1The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Learner-centered Psychological Principles

Cognitive factors- various strategies that one uses to learn
Cognitive Components
1. Attention
2. Cognitive function
3. Perception
4. Reasoning
Metacognition- monitoring/evaluation of learning
1. Nature of the Learning Process- complex subject matter
2. Goals of Learning Process- create meaningful and coherent representation of knowledge; support and
instructional guidance
3. Construction of Knowledge- can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways
4. Strategic Thinking- learners can create a use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve
complex/learning goals
5. Thinking about Thinking- higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations; facilitate
creative and critical thinking
6. Context of Learning- learning is influenced by environmental factors; ex. Culture, Technology, Instructional
Practices
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning- motivation is influenced by the individual emotional states,
beliefs, interests, goals, habits of thinking etc.
8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn- optimal novelty and difficulty relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control
9. Effect of Motivation on Effort- extended learner effort and guided practice
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on Learning- learning is most effective when differential development is taken into
account; development is predictable but at different phases
11. Social Influences on Learning- influenced by social interaction, interpersonal relations, and communication with
others
Individual Differences in Learning
12. Individual Differences in Learning- different strategies and approaches
13. Learning and Diversity- differences should be taken into account
14. Standard and Assessment- setting appropriately high and challenging standards in assessing learners; diagnostic
Summary of 14 LCP
Knowledge-Base- existing knowledge serves as foundation
Strategic Processing and Control- metacognition
Motivation and Effect- intrinsic, personal goals
Development and Individual Differences- unique journey
Situation/Context- context of society matters in learning
Basic Concepts and Issues on Development
Development- increase in complexity of functions and skills progression, predictable manner
Growth- quantifiable amount of change in body dimension
 Maturation- change that comes with age (internal ripening)
Learning- change that comes from experiences
Approaches in Human Development
1. Traditional Approach
Extensive change from birth to adolescence
Little or no change in adulthood
Decline in late old age
2. Lifespan Approach
Plastic- potential for change- molded
Multidimensional- different aspects
Gradual
Contextual- changing beings
Involves growth, maintenance and regulations
Concepts of Developmental Tasks
Developmental Task Theory of Robert Havighurst
1. Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years old)
2. Later Childhood (6-13)- academic, friendship
3. Adolescence (13-18)- peer pressure, discovery
4. Early Adulthood (19-30)- career, relationship
5. Middle Age (30-60)- marriage, having kids
6. Later Maturity (60 and above)- decline
8 Stages of Characteristics of Development (John Santrock)
1. Prenatal (conception to birth)- growth from a single cell to an organism; brain and behavioral capabilities
2. Infancy (birth- 2 years)- extreme dependence on adults and psychological activities are just beginning
3. Early Childhood (3-5)- preschool, become more sufficient, develop school readiness
4. Middle and Late Childhood (6-12)- exposed to larger world and culture; fundamental skills 3Rs, more central
theme child’s world
5. Adolescence (13-18)- rapid physical changes, sexual characteristics, independence and diversity, idealistic,
logical and abstract thinkers
6. Early Adulthood (19-29)- careers development, personal and economic independence; intimate relationship,
starting a family
7. Middle Adulthood (30-60)- expanding personal and social involvement; career satisfaction, guiding next
generation
8. Late Adulthood (61 and above)-decreasing health and strength; life review and retirement; adjustment to new
roles
Prenatal Stages
1. Germinal- first two weeks
Egg and sperm unites (fertilization)
Zygote divides (blastocysts)
2. Embryonic- 2-8 weeks
Cell differentiation intensifies
Life supporting systems develop
Organs appear (organo genesis)
Endoderm- inner layer of cells develop into digestive and respiratory system
Mesoderm- middle layer becomes circulatory, muscular, skeletal reproductive, excretory
Endoderm- outermost layer; nervous system, sensory receptors
3. Fetal- 2-9 months
 3rd month- genitals appear
4th month- prenatal reflexes
5th month- fingernails, toenails, skin
6th month- eyes, grasping reflexes, irregular movements
7th month- 16 inches, 13 pounds, organs complete
8th to 9th month- 4 pounds
Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
1. Teratogens (birth defects)
Prescription and non-prescription drugs
Psychoactive durgs
Environmental hazards
Maternal factors (rubella, syphilis, herpes, AIDS, anxiety, stress, age)
Paternal factors (lead, radiation, pesticides)
2. Child Nutrition
3. Exceptional Development
Pedagogical Principles in Pre-Natal Period
change in the shape of the embryo
significant welling of the head, embryo- mammoth head
nature starts with building blocks and then fills in the details
