MEE 307 - THEORY (MECHANICS) OF MACHINES I (3 Units)

ENGR. SYLVANUS O. ISAAC

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this course, the students should be able to:
1. identify and understand the dynamics of rotating and reciprocating machines, static and dynamic
balancing of machines;
2. identify the flexible shaft couplings, virtual work, energy and speed fluctuations in machines;
3. describe the kinematics of mechanisms, kinematics analysis, Cam, complete static and dynamic forces
analysis;
4. explain the acceleration of geared systems, equilibrium of machines, brakes and dynamometers
mechanisms;
5. explain the Balancing of rotating masses, multi-cylinder engines and governors.

COURSE CONTENTS
Fundamental concept in kinematics and motion, Mechanism, Instantaneous Center: Forces and motion
relationships in constrained mechanisms. Relative velocity and accelerations in mechanisms, analysis of cam
and followers, gear, linkage, belt drive and chain drive systems for motion and power transmission.
Vehicular mechanism: brake and clutch systems. Velocity and acceleration diagrams of mechanisms, tongue
diagrams; fluctuations of energy and speed. Introduction to analytical methods and computation in analysis
of mechanism.

Books Recommended
1. Theory of Machines by Rattan.S.S
2. Theory of machines by R.S.Khurmi & Gupta.
3. Theory of Machines, by Shigley. J. E. and Uicker

Unit:I Introduction to mechanisms, velocity and acceleration analysis of mechanisms

1.1 Introduction
Mechanics: It is that branch of scientific analysis which deals with motion, time and force.
Kinematics is the study of motion, without considering the forces which produce that motion. Kinematics of
machines deals with the study of the relative motion of machine parts. It involves the study of position,
displacement, velocity and acceleration of machine parts.
Dynamics of machines involves the study of forces acting on the machine parts and the motions resulting
from these forces.
Plane motion: A body has plane motion, if all its points move in planes which are parallel to some reference
plane. A body with plane motion will have only three degrees of freedom. I.e., linear along two axes parallel
to the reference plane and rotational/angular about the axis perpendicular to the reference plane. (eg. linear
along X and Z and rotational about Y.)The reference plane is called plane of motion. Plane motion can be of
three types. 1) Translation 2) rotation and 3) combination of translation and rotation.
Kinematic link (or) element
A machine part or a component of a mechanism is called a kinematic link or simply a link. A link is
assumed to be completely rigid, or under the action of forces it does not suffer any deformation, signifying
that the distance between any two points on it remains constant. Although all real machine parts are flexible
to some degree, it is common practice to assume that deflections are negligible and parts are rigid when
analyzing a machine’s kinematic performance.
Types of link
(a) Based on number of elements of link:
Binary link: Link which is connected to other links at two points. (Fig.1.3 a)
Ternary link: Link which is connected to other links at three points. (Fig.1.3 b)
Quaternary link: Link which is connected to other links at four points. (Fig1.3 c)

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Fig.1.3: Types of link
(a) Based on type of structural behavior:
Sometimes, a machine member may possess one-way rigidity and is capable of transmitting the force in one
direction with negligible deformation. Examples are (a) chains, belts and ropes which are resistant to tensile
forces, and (b) fluids which are resistant to compressive forces and are used as links in hydraulic presses,
brakes and jacks. In order to transmit motion, the driver and the follower may be connected by the following
three types of links:
1. Rigid link. A rigid link is one which does not undergo any deformation while transmitting motion. Strictly
speaking, rigid links do not exist. However, as the deformation of a connecting rod, crank etc. of a
reciprocating steam engine is not appreciable, they can be considered as rigid links.
2. Flexible link. A flexible link is one which is partly deformed in a manner not to affect the transmission of
motion. For example, belts, ropes, chains and wires are flexible links and transmit tensile forces only.
3. Fluid link. A fluid link is one which is formed by having a fluid in a receptacle and the motion is
transmitted through the fluid by pressure or compression only, as in the case of hydraulic presses, jacks and
brakes.
1.4 Structure
It is an assemblage of a number of resistant bodies (known as members) having no relative motion between
them and meant for carrying loads having straining action. A railway bridge, a roof truss, machine frames
etc., are the examples of a structure.
Machine: A machine is a mechanism or collection of mechanisms, which transmit force from the source of
power to the resistance to be overcome. Though all machines are mechanisms, all mechanisms are not
machines. Many instruments are mechanisms but are not machines, because they do no useful work nor do
they transform energy.
Difference between structure & machine
The following differences between a machine and a structure are important from the subject point of view:
1. The parts of a machine move relative to one another, whereas the members of a structure do not move
relative to one another.
2. A machine transforms the available energy into some useful work, whereas in a structure no energy is
transformed into useful work.
3. The links of a machine may transmit both power and motion, while the members of a structure transmits
forces only.
Comparison of Mechanism, Machine and Structure

