takes
longer to heat a pound of water through one degree centigrade than
it does to heat a pound of earth the same amount. Another
important factor is the height of the region of a region above sea
level. The higher you go up a mountain, the less dense the air is.
Finally, physical features such as mountains influence the
temperature of a nearby region. If mountains cause rain to fall
frequently, the nearby region becomes clearer than other regions in
the same latitude. If mountains block the passage of cold winds,
nearby regions become warmer than unsheltered regions in the
same latitude.
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2. Which option did you use in your revision? Justify your choice.
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I hope that this lesson is clear and that you would always be mindful
of what you learned from it.

When it is necessary to break a paragraph into two

Sometimes a paragraph can be revised by breaking it into two. Take
the Mrs. Smith paragraph above for instance. We noted that the
topic sentence,
It is easy to understand why Mrs. Smith is always so busy
between 5.45 and 7.45 in the evening.
Is too limited to contain all the supporting sentences and needs to
be revised unless the irrelevant supporting sentences are taken out.
There is a third option to revise that paragraph. It can be split into
two: (a) the first paragraph would discuss Mrs. Smith's day up to
5.45 in the evening when she is less busy and (b) the second
paragraph would discuss her busy time, from 5.45 to 7.45 in the
evening.
Revising for coherence

As you would recall, a paragraph is coherent if all its sentences are
linked together so as to make them easily understood. In the
revision of a paragraph you may need to connect some sentences
together by the use of transition words or other cohesive devices.
Transitions are also known as connectives since they show a
connection between one sentence and another. Let us take this
example:
George and Kwame were close friends.
Their friendship ended in a quarrel over money.
These two sentences can be connected by a transitional word
to read:
George and Kwame were good friends until their friendship
ended in a quarrel over money.
The transitional word until, which contains an element of time,
connects the two sentences. I have already introduced you to many
more of these transitional words in Section 4 of this unit. Transitions
can indicate addition, contrast, and time among others.
It is important for you to revise these connectives or transitions so
that sentences in your paragraphs are well connected.
Read the paragraph below:

Only after those words did Foli think to begin pouring out the
schnapps he had been holding in those hands which hate so
much to let hot drink escape. He had kept the spirits waiting like
children begging for the drink of their own libation and thirsty
drunkard that he has always been, even when at last he began
to pour it out, he only let go of little miserly drops far from
enough to end the long thirst of a single one of those gone
before. I could see his eyes, with a lot of white showing
underneath, and the black of them stuck almost to their upper
eyelids. Slyly like a thief he was measuring the bottle in his soul.
The less he poured to end the thirst of the ghosts the more the
bottom of the bottle would hold for his own dry mouth. (
Fragments, Armah 1968).
You may have noted in Section 3 and 4 of this unit that there is good
measure of coherence in this paragraph if you have not got the
point, then I want you to note that the person or subject of this
paragraph is 'Foli' and so the pronouns 'He' and 'His' that we find in
the passage refer to 'Foli'. The writer does not introduce any other
name except that of 'Foli' to make sure that the reader is not
confused. The name 'Foli' is introduced very early in the paragraph
to hold the reader's attention to the fact that he is the subject under
discussion. So, instead of the writer repeating 'Foli' every time in the
paragraph, he uses the pronoun 'He' or 'His' so as not to sound
boring.
Using transitions
You will recall that we studied transitions in Section 4 of this Unit. I
want you to read that section again quickly so that you get
adequately prepared for the task below.
Activity 6.2
Develop the following sentence into classification/division paragraph
paying attention to all the skills that you have learned about writing
good paragraphs:
It is amazing to know the different types of houses in which people

live in this country
…………………………………………………………………………..……
……………………………………………………………………….………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………….…

Assignment 2
1. Identify the pattern (s) of development that you need to use to
develop each of the flowing topic sentences.
a. Most African movies show many stereotyped lifestyles and
characters while others portray real human beings and social
problems.
b. There are several reasons why I decided to further my
education
2. Write a full text paragraph on each of the above topic
sentences.
3. Now write another paragraph on the topic sentence: Smoking
cigarettes can be an expensive habit.
Summary
In this section you have learned the steps that you take to write a
Classification and Division text. You have learned that classification
groups things, ideas or people together whereas Division divides
items into recognisable categories based on specific principles.
You will realize that much of the organisation we do when writing
essays falls under classification. Classification and Division are
effective ways to explain a topic. You will find many occasions to
use these patterns of development in writing your academic essays.
Unit summary
In this unit you learned how to use various methods to develop the
controlling idea of your paragraph.
 In Section 1, you studied the illustration type of paragraphing.

You learned how to use illustrations and examples to support
claims you make in your paragraphs.

 In Section 2, I taught you how to write the process analysis

paragraph. You learned to describe how something is done or
how it works, and I made the point that in this type of paragraph
you have to systematically spell out the steps involved in how the
thing is done/works.
 In the next section, Section 3, we turned to Definition

paragraphs. Here, you learned that in order to clarify your points
to readers, you need to explain the difficult or abstract terms you
have used.
 The Comparison and Contrast paragraphing was the subject of

our discussion in Section 4. Here I taught you that you might
need to compare or contrast two or more things in order to make
a judgement about them so that your key point becomes clearer
to your reader.
 In Section 5, we dealt with two inter-connected types of

paragraph development: Cause & Effect and Problem & Solution
types. With regard to the Cause-Effect type, you learned that
you need always to establish a clear relationship between a
cause (s) and its effect (s). It is the relationship that exists
between a cause and an effect which helps to support a key
claim. In much the same vein, in the Problem-Solution type of
paragraph you need to establish a clear link between what for
you constitutes a problem and what constitutes its remedy.
 In the last section, we considered the Classification and Division

types of paragraph. Classification groups things, ideas or people
together whereas Division divides items into recognisable
categories based on specific principles. How consistently you
stick to the principle governing the classification/division
highlights the key point you are developing.

Unit
Reading Techniques

LANG 100/200 Academic Writing Unit 3 Reading Techniques
Introduction
You are most welcome to the third unit. In this unit, we are going to
move away from writing to reading which will eventually improve
your writing. Reading is a mental activity. It is one of the four basic
skills of language learning. When you are reading, you are
processing the written material before you. You are in fact involved
in thinking, predicting, questioning and evaluating the text.
The Longman Active Study Dictionary defines reading as the
activity of looking at and understanding written words (547).
Your university studies require that you read a lot. However, for the
greater percentage of students, it takes many days or in fact weeks
to finish reading their course materials and so they are unable to
read much. Your reading will be more beneficial if you can read fast.
You will be able to cover many topics and hand in your assignments
on time if you avoid reading faults and improve your reading speed.
You also need to be an active reader and not a passive one. In other
words, you need to learn how to read and interact with the text.
This unit will help you learn strategies for active reading so you can
read and understand your other course materials better. The
following is an outline of the unit:
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit you should be able to
 read efficiently by adjusting your reading speed according to the
purpose of reading and also to the difficulty of the reading
material
 read actively by interacting with the text
 read for general and specific information
 read critically to distinguish facts from opinion
 deduce the meanings of words from their contexts

This unit will cover the following topics

Section 1 Adjusting reading rates Factors which influence
reading speed.
Section 2 Reading Skimming and Scanning
Section 3 Reading SQ3R / PQ4R study technique
Section 4 Reading for general information
Section 5 Critical reading
Section 6 Vocabulary

Section 1 Adjusting Reading Rates Factors

Which Influence Reading Speed
Introduction
Welcome once again! This is the first section of the third unit. I
know you can read, but in this section you will learn some facts
about reading that will help you improve or adjust your reading
speed according to your purpose for reading. Many students
have difficulty recognising and understanding many words
when reading. Well, as the courses in the university require
more reading than you have been doing previously, this section
seeks to help you get rid of some bad reading habits.
Objectives
 distinguish between good and bad reading habits
 record the progress of your reading using the word per minute chart
(wpm)
 test your comprehension against your speed
Purpose and Difficulty

You should not read everything the same way. What you read, how
fast or how carefully you read, are all affected by your purpose. For
example, if your Sociology lecturer asks you to read a text on which he
is going to test you, you will read it differently from how you will read a
story in a magazine. For the Sociology text you would need to study
the material carefully and remember it. Your familiarity with a topic also
affects how you read. If you are not familiar with the topic surgical
procedures for example, you would read an essay about it much more
slowly than a doctor who has more knowledge of the subject.
Effective readers vary their reading techniques to suit what they are
reading and why they are reading it.

Bad Reading Habits

Bad reading habits include
Head Movement
When you move your head instead of your eyes, you slow down the
speed at which you read.
Vocalisation
When you call out words or open your lips when reading silently, your
reading speed reduces.
Sub-Vocalisation
If in your reading you are fortunate not to have these faults, find out if
there is any movement at the sides of your throat (i.e. humming) as
you read. If there is any movement, then note that these movements
have the tendency of lowering the speed at which you can read.
Limited Eye-span
One of the things that make our reading very slow is reading one word
at a time instead of reading them in sense-groups of two or more
words at a time.
Regression
In the course of reading sometimes, you feel you have not understood
a word, a phrase or a paragraph as you would have wished. As these
doubts are quite worrying, you go back over what you have read
already. This is what is called regression. It will not make your reading
fast.
Pointing at Words
Some people put their fingers or pens on the line of print and read the
words as they point at them. The speed at which you read will be very
slow if you do this.

Activity 1.1
Read the following passage SILENTLY and do the tasks below the
passage. Put your thumb and fingers gently on your throat while you
read.
Readers do not just discover meaning: they help make it. Many
people believe that a text contains specific meanings the writer
had in mind and that the reader's job is to discover those
meanings. Wrong! Wrong! Wrong! A writer may intend to
communicate a particular message, but as a reader you bring
all of your own experience and knowledge to a text. These
influence the meaning you come away with. For example, let's
say that you lost a friend to drug abuse. That experience will
likely influence your reading of [an essay on] a college student
killed by drugs. As a result, you may finish reading that essay
with impressions different from those of a student whose life
has not been touched by drug abuse. That is, your knowledge
and experience will help you make the meaning you get from
the essay. This is normal, so do not hesitate to relate what you
read to what you already know or have witnessed or have
experienced. Your knowledge and experience will enhance your
reading. (Extract from Barbara Fine Clouse (1998):
Transitions: From reading to writing)
Can you feel any movement as you read?
Yes/No
Write the six bad habits that you have learned about.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
Place a tick (√) against the bad habit you think you need to
overcome.
Well done! Now let us try another activity with which you can measure
your reading speed and also test your understanding of the text. The
objective of the speed test is to encourage you to improve your
reading speed and at the same time grasp the meaning of the text. If
you read faster, you will manage to read

more books and so write better essays. You need to know your
average speed first and then try to improve upon it.
Activity 1.2
The purpose of your reading this passage is to find out your speed and
your understanding of the main ideas in the passage.
Use a watch, preferably one with a second hand.
Write down the time you started reading the passage.
Read as fast as you can.
As soon as you finish reading the last word, look at your watch and
record the time.
Now read the passage.
Getting Rid Of Bad Reading Habits

You do not need every word to understand what you read. In fact, too
much emphasis on individual words both slows your speed and
reduces your comprehension. You will be given the chance to prove
this to yourself, but meanwhile, let us look at the implications. First and
foremost, any habit which slows down your silent reading to the speed
at which you speak, or read aloud, is inefficient. If you point to each
word, or move your head, or form the words with your lips, you read
poorly. Less obvious habits also hold back reading efficiency. One is
“saying” each word silently by moving your tongue or throat or vocal
cord; another is “hearing” each word as you read. These are habits
which should have been outgrown long time ago. The beginning
reader is learning how letters can make words, how written words are
pronounced, and how sentences are put together. Your reading
purpose is quite different; it is to understand meaning.
It has been estimated that up to 75% of the words in English
sentences are not really necessary for conveying the meaning. The
secret of silent reading is to seek out those key words and phrases
which carry the thought, and to pay less attention to words which exist
only for the sake of grammatical completeness.
An efficient reader can grasp the meaning from a page at least twice
as fast as he can read the page aloud. Unconsciously perhaps, he
takes in a whole phrase or thought unit at a time. If he “says” or
“hears” words to himself, they are selected ones, said for emphasis.

The assurance that not every word is necessary for meaning often
helps readers handicapped by another very common fault: regression.
A poor reader frequently lets his eyes wander back over what he has
just read, this usually indicates a lack of concentration; he was too
lazy and inefficient to get the meaning the first time. Or it may mean he
lacks confidence in his ability to understand without looking at every
word. But regression rarely helps comprehension. It usually makes it
worse, because it interrupts the forward-moving train of thought. An
efficient reader seldom goes back. He pushes actively forward from
one idea to the next, and he usually gets the meaning the first time.
He has learned from experience that a missed word or idea can often
be deduced from what follows. He also knows that important ideas are
usually repeated. If he goes back, it is with a purpose, to find the
answer to a definite question. Neither does a good reader interrupt his
reading at each unfamiliar word to use the dictionary. He often infers a
meaning from the context. Unless a passage depends on the word, he
saves his checking up in the dictionary until the end.
We have implied that a good reader's eyes see more words at a time.
To understand what this means, you need to know that our eyes do
not move continuously along a line of print. They move in a series of
jerks, and they see only when they stop. About 90% of our reading
time is spent on the pauses or 'fixations' between eye movements. It is
possible that a good reader or a poor one will spend roughly the same
amount of time on a pause. The difference is that the efficient reader
needs fewer pauses than the poor reader. Instead of focusing on each
word, whether or not it is needed for understanding, he focuses on key
words and takes in the words on either side with 'peripheral' vision.
This means that in the same number of pauses, and the same amount
of time he can cover more material than the poor reader. He goes
faster and gets less tired because he is concentrating on meaning
rather than on individual words. He also comprehends better. It is
important to remember that the best remedy for most reading
problems is to concentrate on reading for meaning.
As you learn to move ahead with more purpose, the wasteful habits
will weaken and your speed and efficiency will increase.
Write down the minutes and seconds you used to read the
passage.…………………………………………………………………
Now tick the correct answer in the following questions. Do not refer to
the passage when answering the questions.
1. This passage is mainly about
A) improving eye movement

b) reading more widely

c) eliminating poor reading habits
d) concentrating while reading
2. Saying each word to yourself as you read
a) improves comprehension
b) increases reading speed
c) prevents regression
d) hinders reading efficiency
3. Your reading purpose should be
a) to understand all the words
b) to make fewer eye movements
c) to understand meaning
d) to understand the grammatical items
4. It has been estimated that up to 75% of words in English sentences
are:
a) grammatically unnecessary
b) essential to the meaning
c) not absolutely essential to the meaning
d) read more than once by poor readers.
5. Efficient readers usually
a) move their heads quickly
b) take in whole phrases at a time.
c) point at key words
d) miss some important points for the sake of speed
6. Regression is often a sign of
a) lack of confidence
b) efficient eye movements
c) concentration
d) rapid reading
7. An efficient reader can read a page silently and grasp the meaning …
a) almost as fast
b) at least twice as fast
c) at the same speed

d) not nearly as fast

2. When he meets an unfamiliar word, the efficient reader will
a) ignore it
b) reread the passage
c) stop immediately and look it up in his dictionary
d) try to infer the meaning from the context, and read on
3. When we read, our eyes see
a) only when they are moving
b) only when they are not moving
c) at all times
d) only key words
4. Pauses or fixations take about ………..of our reading time.
a) 60%
b) 10%
c) 90%
d) 50%
The following table is the Word Per Minute Chart (WPM Chart)
designed to help you calculate your reading speed. This is how to
read the chart. If you have read the passage in 1 minute, 30 seconds
(1.30)s, then you have read 490 WPM as shown in the chart. If,
however, you read the passage in 3 minutes (3.00), then you read 245
WPM.
WORDS PER MINUTE CHART: Timed Reading Passage (735
words)
Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM Time WPM
1.00 - 2.00 370 3.00 245 4.00 185 5.00 150
10 630 10 340 10 235 10 175 10 145
20 550 20 315 20 220 20 170 20 140
30 490 30 295 30 210 30 165 30 135
40 440 40 275 40 200 40 160 40 130
50 400 50 260 50 190 50 155 50 125
Source: Study Skills for Higher Education (p. 14 16)

Now use the WPM Chart to find out the speed you used to read the
passage. Record your speed and your comprehension score below.

……………………………………………………………………………
An average of 250 WPM with a comprehension score of 7 or above is
a good beginning. This means that you should have read the passage
within 3 minutes. I believe you have done even better than that. If you
have, then Congratulations! You have done very well. You should,
however, make an attempt to improve on this.
I will recommend that you go back and read the passage again
because it is a lesson on its own that will help you to avoid these bad
reading habits.
Summary
These exercises bring us to the end of this section. In this section, you
have learned
 how to vary your reading speed according to the difficulty or

familiarity of the text
 about some bad habits that hinder our reading efficiency and slow
down our reading speed
 how to eliminate these bad reading habits.

Well, you have done so many exercises in this section that I think you
should take a well deserved break before we move on to the next
section where we will look at some more reading techniques. I look
forward to seeing you in the next section.

Section 2 Reading Skimming and Scanning

Introduction
You are most welcome to yet another section on reading techniques.
It is not always necessary to read a text closely. There are times that
you need to adopt faster reading strategies. An efficient reader knows
when to read fast and when to read slowly to understand a piece of
important information. He/she also knows whether or not to read every
part of a text or overlook some of it. Skimming and Scanning are
techniques which help you to read fast and only the very essential
parts of texts so as not to waste too much time.
This section will discuss skimming and scanning, which are faster
reading strategies. Both strategies will help you to look for information
in a text quickly without reading the source from the beginning to the
end. A student who does this is an efficient reader. I hope you will find
the lesson very useful.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
 skim for general information in a text you are yet to read
 scan for specific information in a given text
Skimming for General Information

Skimming is reading through a text quickly to find the main facts or
ideas in it. There are times when all that is needed is to know the
general information in a text. Let's do some activity to start off.
Activity 2.1
Read the following passages at a fast pace.