head develops first before the eyes
Other Concepts of Development
1. cephalocaudal- from head to toe
2. proximodistal- center outward
Brain Development and Myelination
Brain
50 million neurons at birth
Age 10, children have developed half of the braincell connection
Myelination- begins prenatally and continues after birth; process of forming a myelin sheath around the nerve to allow
nerve impulses to move
Myeline Sheath- electrically insulating layer
Others
Adult brain (1,300g – 1,400 g)
Newborn (about 25 % of adults)
Plasticity- reorganize itself by forming new connections or rewire between brain cells
Types of Motor Development
Gross Motor Skills (bigger, larger muscles)
Fine Motor Skills
Elements of Motor Development
1. Coordination- orchestrated movement of multiple body parts as required to accomplish intended activities
2. Spees- rate of performance or action
3. Static Balance- ability to hold body in a specific position/posture
4. Dynamic Balance- ability to maintain balance while moving.
 5. Agility- move quickly
6. Power- physical might or move with great speed or force
Research in Child Adolescent Development
Dewey’s Scientific Method
1. Identify and define the problem- WH questions
2. Formulate hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Conclusion
5. Apply conclusions to hypothesis
Research Designs
1. Case study- in depth look at an individual; Individual’s fear, hopes, fantasies, etc.
2. Correlational study- association
3. Experimental- cause and effect relationship (only true and reliable; limited to what is observable, tested and
manipulable; Hawthorne effect
4. Naturalistic observation- focus on children’s experiences in natural setting
5. Longitudinal- studies are designed for a long period of time; record and monitor development
6. Cross-sectional- individuals of different ages are compared at one time
7. Sequential- combined longitudinal and cross-sectional to learn life span development
8. Action research- reflective process of progressive problem-solving to address issues and solve problems
Data Gathering Techniques
1. Observation
2. Physiological measures
3. Standardized tests
4. Interviews and questionnaires
5. Life History Records
Ethical Principles
Data Privacy Act of 2012 (RA 10173)
Consent
Right of privacy
Teachers as Consumers/End Users of Research
What/how to teach; educational policies
Teachers as Researchers
Impact of Teacher’s Research Involvement in Teacher
Becomes more reflective and critical
Deliberate in decision making
Relate with others
Learning to teach is inherently is connected to inquire
9 Temperament Categories (S. Chess A. Tomas and H. Birch)
1. Activity Level- high and low activity level; physical activity
2. Mood- happier mood (good), negative mood (more unpleasant)
3. Threshold for Distress/Sensitivity- highly sensitive (react very strongly), low sensitivity (won’t be bothered by
subtle stimuli like sounds/textures)
 4. Rhythmicity- regularity of someone’s internal drives; CIRCADIAN
5. Intensity of Response-differs on how individuals react to situations
6. Approach Withdrawal- how quickly and easily a person adjusts to changes or new situations
7. Distractibility- how easily someone is distracted by environment
8. Adaptability- adjust/change to new situations (highly adaptable or slow to adapt)
9. Persistence- how long you are able and willing to stick to a task, even when it’s challenging
3 Components of Self-Concept (Carl Rogers)
How we perceive our behaviors, abilities, and unique characteristics
1. Ideal Self- the person you want to be; who you envision yourself
2. Self-image- how you see yourself at this moment
3. Self-Esteem- how much you like or accept yourself; how others see you, how you think and how you compare
yourself to others; role in society
Gender Identity and Stereotyping
Gender- an individual’s personal senses of having particular gender
Stereotyping- expectation that people might have about every person at a particular group
Separation Anxiety- excessive fear or worry about separation from home or an attachment figure
Ideas on Human Development
1. Nature Vs. Nurture
2. Continuity Vs. Discontinuity
3. Stability Vs. Change
Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories
1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
Id- pleasure principle (immediate gratification)
Ego- reality principle, deciding agent
Superego- moral, conscience
2. Psychosexual Development Theory
Libido- instinctual drive
Erogenous Zone- specific area in the body that is the focus of pleasure needs
Fixation- results from failure to satisfy needs of particular psychosexual stage
Stages and Characteristics of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)
Schema- prior knowledge
Assimilation- schema + new concept= fit in
Accommodation- schema + new concept= doesn’t fit in
Equilibrium- balance
1. Sensorimotor Stage
2. Pre-Operational
3. Concrete Operational
4. Formal Operational
Process of Pre-Operational Stage (2-7)
Symbolic Functioning- make believe, pretend play
Centration- focus only in one aspect
Intuitive Thought- questioning
Animism- lifelike quality
Artificialism- windy/clouds
Egocentrism- self centeredness
 Transductive Reasoning- having a nap
Concrete Operational (7-11)
Thinks logically
Achieves conservation
Reversibility
Seriation
Classification
Decentering
Elimination of Egocentrism
Formal Operational (12 and above)
Logical and abstract
Formulation of hypothesis
Conclusion
Judgement

