Literary Terms Handbook

A Anapest A metrical foot of three syllables in which

two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one
Act A major unit of a drama, or play. Modern dramas
(˘˘
). In the following line from Dylan Thomas’s “Fern
generally have one, two, or three acts. Older dramas,
Hill” the feet are divided by slashes:
including Shakespeare’s, often have five acts. Acts may
be divided into one or more scenes. ˘ ˘
˘ ˘
˘ ˘

Though I sang / in my chains / like the sea.
See also DRAMA, SCENE. See also FOOT, METER, SCANSION.
Allegory A literary work in which all or most of the
Anecdote A brief account of an interesting happen-
characters, settings, and events stand for ideas, qualities,
ing. Essayists often use anecdotes to support their
or figures beyond themselves. The overall purpose of an
opinions, clarify their ideas, get the reader’s attention,
allegory is to teach a moral lesson.
or entertain. Biographers often include anecdotes to
See page 525. illustrate points about their subjects. Boswell’s The Life
See also SYMBOL. of Samuel Johnson contains an anecdote about the
first time Boswell was introduced to Johnson by
Alliteration The repetition of consonant sounds, Thomas Davies.
generally at the beginnings of words. Alliteration can be
used to emphasize words, reinforce meaning, or create Antagonist A person or a force that opposes the
a musical effect. Note the repeated s and d sounds in protagonist, or central character, in a story or drama.
the following line from Hopkins’s “Pied Beauty”: The reader is generally meant not to sympathize with
With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim; the antagonist. In Beowulf, Grendel is an antagonist.
See pages 758, 1307. See also CONFLICT, PROTAGONIST.
See also SOUND DEVICES.
Anthropomorphism The assignment of human
Allusion A reference to a well-known character, place, characteristics to gods, animals, or inanimate objects.
or situation from history, music, art, or another work of It is a key element in fables, where the main charac-
literature. Discovering the meaning of an allusion can ters are often animals. The sheep in Janet Frame’s
often be essential to the understanding of a work. “Two Sheep” have human characteristics.
See page 512. See page 1273.
See also FABLE.
Ambiguity The state of having more than one
meaning. The richness of literary language lies in its Aphorism A short, pointed statement that expresses
ability to evoke multiple layers of meaning. a wise or clever observation about human experience,
See also CONNOTATION. such as Pope’s saying from An Essay on Criticism:
We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow;
Analogy A comparison that shows similarities
Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so.
between two things that are otherwise dissimilar. A
writer may use an analogy to explain something See also EPIGRAM.
unfamiliar by comparing it to something familiar.
Apostrophe A figure of speech in which a speaker
Shakespeare pokes fun at analogies in “Sonnet 130,”
addresses an inanimate object, an idea, or an absent
claiming, “My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun.”
person. In Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ode to the West
See also METAPHOR, SIMILE. Wind,” the speaker addresses the wind.
See page 262.
See also PERSONIFICATION.

R1
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 1 3/24/08 1:00:04 PM
 Archetype A symbol, a character, an image, or a story Author’s purpose An author’s intent in writing a liter-
pattern that recurs frequently in literature and evokes ary work. Authors typically write for one or more of the
strong responses, often based on unconscious mem- following purposes: to persuade, to inform, to explain,
ory. The story of a hero who embarks on a dangerous to entertain, or to describe.
quest is a recurring story in literature and film. See page 270.
See page 164. See also DICTION, STYLE, THEME.
See also SYMBOL.
Autobiography The story of a person’s life written by
Argument A type of persuasive writing in which logic that person. Autobiographies can give insights into the
or reason is used to try to influence a reader’s ideas or author’s view of himself or herself and of the society in
actions. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Mary which he or she lived. The Book of Margery Kempe is
Wollstonecraft presents a powerful argument for the the autobiography of a medieval woman.
education of women. Argument can also refer to a See page 156.
prose summary or synopsis of what is in a story or
play. See also BIOGRAPHY, DIARY, MEMOIR, NONFICTION.

See pages 417, 1104.

See also PERSUASION.
B
Ballad A narrative song or poem. Folk ballads, which
Aside In a play, a character’s comment that is usually recount an exciting or dramatic episode, were
directed to the audience or another character but is passed down by word of mouth for generations
not heard by any other characters on the stage. before being written down. Literary ballads are written
Asides, which are rare in modern drama, reveal what in imitation of folk ballads but have a known author.
a character is thinking or feeling. An example occurs Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is a
in Act 1, scene 4, of Shakespeare’s Macbeth. literary ballad. “Bonny Barbara Allan” is a folk ballad.
King. My worthy Cawdor! See page 200.
Macbeth. [Aside.] The Prince of Cumberland! See also FOLKLORE, NARRATIVE POETRY, ORAL
That is a step TRADITION.

On which I must fall down, or else o’erleap. Ballad stanza A quatrain, or four-line stanza, in which
the first and third lines have four stressed syllables, and
See also SOLILOQUY. the second and fourth lines have three stressed sylla-
Assonance The repetition of the same or similar vowel bles. Only the second and fourth lines rhyme. Although
sounds in stressed syllables that end with different conso- the basic foot in this stanza is the iamb (˘
), there
nant sounds. For example, the long i sound is repeated tend to be many irregularities, as in this stanza from
in the opening line from Ben Jonson’s “On My First Son”: “Get Up and Bar the Door.”
Farewell, thou child of my right hand, and joy; . . .




It fell about the Martinmas time,
See pages 890, 1147.



And a gay time it was then,
See also SOUND DEVICES.





When our goodwife got puddings to make,
Atmosphere The dominant emotional feeling of a lit-




erary work that contributes to the mood. Orwell’s descrip- And she’s boiled them in the pan.
tion of the natives’ dislike of him in “Shooting an Elephant”
See page 202.
builds an atmosphere of suspense and foreboding.
See also QUATRAIN, SCANSION.
See page 306.
See also MOOD. Bias An inclination toward a certain opinion or posi-
tion on a topic, possibly stemming from prejudice.
See also NONFICTION.

R2
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 2 3/24/08 1:00:18 PM
 Literary Terms Handbook