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1.6 Kinematic pair
The two links or elements of a machine, when in contact with each other, are said to form a pair. If the
relative motion between them is completely or successfully constrained (i.e. in a definite direction), the pair
is known as kinematic pair.
Classification of kinematic pair
The kinematic pairs may be classified according to the following considerations:
(i) Based on nature of contact between elements:
(a) Lower pair. If the joint by which two members are connected has surface contact, the pair is known as
lower pair. Eg. pin joints, shaft rotating in bush, slider in slider crank mechanism.

Lower pairs
(b) Higher pair. If the contact between the pairing elements takes place at a point or along a line, such as in
a ball bearing or between two gear teeth in contact, it is known as a higher pair.

Higher pairs
(ii) Based on relative motion between pairing elements:
(a) Siding pair. Sliding pair is constituted by two elements so connected that one is constrained to have a
sliding motion relative to the other. DOF = 1
(b) Turning pair (revolute pair). When connections of the two elements are such that only a constrained
motion of rotation of one element with respect to the other is possible, the pair constitutes a turning pair.
DOF = 1
(c) Cylindrical pair. If the relative motion between the pairing elements is the combination of turning and
sliding, then it is called as cylindrical pair. DOF = 2

Sliding pair Turning pair Cylindrical pair

(d) Rolling pair. When the pairing elements have rolling contact, the pair formed is called rolling pair. Eg.
Bearings, Belt and pulley. DOF = 1

Ball bearing Belt and pulley

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(e) Spherical pair. A spherical pair will have surface contact and three degrees of freedom. Eg. Ball and
socket joint. DOF = 3
(f) Helical pair or screw pair. When the nature of contact between the elements of a pair is such that one
element can turn about the other by screw threads, it is known as screw pair. Eg. Nut and bolt. DOF = 1

(a) Ball and socket joint (b) Screw pair

(a) Sliding pair (prismatic pair) eg. piston and cylinder, crosshead and slides, tail stock on lathe bed.
(b) Turning pair (Revolute pair): eg: cycle wheel on axle, lathe spindle in head stock.
(c) Cylindrical pair: eg. shaft turning in journal bearing.
(d) Screw pair (Helical pair): eg. bolt and nut, lead screw of lathe with nut, screw jack.
(e) (Spherical pair: eg. penholder on stand, castor balls.
(iii) Based on the nature of mechanical constraint.
(a) Closed pair. Elements of pairs held together mechanically due to their geometry constitute a closed
pair. They are also called form-closed or self-closed pair.
(b) Unclosed or force closed pair. Elements of pairs held together by the action of external forces
constitute unclosed or force closed pair .Eg. Cam and follower.

Closed pair Force closed pair (cam & follower)

Mechanism
When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed, the chain is known as mechanism. A mechanism with
four links is known as simple mechanism, and the mechanism with more than four links is known as
compound mechanism. When a mechanism is required to transmit power or to do some particular type of
work, it then becomes a machine. A mechanism is a constrained kinematic chain. This means that the
motion of any one link in the kinematic chain will give a definite and predictable motion relative to each of
the others. Usually one of the links of the kinematic chain is fixed in a mechanism.

Slider crank and four bar mechanisms.

Number of degrees of freedom for plane mechanism
Degrees of freedom/mobility of a mechanism: The number of independent input parameters (or pair
variables) that are needed to determine the position of all the links of the mechanism with respect to the
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fixed link is termed its degrees of freedom. Degrees of freedom (DOF) is the number of independent
coordinates required to describe the position of a body in space. A free body in space can have six degrees
of freedom. That is, linear positions along x, y and z axes and rotational/angular positions with respect to x,
y and z axes. In a kinematic pair, depending on the constraints imposed on the motion, the links may lose
some of the six degrees of freedom.