Inductive Deductive
Bottom-up reasoning Top-down reasoning
Analysis to generalization Generalization to analysis
Parts to whole Whole to parts

Convergent Divergent
Single best Multiple possible solution
One best answer Multiple creative ideas
Speed, logic, and accuracy Unconventional ideas

Psychosocial Theory (Erik Erikson)

Incorporated social and cultural aspect
Psychological arises that affect development of a child
Maladaptation- too much positive
Malignancy- too much negative
Basic virtue
Epigenetic Principle (rose bud)
Sequence of stages – genetic or hereditary factors
4 Conditions of Human Development
People grow
People grow in sequence
People grow in time
People grow together in community
Stages of Moral Development (Laurence Kohlberg)

Stage Characteristic
Pre-Conventional 1. Punishment- Avoidance Fear of Punishment
and Obedience (2-4)
2. Mutual Benefit (5-9) Exchange of Favors
Conventional 3. Good Girl/Good Boy Social Approval
 (7-12)
4. Law and Order (10-15) Following Established Rules
Post-Conventional 5. Social Contract (12-20) Common Good
6. Universal Ethical Conscience
Principles (21 and
above)

Heinz Dilemma
Socio-Cultural Theory (Lev Vygotsky)
Zone of Proximal Development- gap between actual and potential encounters
Actual Development- what children can do on their own
Potential Development- what children can do with help
Ecological Theory (Urie Bronfenbrenner)
1. Microsystem- one direct relationship
2. Mesosystem- interaction of two microsystem
3. Exosystem- environment has nothing to do with the child but will affect the child
4. Macrosystem- society and culture
5. Chronosystem- making life adjustments
Stages of Language Acquisition
1. Cooing (0-6)- pre-talking
2. Babbling (6-8)
3. One-word utterances (holophase)
4. Two-word utterances (combination)
5. Telegraphic speech (more complex, incomplete)
6. Basic adult sentence
Language Acquisition Device (Noam Chomsky)
- Mental capacity which an infant acquire and produce language
Nativist Theory of Language
- Innate facility for acquiring language
Steps:
1. Imitate
2. Repeat
3. Memorize
4. Controlled Drilling
5. Reinforcement
Attachment Theory (John Bowlby)
Stages of Attachment
1. Pre-attachment- no attachment
2. Indiscriminate- show preference for primary/secondary caregivers
3. Discriminate- strong attachments to one specific caregiver
4. Multiple- growing bonds with other caregivers
Emotional Quotient (Daniel Goelman)
 1. Emotional Self Awareness- knowing what we are feeling
2. Self-regulation- controlling or redirecting one’s emotions
3. Motivation- using emotional factors
4. Empathy- sensing emotions
5. Social Skills- relationships
Stages of Play (Mildred Parten Newhall)
Important for developing:
- Self regulation
- Promoting Language
- Cognition
- Social competence
Types:
1. Unoccupied- only observing; attention to anything interesting
2. Solitary- playing alone
3. On-looker- vicarious experiences; watching others play
4. Parallel- before someone – two children with different tasks; playing beside someone and not with them
5. Associative- child plays with others; not task assignment
6. Cooperative- plays with others bound by agreed values and roles
Caregiving/Parenting Styles
1. Supportive- parents are accepting, child-centered
2. Unsupportive- rejecting, parent-centered
3. Authoritative/Democratic- child is active, relationship is reciprocated
4. Authoritarian- child is passive, relationship is controlling
5. Permissive- low in control, relationship is indulgent
6. Neglecting- uninvolved parents, relationship is rejecting