Biography An account of a person’s life written by Cavalier poetry The work of a group of English
someone other than the subject. Biographies have been poets in the 1600s who were loyal to the monarchy.
written of many of the writers in this book. Boswell’s Cavalier poetry is generally intended to entertain rather
The Life of Samuel Johnson is a famous example. than to instruct. It is characterized by regular rhythmic
See page 633. patterns, carefully structured stanzas, and simple but
eloquent language. Love is a popular theme. Herrick,
See also AUTOBIOGRAPHY, DIARY, JOURNAL, MEMOIR.
Suckling, and Lovelace were Cavalier poets.
Blank verse Poetry or lines of dramatic verse written
Character A person portrayed in a literary work. A
in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Each line has five
main character is central to the story and is typically
feet, with each foot made up of an unstressed syllable
fully developed. A minor character displays few per-
followed by a stressed syllable. Because blank verse
sonality traits and is used to help develop the story.
may attempt to imitate spoken English, every line
Characters who show varied and sometimes contradic-
need not be perfectly regular. Most of Shakespeare’s
tory traits are called round. Characters who reveal only
characters speak in blank verse—as Macbeth does, for
one personality trait are called flat. A stereotype, or
example, when he addresses the floating dagger in
stock character, is typically flat. A dynamic character
Act 2, scene 1:
grows and changes during the story. A static character
˘
˘
˘
˘
˘
remains basically the same throughout a story. Things
And on thy blade and dudgeon gouts of blood,
happen to the character, but he or she does not
See also FOOT, IAMBIC PENTAMETER, SCANSION. change.
Byronic hero See HERO. See page 1139.
See also CHARACTERIZATION, STEREOTYPE.
C Characterization The methods a writer uses to reveal
Cadence The rhythmic rise and fall of language when the personality of a character. In direct characterization,
it is spoken or read aloud. the writer makes explicit statements about a character.
In indirect characterization, the writer reveals a char-
See also FREE VERSE, METER.
acter through his or her words, thoughts, and actions
Caesura A pause in a line of poetry, usually near the and through what other characters think and say about
middle of a line, with two stressed syllables before and that character.
two after, creating a strong rhythm. A caesura is used See page 101.
to produce variations in meter and to draw attention to See also CHARACTER.
certain words. Some pauses are indicated by punctua-
tion, others by phrasing or meaning. In the lines below, Cliché A word or phrase that is so overused that it is
from Tennyson’s In Memoriam A. H. H., the caesuras virtually meaningless. “Dead as a doornail,” “piece of
are marked by double vertical lines. cake,” and “last but not least” are all clichés.
Ring out the old, || ring in the new,
Climax See PLOT.
Ring, happy bells, || across the snow;
See also RHYTHM. Colloquialism Informal language used in everyday
conversation but not in formal writing or speech. In
Carpe diem A Latin phrase meaning “seize the day”; Mansfield’s “A Cup of Tea,” Miss Smith is speaking col-
in other words, “make the most of each moment.” In loquially when she says, “I can’t go on no longer . . . I
carpe diem poems, the speaker emphasizes the short- can’t bear no more.”
ness of life—usually to persuade a young woman to
See also DIALECT, VERNACULAR.
yield to love while she still has her youth and beauty.
See page 448.

R3
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 3 3/24/08 1:00:27 PM
 Comedy A type of drama that is humorous and often Couplet Two consecutive, rhymed lines of poetry that
has a happy ending. A heroic comedy focuses on the follow the same rhythmic pattern. The last two lines of
exploits of a larger-than-life hero. Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 29” are a couplet:
See also DRAMA, FARCE, HUMOR, PARODY, SATIRE, WIT. For thy sweet love rememb’red such wealth brings
That then I scorn to change my state with kings.
Comic relief A humorous scene, event, or speech in
See also HEROIC COUPLET, RHYME, SONNET.
a serious drama. It provides relief from emotional inten-
sity while at the same time highlighting the seriousness Crisis See PLOT.
of the story.

Conceit An elaborate figure of speech that makes a D

comparison between two significantly different things. Dactyl A three-syllable metrical foot, in which the first
The conceit draws an analogy between some object syllable is stressed and the following two are
from nature or everyday life and the subject or theme unstressed. The following line from Tennyson’s “Tears,
of a poem. A metaphysical conceit is an intellectual Idle Tears” has a basic dactylic rhythm:
comparison—rather than one based on nature—that

˘ ˘
˘ ˘
˘ ˘

can develop a wide range of ideas and capture a Tears, idle/ tears, I know/ not what they/ mean,
broad range of emotions.
See also FOOT, METER, SCANSION.
See page 430.
See also ANALOGY, EXTENDED METAPHOR, Denotation The literal, or dictionary, meaning of a
METAPHYSICAL POETRY, SIMILE. word.
See also CONNOTATION.
Conflict The central struggle between two opposing
forces in a story or drama. An external conflict exists Dénouement See PLOT.
when a character struggles against some outside force,
such as another person, nature, society, or fate. An Description A detailed portrayal of a person, a place,
internal conflict is a struggle that takes place within an object, or an event. Good descriptive writing
the mind of a character who is torn between opposing appeals to the senses through imagery.
feelings, desires, or goals. See page 925.
See pages 23, 1259. See also FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, IMAGERY.
See also ANTAGONIST, PLOT, PROTAGONIST.
Dialect A variation of a language spoken by a particu-
Connotation The suggested or implied meanings lar region or class. Dialects may differ from the standard
associated with a word beyond its dictionary definition, form of a language in vocabulary, pronunciation, or
or denotation. A word can have a positive, negative, or grammatical form. In Naipaul’s story “B. Wordsworth,”
neutral connotation. the narrator and his mother speak a dialect of English.

See also AMBIGUITY, DENOTATION, FIGURATIVE I ran up the steps and shouted, “Ma, it have
LANGUAGE. a man outside here. He say he want to
watch the bees.”
Consonance The repetition of consonant sounds, See pages 690, 1284.
typically at the end of nonrhyming words and pre-
See also VERNACULAR.
ceded by different vowel sounds, as in this succession
of echoing d sounds in William Butler Yeats’s “The Dialogue Conversation between characters in a liter-
Second Coming”: ary work. Dialogue can contribute to characterization,
The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, . . . create mood, advance the plot, and develop theme.
See pages 890, 1147. See page 727.
See also SOUND DEVICES.

R4
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 4 3/24/08 1:00:53 PM
 Literary Terms Handbook

Diary An individual’s daily record of impressions, Dynamic character See CHARACTER.

events, or thoughts, written for personal use rather
than for publication. Samuel Pepys’s diary, written
E
between 1660 and 1669, is a famous example.
Elegy A poem mourning a death or another great
See page 538.
loss. Tennyson’s In Memoriam A. H. H. is an elegy.
See also JOURNAL.
See pages 438.
Diction A writer’s choice of words; an important ele-
ment in the writer’s “voice” or style. Skilled writers End rhyme The rhyming of words at the ends of
choose their words carefully to convey a particular lines, as in Housman’s “To an Athlete Dying Young.”
meaning or feeling. End-stopped line A line of poetry that contains a
See pages 744, 813. complete thought, thus requiring a semicolon or
See also AUTHOR’S PURPOSE, CONNOTATION, STYLE, period at the end, as in Blake’s “A Poison Tree”:
TONE, VOICE. I was angry with my friend;
I told my wrath, my wrath did end.
Dimeter A line of verse consisting of two feet.
See also FOOT, METER, SCANSION. See also ENJAMBMENT.

Drama A story intended to be performed by actors Enjambment The continuation of a sentence from
before an audience. The script of a dramatic work, or one line of a poem to another, without a pause, as in
play, often includes the author’s instructions to the the following lines from Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 116”:
actors and director, known as stage directions. A Let me not to the marriage of true minds
drama may be divided into acts, which may also be Admit impediments; love is not love
broken up into scenes, indicating changes in location Which alters when it alteration finds . . .
or the passage of time. Enjambment enables poets to create a conversational
See also ACT, COMEDY, PROPS, SCENE, STAGE tone, breaking lines at points where people would nor-
DIRECTIONS, TRAGEDY. mally pause in conversation yet still maintaining the
unity of thought.
Dramatic irony See IRONY.
See page 739.
Dramatic monologue A form of dramatic poetry in See also RHYTHM.
which a speaker addresses a silent listener. The
speaker may be a fictional or historical figure and is Epic A long narrative poem that recounts the adven-
clearly distinct from the poet. Robert Browning’s poem tures of a larger-than-life hero. This epic hero is usu-
“My Last Duchess” is a dramatic monologue. ally a man of high social status who embodies the
See page 937. ideals of his people. He is often of great historical or
legendary importance. Epic plots typically involve
See also DRAMATIC POETRY, MONOLOGUE.
supernatural events, long time periods, distant jour-
Dramatic poetry Poetry in which characters are neys, and life-and-death struggles between good and
revealed through dialogue and monologue, as well as evil. Works such as Beowulf are called folk epics
through description. Hardy’s “Ah, Are You Digging on because they have no certain authorship and arise,
My Grave?” is an example of dramatic poetry. usually through storytelling, from the collective experi-
See also DIALOGUE, DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE. ences of a people. Literary epics, such as John
Milton’s Paradise Lost, are written by known authors.
Dramatic structure The structure of a serious play. See page 20.
Common elements are exposition, rising action, climax,
See also LEGEND, MYTH, ORAL TRADITION.
falling action, and resolution.
See also PLOT.