Passage A
Is It A Minority Disease?
For the first time in the third Parliament of the Fourth Republic, the
minority group has staged a walk-out.
As is the wont of minority groups in Parliament, this time too the group
has staged a boycott in protest against arbitrariness on the part of the
majority side. The NDC caucus in Parliament which until January 7
this year (2000), was the majority side in Parliament referred to the
minority group in Parliament, then especially the NPP, as specialists in
boycotts any time it's parliamentarians walked out of the House.
Today the shoe is on the other foot and it hurts.
(Source: The Mirror, May 19, 2001).
Passage B
Travelling to Europe and beyond this Christmas couldn't be cheaper.
Air France presents
THE X'MAS BREAK
Travel to Europe from as little as $595.
AS IF THIS IS NOT ENOUGH AIR FRANCE OFFERS YOU 30 KILOS
BAGGAGE ALLOWANCE
(Source: Daily graphic, Nov. 27, 2000)
Passage C
Morphosyntactic Structure
Phonology is concerned with a particular aspect of linguistic structure.

In order to see what part of linguistic structure is phonological, we will
first briefly consider that part of the linguistic structure which is not
phonological, the mophosyntactic structure. The mophosyntactic
structure of a language can be seen in the argument of the meaningful
units of any linguistic expression. A distinction is made between
morphology, which deals with the structure up to the level of the word,
and syntax, which deals with

the structure above the word (Source: Understanding Phonology, p.19)

Now that you have read through the three texts above, answer the
following questions:
 Did you read all the passages at the same speed?
 Did you have to spend a lot of time on each passage? Why?
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
 Did you adopt a special technique for reading any of the
passages?
 If yes, how did you read the passage?
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
You will have come to the realisation that the speed at which you read
a passage depends on the passage you read and your purpose. The
problem with most of us is that we waste time reading slowly when we
are supposed to skim a given text. Sometimes we may be required to
look for specific information from a book but we waste precious time
reading almost every single word before we get to what we actually
need. When you read fast and skip parts of a text looking for
general information, you are skimming. You also skim when you
glance through newspapers to see if there are any interesting news
items you would like to read.
Skimming also gives you an overview of a text or passage and helps
you to determine whether it suits your purpose and if there are any
sections that deserve closer reading. Let us assume that you visit your
local library or a bookshop and pick up a book which interests you. If
the book is a text book, you have to look at the table of contents which
provides the outline of the book.
The following guidelines will help you to skim a text effectively.
However, keep in mind that you will have to adjust these guidelines to
fit the type of text or material you are reading.
 If the text has a title, read the title first. The title will announce the
subject and may also give you a clue about the author's approach
towards the subject.

 The next thing you have to do is to read the introductory

paragraph. This may provide important background information
and a brief overview of the subject.
 If there are any headings and sub-headings, they are also worth
reading. Headings announce the topic to be discussed.
 The thing you do is to read the first sentences of each paragraph.
Recall our first lesson (in Unit 1, Section 1) where we talked about
topic sentences containing the main ideas in a paragraph. We also
said that it is often the first sentences in a paragraph. If the first
sentence is a transitional sentence (Section 4, Unit 1), then read
the next sentence in the paragraph.
 You also have to read key words and phrases by glancing quickly
through the rest of each paragraph. Pay particular attention to lists,
capitalized or italicized words, boldfaced terms, names, numbers
and dates. Take note of any graphics, that is, maps, charts,
photographs or diagrams.
 Finally, read the last paragraph or summary. It may review the key
points in the text.
Activity 2.2
1. Read the title of the following passage. Predict what this passage is
about:
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
2. Now, skim the sentences in bold print and write down, in your own
words, the information you get from reading only these sentences:
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

The Constitution of the People's Republic Of Mozambique

The Constitution of the People's Republic of Mozambique, unlike
those of other African States, was written entirely by FRELIMO, rather
than by the colonial power. It went into effect on Independence Day.
The Constitution reflects FRELIMO's deep commitment to women's
liberation. Sexual equality is mentioned several times in the text:
Article 7 states that “work is the right and duty of every citizen of either
sex”; Article 29 promises that “men and women enjoy the same rights
and are subject to the same duties,” and Article 30 makes active
participation in defence “the highest duty of every man and woman
citizen.” In what may be a unique constitutional provision Mozambique
declares the emancipation of women as “one of the State's essential
tasks.”
Despite the strong position taken by FRELIMO, there are still some
discriminatory laws in the books. This shortcoming is less serious than
it appears, however, since the judges of the new court system being
established the People's Tribunals and the Labour Commissions
whose job it is to resolve all labour-related conflicts must base their
decisions as much on common sense and political criteria as on the
law inherited from the colonial period that has not yet been repealed or
altered.
Although the Constitution unequivocally advocates equal rights and
responsibilities for men and women in Mozambique, in the first four
years of independence it has been impossible to carry out all the
societal transformations that are necessary pre-requisites to complete
sexual equality. Nevertheless, the Constitution has an important
educational function to play. In order to familiarise the people with all
aspects of their government, basic government and Party documents
are studied in political education classes held weekly throughout the
country. The Constitution, as a basic document, has received careful
study in schools, workplaces, and neighbourhoods. Thus, its message
on the importance of the emancipation of women has been discussed
widely and serves as a model of behaviour to which all citizens must
aspire.

1. Go back and read the full text very fast. Did the heading and the
highlighted sentences alone give you a general idea about what the
passage is about? Yes/No
2. If yes, well done; it means that your predictions in Questions 1 and
2 are correct. If no, write down how much of the information you
missed by reading only the heading and the highlighted parts of the
text:
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………
Scanning for Specific Information

Now that you know how to skim and how essential it is to use the
technique so that precious time is not wasted on reading closely when
it is not necessary to do so, I would like you to look at another reading
technique, namely, scanning.
Scanning involves very rapid reading, but unlike skimming which is
geared towards looking for general meaning, the aim of scanning is to
pick out SPECIFIC INFORMATION as quickly as possible. Therefore,
you will have to skip large portions of the text. You scan, for example,
to find a particular piece of information, or an answer to a particular
question.
You will use this technique if you need to scan the content page of a
book for a particular topic, or find the meaning of a word from a
dictionary. This involves running your eyes down a page. What
happens is that, your eyes ignore all other pieces of information and
focus on just what you are looking for.
Activity 2.4
Scan the passage below and locate the following words and phrases.
accustomed to plodding
indiscriminately
initial impression
Gist

superficially informed
or careful reading
Here are hints to help you. Fix the first key word or phrase in your
mind and run your eyes down the page rapidly until you get to it.
Underline it and repeat the process for the next word or phrase until
you finish. Time yourself to see if you can finish within five minutes.
Passage
The idea that some words in a text may be ignored or skipped will
certainly seem strange to students accustomed to plodding word by
word; but the technique of skimming and scanning require this. These
terms are sometimes used indiscriminately, but we will distinguish
them as follows:
By scanning, we mean glancing rapidly through a text either to search
for a specific piece of information (eg. a name, a date) or to get an
initial impression of whether the text is suitable for a given purpose
(eg. whether a book on gardening deals with the cultivation of a
particular vegetable).
By skimming, on the other hand, we mean glancing rapidly through a
text to determine its gist, for example, in order to decide whether a
research paper is relevant to our own work (not just to determine its
field but, which we can find out by scanning), or in order to keep
ourselves superficially informed about matters that are not of great
importance to us.
The distinction between the two is not particularly important. In both,
the reader is not reading in the normal sense of the word, but is
passing his eyes over the print at a rate which permits him to take in
only, perhaps, the beginnings and ends of paragraphs (where
information is often summarised), chapter headings, subtitles and so
on.
Skimming and scanning are useful skills. They do not remove the
need of careful reading, but they enable the reader to select the texts,
or the portions of a text, that are worth spending time on.
(Source: Christine Nuttal, Teaching reading skills in a foreign
language, 1987)
I hope you were able to do the exercise within five minutes. By now
you would have realised that scanning involves looking for specific
information rather than actual reading. Just as you scan a telephone
directory to locate a particular phone number or your e-

mail address book for a particular address, you can also scan a text to
extract the information you need.
The following guidelines will help you to scan a text effectively.
 If it is an article, check the abstract, and the summary. You can
quickly determine whether the article contains the information you
need.
 Scan the index page(s) and table of contents of books to locate the
exact page of the information you need.
 You also have to scan systematically and not randomly. You need
to follow a particular pattern as you run your eyes through the
reading material. For tables, charts and indexes, use a downward
eye movement. For prose materials, use a Z-pattern thus moving
from left to right and vice versa, moving across several lines of print
at a time.
Activity 2.5
Work very fast throughout this activity.

1. Scan the word per minute chart (WPM) in the Section 1 of this unit
and write down the following.
a. if you had read the passage on 'Bad reading habits' in 2 minutes,
30 seconds (2.30), how many words would you have read per
minute?
b. ………………………………………………………………………
c. If you had read 220 words per minute, in how many minutes would
you have read the passage?
d. ………………………………………………………………………
2. Look for the following words and phrases and state whether you
find them in paragraph 1, 2, 3 and so on.
a. grammatical completeness
……………………………………………………………………
b. Implications
……………………………………………………………………

series of jerks
………………………………………………………………………
Undesirable
………………………………………………………………………
Summary
This section has been devoted to basic techniques which you need to
facilitate faster reading. You should have acquired the skills for
 Skimming for general information
 Scanning for specific information

It is my hope that you will find these skills very useful in your academic
life. In the next section, we will continue to look at another reading
technique, but this time, it is a technique that will help you to read,
understand and recall.

Section 3 ReadingSQ3R/PQ4R Study

Technique
Introduction
Welcome to the third section on reading. In this section, you will learn
to be a more active reader, a reader who becomes engaged and
involved with a text by responding to ideas and by analyzing them.
The section contains a guide to active reading in which you will learn
what to do before, during and after reading to strengthen your
comprehension and increase your recall. You may be probably used to
picking up a textbook and attempting to read it from the first page to
the end, which is what most people do. But there is a better way to
read a book than from the first word through to the last. You have to
read for the purposes of studying. You also need to be an active
reader and not a passive one. In other words, you need to learn how
to read and interact with the text.
When you are reading, you are processing the written material before
you. There are some techniques that can help you achieve this
purpose. I will discuss two of such techniques in this section. These
are SQ3R and PQ4R reading techniques.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to adopt some
techniques to
 Help you get actively involved in what you are reading
 Grasp the meaning of the reading material
What is SQ3R/PQ4R?
SQ3R is an abbreviation for a study technique that involves five steps
in a reading process: Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Revise,
in that order. The PQ4R study technique is a recent improvement on
the SQ3R technique. This is a six (instead of five) step technique. The
additional R stands for Reflection and P stands for Preview. The
abbreviation PQ4R therefore means Preview, Question, Read,
Reflect, Recite and Review. I will discuss the two techniques together
since they are related.

Previewing or Surveying the Text

Introduce yourself to the text you are about to read by surveying the
major topics and sections. Read the introduction, the objectives, (if
there are any), the section headings and subheadings, the summary,
and perhaps the initial sentences of the major sections. Look over
tables, charts, or graphs including the accompanying captions.
Previewing allows you to formulate your own general purpose for
reading each section, whether it is to identify the main idea or to note
the general biases of the author. Note that when it comes to
previewing or surveying a text, you will have to use what you have
learned about skimming and scanning such as reading rapidly. This
should therefore take a few minutes.
Activity 3.1
Preview the following text in about 5 minutes and then answer the
questions that follow it.
Territoriality
Joseph A. DeVito
One of the most interesting concepts in Ethology (the study of animals
in their surroundings) is territoriality. For a example, male animals will
stake out a particular territory and consider it their own. They will allow
prospective males to enter but will defend it against entrance by
others, especially, other males of the same species. Among deer, the
size of territory signifies the power of the buck, which in turn
determines how many females he will mate with. Less powerful bucks
will be able to control only small parcels of land and so will mate with
only one or two females. This is a particularly adaptive measure, since
it ensures that the stronger members will produce most of the
offsprings. When “the landowner” takes possession of an area either
because it is vacant or because he gains it through battle he marks it,
for example, by urinating around the boundaries. The size of the
animal's territory indicates the status of the animal within the herd.
The size and location of human territory also say something about
status (Mehrabian, 1976; Sommer, 1969). An apartment or office in
midtown Manhattan or downtown Tokyo, for example indicates
extremely high status. The cost of the territory restricts it to those who
have lots of money. Status is also signalled by the unwritten law
granting the right of invasion. Higher-status individuals have more of a
right to invade the territory of others than vice versa. The boss of a
large company, for example, can invade the territory of a

junior executive by barging into her or his office, but the reverse will be
unthinkable.
Some researchers claim that territoriality is innate and demonstrates
the innate aggressiveness of humans. Others claim that territoriality is
learned behaviour and is culturally based. Most, however, agree that a
great deal of human behaviour can be understood and described as
territorial, regardless of its origin.
Types of Territories
Primary Territory
Primary territories are your exclusive preserve: your desk, room,
house, or backyard, for example. In these areas you are in control. It's
similar to the home field advantage that a sports team has when
playing in its own ballpark. When you are in these primary areas, you
generally have greater influence over others than you would in
someone else's territory. For example, when in their own home or
office people take on a kind of leadership role; they initiate
conversations, fill in silence, assume relaxed and comfortable
postures, and maintain their positions with greater conviction. Because
the territorial owner is dominant, you stand a better chance of getting
raise, your point accepted, and the contract resolved in your favour if
you are in your own primary territory (Marsh, 1988).
Secondary Territory. Secondary territories, although they do not
belong to you, are associated with you perhaps because you have
occupied them for a long period of time or they have been assigned to
you. For example, your desk in a classroom may be a secondary
territory if it was assigned to you or if you have regularly occupied it
and others treat it as yours. Your neighbourhood turf, a cafeteria table
that you regularly occupy, favourite corner of a local coffee shop may
be secondary territories. You feel a certain ownership-like attachment
to the place although it is really not yours in any legal sense.
Public Territory. Public territories are those areas that are open to all
people: a park, a movie house, restaurant, or beach, for example. The
European café, the food court in a suburban mall, and the public
spaces in large city office buildings are public spaces that, although
established for eating, also serve to bring people together and to
stimulate communication. The electronic revolution, however, may well
change the role of public space in stimulating communication (Drucker
& Gumpert, 1991; Gumpert & Drucker, 1995). For example, home
shopping clubs make it less necessary for people to go shopping
downtown or to the mall, and

consequently they have less opportunity to run into other people and
to talk and to exchange news. Similarly, electronic mail permits
communication without talking and without even going out of one's
home to mail a letter. Perhaps the greatest change is telecommuting
(Giordano 1989), which allows people to work without even leaving
their homes. The face-to-face communication that normally takes
place in an office is replaced by communication via computer.
Territorial Encroachment
Look around your home. You probably see certain territories that
different people have staked out and where invasions are cause for at
least mildly defensive action. This is perhaps seen most clearly with
siblings who each have (or “own”) a specific chair, room, radio, and so
on. Father has his chair and mother has her chair.
In classrooms where seats are not assigned, territoriality can also be
observed. When a student sits in a seat that has normally been
occupied by another student, the regular occupant will often become
disturbed and resentful.
Following Lyman and Scott (1967;DeVito & Hecht, 1990), Table [1]
identifies the three major types of territorial encroachment: violation,
invasion, and contamination.
Table 3.1
Three types of territorial encroachment
Name Definition Example
Violation Unwarranted use of Entering
another’s territory and another’s office
thereby changing the or home without
meaning of that territory permission
Invasion Entering the territory of Parents
another and thereby entering a
changing the meaning teen’s social
of that territory group
Contamination Rendering a territory Smoking a cigar
impure in a kitchen
You can react to encroachment in several ways (Lyman & Scott,

1967; DeVito & Hecht, 1990). The most extreme form is turf defence.
When you cannot tolerate the intruders, you may choose to defend the
territory against them and try to expel them. This is the method of gangs
that defend their streets and neighbourhoods by fighting off members of
rival gangs (intruders) who enter the territory.

A less extreme defence is insulation, a tactic in which you erect some

sort of barrier between yourself and the invaders. Some people do this
by wearing sunglasses to avoid eye contact. Others erect fences to let
others know that they do not welcome interpersonal interaction.
Linguistic collusion, another method of separating yourself from the
unwanted invaders, involves speaking in a language unknown to these
outsiders. Or you might use professional jargon to which they are not
privy. Linguistic collusion groups together those who speak that
language and excludes those who do not know the linguistic code. Still
another type of response is withdrawal; you leave the territory
altogether.
Markers
Much as animals mark their territory, humans mark theirs with three
types of markers: central, boundary, and earmarkers (Hickson &
Stacks, 1993). Central markers are items you place in a territory to
reserve it. For example, you place a drink at the bar, books on your
desk, and a sweater over the chair to let others know that this territory
belongs to you.
Boundary markers set the boundaries that divide your territory from
theirs. In the supermarket checkout line, the bar placed between your
groceries and those of the person behind you is a boundary marker.
Similarly, the armrests separating seats in movie theatres and the
rises on each side of the moulded plastic seats on a bus or train are
boundary markers.
Earmakers a term taken from the practice of branding animals on their
ears are those identifying marks that indicate your possession of a
territory or object. Trademarkers, nameplates, and initials on a shirt or
attaché case are all examples of earmarkers. (Excerpt from
'Human Communication (2000)).
I hope you were able to preview the passage in five minutes. Now
answer the following questions
1. What is the text generally about?
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
2. What are some of the major headings and subheadings?
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
3. What is the table in the text about?
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………

Questioning the Text

The next step before you actually begin reading is to create key
questions you expect your reading to answer because active reading
involves questioning. You need to ask yourself questions about what
you expect to find in a book in general, and in the various chapters.
For example, you might ask yourself the following questions
 what is the major point of this chapter or paragraph?
 what are the important supporting details?
 what evidence does the writer give?
 what concepts, facts, or examples do I need to remember?
If there are questions at the end of the text, use them. If there are no
questions, look at the headings and key terms you have just surveyed
and turn them into questions. If you ask questions before you read a
given text, or a piece of material, they help you concentrate on the
material. They also help you to discover whether or not that particular
material meets your needs. What questioning also does for you is that,
it makes you think and therefore indirectly helps your reading. If your
mind is actively looking for answers to questions, which are important
to you, you will see them (the answers) if they are there in the text.
The idea of questioning a text before reading it eventually allows you
to get more out of the text.
Activity 3.2
Go back to the text 'Territoriality' and ask key questions that may guide
your reading by turning the major subheadings into questions.
1. …………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………………
Reading the Text

Reading is the third stage of active reading. What you have done in
the two stages preceding this is to activate your mind for efficient
reading. At this stage, read through the material with full concentration
so that you can find answers to the questions you have been asked in
the previous stage. Pay attention to the main ideas, supporting details,
and other data in keeping with your purposes. It is at the reading stage
that speed can be varied. You may have to adjust your reading speed
to suit the difficulty of the material and your purpose in reading.