Planar mechanisms: When all the links of a mechanism have plane motion, it is called as a planar
mechanism. All the links in a planar mechanism move in planes parallel to the reference plane.
Serial Mechanisms (Manipulators): Early manipulators were work holding devices in manufacturing
operations so that the work piece could be manipulated or brought to different orientations with respect to
the tool head. Welding robots of the auto industry and assembly robots of IC manufacture are examples.
Application of kutzbach criterion to Plane mechanisms

where n=number of links; l= number of lower joints (or) pairs and h= number of higher pairs (or) joints.
This is called the Kutzbach criterion for the mobility of a planar mechanism.
Inversion of Mechanism
A mechanism is one in which one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed. Different mechanisms can be
obtained by fixing different links of the same kinematic chain. These are called as inversions of the
mechanism.
Inversions of Four Bar Chain
One of the most useful and most common mechanisms is the four-bar linkage. In this mechanism, the link
which can make complete rotation is known as crank (link 2). The link which oscillates is known as rocker
or lever (link 4). And the link connecting these two is known as coupler (link 3). Link 1 is the frame.

Inversions:

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 Fig.1.23 Inversions of four bar chain.
Crank-rocker mechanism: In this mechanism, either link 1 or link 3 is fixed. Link 2 (crank) rotates
completely and link 4 (rocker) oscillates. It is similar to (a) or (b) of fig.1.23.

Fig.1.24
Double crank mechanism (Coupling rod of locomotive). This is one type of drag link mechanism, where,
links 1& 3 are equal and parallel and links 2 & 4 are equal and parallel. The mechanism of a coupling rod of
a locomotive (also known as double crank mechanism) which consists of four links in the fig. in this
mechanism, the links AD and BC (having equal length) act as cranks and are connected to the respective
wheels. The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link AB is fixed in order to maintain a constant centre to
centre distance between them. This mechanism is meant for transmitting rotary motion from one wheel to
the other wheel.

Fig.1.25
Double rocker mechanism. In this mechanism, link 4 is fixed. Link 2 makes complete rotation, whereas
links 3 & 4 oscillate (Fig.1.23d)
Coupler Curves: The link connecting the driving crank with the follower crank in a four bar linkage is
called the coupler. Similarly, in the case of a single slider crank mechanism the connecting rod is the
coupler. During the motion of the mechanism any point attached to the coupler generates some path with
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respect to the fixed link. This path is called the coupler curve. The point, which generates the path is
variously called the coupler point, trace point, tracing point, or tracer point. An example of the coupler
curves generated by different coupler points is given in figure below. Mechanisms can be designed to
generate any curve.

Fig. 1.26
Inversions of Single Slider Chain
Slider crank chain: This is a kinematic chain having four links. It has one sliding pair and three turning
pairs. Link 2 has rotary motion and is called crank. Link 3 has got combined rotary and reciprocating motion
and is called connecting rod. Link 4 has reciprocating motion and is called slider. Link 1 is frame (fixed).
This mechanism is used to convert rotary motion to reciprocating and vice versa.

Fig1.27
Inversions of slider crank chain
Inversions of slider crank mechanism is obtained by fixing links 2, 3 and 4.

Quick return motion mechanisms.

Quick return mechanisms are used in machine tools such as shapers and power driven saws for the purpose
of giving the reciprocating cutting tool a slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke with a constant
angular velocity of the driving crank.
Whitworth quick return motion mechanism–Inversion of slider crank mechanism.
This mechanism is mostly used in shaping and slotting machines. In this mechanism, the link CD (link 2)
forming the turning pair is fixed, as shown in Fig. The link 2 corresponds to a crank in a reciprocating steam
engine. The driving crank CA (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular speed. The slider (link 4) attached to the
crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar PA (link 1) which oscillates at a pivoted point D. The connecting
rod PR carries the ram at R to which a cutting tool is fixed. The motion of the tool is constrained along the
line RD produced, i.e. along a line passing through D and perpendicular to CD.