R5
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 5 3/24/08 1:01:00 PM
 Epigram A short, witty verse or saying. Samuel Taylor way. An informal or personal essay entertains while it
Coleridge defined epigram with an epigram of his own: informs, usually in light, conversational style.
What is an Epigram? A dwarfish whole, See also NONFICTION, THESIS.
Its body brevity, and wit its soul.
Exaggeration See HYPERBOLE.
See also APHORISM.
Exemplum A brief story used as an example to illus-
Epigraph A quotation from another work or source trate a moral point. Chaucer’s “The Pardoner’s Tale” is
that suggests the theme or main idea of the work at an exemplum.
hand. It is often up to the reader to determine how
See also ANECDOTE, FABLE.
the quoted work relates to the literature it introduces.
An epigraph generally serves as an introductory pas- Exposition See PLOT.
sage at the beginning of a literary work. Kipling’s “Miss
Youghal’s Sais” begins with an epigraph. Extended metaphor A metaphor that compares
two unlike things in various ways throughout a para-
Epilogue A concluding statement or section added to graph, a stanza, or an entire selection.
a work of literature. See page 585.
Epiphany A moment of sudden understanding of See also METAPHOR.
the true meaning of a situation, a person, or an object.
In Katherine Mansfield’s “A Cup of Tea,” Rosemary Fell’s F
realization that her husband finds Miss Smith pretty is Fable A short, often humorous tale intended to teach
an epiphany. a lesson about human behavior or to give advice
See pages 1025, 1094. about how to behave. Many fables end by stating the
moral, or lesson to be learned, while others leave it up
Epistle Any letter, such as Lady Mary Wortley to the reader to infer the moral. In a beast fable, ani-
Montagu’s “Letter to Her Daughter.” Often the term is mals talk and act like humans.
applied to a more literary work than the informal com-
munication written by most people. Pope called the See also LEGEND, MORAL, PARABLE, THEME.
four poems that make up An Essay on Man “verse
Fairy tale A type of folktale that features supernatural
epistles.”
elements, such as spirits, talking animals, and magic.
Epitaph A brief statement commemorating a dead See also FOLKTALE.
person, often inscribed on a gravestone. Thomas
Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” ends Falling action See PLOT.
with an epitaph, as does Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur.
Fantasy A literary work that is set in an unreal world
See page 681. and that often concerns incredible characters and events.
See also ELEGY. There are elements of fantasy in Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels.
See also SCIENCE FICTION.
Epithet A word or brief phrase used to characterize a
person, place, or thing. Royal epithets are common: Farce A type of comedy with ridiculous situations,
Good Queen Bess, Richard the Lionheart, Edward the characters, or events.
Black Prince, Charles the Bold, and Philip the Good, for
See also COMEDY, HUMOR, PARODY, SATIRE.
example.
Fiction A narrative in which situations and characters
Essay A short piece of nonfiction writing on any topic.
are invented by the writer. Some aspects of a fictional
The purpose of the essay is to communicate an idea
work may be based on fact or experience. Fictional
or opinion. A formal essay is serious and impersonal,
works include short stories, novels, and plays.
often with the purpose of instructing or persuading.
Typically, the author strikes a serious tone and devel- See also DRAMA, NONFICTION, NOVEL, SHORT STORY.
ops a main idea, or thesis, in a logical, highly organized

R6
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 6 3/24/08 1:01:17 PM
 Literary Terms Handbook

Figurative language Language used for descriptive Foot The basic unit in the measurement of a line of
effect in order to convey ideas or emotions. Figurative metrical poetry. A foot usually contains one stressed
expressions are not literally true but express some syllable (
) and one or more unstressed syllables (˘).
truth beyond the literal level. Figurative language is The basic metrical feet are the anapest (˘ ˘
),
especially common in poetry. dactyl (
˘ ˘), iamb (˘
), spondee (

), and
See page 251. trochee (
˘).
See also FIGURE OF SPEECH. See also METER, RHYTHM, SCANSION, STANZA.

Figure of speech A specific kind of figurative lan- Foreshadowing An author’s use of clues to prepare
guage such as metaphor, personification, or simile. readers for events that will happen later in a story.
D. H. Lawrence prepares the reader for future happen-
See also CONNOTATION, FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE,
ings by stating at the beginning of “The Rocking-Horse
METAPHOR, OXYMORON, PERSONIFICATION, SIMILE,
Winner” that there was “always an anxiety in the
SYMBOL.
house. There was never enough money.”
Flashback An interruption in the chronological order See page 1078.
of a narrative to describe an event that happened ear- See also FLASHBACK, PLOT, SUSPENSE.
lier. A flashback gives readers information that may
help explain the main events of a story. Form The structure of a poem. Many modern writers
See page 1122. use loosely structured poetic forms instead of follow-
See also FORESHADOWING. ing traditional or formal patterns. These poets vary the
lengths of lines and stanzas, relying on emphasis,
Flash-forward An interruption in the chronological rhythm, pattern, or the placement of words and
sequence of a narrative to leap forward in time. phrases to convey meaning.
See also FLASHBACK. See pages 457, 825
See also FREE VERSE, RHYTHM, STANZA, STRUCTURE.
Flat character See CHARACTER.

Foil A character whose attitudes, beliefs, or behavior Formal essay See ESSAY.
differ significantly from those of another character. Frame story A story that surrounds another story or
Often a foil is a minor character who serves, through that serves to link several stories together. The frame is
contrast, to emphasize the distinctive characteristics of the outer story, which usually precedes and follows the
the main character. inner, more important story. Chaucer’s The Canterbury
See also ANTAGONIST, CHARACTER, Tales is a frame story. The pilgrimage is the outer story,
CHARACTERIZATION, PROTAGONIST. or frame, unifying the tales or inner stories told by the
pilgrims.
Folklore Beliefs, customs, stories, songs, and dances of
See also STRUCTURE.
a culture. Folklore is passed down through oral tradition
and is based on the concerns of ordinary people. Free verse Poetry that has no fixed pattern of meter,
See also BALLAD, EPIC, FOLKTALE, LEGEND, MYTH, rhyme, line length, or stanza arrangement. T. S. Eliot’s
ORAL TRADITION. “Preludes” is an example of free verse. Although poets
who write free verse ignore traditional rules, they use
Folktale A traditional story passed down orally long techniques such as repetition and alliteration to create
before being written down. Folktales include animal musical patterns in their poems.
stories, trickster stories, fairy tales, myths, legends, and See page 1268.
tall tales.
See also FORM, METER, RHYME, RHYTHM, STANZA.
See also FOLKLORE.