Reflecting on What you Have Read

This is the additional R in PQ4R that is not found in SQ3R. It stands
for Reflection.
While you are reading, try to think of examples or create images of the
material. Elaborate and try to make connection between what you are
reading and what you already know.
Reciting Information from the Given Text

After reading each section, sit back and think about your initial
purposes and questions. Can you answer the questions without
looking at the book? This is the stage where you try to recall what the
text is about or try to recall the answers to the questions you have
asked. When reciting, you should form in your own words, the answers
to the questions. You should also not attempt to repeat the author's
words. Try as much as possible to use your own words.
Reviewing
Finally, after you have completed all the five steps, look over your
notes to get a clear picture of what you have read. Effective review
incorporates new material more thoroughly into your long-term
memory. Re-reading is one form of review, but trying to answer key
questions without referring to the book is the best way. Wrong answers
can direct you to areas that need more study.
Activity 3.3
Use the SQ3R or PQ4R study technique to read the entire text on
'Territoriality' and then answer the following questions:
Describe the three types of territories that the writer identifies in the
text.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………

2. What are the three types of territorial encroachments that are

described in the table?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
3. In what ways do humans react to territorial encroachment?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
4. Discuss an example of secondary territoriality that you have
observed or experienced.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………
Summary
In this section, you have learned to be a more active reader. I have
introduced you to the SQ3R and the PQ4R study techniques to help
you know the organisation of a text so that you can easily recall what
you read. If you use these techniques effectively, you will achieve a
great deal in your reading and the load will no longer be so
burdensome. As you improve your ability to read and respond
thoroughly and carefully to what you are reading, you will begin to
learn more about what you read. In the next section, I will continue to
give some more lessons on reading.
Bye for now.

Section 4 Reading for General Information

Introduction
We have already noted and learned that reading is an intensive
activity that has several purposes. Reading involves comprehension
and evaluation. Firstly, you must know what the author is saying; that
is the general information. Secondly, you read critically to interpret and
respond to what the author means. In this section you will learn how
to read to determine the general information in a given text. This will
help you to be able to answer factual questions about the reading. In
other words, you will be able to tell what the writer is saying. For
instance you need to know how to read for general information to be
able to read your mails, news, TV programmes and schedules.
In the introduction to this unit, I drew your attention to the various
reasons why we read. In this section I will teach you how to read for
general information.
Comparison and Contrast

Introduction
Welcome to another section. The pattern of paragraph development
you are about to study in this section is called Comparison and
Contrast. We all have a wealth of experience with comparing and
contrasting, as we use these skills daily. Comparison and contrast are
two thought-processes we go through constantly in our everyday lives.
When you compare two things, you show how they are similar and
when you contrast two things, you show how different they are. You
may want to compare Amstel Malt and Malta Guinness, Areeba and
Onetouch, two of your courses, or even two friends. The purpose of
clearly and perhaps to make a judgement about them.
I hope you'll find this section interesting and useful.

Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to read in order to
determine the general idea in a text by
 Determining the topic of the text
 Determining the author's main idea
 Identifying supporting details, and
 Recognizing the author's writing pattern
These steps will help you read for general information.
Determining the Topic

In reading a text for general information, first and foremost you need to
identify the topic. Ask yourself who or what that text is about. This
topic can be a word (e.g. food), a phrase (e.g. distance education) or a
name (e.g. Accra). In some textbooks, the topic is referred to as
subject or subject matter. There are clues that can help you identify
the topic in what you are reading. For example, it may appear as the
heading or title. It may be highlighted in the text (e.g. it may be written
in bold, underlined or italicised). The topic may also be repeated a
number of times in the text. It may also appear only once in text and
then be referred to by pronouns throughout the text. You can find
examples of these strategies in some of the passages in Unit 1 (e.g. in
the passage of different types of cooks in Section 1 of that unit, the
word cook was repeated many times).
Determining the Stated Main Idea

Every written text has some main idea that the author presents about
The topic. This main idea is usually presented in a sentence within the
text and this sentence expresses the most important point the author
wants the reader to know or understand about the topic of the text.
The word main means 'most important' therefore there can be only
one main idea. Being able to determine the stated main idea will
increase your comprehension of the text. Since the stated main idea is
one of the sentences in the text, your task then is to be able to identify
this sentence. Look for the sentence that contains both the topic and
the most important point about it. You can do this by asking yourself
the following two questions: Who or what is the passage about? and
What is the most important point the author wants me to
understand

about this topic? You will then search for the sentence that answers
these two questions.
As you have already learned in paragraph writing, the main idea of a
paragraph is normally expressed in a sentence called a topic
sentence. In reading single paragraph texts therefore you may find it
easier to identify the stated main idea since most paragraphs are
usually composed by writing the topic sentence first followed by
supporting sentences. Let us look at this example:
When actually meeting in the forest, tigers have ways of

communicating. When they approach each other on the trail
for example, or when a tigress returns to her cubs, they greet
each other by touching cheeks and even rubbing the whole
side of their bodies against each other. The same expression
of friendliness is shown by a house cat when it rubs itself
against the leg of a person. Just before this greeting, the tiger
often makes a soft puffing sound as it blows air several times
out of its mouth and nostrils. This also shows friendliness. If a
person at a zoo makes this sound in front of a tiger cage, the
cat may reply and approach the bars. (From The Tiger: Its
Life in the Wild)
Here the topic sentence in italics is placed at the beginning. The topic
sentence states a fact that tigers have their own ways of
communicating. The subsequent sentences are related to the topic
sentence because they show ways of communicating friendliness. In
this type of paragraph, where the topic comes first, it is relatively easy
to determine the topic under discussion and its stated main idea.
Sometimes topic sentences are not placed at the beginning of
paragraphs. It may therefore not be that easy to determine the stated
main idea of such paragraphs. You may have to read closely to
determine the main idea of the paragraph. Let us now look at another
type of paragraph together and determine the stated main idea.
However, visibility is not the only principle in advertising. It's simply

the first. A second and perhaps more subtle principle is identity. The
manufacturers attempt to lure the consumer into buying a
product by linking it to a concept with which the consumer can
identity. For instance, Boundaries perfume is advertised on
television as the choice of 'independent women'. Since independent
women are admired in our culture, women identify with the concept
and therefore are attracted to the

perfume. Once the consumer identifies with the product, a sale is

more likely to occur. (Mcwhorter 2003, Successful College Writing)
The writer started the paragraph by alerting the reader that an earlier
principle mentioned about advertising, (i.e. visibility) is not the only
one. In the second sentence, he stated that that principle is only the
first. These are transitional sentences that we discussed in Unit 1,
Section 4. It is in the third sentence that the writer introduced this new
principle identity. In other words, it is this sentence which introduces
the topic. The fourth sentence then introduced the main idea of the
paragraph, that is 'manufacturers attempt to lure the consumer into
buying a product by linking it to a concept with which the consumer
can identify with'. It is now time to do an activity.
Activity 4.1
Read the following paragraph carefully and determine which

sentence contains the stated main idea about the topic
When members of a dominant culture become suspicious of
subcultures and seek to isolate or assimilate them, it is often because
the members of the dominant culture are making value judgments
about the beliefs and practices of the subordinate groups. Most Anglo-
Americans, for instance see the extensive family obligations of
Hispanics as a burdensome arrangement that inhibits individual
freedom. Hispanics in contrast, view the isolated nuclear family of
Anglo-Americans as a lonely institution that cuts people off from the
love and assistance of their kin. This tendency to view one's own
cultural patterns as good and right and those of others as strange or
even immoral is called ethnocentrism. (Cortina J. & Elder J., 1998,
Open doors: Understanding college reading)
a. What is the topic of the above paragraph?
……………………………………………………………………………
b. What is the stated main idea of the paragraph?
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

c. Which sentence contains the stated main idea?

…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
I hope you were able to answer the above questions. If you were, then
congratulations. If not, then let us analyse the paragraph together. The
topic of the above paragraph is ethnocentrism which is written in bold
print by the author. This word is found only in the last sentence of the
paragraph and therefore that sentence contains the stated main idea
which states that ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one’s own
way of living and doing things as better than that of others.
The writer began the paragraph by giving the reader some explanation
of the issue. He then went ahead to give some specific examples
before giving us his main point of the paragraph. You can see from the
above three examples that the stated main idea can be found
anywhere in the paragraph. So far, we have been looking at single
paragraph texts since the paragraph is the core of every piece of
writing as you have already learned. However, being able to determine
the stated main idea in a text is a skill that you can also apply to longer
texts such as essays, articles, sections of textbooks or chapters. By
using the above skills you will discover a sentence in a longer text
sometimes in the introductory paragraph or the concluding paragraph
that expresses the most important point about the entire text. To be
sure you have been able to identify the stated main idea sentence, ask
yourself whether the sentence contains the topic. Secondly, make sure
that the sentence is general enough to summarize all the information
provided in the text. The sentence must make a complete sense by
itself so that you can understand it even without reading the remaining
sentences in the text.
Sometimes the main idea is not stated but implied throughout the text.
An example is the passage below.
Estevanico was born in Azamor, Morroco, probably before
1500. Spanish soldiers captured him during an attack on
that city in1513, and he became the slave of Don Andres
Dorantes de Carranza, a nobleman of Castile. Except for
his size and strength, there was little in his appearance to
set him apart from other slaves. Yet, his courage and
ability enabled him to become the first man of African
birth whose name is known to American history. A
member of the first party to cross the wide part of the North
American continent, he discovered Arizona and is
remembered as one of the great adventurers of all time.
(From The Odyssey of Estevanico)

In the above example we do not have a clear topic sentence that will
enable us to determine the topic under discussion. We may guess that
the story is about Estavanico but the next question is what about him?
Now we have to find key words in the extract to help us determine
what the paragraph says about him. We can use the words written in
italics to do this. These words help us to identify the main idea which is
that Estevanico, who was an African slave, discovered Arizona.
This is an instance where the main idea is not stated but implied.
Identifying Supporting Details

As you have already learned, in paragraph writing, in addition to the
topic sentence which states the most important idea in a paragraph,
there are other sentences as well which are referred to as supporting
details. Therefore, in every text, in addition to the stated main idea
sentence, there are other sentences that provide additional
information that helps us to understand the main idea completely.
These sentences may include descriptions, definitions, statistics,
names, places, dates or other information that further explains or
illustrates the main idea. Identifying these sentences is also important
to the understanding of any given text. Supporting details also help to
convey the main idea of a text when it is implied (i.e. not directly
stated).
In order to identify supporting details of a paragraph, you need to look
for and find out detailed information that the writer has provided to
elaborate more on the main idea. You can do this by turning the stated
main idea into a question, using words such as who, what, where,
why, how, and when. For example, in the paragraph above where we
have the stated main idea that says tigers have ways of
communicating, you can ask a question such as How do tigers
communicate? This question will lead you to the details that describe
how tigers communicate with each other. Supporting details are often
introduced by sign posts (transitional words) such as first, second,
also, in addition, moreover, for example, and so on.
It's time for another activity.
Activity 4.2
In the following paragraph, originally taken from a health textbook, the

topic is Water but the main idea is implied. Read the paragraph and
answer the questions that follow it.

Water
Like fiber, water has no nutritional value, yet is a very important food
component. It is used to transport nutrients to the cells and to remove
cellular waste products. In addition, it acts as a medium for digestion,
regulates body temperature, and helps cushion the vital organs. An
inadequate water intake will restrict the functions of all body systems.
Finally, water and some of the chemicals it carries are responsible for
bodily structure since, on average, 60 percent of the body is water.
(From: Cortina J. & Elder J., 1998, Open doors: Understanding college
reading)
1. What is the implied main idea?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
2. Turn this main idea into a question and write it down.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………
3. List all the details that answer the question that you have asked in
question (2) above. Write only a sentence for each detail.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………
In longer passages where the stated main idea sentence comes in the
introduction or concluding paragraphs, the writers develop the
supporting details in the subsequent paragraphs (if the main idea is
stated in the introductory paragraph) or the previous paragraphs (if the
main idea is stated in the concluding paragraph). Each paragraph will
then discuss a major supporting detail.
Recognizing the Author's Writing Pattern

Writing patterns are ways in which authors organise information in a
logical manner in both paragraphs and longer texts. These are referred
to as methods of development. I have discussed these patterns of
development extensively in Unit 2. It is important to recognise the
author's pattern of development. This helps you to

think along with the author as you read the text and it makes it easier
for you to understand the text. Secondly, you can also make
predictions about what may come next in the development of the text.
In addition, when you are able to recognise an author's pattern of
development, you can memorize and retain information more
efficiently. In longer passages, authors frequently use two or more of
the patterns at the same time.
Summary
In this section, I took you through the skills that you need to read for
general information. In other words you have learned how to read a
text and to get the general and factual meaning of the text by first of
all, identifying the topic of the text, being able to identify the stated or
implied main idea and its supporting details, and finally, recognizing
the author's pattern of development or the logical order in which the
author organized the information presented in the text. These skills will
also help your comprehension of a reading material so that you can
answer factual questions about it. I hope you have found the lesson
useful.
In the next section, I will teach you how to read texts critically so that
you can react to the information that is presented. Bye and see you
soon.

Section 5 Critical Reading

Introduction
Welcome to the last but one section of this Unit on reading. Soon, you
would have acquired all the necessary skills that you need to enable
you to cope with reading at the undergraduate level. This section
looks beyond reading for general or factual knowledge to thinking
critically about what you read. Whenever you read, it is important for
you to be able to identify basic information such as the topic, main
idea, and the supporting details but to gain greater understanding, you
need to go beyond these basic elements and think critically about
what you have read. Why is it necessary to think critically rather than
just accept the author's information? I will answer this question in this
section. It is important that you are able to get the author's implied and
non-literal meanings in addition to literal (stated) meanings.
Furthermore, thinking critically will not only help you when you read,
but it will also help you when you write. This is because you will be
able to apply what you have read well into your own writing.
Thinking critically and evaluating what you read can also help you in
real life situations, even if not for academic purposes. For example
failing to think critically about what you read can result in you
accepting a job that is ill-suited for you, signing a contract or a credit
agreement that you do not fully understand, or being misled or
defrauded. These are therefore useful lessons that you need, so enjoy
the lesson as you read along with me.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to think critically about
what you read by applying certain reading and thinking skills to
 Distinguishing facts from opinion
 Making inferences
 Synthesizing information
These will help you evaluate the information that is being presented to
you so that you can recognise the writer's ideas and watch out for
opinions, bias, generalisations and assumptions.

Distinguishing Facts from Opinion

Regardless of what you are reading, it is important to make a
distinction between facts and opinions. Mistakenly, many people
believe that anything that appears in print, especially textbooks and
magazines, must be a fact. Although most textbooks largely contain
facts, some also include opinions. What then is the difference between
fact and opinion? Facts are statements that can be proven to be either
true or false; something that can be proved to have happened or to
exist. They must be verified by evidence. The following sentences are
all examples of facts.
 The planet Earth has six times the volume of Mars.
 Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was the first president of Ghana.
 Many vitamin-fortified and enriched foods are now available in
super markets.
Facts can also be something that is generally assumed to exist or to
have existed. They are considered reliable if they are taken from a
reputable source including books, newspapers, and magazines or can
be verified through experiments, research, observation, or direct
experience.
Opinions on the other hand, are statements that reveal beliefs or
feelings that are neither true nor false. Opinions cannot be proved or
disproved. They are not always based on facts and should be
evaluated carefully. Here are some examples of opinions.
 Dr. Kwame Nkrumah was the best president Ghana has ever had.
 The current government should step down for mismanaging the
energy crisis.
 Trees grown in tropical forests provide better commercial-grade
wood than those grown elsewhere.
It is important to know that although opinions cannot be proved, they

can be supported by valid reasons and plausible evidence. However,
before accepting someone's opinion, try to consider the evidence used
to support it and figure out whether it is reasonable. Well-supported
opinions are useful since they are based on facts or on the ideas of
experts in a particular field. Expert opinions are special types of
opinions since they are attitudes or beliefs that are expressed by
authorities on the particular topic. Opinions in textbooks are typical
examples of valuable opinion since they are the well-reasoned beliefs
of the author(s) or other experts.

Scientific theories are also examples of 'expert opinions' if the theory

could be proven. In that case, it becomes a fact. Opinions that are not
supported or are poorly supported are not useful. When authors are
presenting an opinion, they often alert their readers by using certain
words and phrases. Look for signals like these when you read:
as I see it in my opinion in my view
it is probable possibly some experts
believe
supposedly this seems to indicate perhaps
apparently presumably one possibility is
one interpretation is this suggests in our view
In addition are descriptive words that indicate value judgement such
as:
better more less
safer most greatest
worst best excellent
harmful interesting beautiful
incompetent irresponsible fascinating
As a critical reader, you should always ask yourself whether the
information the author presents can be proven or whether it represents
a judgement. When you come across opinions, it is important for you
to evaluate them because not all opinions are valid. If the opinion is
poorly supported, then it is not valid. On the other hand, a well
supported opinion can be as important and as useful as a fact. For
example, consider the following two sets of support for the statement:
Anna Garcia has excellent qualifications for serving as governor.
Set 1
She has a law degree from Harvard. (fact)
She was chief legal counsel of a Fortune 500 company for six years. (Fact)

She served 12 years as a state senator. (fact)

She is extremely ethical. (opinion)
She is strongly committed to family values. (opinion)
She is an effective problem solver. (opinion)
Set 2
Her father served as an ambassador. (fact)
Her brother is a millionaire. (fact)
She has been married to the same man for 20 years. (fact)
She has smart beautiful children. (opinion)
She is attractive. (opinion)
She comes across well on TV. (opinion)
(Source: Cortina & Elder, 2002:474-475).
The statement -Anna Garcia has excellent qualifications for serving as
governor- itself is an opinion because of the word 'excellent' in it. In the
two sets of support, both facts and opinions are used but there is a
difference between the quality of the two sets of facts and opinions.
The first set of supports for the statement provides good reasons that
are convincing while the second set of supports for the statement is
poor and does not explain why she will be 'excellent' in serving as a
governor. As a critical reader, you must therefore evaluate information
to determine whether it is a fact or an opinion. If it is an opinion, find
out whether the opinion is supported with valid facts and/or well-
reasoned and convincing opinions.
Now I would like you to try your hands on the following activity.
Activity 5.1
Label each of the following statements as fact (F), opinion (O), or

expert opinion (EO)
1. Most medical experts recommend that women age forty and older
should have a mammogram once every one or two years.
………………………………………………………………………..