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 Fig.1.29
When the driving crank CA moves from the position CA1 to CA2 (or the link DP from the position DP1 to
DP2) through an angle αin the clockwise direction, the tool moves from the left hand end of its stroke
to the right hand end through a distance 2 PD. Now when the driving crank moves from the position CA2 to
CA1 (or the link DP from DP2 to DP1 ) through an angle βin the clockwise direction, the tool moves
back from right hand end of its stroke to the left hand end. A little consideration will show that the time
taken during the left to right movement of the ram (i.e. during forward or cutting stroke) will be equal to the
time taken by the driving crank to move from CA1 to CA2. Similarly, the time taken during the right to left
movement of the ram (or during the idle or return stroke) will be equal to the time taken by the driving crank
to move from CA2 to CA1.
Since the crank link CA rotates at uniform angular velocity therefore time taken during the cutting stroke (or
forward stroke) is more than the time taken during the return stroke. In other words, the mean speed of the
ram during cutting stroke is less than the mean speed during the return stroke. The ratio between the time
taken during the cutting and return strokes is given by

Crank and slotted lever quick return motion mechanism – Inversion of slider crankmechanism
(connecting rod fixed).
This mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary internal combustion
engines. In this mechanism, the link AC (i.e. link 3) forming the turning pair is fixed, as shown in Fig. The
link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating steam engine. The driving crank CB revolves
with uniform angular speed about the fixed centre C. A sliding block attached to the crank pin at B slides
along the slotted bar AP and thus causes AP to oscillate about the pivoted point A. A short link PR transmits
the motion from AP to the ram which carries the tool and reciprocates along the line of stroke R1R2. The
line of stroke of the ram (i.e. R1R2) is perpendicular to AC produced.
It can be seen that the angle βmade by the forward or cutting stroke is greater than the angle
αdescribed by the return stroke. Since the crank rotates with uniform angular speed, therefore the return
stroke iscompleted within shorter time. Thus it is called quick return motion mechanism.
In the extreme positions, AP1 and AP2 are tangential to the circle and the cutting tool is at the end of the
stroke. The forward or cutting stroke occurs when the crank rotates from the position CB1 to CB2 (or
through an angle β) in the clockwise direction. The return stroke occurs when the crank rotates from
the position CB2 to CB1 (or through angle α) in the clockwise direction. Since the crank has uniform
angular speed, therefore,

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Since the tool travels a distance of 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 during cutting and return strokes, therefore travel of the tool or
length of stroke

Pendulum pump or bull engine–Inversion of slider crank mechanism (slider fixed).

In this mechanism, the inversion is obtained by fixing the cylinder or link 4 (i.e. sliding pair), as shown in
Fig. In this case, when the crank (link 2) rotates, the connecting rod (link 3) oscillates about a pin pivoted to
the fixed link 4 at A and the piston attached to the piston rod (link 1) reciprocates. The duplex pump which is
used to supply feed water to boilers have two pistons attached to link 1, as shown in Fig.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS

In this, we shall discuss the relative velocity method for determining the velocity of different points in the
mechanism. The study of velocity analysis is very important for determining the acceleration of points in the
mechanisms. Kinematics deals with study of relative motion between the various parts of the machines.
Kinematics does not involve study of forces. Thus motion leads study of displacement, velocity and
acceleration of a part of the machine. As dynamic forces are a function of acceleration and acceleration is a
function of velocities, study of velocity and acceleration will be useful in the design of mechanism of a
machine. The mechanism will be represented by a line diagram which is known as configuration diagram.
The analysis can be carried out both by graphical method as well as analytical method.

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Displacement: All particles of a body move in parallel planes and travel by same distance is known, linear
displacement and is denoted by ‘x’. A body rotating about a fired point in such a way that all particular
move in circular path angular displacement and is denoted by ‘𝜃𝜃’.
Velocity: Rate of change of displacement is velocity. Velocity can be linear velocity of angular velocity.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Linear velocity is Rate of change of linear displacement = 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Angular velocity is Rate of change of angular displacement = 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity;
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑉𝑉 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑟𝑟
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Acceleration: Rate of change of velocity:
Linear Acceleration (Rate of change of linear velocity;
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑥𝑥
𝑎𝑎 = = 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
Angular Acceleration (Rate of change of angular velocity;
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝜃𝜃
𝛼𝛼 = = 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
Motion of a link
Consider two points A and B on a rigid link AB, as shown in Fig. (a). Let one of the extremities (B) of the
link move relative to A, in a clockwise direction. Since the distance from A to B remains the same, therefore
there can be no relative motion between A and B, along the line AB. It is thus obvious, that the relative
motion of B with respect to A must be perpendicular to AB. Hence velocity of any point on a link with
respect to another point on the same link is always perpendicular to the line joining these points on
the configuration (or space) diagram.