R7
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 7 12/19/07 10:08:25 AM
 G–H Heroic stanza A group of four poetic lines (a qua-
train) in iambic pentameter having a rhyme scheme of
Genre A category or type of literature. Examples of
abab, also known as the elegiac stanza. Gray’s “Elegy
genres are poetry, drama, fiction, and nonfiction.
Written in a Country Churchyard” features heroic, or
elegiac, stanzas.
Gothic novel A novel that has a gloomy, foreboding
setting and contains strong elements of horror, mystery, See also IAMBIC PENTAMETER, QUATRAIN, RHYME
and the supernatural. English writer Horace Walpole is SCHEME.
credited with writing the first gothic novel, The Castle of
Hexameter Line of verse consisting of six feet.
Otranto, in 1765. Gothic originally referred to a style of
architecture in western Europe during the Middle Ages. See also FOOT, METER, SCANSION.
Since the setting of Walpole’s novel is a medieval cas-
Historical fiction Fiction that sets characters against
tle, the term was applied to this type of writing.
the backdrop of a period other than the author’s own.
See page 792. Some works of historical fiction include actual historical
See also NOVEL. people along with fictitious characters.
Haiku An ancient Japanese form of poetry that has See page 603.
three lines and seventeen syllables. The first and third See also FICTION, NOVEL.
lines have five syllables each; the middle line has seven
syllables. Usually about nature, a traditional haiku uses Historical narrative A work of nonfiction that tells
striking imagery to evoke an insight or capture a mood. the story of important historical events or develop-
ments. Bede’s The Ecclesiastical History of the English
See also IMAGERY.
People tells of the influence of the Christian church on
Heptameter A metrical line of seven feet. English civilization.
See also FOOT, METER, SCANSION. See page 87.
See also HISTORY, NONFICTION.
Hero The chief character in a literary work, typically
one whose admirable qualities or noble deeds arouse History A factual account of real events that occurred
admiration. Although the word hero is applied only to in the past. Typically, a history is arranged chronologi-
males in traditional usage—heroine being the term cally and seeks to provide an objective description of
used for females—modern usage applies the term to what happened.
either gender. A Byronic hero is the unconventional, See also HISTORICAL FICTION, NONFICTION.
brooding, romantic character popularized by Lord
Byron in some of his verse. Hubris Extreme pride or arrogance. Hubris often
See pages 20, 806. results in the downfall of a protagonist who violates a
human, natural, or divine law. In his sonnet “Ozymandias,”
See also EPIC, LEGEND, MYTH, PROTAGONIST, TRAGEDY.
Percy Bysshe Shelley provides a concise portrait of
Heroic couplet A pair of rhymed lines in iambic hubris in the doomed king whose empire lies in ruins
pentameter that work together to express an idea or around him.
make a point. A heroic couplet is based on the poetic See also TRAGEDY.
form used by ancient Greek and Roman poets in their
heroic epics. The following lines from Pope’s An Essay Humor The quality of a literary work that makes the
on Man form a heroic couplet: characters and their situations seem funny, amusing, or
silly. Humor often points out human failings and the
And, spite of pride, in erring reason’s spite,
irony found in many situations. Humorous language
One truth is clear, Whatever is, is right.
includes sarcasm, exaggeration, and verbal irony.
See page 572. See page 133.
See also IAMBIC PENTAMETER, METER, RHYTHM. See also COMEDY, FARCE, PARODY, PUN, SATIRE, WIT.

R8
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 8 3/24/08 1:01:24 PM
 Literary Terms Handbook

Hymn A lyric poem or song addressed to a divine hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Note Yeats’s use of
being or expressing religious sentiments. imagery in “The Lake Isle of Innisfree.”
See also LYRIC. See pages 836, 1072, 1280.
See also FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
Hyperbole A figure of speech that uses exaggeration
to express strong emotion, to make a point, or to Informal essay See ESSAY.
evoke humor. The following passage from Andrew
Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress” contains hyperbole: Interior monologue A technique that records a
An hundred years should go to praise character’s emotions, memories, and opinions. Interior
Thine eyes, and on thy forehead gaze; . . . monologue contributes to the stream-of-consciousness
effect. Joyce’s “Araby” contains interior monologue.
See page 465.
See also STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS.
See also FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, UNDERSTATEMENT.
Internal conflict See CONFLICT.
I Internal rhyme Rhyme that occurs within a single
Iamb A two-syllable metrical foot consisting of one line of poetry. Poets use internal rhyme to convey mean-
unstressed syllable and one stressed syllable, as in the ing, to evoke mood, or simply to create a musical effect.
word divide. See also RHYME.

Iambic pentameter A poetic meter in which each Inversion Reversal of the usual word order for
line is composed of five feet (pentameter); each emphasis or variety. Writers use inversion to maintain
foot—known as an iamb—consists of one unstressed rhyme scheme or meter, or to emphasize certain
syllable (˘) followed by one stressed syllable (
). In words. In the first line that follows from Gray’s “Elegy
order to imitate the natural flow of spoken English, Written in a Country Churchyard,” the verb (fades)
poets using iambic pentameter often vary its rhythm. comes before the subject (landscape), a reversal of
The following line from Spenser’s “Sonnet 75” is a the usual order. In the second line, the object (stillness)
perfect example of this metrical form: comes before the verb (holds).
˘
˘
˘
˘
Now fades the glimmering landscape on the
But came / the tide, / and made / my pains / sight,
˘
And all the air a solemn stillness holds, . . .
his prey.
See page 534.
See also BLANK VERSE, FOOT, HEROIC COUPLET,
See also STYLE.
METER, RHYTHM, SCANSION.
Irony A contrast or discrepancy between appearance
Idiom An expression whose meaning is different from
and reality. Situational irony exists when the outcome
the literal meaning of the words that make it up.
of a situation is the opposite of expectations, as in
Phrases such as “catch his eye,” “turn the tables,” “over
Hardy’s poem “Ah, Are You Digging on My Grave?”
the hill,” and “keep tabs on” are idiomatic expressions
Verbal irony occurs when the meaning of a statement
understood by native speakers but often puzzling to
is the reverse of what is meant, as in Swift’s A Modest
nonnative speakers. Idioms can add realism to dialogue
Proposal. Dramatic irony occurs when readers or
in a story and contribute to characterization.
viewers know something that the characters do not.
See also DIALECT.
See pages 125, 809, 960, 1132.
Imagery The “word pictures” that writers create to
evoke an emotional response. In creating effective
images, writers use sensory details, or descriptions
that appeal to one or more of the five senses: sight,

R9
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 9 12/19/07 10:08:40 AM
 J–L M
Journal A daily record of events kept by a participant Maxim A short saying that contains a general truth or
in those events or a witness to them. A journal is usu- gives practical advice, particularly about morality and
ally less intimate than a diary, emphasizing events behavior. Also known as an adage or aphorism.
rather than emotions. Dorothy Wordsworth’s journal,
See also APHORISM.
kept from 1800 to 1803, provides a glimpse into
English country life. Melodrama A melodrama is usually a play, but it can
See page 754. be any work that has a strong conflict and appeals pri-
marily to the emotions. In a melodrama, the characters
See also DIARY, NONFICTION.
are either extremely good or extremely wicked.
Juxtaposition The placing of two or more distinct See also DRAMA.
things side by side in order to contrast or compare
them. It is commonly used to evoke an emotional Memoir A type of narrative nonfiction that presents
response in the reader. the story of a period in the writer’s life. It is usually writ-
ten from the first-person point of view and emphasizes
See page 801.
the narrator’s own experience of this period. It may
Kenning A descriptive figure of speech that takes the also reveal the impact of significant historical events on
place of a common noun, especially in Anglo-Saxon his or her life.
and Norse poetry. In Beowulf, for example, the sea is See also AUTOBIOGRAPHY, BIOGRAPHY.
described as the “whale road.”
Metaphor A figure of speech that compares or
See also FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
equates two seemingly unlike things to help readers
Legend A traditional story handed down from the perceive the first thing more vividly. In contrast to a
past, based on actual people and events, and tending simile, a metaphor implies the comparison instead of
to become more exaggerated and fantastical over stating it directly; hence there is no use of connectives
time. Often legends celebrate the heroic qualities of a such as like or as. The lines below from Sir Philip
national or cultural leader. Legends about King Arthur Sidney’s “Sonnet 39” contain metaphors:
and his knights of the Round Table have evolved from Come sleep! O sleep, the certain knot of peace,
a real warrior who led the British in battle in the eighth The baiting place of wit, the balm of woe, . . .
century
..
See page 284.
See page 189.
See also EXTENDED METAPHOR, FIGURATIVE
See also FOLKLORE, FOLKTALE, HERO, ORAL LANGUAGE, SIMILE.
TRADITION.
Metaphysical poetry The work of a group of seven-
Literary criticism A type of writing in which the teenth-century English poets led by John Donne.
writer analyzes and evaluates a literary work. Metaphysical poetry is written in a conversational style,
emphasizes complex meanings, contains unusual
Lyric poetry Poetry that expresses a speaker’s per-
imagery, and extends the range of metaphors into
sonal thoughts and feelings. A lyric poem is usually
areas of science, religion, and learning.
short and creates a single, unified impression.
See also CONCEIT, METAPHOR.
See pages 441, 956.
See also POETRY. Meter A regular pattern of stressed (
) and
unstressed (˘) syllables that gives a line of poetry a
more or less predictable rhythm. The basic unit of
meter is the foot, consisting of one or two stressed
syllables and/or one or two unstressed syllables. The
iamb, for example, consists of two syllables: one
unstressed followed by one stressed. The length of a
metrical line can be expressed in terms of the number