Foundations of Special and Inclusive Education

Common Terms
Impairment (body)- loss or abnormality
Disability (function)- measurable impairments or limitation with a person’s ability
Handicap (society)- disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability
o Exceptional learners- different from normal or average learners; special needs such related to cognitive abilities,
behavior, social functions, physical and sensory impairments.
o Learners with special educational needs- learners who need additional support
o Persons/People with Disabilities (PWD)- who have long term physical, neutral, intellectual or sensory
impairments.
o People First Policy- puts the person before the disability, and describes what a person has, not who a person is.
o Magroglasia- tongue of people with down syndrome

Concepts of Special and Inclusive Education

Placement in Special Education- amount of time and type of curriculum or activity in each school day
Individualized Education Plan (IEP)- particular educational program required and designed specifically for a
child’s unique requirements and needs; collaborative
Concepts of Mainstreaming, Inclusion, and Integration
Inclusion- act of including and accommodating people who have historically been excluded (race, gender,
sexuality, or ability); attending a regular classroom for social and academic benefit; not expected to learn the
same material
Mainstream- attending a regular classroom for social and academic benefit; expected to learn the same material;
modification in the course and adjustments in the assessment

Mainstreaming Inclusion
Meets criteria to participate Student is participant regardless of abilities
Must demonstrate ability to work with existing curriculum Curriculum is adapted and modified to meet student’s
needs
SPED teacher oversees the student’s education GENED teacher oversees the student’s education
Partial and full integration (academic and non-academic) Partial and full inclusion (required services, other setting)

Integration- aims to unify ordinary and special education with the aim of offering a set of services to all children
based on their learning needs (Birch, 1974); type of mainstreaming where exceptional learners and regular
students are housed in a mainstreamed classroom
Concepts of Equality and Equity
Equality- same sources or opportunities
Equity- fairness; each person has different circumstances
Accommodation- minimal assistance to the LSEN but using same task as everyone else
- Extended time
- Frequent breaks
- Changes in the classroom activities
- Preferential seating
- Physical room arrangement
- Copies of notes
- Peer/teacher tutoring
Modifications- changing some parts of the task to help the LSEN
- Course
- Standards
- Location
- Timing
- Scheduling
- Expectations
Models of Disability
Medical Model
- Personal Tragedy Model
- Disability is a disease
- Focus is to cure, alleviate through rehabilitation and segregate for protection
Social Model
- disability is a product of social condition; society is more limiting than disability
- RA 9442 (RA 9277) Magnat Carta for Disabled Persons
- RA10754- expanding benefits and privileges of PWDs
History of Disability
1. Era of Extermination- died of complications/killed
Early Civilization- reached adulthood but didn’t live a normal/good life
Reasons of early death
 Lack of medical understanding and technology
Killed for economic reasons
Killed for religious reasons
Eugenic
Starved, chained, whipped, caged, or put to death
2. Era of Ridicule- permitted to live often became beggars; amusement or court jesters
3. Era of Asylum- renaissance; PWDs are cared by the Catholic Church; seen as helpless people, unteachable
4. Era of Beginning
Pedro Ponce de Leon- educated deaf people from the noble class
Abbé Charles Michel de l'Épée- institute for the deaf
Louis Braille- tactile system of reading and writing for the blind
Delia Delight Rice- first SPED facility in PH
Key Development of Inclusive Education
1. Alternative Learning Systems
2. Schools for the Handicapped
3. Distance Learning Modalities
Legal Bases
1. RA 3562- act to promote the education of the blind in the PH (1962)
2. RA 5250- 10-year training program for teachers of special and exceptional children in the PH
3. PD 603 s. 1974- the child and youth welfare code; at least one special class in every province
4. RA 9394- PD 603 Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006
5. BP 232 Education Act of 1982- formal education system
6. 1987 Constitution, Article XIV
7. RA 7277- Magna Carta of Disabled Persons, Section 12 and 14
8. RA 9442- 20% discount in all basic services
9. RA 10754- discount expanded, exemption to VAT
10. Senate Bill No. 1414 Inclusive Education for Children and Youth with Special Needs Act
11. Senate Bill No. 1298- free appropriate public education
Giftedness
5 categories
1. Mild (115-129)
2. Moderate (130-140)
3. High (145-159)
4. Exceptional (160-170)
5. Profound (180+)
Profiles of Gifted Learners
1. Successful
2. Challenging
3. Underground
4. Drop outs
5. Double Labeled
6. Autonomous
Concepts of Identification and Assessment
Identification- critical data gathering process to help educators and parents answer questions for future decision
making
Assessment- standardized test administration but goes well beyond it
 Testing- individual administration of a standardized test
Typical and Atypical Cognitive Development
Typical Development- normal progression in children gives a generic picture of progress compared to same age
peers
Atypical Development- not within normal development milestone; adversely affect the child’s overall
development; development delay, genetic conditions
o Prader-Wili Syndrome
o Klinefelter Syndrome
o Turner Syndrome