2. Mountain Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa.

………………………………………………………………………..
3. Climbing Kilimanjaro is an interesting adventure.
…………………………………………………………………………
4. About half the Ghanaian population live in cities.
………………………………………………………………………….
5. Many business leaders believe that it is important to hire people
who love their work. ………………………….. ……………………..
6. According to child psychologists Gerber and Gerber, children who
watch television shows that depict crime consider the world more
dangerous than those who do not watch crime shows.
…………………………………………………………………………
Identifying Generalisations (as a Function of Critical

Reading)
A generalisation is a statement about a large group of items based
on experience with or observation of only a limited part of that group.
For example, if you often saw pregnant women in your village drinking
herbal medicine instead of going for antenatal, you might make the
generalisation that the pregnant women in this village prefer herbal
medicine to going for antenatal. This generalisation cannot be relied
on until each pregnant woman in the village is observed. The following
sentences are generalisations.
 Children who study at home do not interact socially with other
children their own age.
 Banks in this country now provide basic customer services.
 Big companies are laying off great proportions of their workforce
due to the energy crises.
A writer's generalisation represents his or her interpretation of a
particular set of facts. If generalisations are backed up by experience
or sufficient evidence, or by an expert in that particular field, then they
may be trustworthy. Generalisations that are not supported by
convincing evidence, or that are made by non-experts, should be
analyzed carefully.

Making Inferences and Drawing Conclusions

Thinking critically as you read also involves understanding what the
writer suggests. In other words, critical thinking involves making
inferences and drawing conclusions. An inference is a logical
conclusion that a reader draws from the information that a writer
presents. It goes beyond what the writer has stated directly but it must
be based on what the writer says. A conclusion is the decision that
you reach after you have thoughtfully considered the information that a
writer presents.
Making an inference is not a new thing. It is something that you do
daily. You have also been drawing many conclusions based on
descriptions, opinions, facts, observations and experiences.
Supposing you meet a young man in town with some envelopes in his
hand and he asks you for the direction to the post office, it will be
logical for you to infer that he wants to post some mails and your
inference will be based on your observation.
As you have learned in Section 4 of this unit, when authors suggest a
main idea but do not state it directly, they are implying it. You have to
be able to make inferences to be able to determine implied main ideas
in texts. When you read, ask yourself, What logical conclusions can
be based on what the author has stated? To make an inference,
you have to deduce an author's meaning. In other words, you must
use the evidence and facts the author has provided to arrive at the
inference the author intended them for. As a reader, you must make a
connection between what a writer says and the conclusion the writer
wants you to draw. For example, an article in a health magazine may
describe the benefits of healthy eating but the writer may not state
directly that you should be conscious of what and when to eat
because it will benefit you. Once again I want you to try your hands on
the following activity.
Read the following text on Passive smoking
Reports from the U.S. surgeon general's office suggest that
tobacco smoke in enclosed indoor areas is an important air
pollution problem. This has led to the controversy about
passive smoking the breathing in of air polluted by the
second-hand tobacco smoke of others. Carbon monoxide
levels of side-stream smoke (smoke from the burning end of
cigarette) reach a dangerously high level. True, the smoke
can be greatly diluted in freely circulating air, but the 1 to 5
percent carbon monoxide levels attained in smoke-filled
rooms can be sufficient to harm the health of people with
chronic bronchitis, other lung disease, or cardiovascular
disease. (Source: Cortina & Elder, 1998:389)
129
Write in the space provided below, the inference that you think the
author wants you to draw.
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
I hope it was not too difficult to do. To sum up, when you read, ask
yourself about what the author is trying to infer and what logical
conclusions can be drawn from those inferences.
Synthesizing Information
The word synthesis is formed from the prefix syn-, which means
'together' and thesis, which means main or central point. Synthesis,
then, means 'a pulling together of information to form a new idea or
point.' Synthesis involves putting together the ideas presented in a
text to see how they agree, disagree, or otherwise related to one
another. After reading a text, and understanding the information
presented, ask yourself the following questions: Does the information
reinforce or explain what I already know? Does it contradict what
I already know? Are their claims and arguments facts or opinions
and are they valid reasoning? To be able to synthesise information
well, the study technique that you learned in Section 3 of this Unit will
be very useful.
Summary
We have come to the end of another section. In this section, we looked
beyond reading for general information to thinking critically about what
you read. I taught you how to distinguish facts from opinions, make
inferences based on what you have read, identify generalisations and
assumptions, and synthesize information you have read with regard to
what you already know. I mentioned that it is important for you to be
able to get the author's implied and non-literal meanings in addition to
literal (or stated) meanings.
The skills you have acquired in this section will help you to critically
evaluate any information that is presented to you so that you can make
valid judgements.

Section 6 Vocabulary
Introduction
You are most welcome to the last section of this Unit on reading
techniques. As a university student, you need to develop a strong
base of vocabulary. The Longman Active Study Dictionary defines
vocabulary as 'all the words that someone knows or uses'. Every time
you read, you have an opportunity to expand your vocabulary.
Therefore the more you read, the better your vocabulary will become.
When writing, writers are careful in selecting words that convey exactly
what they want to say so you have to understand the words to be able
to comprehend reading materials. It is therefore important for you to
pay attention to new words and add them to your vocabulary. In this
section you will learn how to develop vocabulary.
Objectives
By the end of this section, you should be able to develop and expand
your vocabulary by using:
 Words in context
 Word structure clues
 Connotative meaning
 Figure language
I believe the skills you are about to learn will help you expand on your
vocabulary.
Vocabulary in Context/Using Context Clues

Context refers to the sentence and paragraph in which a word
appears. When writers write books, articles, essays and others, they
do so for people to read and understand what they have written. When
they use words that they think may be unfamiliar to the reader, they
often help by offering various clues in the sentence to help the reader
deduce the meaning of the word. Such clues are called context clues.
When you are reading and you come across an unfamiliar word, read
the sentence carefully and pay attention to the words and other
sentences surrounding the unfamiliar word. Some of the common
types of context clues are illustrated in the table below.

Types of What to look for Examples

clue
Definition Look for phrases that introduce Anorexia nervosa, an
clue definitions such as: is defined as, eating disorder that
is, is called, is known as, that can lead to
refers to, means, or a term that is starvation, occurs
in bold print or italics. Sometimes, most often in
writers also use punctuations such teenage girls.
as: comma (,), parentheses (()),
brackets ([ ]), dash (-) or colon (:).
Synonym Look for phrases that introduce Intrasentential
clue synonyms such as: in other words, codeswitching, also
that is to say, by this we mean, known as
that is, also known as, and or. The codemixing, is a
synonyms may also be set apart familiar medium of
by the punctuations mentioned communication
above. among educated
Ghanaians.
Contrast Look for words and phrases that Polygamists, unlike
clue introduce opposites in meaning such monogamists, marry
as: but, on the other hand, unlike, more than one
even though, although, however, woman.
in contrast, and instead of
Example Look for words that introduce The increasing usage
clue examples to illustrate the meaning of clutters (e.g. at this
of the unfamiliar word such as: for moment in time,
example (or e.g.), such as, to instead of now) is, in
illustrate, etc. my opinion, an
indication that we are
progressively falling
victim to ‘verbal
diarrhoea’.
Clue from Look for information in other Plagiarism can never
another sentences from the same be countenanced in
sentence paragraph that may help in our academic
understanding the meaning of the discourse
unfamiliar word. community! We will
lose our zeal to work
hard if we allow
people to copy our
works with impunity.

Activity 6.1
Read each of the following sentences and guess the meaning of the
italicized words from the context and write it down.
Example
After her run, Anna's cheeks were as ruddy as two apples.
Ruddy means bright red
1. Staying up late, eating junk food, and not getting enough exercise
are all detrimental to your health.
………………………………………………………………………
2. Joann was indignant when she found out that the context rules
have been changed secretly.
………………………………………………………………………
3. The madrigal, a song for several voices, was popular during
Shakespeare's time.
…………………………………………………………………………
4. The agreement was tentative, so it was labelled subject to change.
…………………………………………………………………………
5. For her flippant answer, Ama was sent to the principal and told to
be more respectful in class.
…………………………………………………………………………
6. Because they lose their leaves, deciduous treses, such as oaks and
elms, are used less in landscaping than evergreens.
………………………………………………………………………….
7. The floatsam, or parts of the wrecked ship, drifted in the ocean for
days.

…………………………………………………………………………
8. Sitting in class after lunch on a hot day makes me so lethargic that I
can't do any work.
………………………………………………………………………
9. Rosa is usually gregarious, but at the party she sat by herself and
didn't talk to anyone.
………………………………………………………………………
10. We asked Mr. Garcia to give us an extra day to finish the report,
but he was adamant about the deadline.
…………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
Word Structure Clues

Another technique that you can also use to understand vocabulary is
word-structure-clues. In other words, parts of a word can give you a
clue to discover the meaning of a word. Words can be divided into
three major parts; that is the root, the prefix and the suffix. Suffixes
and prefixes are together called affixes since they are fixed to a root of
a word. The root of a word is the base that has a meaning of its own.
Prefixes are attached to the beginning of the root which also adds its
own meaning to the meaning of the root, and suffixes are word parts
that are added to the end of the root, and this also may have its
meaning. For example in the word uncomfortable, the root is
comfort, the prefix is un and able is the suffix.
Roots are very important in vocabulary building because once you
understand the root it becomes easier for you to deduce the meaning
of words that have the same root plus some affix. For example, if you
know that the root govern means 'to legally control people or a
country', then you can easily understand government (a group of
people who are responsible for controlling a country, a state or an
organisation), governance (the activity of controlling a country or an
organisation), governmental (something that is connected to
government), and governor (the person who is the official head of a
country, or a group of people). Another root word graph meaning
'write' in addition to different affixes will also give us autograph (a
famous person's signature), graphic (something connected to
drawings and designs), seismograph (an instrument that measures
and records information about earthquakes).

As I mentioned earlier, prefixes are words that are added to the

beginning of a root of a word. The root meaning of a word changes
once a prefix is added to it because the prefix adds its own meaning to
the base of the word which is its root. For example adding the prefix
de and re to the following word activate will give us the words
reactivate (to make something start working or happening again after
a period of time) and deactivate (to make something such as a device
or a chemical process stop working). Adding the prefixes re (back) or
pre (before) to the same root cede (to go or to move) will give us
precede meaning go before someone or something and recede
meaning move back. These prefixes add their own meaning to the
root word and therefore yield words with different meanings.
Suffixes on the other hand are attached to the end of root words.
Suffixes unlike prefixes do not always add their own meaning to the
root of words. Some suffixes add their own meaning to the root of
words. For instance the suffix cide means killing and it helps us
understand homicide (killing somebody deliberately), suicide (killing
oneself deliberately), and fratricide (killing of a brother). Other suffixes
change the inflection of the word. For example the addition of the
suffix -s changes some nouns to plural and -ed makes a verb past
tense. Other suffixes change the word's part of speech (that is whether
the word is an adjective, adverb, verb, noun etc) completely. For
example adding the suffix ment to the following verbs; adjourn, treat
and amaze will change their parts of speech into the nouns
adjournment, treatment and amazement respectively. In addition,
many suffixes have similar or even the same meanings. For example
the suffixes -ful, -al, and- ic change nouns into adjectives. Suffixes are
therefore not as helpful as prefixes in determining the meaning of
unfamiliar words in context. The following table shows some common
prefixes and suffixes and their meaning.

Prefix Meaning Suffix Meaning

anti- Against -al having to do with
co- With or together -ish like, similar to
dis- Not -ful full of
il- Not -able able to
im- Not -er one who
In Not -or one who
Mis Wrong -ess one who (female)
pre- Before, in advance -fy to make or to
become
re- Again -less Without
un- Not -ly in a certain way
When you add a prefix to a root word to make a new word, the spelling
does not change. When you add a suffix to a root word, however, the
spelling may change. Now try the following activities.
Activity 6.2
A. By adding the correct prefix from the table above, make each of
the following group of words into one word.
1. against slavery …………………………………………….
2. not loyal …………………………………………….
3. exist together …………………………………………….
4. play in advance …………………………………………….
5. not legal ……………………………………………
6. lead in the wrong direction ………………………………..
7. not sufficient …………………………………………….
8. cycle again …………………………………………….
9. not impossible ……………………………………………..
10. not selfish ……………………………………………..
B. From the list of suffixes in the table above, select a suffix to change
each phrase in the parenthesis into a single word.

1. That morning the water was a pale (like green) gray.

2. Elena read her brother a (full of fancy) story about and his pet
elephant.
3. The weather in the mountain is very (able to change).
4. Mr Tamaklo's (one who helps) was late every morning.
5. The (ones who act) in the film The Black Stallion did an excellent
job.
6. The delicate crystal requires (with care) handling.
7. Having a temper tantrum seems a (similar to a child) thing to do.
8. Lady Bird Johnson worked to (make beautiful) the highways.
9. Because its owners were (without care), the dog ran into the road
and was killed.
10. A pair of jeans would certainly be (able to suit) dress for a picnic.
Connotative Meaning
Words have both denotative and connotative meanings. The
dictionary definition of a word; that is its literal or explicit meaning is its
denotation. For example, the denotative meaning of the word mother
is 'female parent'. A connotative meaning of a word is its additional
non-literal meaning associated with it. In other words, it is the attitudes
and the emotions that are associated with a word. For instance a
common connotative meaning of the same word mother, is 'a warm
and a caring person'. It is the connotative meaning of words that
makes a writer choose one word instead of the other to describe
someone or something because though both words may denote or
refer to the same object or quality, they connote ( that is suggest or
imply) different attitudes. For example, a writer may choose to
express the presence of Nigerian banks in Ghana now as the influx
of Nigerian banks in the banking sector or the invasion of
Nigerian banks into the banking sector depending on how the writer
feels about the situation. A connotative meaning can either be positive
or negative as illustrated below.

Positive Negative Meaning

Artificial Fake Something that is not natural
Firm Stubborn Someone who is determined not to
change his or her attitude or opinion
Detective Spy A person who tries to get secret
information about another country, an
organisation or a person
Lasting Endless Something that goes on for a long time
When you are reading and you come across unfamiliar words, you
need to find out whether the word has both denotative as well as
connotative meanings and whether its connotative meaning is positive
or negative.
Activity 6.3
Describe the different connotations of the two words in each group of

words.
crowd /mob
proverb/saying
prudent/frugal
token/gift
show/expose
Figurative Language
A language is described as figurative when writers use imagery, that
is, unusual comparisons or certain words that create pictures and
images in the mind of readers. It is also sometimes referred to as
figure of speech. Figurative language is sometimes difficult to
understand because they do not literally mean what the words say.
The reader therefore needs to interpret their meaning. There are
three common figures of speech. These are: simile, metaphor,
personification. Let me explain each of these briefly.

Similes
Similes and metaphors both make unusual comparisons. A simile is a
comparison between two things that are not similar. It is usually
introduced by the words as and like. That child is as aggressive as
tiger and My father's moustache is like a housepainter's brush
are two examples of similes. In these sentences, two dissimilar things
are compared.
Metaphor
A metaphor also makes a comparison of unlike things, but a metaphor
does not use the words like or as. The comparison is implied. It
usually states that one thing is something else. The writer assumes
the reader will not take his or her words literally but will understand the
comparison that is being drawn. For example in the sentence, The
students snaked down the hill and around bends waiting to be
registered, the writer makes a comparison between the queue that
the students had formed and a snake to help the reader picture in his
or her mind, how long and winding the queue was. The author does
not mean that the students became a snake.
Personification
Personification describes an idea or object by giving it human qualities
or characteristics. For example, in the sentence My aunt's old
refrigerator groaned and coughed throughout the night, human
attributes are given to a refrigerator to suggest that it made strange
noises throughout the night (probably that made the writer unable to
sleep). Refrigerators cannot groan or cough as humans do.
When reading texts, therefore, find out whether the writer uses
figurative language to compare things and also what things are being
compared. If you are able to understand figurative language, you will
be able to understand the messages that authors present in their
works and you will find materials more interesting and enjoyable to
read.
Assignment 3
Read the following passage carefully and answer all the questions.