R10
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 10 12/19/07 10:08:50 AM
 Literary Terms Handbook

of feet it contains: Monologue A long speech by a character in a literary

dimeter, two feet work, spoken either to others or as if alone.
trimeter, three feet See also DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE, SOLILOQUY.
tetrameter, four feet
pentameter, five feet Mood The emotional quality of a literary work. A
hexameter, six feet writer’s choice of language, subject matter, setting, and
heptameter, seven feet tone, as well as sound devices such as rhyme and
rhythm, contribute to creating mood. Mood is a
The following lines from Marlowe’s “The Passionate
broader term than tone, which refers to the attitude of
Shepherd to His Love” are in iambic tetrameter:
a writer toward the subject matter or the audience. It
˘
˘
˘
˘
also differs from atmosphere, which is concerned
Come live / with me, / and be / my love, mainly with the physical qualities that contribute to a
˘
˘
˘
˘
mood, such as time, place, and weather.
And we / will all / the plea / sures prove.
See page 78.
See pages 423, 952. See also ATMOSPHERE, SETTING, TONE.
See also FOOT, IAMBIC PENTAMETER, RHYTHM,
SCANSION. Moral A practical lesson about right and wrong
conduct taught in a fable or parable.
Metonymy A figure of speech in which a word or See also FABLE, PARABLE.
phrase is substituted for another that is related. For
example, the executive branch of the British govern- Morality play A medieval religious play popular in
ment is often referred to as Downing Street, where the the 1400s and 1500s. The plays centered on the
prime minister lives in London. moral struggles of everyday people and were designed
See also FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. to teach lessons about salvation and the struggle
between virtue and vice. Characters were personifica-
Miracle play A medieval religious drama presenting tions of abstract qualities such as vice, virtue, mercy,
a story from the Bible or the lives of the saints; also ignorance, and poverty. The Creation of Adam and
called a mystery play. Eve is a morality play.
See also MORALITY PLAY. See also MIRACLE PLAY.

Mock-epic An imitation epic, or long narrative poem, Motif A significant word, phrase, image, description,
that makes fun of the trivial values of a society by idea, or other element repeated throughout a literary
using elevated language to describe a mundane event. work and related to the theme. Luck is a motif in
Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock” is a mock-epic. D. H. Lawrence’s “The Rocking-Horse Winner.”
See page 576. See page 327.
See also EPIC. See also THEME.

Modernism A term applied to a variety of twentieth- Motivation The stated or implied reason for a charac-
century artistic movements that shared a desire to ter’s actions. Motivation may be an external circumstance
break with the past. In addition to technical experimen- or an internal moral or emotional impulse.
tation, Modernist playwrights, writers, and artists in the See page 1002.
first half of the twentieth century were interested in the
irrational or inexplicable, as well as in the workings of Myth A traditional story that deals with goddesses,
the unconscious mind. The poetry of T. S. Eliot, with its gods, heroes, and supernatural forces. A myth may
new subject matter, diction, and metrical patterns, explain a belief, a custom, or a force of nature. Milton’s
came to define Modernism. Other Modernist writers Paradise Lost has mythic elements.
include Virginia Woolf and James Joyce. See also EPIC, FOLKLORE, LEGEND, ORAL TRADITION.
See also STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS.

R11
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 11 3/24/08 1:21:26 PM
 N Nonsense verse Humorous poetry that defies logic.
It usually has a strong rhythm and contains made-up
Narrative Writing or speech that tells a story.
words known as nonce words. Lewis Carroll’s
Narratives may be fiction or nonfiction, prose or poetry.
“Jabberwocky” is nonsense verse.
See also NARRATIVE POETRY, NARRATOR. See page 914.
Narrative poetry Verse that tells a story. Ballads, Novel A book-length fictional prose narrative having a
epics, and romances are all types of narrative poetry. plot, characters, setting, and a theme. A short novel is
“The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor often called a novella.
Coleridge is a narrative poem.
See also FICTION, PLOT, SHORT STORY.
See page 762.
See also BALLAD, DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE, EPIC, Novel of manners A realistic work that deals with
NARRATIVE. the conventions and values of a particular society or
social class, such as those depicted in Jane Austen’s
Narrator The person who tells a story. The narrator novels of nineteenth-century English country life.
may be a character in the story, as in James Joyce’s
“Araby,” or outside the story, as in Doris Lessing’s “A
Mild Attack of Locusts.”
O
Octave The first eight lines of a Petrarchan, or
See page 1027.
Italian, sonnet. The octave usually presents a situation,
See also NARRATIVE, PERSONA, POINT OF VIEW, an idea, or a question.
SPEAKER.
See also SONNET.
Naturalism A literary movement characterized by a
belief that people are part of the natural world and Octet A group of eight lines in a poem.
have little control over their own lives. Writers such as
Ode A serious lyric poem, dignified and sincere in
Hardy and Lawrence focused on the powerful eco-
tone and style. Some odes celebrate a person, an
nomic, social, and environmental forces that shape the
event, or even a power; others are more private medi-
lives of individuals.
tations. A Horatian ode, named for the Roman poet
See also REALISM. Horace, has a regular stanza pattern and rhyme
scheme. An irregular ode has no set rhyme scheme
Neoclassicism A term often applied to English litera-
or stanza pattern.
ture of the Neoclassical period, from 1660 to the end
of the eighteenth century. This period, which is also See page 830.
known as the Age of Reason, corresponds to Unit See also LYRIC POETRY.
Three in the text. Neoclassical writers valued order,
reason, balance, and clarity over emotion. The work of Onomatopoeia The use of a word or phrase that
imitates or suggests the sound of what it describes.
Alexander Pope is an example of Neoclassicism.
The words mew, crack, swish, hiss, caw, and buzz are
See also RESTORATION AGE. onomatopoeic words.
Nonfiction Literature that deals with real people, See also SOUND DEVICES.
places, and events. Among the categories of nonfiction
Oral tradition The passing of literature by word of
are biographies, autobiographies, and essays.
mouth from one generation to the next. Oral literature
See also AUTOBIOGRAPHY, BIOGRAPHY, ESSAY, is a way of recording the past, glorifying leaders, and
FICTION, HISTORY, MEMOIR. teaching morals and traditions to young people.
See also BALLAD, EPIC, FOLKLORE, FOLKTALE,
LEGEND, MYTH.