Concepts of Full-Time Grouping

Full-Time Homogenous Grouping- same cooperative learning group; 1 classification
Full-Time Heterogenous Grouping- diverse group of students part in the same cooperative learning group;
varying age level, special needs, interests
Assistance- accommodation, modification, individualization
Concepts of Tiered Instruction
- Varies the level of tasks doe students to have chance to find success
Tier 1: This is the core instruction that is provided to all students in the general education classroom. It
encompasses the regular curriculum and teaching strategies used for the majority of students. Tier 1 instruction is
designed to meet the needs of the average learner.
Tier 2: This tier involves targeted interventions provided to students who require additional support beyond the
standard Tier 1 instruction. It focuses on specific skills or areas where students are struggling. Tier 2 interventions
are typically delivered in small groups and can be provided by the classroom teacher or a specialist.
Tier 3: Tier 3 is the most intensive level of support and is tailored to meet the needs of students who require
significant individualized assistance. Students in Tier 3 typically have persistent difficulties and may receive more
specialized interventions or one-on-one instruction. These interventions often involve more frequent progress
monitoring and may be provided by specialized interventionists or special education teachers.
Kinds of Exceptionalities (Jeanne Ormrod)
Specific Cognitive/Academic Difficulties
1. Learning Disabilities
Dyslexia- reading
Dysgraphia- writing
Dyscalculia- arithmetic
Dyspraxia- psychomotor
2. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Difficulty in focus; recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior
3. Speech and Communication Disorder
Slurred/stuttering
Dysarthria- week muscles
Aphasia- brain is affected, usually caused by accident
Speech delays
Emotional/Conduct Behaviors
1. Autism
Different levels of impaired solid interaction and communication; no eye contact
2. Mental Retardation
Intellectual difficulty
Sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior
 IQ Severity Real Life
50-70 Mild Educable
35-50 Moderate Trainable
20-35 Severe ADL’s
Below 20 Profound

3. Emotional Conduct disorder

Presence of emotional states like depression and aggression
Physical Abilities and Health Impairments
1. Physical and Health Impairments
Limited energy and strength
Reduced mental alertness
Limited muscle control
2. Severe and Multiple Disability
Presence of two or more different types of disabilities
Sensory Impairments
1. Visual impairments
2. Hearing impairments
Giftedness
Type 1,6- generally identifiable
Type 2,3,4,5- not being identified or misdiagnosed
Double-Labeled (Dual Exceptionalities)
Response to Intervention (RTI)
Tier 1: universal (core classroom)
Tier 2: targeted small group
Tier 3: Intensive individual intervention
Learners With Difficulty Seeing
Blurred Vision
Nearsightedness
Farsightedness
Presbyopia- the gradual loss of your eyes' ability to focus on nearby objects
Astigmatism- occurs when either the front surface of the eye (cornea) or the lens inside the eye has mismatched
curves
Learners With Difficulty Hearing
Deafness- hearing loss is above 90 decibels
Hearing impairment- hearing loss is below 90 decibels
Learners With Difficulty Communicating
Speech- expression of language with sound/oral production; produced through physiological and neuromuscular
coordination
Respiration- act of breathing
Phonation- by larynx
Articulation
 Language- used for communication
Learners With Autism Spectrum Disorder