Clutter
Fighting clutter is like fighting weeds the writer is always slightly
behind. New varieties sprout overnight, and by noon they are part of
American speech. Consider what President Nixon's aide John Dean
accomplished in just one day of testimony on TV during the Watergate
hearings. The next day everyone in American was saying at this
point in time instead of now.
Consider all the prepositions that are draped onto verbs that don't
need any help. We no longer head committees. We head them up. We
don't face problems anymore. We face up to them when we can free
up a few minutes. A small detail, you may say not worth bothering
about. It is worth bothering about. Writing improves in direct ratio to
the number of things we can keep out of it that shouldn't be there. Up
in free up shouldn't be there. To write clean English you must
examine every word you put on paper. You'll find a surprising number
that don't serve any purpose.
Take the adjective personal, as in a personal friend of mine, his
personal feeling or her personal physician. It's typical of hundreds
of words that can be eliminated. The personal friend has come into
the language to distinguish him or her from the business friend,
thereby debasing both language and friendship. Someone's feeling is
that person's personal feeling that's what “his” and “her” mean. As for
the personal physician, that's the man or woman summoned to the
dressing room of a stricken actress so she won't have to be treated by
the impersonal physician assigned to the theatre. Someday I'd like to
see that person identified as her doctor. Physicians are physicians,
friends are friends. The rest is clutter.
Clutter is the laborious phrase that has pushed out the short word that
means the same thing. Even before John Dean, people had stopped
saying now. They were saying currently, or at the present time, or
presently (which means soon). Yet the idea can always be
expressed by now to mean the immediate moment (Now I can see
him), or by today to mean the historical present (Today prices are
high), or simply by a form of the verb to be. It is raining). There's no
need to say, At the present time we are experiencing precipitation.
Speaking of which, we are experiencing considerable difficulty getting
that word out of the language. Even your dentist will ask if you are
experiencing any pain. If he had his own kid in the chair he would say,
Does it hurt? He would, in short, be himself. By using a more
pompous phrase in his professional role, he not only sounds more
important; he blunts the painful edge of truth. It's the language of the
flight attendant demonstrating the oxygen mask

that will drop down if the plane should run out of air. In the unlikely
possibility that the aircraft should experience such an
eventuality, she begins a phrase so oxygen-depriving in itself that
we are prepared for any disaster. As for her request to kindly
extinguish all smoking materials, I often wonder what materials are
smoking. It's a terrifying sentence.
Clutter is the ponderous euphemism that turns a slum into a
depressed socioeconomic area, a salesman into a marketing
representative, garbage collectors into waste-disposal personnel and
the town dump into the volume reduction unit. I think of Bill Mauldin's
cartoon of two hoboes riding a freight car. One of them says, “I started
as a simple bum, but now I'm hard-core unemployed.” Clutter is
political correctness gone amok. I saw an ad for a boys' camp
designed to provide “individual attention for the minimally exceptional.”
Clutter is the official language used by corporations to hide their
mistakes. When the Digital Equipment Corporation recently eliminated
3,000 jobs, its statement didn't mention layoffs; those were
involuntary methodologies. When an Air Force missile crashed, it
impacted with the ground prematurely. When General Motors had
a plant shutdown, that was a volume-related production-schedule
adjustment. Today a company that goes belly-up has a negative
cashflow position.
Clutter is the language of the Pentagon throwing dust in the eyes of
the populace by calling an invasion a “reinforced protective reaction
strike” and by justifying its vast budgets on the need for “counterforce
deterrence.” How can we grasp such vaporous double-talk? As
George Orwell pointed out in “Politics and the English Language,” an
essay written in 1946 but cited frequently during the Vietnam and
Cambodia years of Presidents Johnson and Nixon, “Political speech
and writing are largely the defence of the indefensible. …. Thus
political language has to consist largely of euphemism, question-
begging and sheer cloudy vagueness.” Orwell's warning that clutter is
not just a nuisance but a deadly tool has come true in the recent
decades of American military adventurism in Southeast Asia, Central
America and other parts of the world.
Verbal camouflage reached new heights during General Alexander
Haig's tenure as secretary of state during the Reagan administration.
Before Haig, nobody had thought of saying “at this juncture of
maturization” to mean “now”. He told the American people that he saw
“improved pluralization” in El Salvador, that terrorism could be fought
with “meaningful sanctionary teeth” and that intermediate nuclear
missiles were “at the vortex of cruciality.” As for any worries the public
might harbour, his message reduced to one-syllable words was
“leave it to Al.” What he

actually said was, “We must push this to a lower decibel of public
fixation. I don't think there's much of a learning curve to be achieved in
this area of content.”
I could go on quoting examples from various fields every profession
has its growing arsenal of jargon to fire at the layman and hurl him
back from its walls. But the list would be tedious. The point of raising it
now is to serve notice that clutter is the enemy, whatever form it takes.
It slows the reader and makes the writer seem pretentious.
Beware then, of the long word that's no better than the short word:
“assistance” (help), “numerous” (many), “facilitate” (ease), “individual”
(man or woman), “remainder” (rest), “initial” (first), “implement” (do),
“sufficient” (enough), “attempt” (try), “referred to as” (called), and
hundreds more. Beware of all the slippery new fad words for which the
language already has equivalents: overview and quantify, paradigm
and parameter, optimize and maximize, prioritize and potentialize.
They are all weeds that will smother what you write. Don't dialogue
with one you can talk to. Don't interface with anybody.
Just as insidious are the little word clusters with which we explain how
we propose to go about our explaining, or which inflate a simple
preposition or conjunction into a whole windy phrase. “I might add,” “It
should be pointed out,” “It is interesting to note” how many sentences
begin with these dreary clauses announcing what the writer is going to
do next? If you might add, add it. If it should be pointed out, point it
out. If it is interesting to note, make it interesting. Being told that
something is interesting is the surest way of tempting the reader to
find it dull; are we not all stupefied by what follows when someone
says, “This will interest you”? As for the windy inflations, they are the
countless phrases like “with the possible exception of” (except), “due
to the fact that” (because), he totally lacked the ability to” (he couldn't),
“until such time as” (until), “for the purpose of” (for)
Is there any way to recognize clutter at a glance? Here's a device my

students at Yale found helpful. I would put brackets around any
component in a piece of writing that wasn't doing useful work. Often
just one word got bracketed: the unnecessary preposition appended to
a verb (“smile happily”), or the adjective that states a known fact (“tall
skyscraper”). Often my brackets surrounded the little qualifiers that
weaken any sentence they inhabit (“a bit,” “sort of”), or
announcements like “I'm tempted to say,” or phrases like “in a sense,”
which don't mean anything. Sometimes my brackets surrounded an
entire sentence the one that essentially repeats what the previous
sentence said, or that says something readers don't need to know or
can figure out for themselves. Most first

drafts can be cut by 50 percent. They are swollen with words and
phrases that do no new work.
My reason for bracketing superfluous words instead of crossing them
out was to avoid violating the students' sacred prose. I wanted to
leave the sentence intact for them to analyze. I was saying, “I may be
wrong, but I think this can be deleted and the meaning won't be
affected. But you decide: read the sentence without the bracketed
material and see it if works.” In the early weeks of the term I handed
back papers that were festooned with brackets. Entire paragraphs
were bracketed. But soon the students learned to put mental brackets
around their own clutter, and by the end of the term their papers were
almost clean. Today many of those students are professional writers,
and they tell me, “I still see your brackets they're following me
through life.”
You can develop the same eye. Look for the clutter in your writing and
prune it ruthlessly. Be grateful for everything you can throw away. Re-
examine each sentence you put on paper. Is every word doing new
work? Can any thought be expressed with more economy? Is
anything pompous or pretentious or faddish? Are you hanging on to
something useless just because you think it's beautiful?
Simplify, simplify.
(Zinsser, William 1985 On Writing Well)
Questions
1. What is the writer saying about language that suffers from clutter?
2. What is the ponderous euphemism?
3. What examples does the writer provide to help you see what he
means by clutter?
4. Provide two more examples which have not been mentioned in the
text.
5. How do corporations and the American government contribute to
clutter?
6. Is there any way to recognize clutter at a glance?
7. What do you think of the strategy the writer proposes for avoiding
clutter?

8. How does the writer himself avoid clutter?

9. How does the use of the many examples he provides strengthen
his argument?
10. Comment on the last line, two words, really (i.e. 'Simplify.
Simplify'), which serve as the closing of the passage. In what
ways is this the perfect conclusion to the topic?
11. Define the following words and use each in a sentence:

debasing; laborious; ponderous; amok; vaporous; fixation;
jargon; tedious; pretentious; insidious.
12. Summarise the author's argument in one paragraph.
Summary
We have come to the end of yet another section. In the section I tried
to help you acquire some skills that can help you understand unfamiliar
words in reading materials by using
 the context of a word (that is the sentences before or after it or the

paragraph in which the word occurs) to figure out its meaning
 the structure of a word to deduce its meaning
 searching for the connotative meaning of words, and
 looking out for figurative language where writers employ simile,

metaphor and personification to paint vivid pictures.
Unit summary
In this unit you have learned about
 bad reading habits and how to get rid of them
 faster reading skills such as skimming and scanning
 PQ4R / SQ3R study techniques
 reading for general information
 reading critically and
 understanding vocabulary in text

Finally, you have come to the end of this Unit which has mainly been
devoted to reading. Congratulations, you are now halfway through the
course and I believe you have found the skills you have acquired
useful. University education involves reading large volumes of texts. It
is therefore important for you to know how to read effectively. The
skills that you have learned in this unit will help you cope with your
reading materials. It is time for you to take a well deserved break and
get some rest. I will see you in the next unit.

References
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Vol. XVI. Accra: University Press.
Andoh-Kumi, Kingley (undated). Unpublished teaching manual on summary
writing. Language Centre, University of Ghana.
Armah, Ayi Kwei (1968). Fragments. London: Heinemann.
Australian Red Cross (1995). First Aid: Responding to emergencies. Carlton:
Mosby Lifeline.
Birk, G.B. & Birk, N.P. (1965). Understanding and using English. New York: The
Odyssey Press Inc.
Buscemi, V. S., Nicolai, A. H., & Strugala, R. (1996). Basics: A rhetoric and
handbook (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Calhoun, C., Light, D., &Keller, S. (1994). Sociology (6th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Chaplen, Frank (1979). Paragraph Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cortina, J., & Elder, J. (1995). Opening doors: Understanding college reading
(2nd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Cortina, J., & Elder, J. (1995). Opening doors: Understanding college reading
(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Clouse, B. F. (1994). Transitions: From reading to writing (2nd ed.). New York:
McGraw Hill.
Crusius, T. W., & Channell, C. E. (1995). The aims of argument: A brief Guide
(4th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Devito J. A. (1997) Territoriality. In Human communication. (7th ). US: Addison-
Wesley Educational Publishers.
Dial-Driver, E. (1998). A guide to college writing. New York: McGraw Hill.
Gussenhoven, C. & Jacobs, H. (1998). Understanding phonology. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Guth, H. P. (1982). New English handbook (3rd ed.). Belmont: Wadsworth
Publishing company.
Horman, J. S. (1999). Virtual reality. In The FBI Law enforcement bulletin, Vol.
64, No.7, p.716. U.S: Federal Bureau of Investigation
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writers (3rd ed.).
Levy, M., Dignan, M., & Shirreffs, J. (1992). Targeting wellness: The core. New
York: McGraw Hill.
Langan, J. (1984). College writing skills: Media edition. New York: McGraw Hill.
McWhorter, K. T. (2003). Successful college writing (2nd ed.). Boston:
Bedford/St Martin's
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Rodrigues, D. and Tuman, M.C. (1996). Writing Essentials With quick-reference
coverage of writing online. New York: W.W. Norton & Companies.
Schiffhorst, G.J. and Schell J. F. (1991). The short handbook for writers. New
York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
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Inc.
Swales, John. M. and Feak, Christine B. (2004). Academic writing for graduate
students. (2nd ed.). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Weagel, D. (2002). The Power, Symbolism and Extension of the Mother in
“L'enfant Noir” - A Feminine Portrait by a Masculine Author. In Rocky Mountain
Review of Language and Literature. 55:1, 55-71.
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Publishing Companies.
Winterowd, W. S., & Murray, P. (1983). English writing and language skills. New
York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.
UGRC 210
ACADEMIC WRITING 2
Session 3– Reading II: Practical Session
Lecturer: Dr. David Odoi