Ottava rima A stanza of eight lines written in iambic

pentameter with the rhyme scheme abababcc. Yeats’s

R12
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 12 12/19/07 10:09:03 AM
 Literary Terms Handbook

“Sailing to Byzantium” is written in ottava rima. exaggerate the rural pleasures and the innocence of
See also IAMBIC PENTAMETER, RHYME SCHEME, country people living in harmony with nature.
STANZA.
Pathetic fallacy The attribution of human thoughts
Oxymoron A figure of speech in which opposite and emotions to nature or to nonhuman objects or
ideas are combined. Examples are “bright darkness,” animals. In “The Tyger,” William Blake speaks of the
“wise fool,” and “hateful love.” stars as if they were capable of human feeling:
See also FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, PARADOX. When the stars threw down their spears
And watered heaven with their tears
The pathetic fallacy is a type of personification but
P–Q
refers specifically to feelings, not to all human qualities.
Parable A simple story pointing to a moral or religious
lesson. It differs from a fable in that the characters are See also PERSONIFICATION.
people instead of animals.
Pentameter A metrical line of five feet.
See also FABLE, MORAL. See also BLANK VERSE, FOOT, METER.
Paradox A situation or statement that seems to be Persona The person created by the author to tell a
impossible or contradictory but is nevertheless true, lit- story. Whether the story is told by an omniscient
erally or figuratively. The fifth line of Elizabeth I’s poem narrator or by one of the characters, the author of the
“On Monsieur’s Departure” contains two paradoxes: work often adopts a persona—a personality different
I am and not, I freeze and yet am burned, from his or her real one. The attitudes and beliefs of
the persona may not be the same as those of the
See page 461.
author. Jonathan Swift is the author of Gulliver’s
See also OXYMORON. Travels; however, the first-person narrator, Lemuel
Parallelism The use of a series of words, phrases, Gulliver, is the voice through which Swift chose to tell
or sentences that have similar grammatical form. his story.
Parallelism shows the relationship between ideas and See also NARRATOR, POINT OF VIEW.
helps emphasize thoughts. Winston Churchill’s speech
“Be Ye Men of Valor” contains parallelism: Personification A figure of speech in which an ani-
mal, an object, a force of nature, or an idea is given
The interests of property, the hours of labor,
human characteristics. Yeats personifies love in these
are nothing compared with the struggle for
lines from “When You Are Old”:
life and honor, for right and freedom, to
which we have vowed ourselves. Murmur, a little sadly, how Love fled
And paced upon the mountains overhead
See page 274. And hid his face amid a crowd of stars.
See also REPETITION.
See pages 509, 1221.
Parody A humorous imitation of a literary work that See also APOSTROPHE, FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE,
aims to point out the work’s shortcomings. A parody PATHETIC FALLACY.
may imitate the plot, characters, or style of another
work, usually through exaggeration. Shakespeare’s
“Sonnet 130” is a parody of Renaissance love poetry.
See page 559.
See also COMEDY, FARCE, HUMOR, SATIRE.

Pastoral Poetry that idealizes the simple lives of

shepherds in a rural setting. Pastoral poems often

R13
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 13 3/24/08 1:22:23 PM
 Persuasion Writing, usually nonfiction, that attempts tive point of view is that of a narrator who presents a
to convince readers to think or act in a particular way. story in a completely impersonal way, describing only
Writers of persuasive works use appeals to logic or external aspects of characters and events and never
emotion and other techniques to sway their readers. directly referring to thoughts or emotions.
Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of See pages 266, 1297.
Woman is an excellent example of persuasive writing.
See also NARRATOR, SPEAKER.
See also ARGUMENT.
Postmodernism A broad contemporary movement
Petrarchan sonnet See SONNET. in art, music, film, literature, and other cultural areas
that is viewed as growing out of or replacing
Play See DRAMA.
Modernism. Many of the characteristic features of post-
Plot The sequence of events in a short story, novel, modernist literature extend or exaggerate tendencies
or drama. Most plots deal with a problem and develop of Modernism. For example, Modernist writers turned
around a conflict, a struggle between opposing forces. away from the apparent objectivity of Realism; post-
The plot begins with exposition, which introduces the modernists go further, introducing a frankly artificial,
story’s characters, setting, and situation. The rising self-conscious playfulness into their works.
action adds complications to the conflicts, or prob- See also MODERNISM.
lems, leading to the climax, or crisis, the point of
highest emotional pitch. The climax gives way rapidly Prologue An introductory section of a play, a speech,
to its logical result in the falling action and finally to or another literary work. Chaucer’s The Canterbury
the resolution (sometimes called the dénouement), Tales contains a long prologue.
in which the final outcome is revealed. See also EPILOGUE.
See pages 360, 942.
Propaganda Written or spoken material designed to
See also CONFLICT. bring about a change or to damage a cause through
use of emotionally charged words, name-calling, or
Poetry A form of literary expression that differs from
other techniques.
prose in emphasizing the line, rather than the
sentence, as the unit of composition. Many other tradi- Props A theater term (a shortened form of proper-
tional characteristics of poetry apply to some poems ties) for articles used in a stage play or movie or
but not to others. Some of these characteristics are television set.
emotional, imaginative language; use of metaphor, sim-
See also DRAMA.
ile, and other figures of speech; division into stanzas;
and the use of rhyme and regular patterns of meter. Prose Written language that is not versified. Novels,
See also FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, FREE VERSE, METER, short stories, and essays are usually written in prose.
PROSE, RHYME, STANZA. See also POETRY.

Point of view The standpoint from which a story is Protagonist The central character in a literary work,
told. In a story with first-person point of view, the nar- around whom the main conflict revolves. Generally, the
rator is a character in the story and uses the words I audience is meant to sympathize with the protagonist.
and me. In a story told from third-person point of See also ANTAGONIST, CONFLICT, HERO, PLOT.
view, the narrator is someone who stands outside the
story and describes the characters and action. Third- Proverb A saying that expresses some truth about life
person omniscient, or all-knowing point of view, or contains some bit of popular wisdom such as “faint
means that the narrator knows everything about the heart never won fair lady,” “marry in haste, repent at
characters and events and may reveal details that the leisure,” or “out of sight, out of mind.”
characters themselves could not reveal. If the narrator See also APHORISM, EPIGRAM.
describes events as only one character perceives
them, as in Elizabeth Bowen’s “The Demon Lover,” the
point of view is called third-person limited. An objec-

R14
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 14 12/19/07 10:09:19 AM
 Literary Terms Handbook

Psalm A song of praise most commonly found in the Repetition The recurrence of sounds, words,
biblical book of Psalms. David, king of Israel around phrases, lines, or stanzas in a speech or literary work.
1000 .., wrote many of these psalms. Occasionally a Repetition increases the sense of unity in a work and
modern poet will title his or her poem a psalm. can draw attention to particular ideas.
See page 898.
Pun A humorous use of words that are similar in
sound (merry and marry) or of a word with several See also PARALLELISM, REFRAIN.
meanings. In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, when
Renaissance A word meaning “rebirth.” The
Mercutio is fatally wounded, he says, “Ask for me
Renaissance in Europe marked a transition from the
tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man,”
medieval period to the modern world. The height of
meaning both “serious” and “dead.”
the English Renaissance occurred in the late sixteenth
Puritan writing The work of early seventeenth-century and early seventeenth centuries, when William
writers who supported the Puritan cause. John Milton Shakespeare was active.
and John Bunyan were two major Puritan writers.
Resolution See PLOT.
Quatrain A stanza of four lines.
Restoration Age The short period immediately fol-
See also BALLAD STANZA, COUPLET, HEROIC STANZA, lowing the restoration of the Stuarts to the throne in
SESTET, STANZA. 1660. The age is marked by the return of drama to
the English stage.
R
Rhetoric The art of using language—often in public
Rationalism A philosophy that values reason over
speaking—to present facts and ideas in order to per-
feeling or imagination. It was most influential during
suade. Rhetorical devices are techniques writers use
the Neoclassical period.
to manipulate language for effect or to evoke an
See also NEOCLASSICISM, ROMANTICISM. emotional response in the reader. These may include
repetition, parallelism, analogy, logic, and the skillful
Realism A literary movement first prominent in the use of connotation and anecdote. Effective rhetoric
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Realism often appeals to logic, emotion, morality, or authority. A
seeks to portray life as it is really lived. Realistic fiction rhetorical question is a question to which no answer
often focuses on middle- or working-class conditions is expected or the answer is obvious.
and characters, often with reformist intent. Charles
Dickens was a Realist writer. See page 1113.

See also NATURALISM. See also ANALOGY, ANECDOTE, ARGUMENT,

CONNOTATION, PARALLELISM, REPETITION.
Refrain A line or lines repeated regularly, usually in a
poem or song. In Dylan Thomas’s “Do Not Go Gentle Rhyme The repetition of the same stressed vowel
into That Good Night,” the line “Rage, rage against the sounds and any succeeding sounds in two or more
dying of the light” serves as a refrain. words. End rhyme occurs at the ends of lines of
poetry. Internal rhyme occurs within a single line.
See also REPETITION.
See also RHYME SCHEME, SLANT RHYME.
Regionalism An emphasis on themes, characters,
customs, and settings of a particular geographical
region.
See also DIALECT, VERNACULAR.

R15
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 15 12/19/07 10:09:28 AM
 Rhyme scheme The pattern that end rhymes form S
in a stanza or a poem. Rhyme scheme is designated
Sarcasm The use of bitter or caustic language to
by the assignment of a different letter of the alphabet
point out shortcomings or flaws.
to each new rhyme. The rhyme scheme of the follow-
ing lines from Thomas Hardy’s “The Man He Killed” See also IRONY, SATIRE.
is abab:
Satire Writing that exposes to ridicule the vices or
“Had he and I but met a
follies of people or societies through devices such as
By some old ancient inn, b hyperbole, understatement, and irony. The purpose
We should have sat us down to wet a of satire may be to reform or to entertain.
Right many a nipperkin! b See page 549.
See pages 256, 1061. See also COMEDY, HYPERBOLE, IRONY, PARODY,
UNDERSTATEMENT, WIT.
See also RHYME.
Scansion The analysis of the meter of a line of verse.
Rhythm The pattern of beats created by the arrange-
To scan a line of poetry means to note the stressed
ment of stressed and unstressed syllables, especially in
and unstressed syllables and to divide the line into its
poetry. Rhythm gives poetry a musical quality, can add
feet, or rhythmic units. Stressed syllables are marked
emphasis to certain words, and may help convey the
(
) and unstressed syllables (˘). Note the scansion of
poem’s meaning. Rhythm can be regular, with a pre-
dictable pattern or meter, or irregular. Note the regular these lines from Byron’s “She Walks in Beauty”:
rhythm in the following lines from A. E. Housman’s “To ˘
˘
˘
˘

an Athlete Dying Young”: She walks / in beau / ty, like / the night
˘
˘
˘
˘

˘
˘
˘
˘
Of cloud / less climes / and star / ry skies; . . .
The time you won your town the race


Since each line has four feet and the rhythm is iambic,
˘ ˘ ˘
˘

We chaired you through the market-place; the lines can be described as iambic tetrameter.

See page 881. See also FOOT, METER, RHYTHM.

See also IAMBIC PENTAMETER, METER, SCANSION, Scene A subdivision of an act in a play. A scene is
SPRUNG RHYTHM. shorter than an act.
Rising action See PLOT. See also ACT, DRAMA.

Romance Historically, a term used to describe long Science fiction Fiction that deals with the impact of
narrative works about the exploits and love affairs of science and technology—real or imagined—on society
chivalric heroes such as King Arthur and Sir Lancelot. and on individuals. Sometimes occurring in the future,
The term romance can also be applied to any story science fiction commonly portrays space travel, explo-
that involves noble heroes, idealized love, or fantastic ration of other planets, and possible future societies.
events that seem remote from everyday life.
Sensory details See IMAGERY.
See also LEGEND.
Sestet A six-line stanza.
Romanticism An artistic movement that began in See also SONNET.
Europe and valued imagination and feeling over intel-
lect and reason. The works of William Wordsworth, Setting The time and place in which the events of a
Coleridge, Byron, and Keats represent the height of literary work occur. Setting includes not only the physi-
Romantic poetry. cal surroundings but also the ideas, customs, values,
and beliefs of a particular time and place. Setting often
helps create an atmosphere or a mood. Setting plays
an important part in Lessing’s “A Mild Attack of Locusts.”
See page 1250.

R16
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 16 3/24/08 1:01:46 PM
 Literary Terms Handbook

Shakespearean songs Shakespeare used songs in patterns of stanza divisions and rhymes. The
his plays to heighten the drama, making what is merry Shakespearean, or English, sonnet consists of three
merrier or what is sad sadder. His plays include love quatrains, or four-line stanzas, followed by a couplet,
songs, nonsense songs, and dirges, songs that mourn or pair of rhyming lines. The rhyme scheme is typically
a death. abab, cdcd, efef, gg. The couplet often presents a
conclusion to the issues or questions presented in
Shakespearean sonnet See SONNET. the three quatrains. Like a Shakespearean sonnet, the
Spenserian sonnet has three quatrains and a couplet,
Short story A brief fictional narrative that generally
but it follows the rhyme scheme abab bcbc cdcd ee.
includes the following major elements: setting, charac-
This interlocking rhyme scheme pushes the sonnet
ters, plot, point of view, and theme.
toward the final couplet, which makes a key point or
See page 1024. comment. In the Petrarchan, or Italian, sonnet, fourteen
See also FICTION, NOVEL, PLOT. lines are divided into two stanzas, the eight-line octave
and the six-line sestet. The sestet usually responds to a
Simile A figure of speech that uses like or as to com-
question or situation posed by the octave. The rhyme
pare seemingly unlike things. In the following example
scheme for the octave is typically abbaabba; for the
from Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress,” the poet
sestet, the rhyme scheme is typically cdecde.
compares his love’s complexion to dew:
See page 242.
Now, therefore, while the youthful hue
Sits on thy skin like morning dew, See also COUPLET, LYRIC POETRY, RHYME SCHEME,
STANZA.
See pages 284, 288.
See also ANALOGY, FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE, Sonnet sequence A series of sonnets focused on a
METAPHOR. particular theme. Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s Sonnets
from the Portuguese is a sonnet sequence.
Slant rhyme An approximate rhyme occurring when See also SONNET.
words include sounds that are similar but not identical
(jackal and buckle). Slant rhyme typically involves Sound devices Techniques used, especially in
some variation of consonance (the repetition of simi- poetry, to appeal to the ear. Writers use sound devices
lar consonant sounds) or assonance (the repetition of to enhance the sense of rhythm, to emphasize partic-
similar vowel sounds). In “Follower,” Seamus Heaney ular sounds, or to add a musical quality to their work.
features slant rhyme in word pairs such as sock/pluck See also ALLITERATION, ASSONANCE, CONSONANCE,
and plow/furrow. ONOMATOPOEIA, RHYME.
See page 1217.
Speaker The person who is speaking in a poem,
See also RHYME.
similar to a narrator in a work of prose. Sometimes the
Soliloquy In drama, a long speech by a character speaker’s voice is that of the poet, sometimes that of a
who is alone on stage. A soliloquy reveals the private fictional person or even a thing. The speaker’s words
thoughts and emotions of that character. In Act 3, communicate a particular tone, or attitude, toward the
scene 1 of Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Macbeth delivers a subject of the poem. One should never assume that
soliloquy that begins the speaker and the writer are identical, however.
To be thus is nothing, but to be safely thus— See page 1189.
Our fears in Banquo stick deep, . . . See also DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE, NARRATOR, TONE.
See also ASIDE, DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE,
Spondee A metrical foot of two stressed syllables.
MONOLOGUE.
See also FOOT, METER.
Sonnet A lyric poem of fourteen lines, typically writ-
ten in iambic pentameter and usually following strict