2014/2015 – 2016/2017
Reading II: Practical Session
• Introduction
• Dear student, you are welcome to Unit 3 of your course. In the
previous Unit you learned about reading strategies and the place of
reading in your course as a university student. In this Unit we are
going to have some practical lessons in reading and we want you to
take note of the various methods that are used to produce or
develop readable and understandable passages.
• The point being made here is that Reading and Writing are parallel
literary processes. Reading is described as the act of constructing
meaning while transacting with text. Similarly, the process of
writing is described as one which involves the construction of
meaning while the writer is dealing with text. The two activities go
hand in hand
Slide 2
• You must note that to help readers understand a piece of writing, authors try to present
their details in a clearly organized way. Writers can build an idea or ideas from a sentence
to paragraph or a whole text. I hope you remember our lessons on methods of developing
the controlling idea in a paragraph in UGRC 110 Unit 3. We need that information very
much in this Unit. If you have forgotten this, then quickly revise that and then let us
continue with this Unit.
• Authors can choose to use any of several common patterns to arrange their details.
Sometimes authors may build a paragraph or longer passage only on one pattern. You
must also note that often, the patterns are mixed for the author to make his message
understandable. Therefore, you need to know the common patterns used by authors to
develop the information in a reading text so that we can understand what we are reading
or even use those patterns of writing in our essays to help our readers understand the
ideas we wish to put across.
• This Unit will cover the following patterns related to reading and the paragraph
• Section 1 Process analysis
• Section 2 Narration
• Section 3 Description
• Section 4 Cause and effect
• Section 5 Compare and contrast
Slide 3
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this Unit, you should be able to identify
different methods of paragraphs in a reading
material
• use some of the methods of presentation
• read a text with some level of ease
Slide 4
Section 1 Process Analysis
• Introduction
• I warmly welcome you to this section of Unit 3 analysis. In this
Section I want us to have a practical session on a text that is
mostly developed on the Process Analysis pattern. The
function of paragraphs in any text you have to read is to
explain, illustrate, discuss or prove a thesis.
•
• Objectives
• By the end of this Section you should be able to:
• read a text
• note what a process is
• identify the dominant pattern used in the text
• answer questions related to the text
Slide 5
• What Is Process Analysis?
• What we must remember is that process analysis explains a step by step approach
to how something works or it is done. In other words in this pattern, the
information explains the steps in a particular procedure. The steps or stages show
how a phenomenon functions or how a goal or end is achieved. This method is
used in developing expository readings or writing of essays. Let us look at this
example.
• My Favourite Dish-Banku and Tilapia
• Banku and fish is a favourite dish of most ethnic groups in the south of Ghana. It
also happens to be my favourite. I want to show you how to prepare this special
dish.
• To prepare Banku, you need some good quantity of corn dough and cassava
dough. You then mash the dough with water and it turns into a thick paste. This
paste is placed in a medium size pot. The thick paste is the put on fire and stirred
slowly with a special wooden spoon. The paste then slowly cooks and takes on a
solid form because the water in it evaporates. So, some water is added to the food
as it cooks at some intervals.
Slide 6
• The bank is deemed cooked after about twenty minutes
depending on the quantity. The banku is rolled into small
balls and placed in another bowl.
• For the tilapia, it is first cleaned. The scales are taken off and
the fish is washed and spiced. Spices that could be used
include ginger and fish seasoning. The fish is next put on a grill
and it is turned over periodically until it is properly cooked or
grilled. It is then taken off the fire and garnished.
• The Banku and tilapia normally goes with mashed pepper
mixed with tomatoes, onions and ginger. The pepper is
washed and placed in a n earthenware bowl. The pepper and
tomatoes and other ingredients are mashed into a semi liquid
form.
• The food is now ready to be served.
Slide 7
• Activity 1.1
• You will realize from your studies in UGRC 110 that the process analysis type of
reading is also related to other types of patterns. For instance, the reading on how
to prepare banku and tilapia contains some levels of description and some
narration BUT the predominant pattern used here is the process analysis.
• Now let us answer some questions related to the passage but first, read the
passage again.
• What is the first thing to do when you want to prepare banku?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
• Why do you have to mash the dough into a semi liquid form?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• What is the next thing to do after the dough has been mashed?
• ……………………………………………………………………………
Slide 8
• Why do we have to add water to the banku paste while it is cooking?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• What are the dominant transitional words used in the text? Identify at least three of them and note their function
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
• Good work. Congratulations
• What I want you to know is that reading is not done anyhow. There are some things necessary to do when
reading. Reading has a lot to do with comprehension. Reading also has a lot to do with writing. Let us try another
activity.
• Activity 1.2
• The following sentences are not in chronological order. Read the sentences and place them in the right order. Take
out any sentence that does not add up to the text and its thesis. I am providing a topic sentence for you to begin
the text.
• Kwabena works hard to become a good student.
• He spends many hours hanging out with his friends.
• During class hours, he takes a lot of notes.
• He spends time at the library reading and researching for more information after classes.
Slide 9
• He studies every evening for two hours.
• In the morning, he reads over the previous day’s work.
• He loves to work in the community but he prefers work that enhances his school
work.
• He dotes on his friend Afua and he encourages her to spend time at the library
too.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
• (1a) Now write out the transitional words that help to show the process Kwabena
adopted to become a good student.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………
Slide 10
• I hope this exercise was easy. Congratulations.
• I have taken you through exercises to draw your attention to reading and writing
using the process analysis pattern as the dominant pattern employed by authors
to make their message clear. Now let us now try a final activity in this section.
• Activity 1.3
• Write at least four paragraphs on. ‘How to become a successful Youth Leader’
• Your answer should be on a separate sheet of paper. Read your answer in your
Tutorial class and see what comments would come up. Incorporate some of the
useful suggestions into a rewritten paper. I hope you will write this well and
produce a good paper. Congratulations in advance.
• Summary
• Well with this activity, we have come to a close on this practical session on reading
in the predominantly Process analysis pattern. Remember that the process analysis
pattern combines with other patterns to show how something is done or how it
works. Chronology is therefore necessary to make the pattern useful to you.
• See you soon in the next section.
Slide 11
Section 2 Narration
• Introduction
• You are welcome to section 2 of this Unit. In Section 1 You
learned some practical lessons on the use of the process
analysis pattern of paragraph writing as it relates to reading.
In this Section you and I will go through some texts that are
narrative in the main. Remember, as you read along that there
is a link between READING and WRITING.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this Section you should be able to identify a text
as mainly a narration
• answer questions on such a text
• write a text using mainly narrative paragraphs
Slide 12
• Have you ever been frightened by someone or something in the dark?
How did you behave after the incident? I believe, in such instances that
you would want to tell the experience to someone or to some people. If
you are not sure of what frightened you in the dark you can hardly
describe that which frightened you. In such instances, you are likely to
NARRATE than describe what occurred to you.
• Activity 2.1
• Let us read and discuss the following text:
• The medium height ever-smiling assistant vice-principal, Dr. Aggrey walked
into the durbar grounds to witness the opening of Achimota. He
encounters young Nkrumah.
• ‘Hey my young man! How are you doing today?’
• ‘I am very fine sir.’
• ‘How are you coping with yours studies? You must help to make Africa
proud.’
• ‘I will sir but I sometimes feel nervous with white teachers around me.’
Slide 13
• ‘Aww that is OK. We need the white man to help us just as we need a
black man. Just think of the keys of a piano! The black keys and the white
keys work together to give a good harmony’
• Nkrumah thought of this for a while and still had doubts about equality
with the white race.
• (1) You may have noticed that the main characters in this text are
Nkrumah and Dr. Aggrey at Achimota school.
• (2) You should also note that the two personalities talked about Africa as
their homeland.
• (3) The two men also talked about the need for the white and black races
to work together.
• (4) Nkrumah was not totally convinced about equality of the races.
• What I also want you to note here is that a pure dialogue is used to bring
up the issues I have enumerated above. So, you have to read the dialogue
carefully to understand or even see what issues are raised.
Slide 14
• Activity 2.2
• Now, let us compare the above dialogue to the following excerpt from Kwame Nkrumah’s
autobiography.
• About this time the Prince of Wales’s College at Achimota was officially opened by the
Governor, Sir Gordon Guggisberg, before a large and colourful gathering of chiefs and
government officials. Among the chiefs was the Kumasihene, a notorious ruler of Ashanti
who had earlier on been deported to the Seychelles by the Governor because of alleged
participation in human sacrifices.
• But the figure to whom all Africans looked that day was Dr. Kwegyir Aggrey, assistant vice-
principal and the first African member of staff. To me he seemed the most remarkable man
that I have ever met and I had the deepest affection for him. He possessed intense vitality
and enthusiasm and a most infectious laugh that seem to bubble from his heart and he was a
great orator. It was through him that my nationalism was first aroused. He was extremely
proud of his colour but was strongly opposed to racial segregation in any form and although
he could understand Marcus Garvey’s principle of Africa for Africans, he never hesitated to
attack this principle. He believed conditions should be such that the black and white races
should work together. Co-operation between the black and white peoples was the key note
of his message and the essence of his mission, and he used to expound this by saying:
Slide 15
• ‘You can play a tune of all sorts on the white keys and you can play a tune of all sorts on the
black keys, but for harmony you must use both the black and the white.’
• I could not , even at that time, accept this idea of Aggrey’s as practicable, for I maintained
that such harmony can only exist when the black race is treated as equal to the white race;
that only a free and independent people—a people with a government of their own—can
claim equality, racial or otherwise, with another people.
• At the beginning of the rainy season, in April or May, the training college closed down for
vacations. I had been so busy adjusting myself to my new life that I had not been able to look
around for means of earning money. On account of this I could not go home to Half –Assini
but had to stay on in the college and do what I could to earn a living until term began again.
In the evening after the college had broken up, I was standing in the deserted art auditorium
talking with two other students who had also been forced to stay behind, when Aggrey
suddenly walked in. He was brimming over with life and excited about his leave which he was
spending in England and America.(p.12)
• Are the information in the dialogue similar to those in the above excerpt? Yes they are almost
the same. The main difference here is that one presents the information in a dialogue and
the other is basically a NARRATION.
• So let us answer a few questions on the two examples I have shown you.
Slide 16
• Activity 2.3
• 1.Give three advantages of the dialogue as mode of reading or writing.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• 2. Give three advantages of the Narration type of reading.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………
• 3. Which of the two modes is preferable to you? Give three reasons for your preference.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………
• 4. Write about an interesting journey you undertook recently. Your answer should be in at least 4
paragraphs and written on a sheet of paper for your Teaching assistant to assess.
• I hope you were successful in writing this essay for your Teaching Assistant. Congratulations
• Summary
• Well, this brings us to the end of this section. I have tried to bring to your attention the need to
identify a text that is basically in the narrative pattern. I have also drawn your attention on how to
write an essay using in the main the narrative pattern of reading and writing. Let us meet again in
the next section that will help you to use the descriptive types of paragraph in reading or writing.
Slide 17
Section 3 Description
• Introduction
• Welcome to this section of your course. In Section Two
you basically learned about the Narration type of
paragraphs. In this section I shall teach you about the
descriptive type of paragraph and I hope you will be able
to use it as part of a bigger piece of writing.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section you should be able to note
what a descriptive paragraph is
• identify a descriptive paragraph from a piece of writing
• write a paragraph which describes
Slide 18
• In our daily lives we do some description of a sort. We can identify a chair as ‘made of wood’,
‘comfortable to sit on’, ‘ material made of velvet ‘and so on. Note that paragraphs may not
necessarily be all of one pattern but can combine for a certain effect. We are only making a
difference to help you know what to write at each time.
• A descriptive paragraph makes readers see, feel, and hear what has been seen or felt by
others or in the case of yourself, what you have experienced through hearing, seeing or
feeling. Note that when you describe a person, a place, or a thing, your aim is to show that
selected thing or person vividly and with selected details
• Now let us look at this example from Kwame Nkrumah’s autobiography. Nkrumah was about
to meet Sir Charles Arden-Clarke, the colonial governor, the first time. He says:
• A tall, broad- shouldered man, sun-tanned, with an expression of firmness and discipline but
with a twinkle of kindness in his eyes came towards me with his hand outstretched; a hand
that I noticed was large and capable looking. He welcomed me and asked how I was. As we
both sat down I sensed that he must be feeling as alert and suspicious of me as I was of him.
We lost little time, however, in coming down to the business on hand. I did my best to make it
clear to him that I would be prepared at all times to place my cards upwards on the table
because it was only by frankness that mutual trust and confidence could be established. He
agreed with me wholeheartedly on this and I sensed immediately that he
Slide 19
• spoke with sincerity. He was, I thought, a man with a strong sense of justice and fair play with
whom I could easily be friends even though I looked upon him as a symbol of British imperialism in
the country.(p.113)
• Activity 3.1
• What did Nkrumah see and say of the governor?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Do you think Nkrumah approves of the governor? Give two reasons for your answer.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• What did Nkrumah say about the nature of the meeting?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………
• We note here that the governor is described in the opening lines of the paragraph. Nkrumah
further describes the nature of the meeting, and finally ends with what he believes the governor to
be. So, even though Nkrumah’s work is basically a Narration, there are large aspects of description
in the paragraph.
Slide 20
• Take a careful look at this example too:
A Friendly Clown
On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle--a gift I
received last Christmas from a close friend. The clown's short yellow hair, made of
yarn, covers its ears but is parted above the eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in
black with thin, dark lashes flowing from the brows. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose,
and lips, and its broad grin disappears into the wide, white ruffle around its neck.
The clown wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon costume. The left side of the outfit is light
blue, and the right side is red. The two colors merge in a dark line that runs down
the center of the small outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long black
shoes are big pink bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the unicycle gather in
the center and expand to the black tire so that the wheel somewhat resembles the
inner half of a grapefruit. The clown and unicycle together stand about a foot high.
As a cherished gift from my good friend Tran, this colorful figure greets me with a
smile every time I enter my room.
I hope you enjoyed reading this. Let us try answering some questions based on the
paragraph.
Slide 21
• Activity 3.2
• What is the topic for description here? Show evidence from the text.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• In three sentences show what the writer says about the head of the clown.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
• What does the writer tell us about the clothes of the toy clown?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………
• What is a unicycle and what does the writer tell us about the unicycle in the passage?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• In your opinion, do you think the toy clown is a precious gift? Give two reasons for your answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………
Slide 22
• I hope you were able to find the answer to the above
questions. I also believe that you noted that the
writer started the description of the clown from its
head through its dress till he came to describe the
unicycle that the clown was sitting on.
• Congratulations.
• Now let us try to compose a descriptive paragraph by
ourselves. Use the following tips to help you write
your paragraph.
Slide 23
• Activity 3.3
• Think about and select a topic you like so much or something you would
want to draw attention to in your society or community.
• Remember that description deals with what you see, feel, or can touch so
you need your five senses to be able to bring out the details that will
describe.
• What does it smell like when you are close to what you want to describe?
Does it smell like pineapples, smelly sweat?
• What does it taste like? Is it sweet or sour?
• What does it feel like to the touch? Is it rough, smooth, slippery or stable?
• What does it sound like? Does it sound like a storm, is it loud, or soft?
• Now put all your feelings about this topic in one paragraph.
• ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Slide 24
• I guess this was challenging but worth it. Congratulate
yourself if you were able to do it. If you were not, read
the tips again and try once again.
• Summary
• Well dear student, this is the end of section three of your
unit. In this section I drew your attention to paragraphs
that describe. We noted that paragraphs that describe
deal with DETAILS. We appeal to our sense of sight,
touch, taste and others to help us to arrive at the details.
I hope you will be able to use this type of paragraphs in
essays from your other departments.
Slide 25
Section 4 Cause and Effect
• Introduction
• Welcome to Section 4 of this Unit of your Course in
Academic Writing. In the last section you studied how to
read in the descriptive pattern of paragraphs. In this
Section we will practice the reading and writing using the
cause and effect pattern
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section, you should be able to: identify
a reading text as predominantly a cause and effect type.
• read for what is a cause and what is an effect.
• answer questions on a text in the cause and effect mode
Slide 26
• Cause and Effect
• Cause and effect basically looks at why a certain action for instance brings
about a result or a likely result. For instance you may know that scientists
have found that the HIV virus causes AIDS and we may be too aware of its
devastating effects. Similarly when something bad happens we may ask
‘What happened’. These scenarios tell us that whatever occurs has its
roots from something that occurred before. In other words everything
that happens can be traced to another thing which happened earlier.
• Some writers explore events by describing or discussing other events or
actions that caused them. This means that they don’t just tell what
happened; they explain why they do. Cause and effect transitions tell the
reader what happened or will happen because something else happened.
• Some examples of these transitions that indicate cause and effect are:
thus, as a result, therefore, hence, because, consequently, since, and
accordingly.
• Let us look at this example from UGRC110 again:
Slide 27
• Activity 4.1
• Read the following text carefully:
• Working as a literacy volunteer as a requirement for a community service course
taught me more about learning and friendship than I ever expected. When I first
went through the training program to become a literacy volunteer, I learned about
the process of learning—that is, the way in which people learn new words most
effectively. The training I received, though excellent, was no substitute for working
with a real student. When I began to discover what other people’s lives are like
because they cannot read, I realized the true importance of reading. For example,
before meeting my student, a 44 year old single mother of three, she used to
travel three miles away to a supermarket to buy her grocery because the prices of
items are mentioned on request instead of the nearby supermarket where prices
are displayed on the items. In addition, as time went by, my student and
developed a friendship that became permanent. Because we saw each other
several times a week, we spent a lot of time getting to know each other and we
discovered we had certain things in common. In fact as a literacy volunteer, I
learned a great about learning, teaching and helping others. I also established
what I hope will be a lifelong friendship.
Slide 28
• Let us try some questions based on this text.
• What is the initial action that the writer took?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………....
• Identify at least two outcomes from the writer’s initial action.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………
• Do you think being a literacy volunteer would be a useful activity? Give reasons for
your answer.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Slide 29
• I hope you were able to note that first, the writer
decided to be a literacy volunteer. I also hope that
you got to know that being a literacy volunteer gave
the writer to opportunity to learn, to teach someone
to read and also to make a friend. So, you can see
from the text we have just answered that one cause
can bring about some effects. I also hope that you
realize that the last line of the text talks about a
possible effect—a lifelong friendship!
• Congratulations!
• Let us try a longer text.
Slide 30
• Activity 4.2
• Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions on it.
• I never knew that a university education can bring about profits. When I was
twenty-one, I had the chance of entering one of the prestigious universities in our
country. I counted myself as lucky because out of every hundred children that start
primary school, less than one person enters the university. The four years of study
passed quickly and I was glad I graduated from the university with a good class.
Graduation opened the paths to numerous profits.
• For National Service, I was sent to a rural community that needed help so
desperately in my subject. I was so glad to help and so I traveled the whole length
of my country to assist in this rural community. Many doors began to open for me
to touch a lot of lives.
• I met a group of thirteen young men willing to learn. They were, in fact, very
hungry for knowledge. Here I was, very inexperienced but now being looked upon
as a repository of knowledge. I had to recall all my powers of retention, add it to
the syllabus, and carve a magic that would mesmerize these young chaps. My
charges were to sit for their final exams in a matter of two terms . I asked myself
whether I have done enough and whether they were psyched up
Slide 31
• for the task. Of course prayers were inevitable! They all passed. I looked back at my
university education and God for this miracle. Now these ‘young’ people are all
grown up and very well established but they still look to me as their ‘guru’.
• The languages spoken in my new environment were very unfamiliar. This posed a
real challenge and I told myself I had to do something about it. My little knowledge
in linguistics which I learned at the university proved useful. I decided I would
simply learn the languages by association of sounds and words of those languages
to my native Ga. At the end of eleven years, I have been able to master four
hitherto unfamiliar languages by listening, and associating words with others from
my first language. As at now, a lot of people marvel at my ability to speak so many
languages. I really get a blast when people are unable to place my origins because I
change languages so quickly in a single discussion that involves people from
different ethnic backgrounds. I really thank my elementary linguistics at the
university for this.
• Next week, I shall be engaged in a language policy discussion. I have been invited
as a resource person. I am going to make some money because I speak many
languages and the nation wants to tap into this knowledge. I do not know what I
will be engaged in after this policy discussion! My university education is paying off
in several ways!
Slide 32
1. Write an outline on the passage.
• ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
2. What is the author’s main claim?
• ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………….......
3. Write down two effects of what the author claims
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Slide 33
• Do you agree with the author that knowledge of other languages apart from one’s own is
important? Support your answer with examples that you know of.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• What is the attitude of the author? Give evidence of your answer from the text.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
• I believe that was easy. If you found difficulties, read the relevant portions of UGRC 110, plus this
section again and try again!
• Summary
• This section drew your attention to readings which use the cause and effect pattern. We noted that
a single cause can lead to an effect or effects. Therefore we have to consciously use the cause and
effect mode if it has to show that it is the dominant pattern. We shall meet again in section 5 and
talk about readings in the compare and contrast pattern.
• Bye for now.
Slide 34
Section 5 Comparison and
Contrast Pattern
• Introduction
• Welcome to Section 5 of this Unit. In the last section I raised issues on reading related to cause and
effect types of reading and writing. In this Section I want you to have a practical session on the use
of comparison and contrast types of reading and their accompanying writing.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section you should be able to read a text which is mainly on the compare and
contrast pattern
• answer questions related to the text
• summarize information from the text
• write an essay using the compare and contrast pattern in the main
•
• In UGRC 110, I introduced and discussed methods of paragraph development and I identified
various patterns of paragraph development. We noted in our discussions of UGRC 110 and also in
this Unit of UGRC 210 that one cannot use a single pattern of development. You also remember
that I taught you how to use summaries to incorporate information into a text. You will need this
skill in this Section.
Slide 35
• Compare and Contrast
• This pattern of paragraph development involves similarities and
differences between two different things or issues. You may
compare for instance tertiary education and second cycle
education. Or, you may want to compare on campus education as
against Distance education. When you do this you will look at
similarities or differences. On campus education affords students
opportunity to meet lecturers face to face right from the beginning
whereas Distance education students see lecturers only at the end
of their courses. This is a glaring difference. In terms of similarity,
we can see that the quality of information given to each set of
students is the same. The compare and contrast pattern of
paragraph development makes use of transitional terms like :
whereas, however, on the other hand, on the contrary, and but
among others.
Slide 36
• Activity 5.1
• I now want you to read the following text and let us discuss it. This text is from Buscemi (2005)
• When students complete a first draft, they consider the job of writing done—and their teachers
too often agree. When professional writers complete a first draft, they usually feel they are at the
start of the writing process. When a draft is completed, the job of writing can begin. (The Maker’s
Eye)
• Identify the two things that have been compared here.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Comment on the attitude of students to writing.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• State which type of attitude to writing that you prefer and give at least two reasons for your
preference.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
I guess that was fairly easy. Remember that you always have two things to give a contrast or a
comparison! Congratulations.
Slide 37
• Activity 5.2
• Now let us try something longer. The text is someone’s opinion on an issue I want you to find
out.
• A Fear Born out of Sorrow
• More than a100 people were killed in the tragic bombing of the Oklahoma federal building in
1995. About 6,000 die in Africa each day of AIDS. Between 8,000 and 10,000 people die of
starvation daily. Tragedies occur all around us, and we accept them out of necessity as a part
of life. But sometimes the horrors of tragedy affect us in a new way: it overwhelms a nation
and stuns the international community. This what happened last week when two hijacked
passenger planes hit the twin towers of the World Trade Centre and their resulting collapse
killed thousands of people from several countries. News of the tragedy flashed around the
globe. Everywhere, it seemed, people in uncomprehending horror listened to reports on
their radios or watched endless replays on their televisions. Several countries declared days
of mourning and scheduled services of remembrance. Now, one week after the attack,
tokens of grief and letters of condolence still flood US embassies and government offices
worldwide. But why is the outpouring of grief so much deeper for this tragedy than for
others? Why the attack isn’t considered just a large scale repeat of the Oklahoma City
bombing? Could it be that our grief is more than sorrow, and that our loss is much more than
what lies in the rubble?
Slide 38
• The Oklahoma City bombing was grievous and alarming, but localized. The
bomber was soon arrested, his motives deduced and justice served. While
lives were changed and a nation was shaken, the world community
remained composed. However, the September 11 attack unsettled us
more, in part because the World Trade Center stood for so much more
than the Oklahoma Federal Building did. The twin towers symbolized
American domination of world finances: they were a major center for the
internet, a hub for international businesses, and an emblem of American
life. The fall of the towers struck violently at the nation’s psyche, and the
manner in which they were destroyed-with America’s own airplanes, filled
with many American passengers- has raised questions about America’s
security and future. Threatened to their core, American’s have demanded
retaliation- But against whom? The terrorists’ identity is not clear, and
evidence seems elusive. In a sense, an unknown offender ha injured
Americans, who beat the air in the dark. In such a case, terrorism is aptly
named, for America’s outcry expresses more than sorrow—it also
expresses fear.
Slide 39
• The fear that Americans feel comes partly from the
uncertainty related to this attack. The attackers
demonstrated technical and planning skills that surprised
Americans, making them question their safety and fear
future attacks. Air travel, long considered safe, now
includes security measures like armed guards, luggage
searches, and bomb-sniffing dogs—all strategies to
achieve safety. As Americans struggle to find answers in
the shattered peace, nations are forming alliances, war
seems imminent, and the world waits anxiously to see
where it will all lead.
Slide 40
• Fear and uncertainty are new to Americans living today
because America has not been attacked in this way since
Britain ruled her as a colony. While the bombing of Pearl
Harbor awoke many to the fact that America could be
targeted, the Japanese bombers hit Hawaii—then a US
territory, not a state and not the mainland. Following
World War ll, many in the world community again
thought of America as the invulnerable Land of
Opportunity. However, this belief is now shattered, and
many citizens of the global village fear that what was lost
last week includes more than what lies in the rubble.
Slide 41
• On September 11, 2001, America along with its Western
allies, lost its aura of invincibility. As the whole world
watched, the towers fell, and we stumbled in shock and
pain. Moreover, as times passes America may fail to
identify its enemy and to understand the attack. If this
happens, the oppressed people of the world—to some
extent victims of Western culture—will take notice.
• It is now one week since the towers fell, and the world
still grieves. However, mingled with this grief is the fear
that we may be mourning not only for the lives lost, but
also for our lost way of life.
Slide 42
• Activity 5.1
• What issues have been compared and contrasted in this passage?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
• Identify at least two smaller issues that have also been discussed in this passage.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
• Summarize the author’s main concerns in 150 words
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………........
• I know this may be a bit challenging but if you had problems, read the text once again and try doing
the exercise. If you were able to do this, congratulate yourself.
Slide 43
• Activity 5.2
• Good job done. Let us try a final activity here.
• Write an essay of five paragraphs on ‘Compare and contrast the
social control systems in two ethnic groups in Ghana’. Write your
answer on a separate sheet of paper and present it to your
Teaching Assistant.
• Summary
• I hope you have enjoyed this Section of Unit 3. In this section we
took a look at how to read a text which uses the compare and
contrast pattern of paragraph development. We read some
passages and identified which issues have been compared. We also
tried to summarize the main concerns of writers in their texts and
we use our knowledge on the compare and contrast method of
reading and writing to write an essay.
• Bye for now.
Slide 44
UGRC 210
Academic Writing 2
Session 4 – Presentations
Lecturer: Dr. David Odoi, Language Centre

2014/2015 – 2016/2017
• Presentations
• Introduction
• Hello again. I believe the reading activities and information on reading that you learned in Unit
Three has been most beneficial. Unit Four which you are reading now is meant to prepare you for
Public Speaking or to give presentations! I hope you are not afraid of this because I will travel along
with you to make you familiar with ways of presentation which often is done orally.
• This Unit will cover issues like:
• Forms of Presentation
• How to prepare for the presentation
• Selection and arranging content of presentations
• Speaking on special occasions
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this Unit, you should be able to identify different ways of presentations
• use some of the methods of presentations
• prepare materials for Presentations
• make a presentation
Slide 2
Section 1 Types of Presentations:
Presenting To Inform
• Introduction
• Welcome to the first section of this Unit. In this Section you and I will learn about Presentations.
Presentations are normally a form of Public Speaking. You must note that one reason why we give
Presentations is that they are meant to inform audiences that will be listening about some
important issues. In this Section therefore, you and I will be focusing on Presentations that are
meant to inform.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this Section you should be able to note that presentations demand that you
understand the topic or the issue
• identify your audience’s need for information
•
• You may have noted that many times while at the Junior High School or even at the Senior High
School your teachers demanded answers to questions that they posed to you. Similarly your
mother at home may demand explanations for why a chore was left undone. In all these instances
you were making a form of presentations or speaking in Public! So a public presentation is not
something new to you. What we shall do in this Section is to further develop what you already
know by adding some information that will help your presentation to be sharp and to arouse
interest.
Slide 3
• There is a saying that ‘We learn not for school but for life , not
for self but for others’. This adage simply means you have a lot
of knowledge but this knowledge comes to no use if you do
not share it with others. The question now is “How do you
share information that you have and understand very well
with others?’ I will suggest two very important ways.
• In the first place it is important that you must show a
connection between the topic you wish to talk about and your
own self. Secondly, you must show a connection between
your topic and the audience you are to address. These are
principles that have been recognized by a lot of experts in
Public speaking. Now let me explain these two statements in
some detail one after the other .
Slide 4
• How to Establish a Link Between Yourself and The Topic
• Please note that your purpose here is to ‘INFORM’ your audience.
Your claim here is that you have the information; you understand it
or you are an expert in the area. You have to give the audience a
reason to believe that you are qualified to speak on the subject. Let
us take a look at how someone was able to connect himself to a
topic on Ewe customs practised in the Ashanti region of Ghana:
• You heard the teacher call my name: Adzo Kudawoo. This is an Ewe
name. My paternal and maternal grandparents come from Keta in
the Volta Region of Ghana and the small community in which I live
in Kumasi- Anloga- is still predominantly Ewe with a lot of
prominent Ewe names like Yevenyos, Fialors, Akpedonus and
Quashigahs. Many Ewe customs are practised in my home and in
my area. Today I want to tell you about one Ewe custom that has
been adopted by most Ghanaians and two Ewe customs that are
practiced by Ewes all over the world.
Slide 5
• You may have to take a second reading of the passage! Did you note
the qualifications of Adzo? Do you find her qualified to speak on
Ewe customs? I believe you agree with me that she is qualified and
the audience have a duty to believe in her topic because (a) She is
of an Ewe descent living in the Ashanti Region (b) Her community in
the Kumasi is Ewe in many ways (c) Adzo can identify customs that
many may not know their origins but are important to people in her
immediate environment. Adzo has the advantage of knowing both
Ewe and Ashanti customs and is in the position to compare and
come out with some definite conclusions as to what is typically an
Ewe custom and what is not.
• The point I am making is that your audience needs information and
you have a duty to make them know you have a grasp of the
information that they need.
Slide 6
• Let us try an activity:
• Activity 1.1
• Imagine that you have to talk to the Youth Group in your area about ways
to keep the area clean. Write your presentation of a paragraph
establishing a link between yourself and the Topic.
• ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
• Welcome from this simple activity. I call it simple because if you had any
challenges you could refer to my example above and simply model your
answer on mine. Anyway, congratulations on your attempt!
Slide 7
• How You Relate the Topic to the Audience
• In the previous part of this Section you learned about how to convince your
audience that you are qualified to speak to them. Your audience must have a need
to listen to you! Let me remind you once again that your purpose at this point is to
INFORM. They need the information! Let us take this example, The audience is
mainly African-American, Caribbeans of African descent and scholars on Africa and
its Diaspora.
• Ladies and gentlemen: I can see or I dare to say ‘I know’ that a large tract of you
seated here are American or Caribbeans of African descent. Besides, some of you
are great scholars of Africa and its Diaspora. Indeed, you have documented and
imbibed the histories of great black resistance movement in what is referred to as
the New World: stories of Nat Turner of the American South, Toussaint d’Ouverte,
Dessalines and Christophe in Haiti. You know about the Republic of Palmares and
the great Maroon societies of Jamaica. The question is “Were the Africans who
were abducted into slavery so docile that they allowed the shackles and chains on
their hands and feet without a flinch?’ I know they were not! This is part of our
history as Africans that has not been well documented
Slide 8
• nor chronicled. These great resistance movements on the African
mainland during the days of slavery are the issues I will be talking about to
you this afternoon.
• In the example above, the speaker attempts to draw attention to the fact
that his audience may know a lot about the resistance movements of the
Diaspora BUT he has some useful information that the audience needs in
order to have a complete picture of Black Resistance movements.
• Let us try another activity.
• Activity 1.2
• Now, I want you imagine you are speaking to prospective university
students as to why the University of Ghana is the University to be in. Write
one paragraph of what you will say to them. Remember your aim is to
show the importance of the topic to the audience.
• ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
I hope you had just some little challenges. Congratulations.
Slide 9
• Summary
• In this Section I have taught you two important
things about presentations. I have told you that your
presentation must have some force behind it. I have
also said that your relationship to the topic as well as
the relationship of the topic to your audience will
give you the force behind a useful presentation. Now
let us move on to the next Section to learn about
presenting to persuade the audience. See you soon.
Slide 10
Section 2 Types of Presentations:
Presenting to Persuade
• Introduction
• It feels good to meet you once again in this section. In the last section you
learned how to make yourself useful and in presenting information. You
also learned how to arouse your audience by making the topic necessary
to them. In this Section I want to teach you another type of Presentation.
This time we will not only inform but most importantly we will inform and
persuade our audiences. Just come along with me.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section you should be able to note differences between
‘informative’ and ‘Persuasive’ presentations
• write Persuasive presentations
• give persuasive a presentation
• identify different types of audience
Slide 11
• What are Persuasive Presentations?
• It appears that the art of persuasion is almost near us than we
can ever imagine! Just imagine a child who coaxes his mother
to buy him some ice cream or some shoes although at that
time she may not be willing to do so! Do you also remember
such composition topics like ‘Who is more important, the
Farmer or the Doctor?’ that you wrote in the Junior High
School? Or at a higher level, you may remember a politician
who wants you to vote for him at a local assembly election! In
all these instances persuasions are used. Persuasive
presentations will therefore be the type of presentation that
influences an audience’s choices by changing their responses
toward an idea, concept or product that you present to them.
Slide 12
• Forms of Persuasive Presentations
• We can identify three main forms of Persuasive presentations namely: (a)
to inspire (b) to convince and (c) to call for action. In the academic
discourse community, these three types of Persuasive presentations are
very important but that which we use often is the presentation that
convinces.
• For instance you wish to convince your peers that gender equality is as
important for men as it is for women or that some Ghanaian languages are
as complex in structure as English or French. You will note here that you
need to be informed about Ghanaian languages to be able to speak with
authority in order to persuade! For instance if we want to persuade our
audience that a particular Ghanaian language is complex, you need to
have studied the language into details in terms of its sound system, word
formation, sentence structure as well as meaning of words. So as I said
earlier, the art of persuasion is an everyday activity and we will try to
make it more practical to you.
Slide 13
• Let us try an activity!
• Activity 2. 1
• (a)Write down the three forms of presentation mentioned in this section.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………….
• (b) Why is your knowledge of a topic important in trying to convince an audience
about the topic?
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
• I hope you have identified the main points made here! I have said that
presentations that CONVINCE are common in our academic discourse community
and most of the time you need to be informed yourself as the presenter before
you can convince your audience. Did these points appear in your answers? I know
they did. Good work done then!
• Now let us talk about a few things you need to know about an audience.
Slide 14
• What You Should Know of an Audience
• One of the first things you should know about your audience is that
if you have some information that is likely to affect their behavior
then the more likely they are to respond to your message. In other
words you must do what experts call ‘audience analysis’ to be able
to know how well your message will be taken.
• The second thing to know about your audience is that
presentations have a relationship link. You must not be too quick to
finish your presentation. You must relax and keep a pace that is
comfortable to yourself and your audience. This way, they have a
bond with you and would listen more. They need your evidence
especially its quality and the truth or accuracy of the points you are
making in your speech. This is so because an attentive audience
will want to react to your arguments critically, defensively or they
may be totally convinced that you are right on every point.
Slide 15
• The third thing to note is that audiences can vary in terms of knowledge on the
topic. You may have an audience that is completely in tune with you and would
agree with you on a lot of points. You may also have those that are completely
hostile to the topic and may do all they can to make you uncomfortable. Then you
also have the mixed bag, where the audience will approach your message with
levels of agreement and disagreement.
• Let me give you examples of these three types of audiences. The US President
Obama’s message on the night of victory after the presidential elections in the USA
in 2008 is that type of audience which Obama knew will agree with him on every
point he will make. In the play Julius Caesar, Mark Antony knew that the Roman
mob would be very hostile if he spoke negatively about Brutus and the other
Conspirators so he decided to focus attention on the good nature of the dead
Julius Caesar without mentioning Brutus’ involvement in Caesar’s killing. This is the
second type I mentioned earlier. Most audiences at a local election rally are likely
to belong to the third group I have mentioned where some will agree with you and
others will not. With these types of audiences in mind, let us try another activity.
Slide 16
• Activity 2. 2
• I want you to write a paragraph on why it is important we do not put up buildings
in water ways. Remember you have to write a paragraph that is CONVINCING on
the topic.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Summary
• In this Section I have explained what presentations that persuade are. You need to
be well informed before you can do a persuasive presentation. You may have
noted that the Presentation that persuades demands certain things from you. I
have told you that the audience is important. They have a bond with you if you go
about issues in a pace that they are comfortable with. Audiences can receive your
message defensively, agree with you or they can be extra critical of your points.
• Well this is about it for this Section. I will see you soon in the next Section.
Slide 17
Section 3 Preparing For Your
Presentation
• Introduction
• Welcome to Section Three of Unit Four. In the previous section I
taught you how to do presentations to persuade. I told you that
that persuasion involves knowledge of the information. I also talked
about what kinds of audiences there are and we did some practice
on what to present. In this Section I want to teach you on how to
prepare for a presentation. It will not be anything you cannot
handle. Come along with me.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this Section, you should be able to write a
presentation with a clear introduction, body and conclusion.
• identify some non verbal issues that increase the sharpness and
effectiveness of delivery.
Slide 18
• What to Include in the Introduction of Your Presentation
• Do you remember your lesson on how to write introductions to essays in Unit 4 of
last year’s manual, UGRC110? In Section 2 of that Unit, I reminded you that every
Unit and Section of your course book has an introduction which helps you to know
in a general sense, what the Unit or Section would be about. I also told you that
the Introduction is very important because it is the first point of contact between
your work and the reader. I also pointed out to you some ways of writing efficient
introductions. We want to use those same principles to write introductions to
presentation to be delivered orally.
• The Introduction of a presentation has some key objectives:
• It helps to induce and sustain attention.
• It helps you to make your audience know or feel you have information they need.
• It puts your message into a context because you will state the purpose and main
areas of your presentation.
• You may have realized that the objectives stated above are similar to those of the
essay! Let me explain these objectives a bit more.
Slide 19
• Inducing and Sustaining Attention
• An audience may appear to be paying attention but you need to
direct their attention and so your introduction must be interesting
enough to direct the attention that you desire in your audience. Let
us look at an earlier example once again:
• You heard the teacher call my name: Adzo Kudawoo. This is an Ewe
name. My paternal and maternal grandparents come from Keta in
the Volta Region of Ghana and the small community in which I live
in Kumasi- Anloga- is still predominantly Ewe with a full allotment
of Yevenyos, Fialors, Akpedonus and Quashigahs. Many Ewe
customs are still practiced today in my home and in my community.
Today I want to tell you about one Ewe custom that has been
adopted by most Ghanaians and two Ewe customs that are
practiced by Ewes all over the world.
Slide 20
• You remember that when we used this example, we said it was
meant to establish a link between the presenter and his topic. He
must be qualified to speak about the topic. You may note from
another angle that this same example serves as an introduction that
is meant to induce the audience to listen. Your introduction may
also engage your audience and pay attention when you by ask them
direct questions. For instance a presenter of a topic ‘Nutrients for
the body’ may start by asking “I know you all have heard about the
food groups but I want you to tell me which foods give us some. I
would want your answers” A simple question like this would
prompt your audience to listen.
• Suspense is another way that will make your introduction
interesting and make your audience pay attention. An example
would be:
Slide 21
• “Well we all know that One hundred and twenty nine people died at the
Accra Sports Stadium on May 9th and quite a number orphans were left
behind. Today we are going to learn about how these orphans are coping
with their loss”.
• Can you sense a feeling of a want to listen to more on what has happened
to the orphans? If you can sense or have a feel to listen to more then you
have identified what I mean by creation of suspense. You also may have
noted that in our example from ‘Adzo Kudawoo and Ewe customs’ there is
a creation of suspense towards the end of her introduction because you
would wonder what customs she will be talking about and why they are so
important. I want you to keep this in mid as you write and note that this
starts right from the beginning.
• Lastly, you can also use striking facts and figures that the audience may
need. When addressing a group of Secondary school students about the
importance of stamping out poverty from our society, you may say this:
Slide 22
• Poverty is all around us. Indeed of the twenty –two
million Ghanaians, it is believed that about 60% percent
of all Ghanaians are poor and about 90% of the 60% live
way below the poverty line. These figures are strong
indicators that the fight against poverty will be a very
difficult and time consuming act. It is an act that will
demand some important strategies to enable us win.
Some of these strategies will be what I want all of us to
be concerned about this afternoon!
• You will realize that the example above makes use of data
which make the topic important to listen to. Remember
that presentations are meant to persuade and inform!
Slide 23
• Your Introduction Must Show You Have Information
• I have already told you about the need to direct and
keep the attention of your audience even from the
introductory sections of your presentations. One way
of keeping your audience which I have indirectly
referred to is that you must make your audience
know you have information that they need. Read our
immediate example on poverty. You will realize that
the presenter talks about ‘needed strategies’ to
combat poverty. Such indicators need to be said
right from the beginning!
Slide 24
• Indicators of what the Presentation will be About
• In all the various examples that I have given to you so
far, you will realize that ‘Adzo Kudawoo’ tells us she
will talk about a specific number of Ewe customs and
the piece on ‘Poverty’ talks about some needed
strategies. Telling the audience the purpose and main
areas of the presentation tunes their mind to what to
expect and they expect that you as the presenter will
stick to this promise you have made at the beginning
of your presentation.
Slide 25
• The Body of Your Presentation
• Now your introduction has indicators of ability to sustain interest of the
audience, it indicates that you have some useful information to share and
it shows the main purpose and areas of your presentation. Now you have
to work on the Body of your presentation.
• Do you remember the several methods of paragraph development we
learned in Unit Three of UGRC 110? I need you to revise this again since
these same methods of development are needed for the development of
the body paragraphs of your presentation orally. Let me remind you of
some of the methods of development of the paragraph which you need at
this stage of your presentation. They are: Illustrations, process analysis,
comparisons and contrast,, cause and effect /problem and solution and
classification. Each of these methods of development may be important to
your presentation depending on the purpose and focus of your
presentation. Remember again that the presentations are basically meant
to persuade and to inform.
Slide 26
• Writing A Good Conclusion
• Conclusions are very crucial to the understanding and
acceptance of your presentation. Therefore, we must end
with a degree of force that will make our audience
remember our presentation.
• The conclusion to a presentation must not be abrupt.
When driving a car and you want to stop at a point , you
show your indicator to the left or to the right to warn
those driving behind you especially that you mean to
stop. In the same vein, the Conclusion should have
indicators that you are about to end your presentation.
Let us look at a few of such indicators.
Slide 27
• Restating Your Main Points
• One of the commonest but effective ways of
concluding is by recalling your main idea and points
related to it in the form of a summary.
Slide 28
• Using Astriking Statement or Quotation
• Another effective method of concluding your presentation is by using a statement
or a quotation that your audience will remember. Sometimes the audience may
have drifted off while listening to you and such a forceful statement or quotation
would be able to bring them back to your speech or presentation. For example:
• We have heard this afternoon that the return of Ghana to multi-party democracy
has had some problems but in the main it has been successful. We have observed
that now we have strong political parties in place, the Legislature is relatively
strong and the Judiciary quite independent. The Executive arm of government has
set up agencies like the CHRAJ, SFO and the NCCE which are all in place. These
agencies which guard the people’s rights, and bring about public accountability are
all necessary and will surely help Ghana to solidify its democracy. Ghana has
chalked these modest successes. Ghana will succeed as a nation because it has
goals. Any country that will fail is like what Seneca, the famous Roman writer
describes when he says ‘ If a ship knows not the port to which it saileth, then no
wind is favourable.’ Ghana is not that type of a ship and so it will succeed.
Thank you.
Slide 29
• From the above example you will realize that the
writer has attempted to sum up the main points of
his presentation and has closed with a quotation that
is credited to a famous Roman writer, Seneca.
Slide 30
• Reference to the Introduction
• It is possible to refer to information or suspense raised in the
introduction of your presentation. This has a way of tying the
introduction to the body paragraphs and the body parts to the
conclusion. If we go back to the introduction of our essay on Black
Resistance on the African mainland, we could conclude this way:
• Ladies and Gentlemen, at the beginning of this presentation I drew
your attention to the fact that resistance to Chattel slavery did not
start with the activities of Toussaint d’Ouverte , Dessalines and
Christophe in Haiti. Neither was resistance given prominence with
Nat Turner in the Amercan South. Rather, undocumented evidence
in the form of tribal marks, induced abortion by females and
suicides marked the very noble acts of resistance to slavery on the
African mainland. The African has never been docile to easily
acquiesce to slavery. This is fact that should be documented as part
of our history and heritage.
Slide 31
• In fact I want you to think about other useful ways of
concluding your presentation.
• It is now time for some activities!
• Write an Introduction to a presentation you are to
make. Your topic is ‘Why we need to protect our
forests’.
Slide 32
• Activity 3.1
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
• I hope you found the exercise useful and easy. If it was difficult, read the section
again and try the exercise again.
• Activity 3.2
• Now let us try the Conclusion to the presentation of the same topic:
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Congratulations. I know you will be able to do the work.
Slide 33
• I have taught you how to do presentations in the form of what you should
write. Note that what you write for a presentation must be delivered
orally. We must therefore look at some few other things that will aid your
delivery. The first will be the use of eye contact
• Maintain Eye Contact
• A presentation is a conversation where the presenter is the dominant
speaker. The presenter talks to an audience. The relationship between the
presenter and the audience is like bond. Because of this ,there is the need
for the audience to be constantly aware that the speaker is talking with
them!
• If the speaker maintains eye-contact with his audience, then he is able to
know that the audience is engaged to his presentation or they are
listening to him. You will feel good when some members of your audience
nod to points you make. Similarly you feel encouraged when all eyes are
on you; that should make you feel you have something important to say
Slide 34
• Facial Expression
• Another nonverbal delivery tool is the use of facial expressions A
smile at a good point or a frown over a point that is considered as
negative expressed by the presenter may persuade the audience to
agree with him or frown will help to show sympathy to the
presenter’s cause.
• Body Movement for an Effect
• A presenter may incline slightly forward to make a strong point. He
may also move forward and direct a question at a particular person
in the audience to enhance audience participation. A presenter may
move away from the lectern to indicate that he is about to finish
his piece. Indeed, the body movement of a presenter may carry
different messages to the audience. The ability to do an effective
movement can make the audience listen to the presentation.
Slide 35
• Wearing A Good Attire
• I believe you have seen bank workers before. Have you noted that because
they are often well dressed, we feel confident to leave our money in their
care? This means that good dressing is a good tool in the presentation
process. It is important that a male presenter wears a decent shirt and
may wear smart tie .For females, a smart skirt, and jacket or a nice frock or
an African wear will do the trick!
• It is time for an activity!
• Activity 3.3
• Identify three nonverbal tools used in presentation and explain how one
helps with effective delivery.
• ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………
• That was not difficult! Congratulations on another job well done.
Slide 36
Summary
• Dear student, in this section I have taught you how to write
effective Introductions of your presentations. I talked about
why the introduction must sustain interest, it must show it has
important information and that it draws attention to
important parts of the essay. I mentioned briefly and referred
you to what goes into the body paragraphs and how to deal
with conclusions where reference to the introduction and
drawing on a quotation or a striking statement can be very
useful. In this section, I also talked about nonverbal elements
that help to make your presentation effective.
• I hope you have enjoyed this lesson. See you soon in the next
section.
Slide 37
Section 4 Selecting and Arranging
Content
• Introduction
• Welcome to the fourth section of this Unit. In the last section we identified some ways by
which we can make our introduction stand out. We also noted that the body paragraphs can
become organized by using different approaches such as the process analysis, compare and
contrast as well as definitions and illustrations. The section also dwelt on ways by which our
conclusions can become effective as well as nonverbal tools to aid delivery.
• In this section we are going to deal a little more with what should serve as content and how
we can arrange the materials we have to make the presentation attractive and persuasive.
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section you should be able to: identify sources for the selection of content
• use the sources for the selection of content
• arrange information for it to have order
• write a presentation with well organized information for content
Slide 38
• Research
• One very good way of selection of content is by research of issues
related to the topic. Research comes in the form of books that are
related to the topic you are to speak on. Some books may be
popular for the topic you are to speak on but there are others that
may be equally good but not as popular. The most important thing
is for you to find out the points that either support your point of
view and even those that disagree with what you know of the topic.
• Remember that you are summarizing or paraphrasing the points
made in the books to incorporate them into your presentation.
Lifting of information without acknowledgement is a crime so make
sure you take note of the facts of publication to use in your
bibliography. If you must use the words of an author , be sure to
write the words correctly as you found them in the book.
Slide 39
• We can also do our research on the internet which is
also another good source of information for our
presentations. What is important to know about the
internet is that you have to do a careful selection in
other to avoid the sites that are biased about the
topic that you are about to research. In other words,
any site that does not offer a balanced and logical
presentation of materials on your topic should be
avoided.
Slide 40
• Nelson, Titsworth and Pearson(2007) note the following advantages of
research to your presentation:
• Preparation Step Benefit Of Research
• Topic selection Discover and narrow topics
• Organizing ideas Identify main and subordinate
points
• Supporting ideas Facts, examples and definitions to give
substance to points
• Introduction and conclusion Reveals interesting examples, anecdotes or
quotes
• Practice and delivery Confidence and credibility to your
presentation
Slide 41
• What I have done above is to show you each
preparation step of your presentation and the
benefits that research can offer you. You should note
from the diagram that research can help you and
your presentation from the beginning till the end.
Slide 42
• Personal Experience
• Apart from research, we should not forget our own personal experiences
can be our source of information. For instance who is best suited to speak
about the ‘Homowo Festival’ in Accra than a Ga man who lives in Central
Accra and has participated in over twenty celebrations? Or who can best
give a presentation on the running of a Secondary school than a former
headmaster or a present headmaster? However the use of personal
experience in a presentation demands answering questions which include:
• Will it bring about a better understanding to your audience?
• Will it be too personal that the audience will feel uncomfortable?
• Will it be interesting to engage the attention of your audience?
• Is it relevant to the topic?
• If our answer to any of the above shows a level of doubt, then do not use
that information. Note also that personal experience does not include
what you learned secondhand. Besides it is unethical to use other people’s
experiences without asking them or say it as if they are your own.
Slide 43
• Interviews
• Interviews are very important in information gathering for your presentation. No
matter who you are interviewing for your information or presentation, you must
know the interview is a favour done and you are the beneficiary. Therefore we do
not want to waste time. If for instance you want to interview the Vice Chancellor
on some aspects of university administration to be presented at your old school,
you would not want to waste the Vice Chancellor’s time by fidgeting and not sure
of the exact questions you want answers on!
• So, you would want to serve notice to the person you want to interview. You would
also want to prepare your questions in advance get necessary equipment before
the interview. Remember to be on time for the interview and be in decent clothes!
• During the interview itself, you must be polite and be friendly in your tone. You
may have to reframe your questions where necessary and listen attentively even if
you are recording the interview. Last tip, do not extend the interview beyond the
time given unless the interviewee says so!
• I have given you three major sources of information for your presentation:
research, personal experience and interviews. I hope you can use these sources
when preparing and selecting information for your presentation.
Slide 44
• Let us do an activity.
• Activity 4.1
• Write out three major ways by which we can gather information
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Good job! Now let see if you will remember this!
• Activity 4.2
• Write three activities will you do before you undertake an interview
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
• Write out two things you should not do during your research from books.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
• I hope these short activities were good practice for you! Congratulations!
Slide 45
• Arranging Selected Information
• We have already talked about how to write the introduction, body and
conclusion. In this part of our lesson, I want to discuss a few things more
with on the body of the presentation or what may be termed the message
of the presentation.
• Most experts on public speaking agree that the body of the message has
to be written before one can introduce or conclude it.
• Select Main Points
• In our research, interviews or even our personal experiences, we may have
come across very important points, arguments or examples for our
presentation. These will have to be discussed, argued or even said during
the actual presentation. We need to identify the main purpose of our
presentation and then we identify the points that will help to make the
message come out clearly. This is because we will not need all the
information we have gathered or some of the information would be a
repetition of the same points said in other words.
Slide 46
• Let us consider the following as our main points if we want to do a
presentation on the ‘Importance of Chiefs to an ethnic group’
• Political rallying point
• Religious functions
• Economic functions
• Note that there are just three main points. We must also make sure the
three main points are about equal in importance and in content for them
to be broken into smaller units. What we can next is to break these three
main points into smaller ones . So , point one (Political rallying point)
could have the following sub points:
• Chiefs in diplomatic relations
• Role of chiefs in modern ‘war’ situations
• Chiefs in unity in diversity
• Chiefs and nationhood
• You realize that we can say a lot of the political role alone.
Slide 47
• Order of Main Points
• Our topic will determine which order of presentation of issues to use. We could
consider the chronological or spatial order if our presentation is mainly narration.
We could also use the cause- effect order to in argumentative presentations and
even when we want to inform. I hope you remember our lessons on these in the
previous year.
• I hope that if you are able to order your information, use parallel structures,
connectors and subordinations and indeed most of the issues I raised when we
discussed the paragraph, your presentation would turn out nicely!
• Good luck with your presentations.
• Summary
• Dear student, we have come to the end of this section on selection and
arrangement of content. I taught you that you have to do research for your topic,
you also can use your personal experience or find information from the internet. I
also drew your attention to how to break your main points into smaller bits and
use spatial order and the like to make your presentation good to listen to.
• Bye for now.
Slide 48
Section 5 Speaking On Special
Occasions
• Introduction
• Welcome to Section 5 of this Unit. In the previous sections of this
Unit, you and I have concentrated on presentations that are mainly
centred on academic situations. What we must know is that
presentations or public speaking is not restricted to academic
situations. So, in this section, I will teach you a few things you need
to do during church harvests, on birthdays, weddings and even in a
valedictory speech!
• Objectives
•
• By the end of this section you should be able to : identify situations
where certain speeches are needed
• note what will make your speech appropriate
• write out a speech for a special occasion
Slide 49
• Special Events
• I have already mentioned church harvests, birthdays,
wedding and university congregations where valedictory
speeches are given, as special events or occasions. Your
area youth group may ask you to chair a function for
them. Or, you may be asked to welcome a group of
visiting students to the place where you work! As up and
coming graduates, you may be called to make a
presentation or a speech on such occasions. Surely,
whoever is going to ask you to deliver such a speech has
faith in you and expects that you can do this effortlessly.
So, I have decided to teach you what to do when called
upon to give a speech at such a time.
Slide 50
• Characteristics Of Special Occasion Presentations
• In the earlier sections of this Unit, I told you that most speeches or presentations
are meant to teach, inform or to persuade. Special occasion speeches may try to
educate or enlighten or convince. According to Nelson, Titsworth and
Pearson(2007), who are specialists in public speaking, special occasion speeches
are meant more to be a performance of a ritual or what they describe as ‘a
ceremonial act that is characterized by qualities or procedures that are
appropriate to the occasion’(p.278).These scholars make this point stronger when
they note that during special occasions, presentations often punctuate important
moments. In other words there are various times during these occasions that
people are allowed to make various speeches. For instance during a congregation
at the University of Ghana, the Registrar serves as the ‘Master of Ceremonies’ and
at a certain time will invite the Vice Chancellor to give his report or the Registrar
may call on the Chancellor to confer degrees on graduands. The Registrar may also
invite a representative of the graduands to give the Valedictory speech on behalf
of his fellow graduands. These various speeches at a University’s congregation are
what have been referred to a ‘punctuating moments’
Slide 51
• What Goes into the Presentation on Special Occasions
• Organization
• Special occasion speeches are normally short and do not require the energies or research that may
go into the speech that is meant to inform or persuade. Because of these factors, on special
occasions, the presenter will have to be innovative in the use of transitions to show what is the
introduction, body and conclusion of the speech. Let us consider the following as an optional
speech at a Birthday Party in order to identify the parts of the speech that constitute the
introduction, body or conclusion of the speech:
• Ladies and Gentlemen:
• I have been given an unusual role of giving an optional speech on the occasion of the birthday of
Mrs. Kwakye. I am not so much a person used to giving speeches and since the occasion we are
celebrating is also party, I shall be brief.
• I have always believed in any kind of celebration. The urge to celebrate becomes even greater when
the celebrant is seeing the seventy-fifth year of her life!
• I daresay that the presents are very well chosen and meant to show our love. The food and drinks
are exquisite. But for me, the real gift is the life of Mrs. Benewaa Kwakye whom we are helping to
celebrate this afternoon. Her life is well –lived, well –controlled filled with loads of love. On such
an auspicious occasion, we cannot but pray bountiful mercies and favour for her!
• I shall ask all of you to raise your glasses to drink to her health! Mrs. Kwakye, we all love you! Happy
Birthday!
• Thank you.
Slide 52
• The example above is made up of four short paragraphs. Paragraph one is
the introduction of the presentation since it tells us the purpose and
occasion being celebrated. Paragraphs two and three serve as the body of
the speech. They take up the idea of a celebration and place the main
celebrant in a certain light. All attention is therefore placed on the
principal celebrant. Paragraph four takes up the rhythm and purpose to a
lively and light tone and we get a feel of a end of the speech when the
expression ‘Happy Birthday’ is used. In other words, the creative nature of
the presenter is what will give the audience the feeling of the place in the
speech namely: introduction, body and conclusion of the speech.
• You should be able to organize your presentation such that it is not too
long and caters for the exact reason why you are giving the speech.
Therefore whether it is a presentation of a main speaker, or a presentation
to dedicate or to commemorate an event, your expertise is needed for the
audience to listen to you.
Slide 53
• Formality
• Most Special Occasions are formal situations. Therefore, the language
tends to be formal in nature. The formal nature of the occasion does not
mean one has to overly use difficult words which the audience may not
easily appreciate. Rather the formality is seen more in the fact that the
spot which you have been given is part of a set of rituals from which a
presenter cannot depart. For instance if you are to give a valedictory
speech at a university congregation, your speech is part of the bigger
ceremony where the Chancellor, Vice Chancellor and a host of university
dignitaries will also give speeches. The valedictorian cannot depart from
the nature of the congregation and talk about colts football for instance
The proposal of a toast by a best man during a wedding ceremony is only
part of such rituals like the blessing of the rings, saying the vows and a
reply to the toast by the groom among many other rituals. Formality
therefore rests in being able to conform to the rules of the occasion.
Slide 54
• Let us have an activity!
• Activity 5.1
• State three situations which I have not mentioned but will need special speech.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..................................
• Activity 5.2
• Mention two characteristics of Special speeches
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Identify one special occasion, identify a role and write out a short speech that you will give.
• …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………I hope those were not so difficult!
Congratulate yourself even for the attempt! If you were able to get everything right, then I can say
you have done well. If you were not able to do it properly, then go over the lesson and see if you
can manage something good enough.
Slide 55
• Summary
• All too soon we have come to the end of this section on
speaking on special occasions!
• I have taught you that special occasions cover a wide
range of activities. I have explained that special occasions
demand your understanding of the overall ritual that is
being performed for you to play according to the rules of
the ritual. Special occasions demand that you engage the
attention of the audience by making your speech a
relatively short and formal one.
• Good bye.
Slide 56
• References
• Axelrod, R. B, Cooper, C.R. & Warriner A.M. (2006)
Reading Critically Well. Boston: Bedford /St.Martins
• Buscemi, S.V. (2005) A Reader for College Writers.
McGraw Hill Boston 2005
• German, Groenbeck, B.E. Ehninger, D. & Monroe, A.
(2004). Principles of Public speaking. Boston: Alyn and
Bacon
• Ramage, J.D. & Bean, J.C. (2000) The Allyn & Bacon
Guide to Writing. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.
•
Slide 57