R17
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 17 12/19/07 10:09:43 AM
 Sprung rhythm A kind of irregular rhythm in which See also AUTHOR’S PURPOSE, DICTION, FIGURATIVE
each foot has one stressed syllable, usually the first, LANGUAGE, IMAGERY, TONE.
and a varied number of unstressed syllables. Gerard
Manley Hopkins, who invented the term and the tech- Subject The topic of a literary work.
nique, believed this to be the rhythm of natural speech. Suspense A feeling of curiosity, uncertainty, or even
See page 909. dread about what is going to happen next in a story.
See also METER, RHYTHM. Writers increase the level of suspense by creating a
threat to the central character and raising questions in
Stage directions Instructions written by a playwright a reader’s mind about the outcome of a conflict.
to describe the appearance and actions of characters,
as well as the sets, costumes, and lighting. Symbol Any object, person, place, or experience that
exists on a literal level but also represents something
See also DRAMA.
else, usually something abstract.
Stanza A group of lines forming a unit in a poem or See pages 715, 1036.
song. A stanza in a poem is similar to a paragraph in See also ALLEGORY, FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
prose. Typically, stanzas in a poem are separated by a
line of space. Synecdoche A figure of speech in which a part is
See page 720. used for the whole or a whole is used for a part. In
this line from the book of Revelation in the Bible, “All
See also BALLAD STANZA, COUPLET, HEROIC STANZA,
nations, and kindreds, and people, and tongues,”
QUATRAIN, SONNET, SPENSERIAN STANZA.
tongues (a part) is used for the whole (languages).
Stereotype A character who is not developed as an See also METONYMY.
individual but instead represents a collection of traits
and mannerisms supposedly shared by all members T
of a group.
See also CHARACTER. Terza rima A verse form consisting of a sequence of
interlocking three-line stanzas, or tercets. The first and
Stream of consciousness The literary representa- third lines of the first stanza rhyme, and the second
tion of a character’s free-flowing thoughts, feelings, and line provides the rhyme for the first and third lines of
memories. Stream-of-consciousness writing does not the next stanza, forming the rhyme scheme aba, bcb,
always employ conventional sentence structure or cdc, and so on.
other rules of grammar and usage.
Tetrameter A metrical line of four feet.
Structure The particular order or pattern a writer uses See also FOOT, METER.
to present ideas. Narratives commonly follow a chron-
ological order, while the structure of persuasive or Theater of the absurd Drama, primarily of the
expository writing may vary. Listing detailed informa- 1950s and 1960s, that presents a series of scenes in
tion, using cause and effect, or describing a problem which the characters—often confused and anxious—
and then offering a solution are some other ways a exist in a meaningless world. Harold Pinter is a leading
writer can present a topic. English dramatist of absurdist and other plays.
See pages 1064, 1206. See page 1225.
See also FORM. See also DRAMA.

Style The expressive qualities that distinguish an Theme The message of a story, poem, novel, or play.
author’s work, including word choice and the length A literary work may have more than one theme. Some
and arrangement of sentences, as well as the use of themes are universal, meaning that they are widely
figurative language and imagery. Style can reveal an held ideas about life. Themes and subjects are differ-
author’s attitude and purpose in writing. ent. The subject of a work might be love; the theme
would be what the writer says about love—for exam-
See pages 407, 595.

R18
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 18 12/19/07 10:09:53 AM
 Literary Terms Handbook

ple, love is cruel; love is wonderful; love is fleeting. attention on something the author wants to emphasize.
See pages 292, 1239. See also HYPERBOLE.
See also AUTHOR’S PURPOSE, MORAL.
Vernacular Ordinary speech of a particular country or
Thesis The main idea of a work of nonfiction. The region. Vernacular is more casual than cultivated, for-
thesis may be stated directly or implied. The thesis of mal speech. Slang, dialect, and idiom are commonly
Francis Bacon’s “Of Studies” is that books have multiple included as part of the vernacular. Writers often
uses and readers have multiple needs and capabilities. employ vernacular to enhance the realism of their
See page 696. narrative or dialogue. See page 1193.
See also NONFICTION. See also DIALECT, IDIOM, REGIONALISM.

Title The name given to a literary work. The title can Verse paragraph A group of lines in a poem that
help explain the setting, provide insight into the theme, form a unit. Unlike a stanza, a verse paragraph does
or describe the action that will take place in the work. not have a fixed number of lines. While poems written
See page 1048. before the twentieth century usually contain stanzas,
many contemporary poems are made up of verse
Tone An author’s attitude toward his or her subject paragraphs. Verse paragraphs help to organize a poem
matter or the audience. Tone is conveyed through into thoughts, as paragraphs help to organize prose.
elements such as word choice, punctuation, sentence See page 1052.
structure, and figures of speech. A writer’s tone might
convey a variety of attitudes such as sympathy, See also STANZA.
amusement, or superiority. Villanelle A nineteen-line poem divided into five ter-
See page 245. cets, or stanzas of three lines, each with the rhyme
See also AUTHOR’S PURPOSE, NARRATOR, SPEAKER, scheme aba, and a final quatrain with the rhyme
STYLE, VOICE. scheme abaa. The first line is repeated as a refrain at
the end of the second and fourth stanzas. The last line
Tragedy A play in which a main character suffers a of the first stanza is repeated at the end of the third
downfall. That character, the tragic hero, is typically a and fifth stanzas. Both lines reappear as the final two
person of dignified or heroic stature. The downfall may lines of the poem. This six-stanza form was originally
result from outside forces or from a weakness within used in French pastoral poetry.
the character, which is known as a tragic flaw.
See also QUATRAIN, REFRAIN, STANZA.
See page 380.
See also DRAMA, HERO, HUBRIS. Voice The distinctive use of language that conveys
the author’s or narrator’s personality to the reader.
Trochee A metrical foot made up of one stressed Voice is determined by elements of style such as word
and one unstressed syllable. The line below, from choice and tone.
Shakespeare’s Macbeth, has four trochees and can be See pages 295, 624, 1233.
described as trochaic tetrameter.
See also AUTHOR’S PURPOSE, DICTION, NARRATOR,

˘
˘
˘
˘ STYLE, TONE.
Double, / double, / toil and / trouble;
See also FOOT, METER. Wit An exhibition of cleverness and humor. Jonathan
Swift, Alexander Pope, and Lewis Carroll are authors
famous for their wit.
U–W
See also COMEDY, HUMOR, SATIRE.
Understatement Language that makes something
seem less important than it really is. Understatement
may be used to add humor or to focus the reader’s

R19
R001_R019_BM_REF_877981.indd 19 12/19/07 10:10:04 AM