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UGRC 210

Lecturer: Dr. David Ako Odoi

• Stella Boateng Norgbe

• Prof. Yaw Oheneba Sakyi

• Section 2 Types of Presentations: Presenting to

• By the end of this course, you should be able to read and

UNIT 1 - Overview of Grammar

Lecturer: Dr. David Ako Odoi Language Centre

• Indigestion is when you cannot digest food.

• Kofi went to the party. Ama stayed at home.

In example (a) the run on sentence may be revised to read

• Today is Ghana’s Independence Day so we went to the parade.(revised)

What has happened in these revised sentences is similar to the revision of

We note in the above example that there are two independent

We can revise this sentence to read:

d)They sent a parcel to his mother wrapped in silver foil.

We will revise it to read:

What has happened is that I have moved the modifiers ‘wrapped in

He bought a watch from a shop which runs on small batteries.(misplaced)

This sentence can be revised to read

That was not difficult!

Evershed Kwasi Amuzu

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Tel: (233) 21 501789

ii Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon iii

Unit 1 Paragraph Structure

Unit 2 Methods of Developing a Controlling Idea in a

Unit 3 Reading Techniques

iv Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon v

vi Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

2 Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

This unit will cover the following topics

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon 3

Section 1 Structure of the Single Paragraph

4 Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

pepper for example, overcook it and the flavour will be lost

The Parts of a Paragraph

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon 5

The Topic Sentence

University Education is Expensive

6 Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

University education is expensive

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon 7

Types of Supporting Sentences

MAJOR SUPPORTING SENTENCE 

Minor Supporting Sentence

The point I have made so far is that it is important to support your

8 Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

1. Write a paragraph on any topic of your own in the space provided

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon 9

middle, and an end. In other words, a paragraph has an introduction,

Introduction: Topic Sentence with a controlling idea

Conclusion: A concluding statement or Closure

10 Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon

Section 2 Paragraph Unity and Completeness

Centre for Distance Education, IAE, University of Ghana, Legon 11

rushing. (6) In fact there appears to be hustle and bustle in