The relative velocity of B with respect to A (i.e. vBA) is represented by the vector ab and is perpendicular to
the line AB as shown in Fig. (b).

From the above two equations

Thus, we see from above equation that the point c on the vector ab divides it in the same ratio as C divides
the link AB.
Rubbing Velocity at a Pin Joint

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The links in a mechanism are mostly connected by means of pin joints. The rubbing velocity is defined as the
algebraic sum between the angular velocities of the two links which are connected by pin joints, multiplied by
the radius of the pin.

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Unit:II BELT DRIVES
Introduction
The belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys which rotate at
the same speed or at different speeds.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon the following factors:
1. The velocity of the belt.
2. The tension under which the belt is placed on the pulleys.
3. The conditions under which the belt is used.
Selection of a Belt Drive
Following are the various important factors upon which the selection of a belt drive depends:
1. Speed of the driving and driven shafts,
2. Speed reduction ratio,
3. Power to be transmitted,
4. Centre distance between the shafts,
5. Positive drive requirements,
6. Shafts layout,
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7. Space available, and
8. Service conditions.
Types of Belt Drives
The belt drives are usually classified into the following three groups :
1. Light drives. These are used to transmit small powers at belt speeds upto about 10 m/s, as in agricultural
machines and small machine tools.
2. Medium drives. These are used to transmit medium power at belt speeds over 10 m/s but up to 22 m/s, as
in machine tools.
3. Heavy drives. These are used to transmit large powers at belt speeds above 22 m/s, as in compressors and
generators.
Types of Belts

Though there are many types of belts used these days, yet the following are important from the subject point
of view:
1. Flat belt. The flat belt, as shown in Fig. (a), is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a
moderate amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another when the two pulleys are not
more than 8 metres apart.
2. V-belt. The V-belt, as shown in Fig. (b), is mostly used in the factories and workshops, where a moderate
amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two pulleys are very near to
each other.
3. Circular belt or rope. The circular belt or rope, as shown in Fig. (c), is mostly used in the factories and
workshops, where a great amount of power is to be transmitted, from one pulley to another, when the two
pulleys are more than 8 meters apart. If a huge amount of power is to be transmitted, then a single belt
may not be sufficient. In such a case, wide pulleys (for V-belts or circular belts) with a number of
grooves are used. Then a belt in each groove is provided to transmit the required amount of power from
one pulley to another.
Types of Flat Belt Drives
The power from one pulley to another may be transmitted by any of the following types of belt drives:
1. Open belt drive. The open belt drive, as shown in Fig. 11.3, is used with shafts arranged parallel and
rotating in the same direction. In this case, the driver A pulls the belt from one side (i.e. lower side RQ)
and delivers it to the other side (i.e. upper side LM). Thus the tension in the lower side belt will be more
than that in the upper side belt. The lower side belt (because of more tension) is known as tight side
whereas the upper side belt (because of less tension) is known as slack side, as shown in Fig.

2. Crossed or twist belt drive. The crossed or twist belt drive, as shown in Fig. 11.4, is used with shafts
arranged parallel and rotating in the opposite directions. In this case, the driver pulls the belt from one
side (i.e. RQ) and delivers it to the other side (i.e. LM). Thus the tension in the belt RQ will be more than
that in the belt LM. The belt RQ (because of more tension) is known as tight side, whereas the belt LM
(because of less tension) is known as slack side, as shown in Fig. A little consideration will show that at a
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 point where the belt crosses, it rubs against each other and there will be excessive wear and tear. In order
to avoid this, the shafts should be placed at a maximum distance of 20 b, where b is the width of belt and
the speed of the belt should be less than 15 m/s.

3. Quarter turn belt drive. The quarter turn belt drive also known as right angle belt drive, as shown in Fig.
(a), is used with shafts arranged at right angles and rotating in one definite direction. In order to prevent
the belt from leaving the pulley, the width of the face of the pulley should be greater or equal to 1.4 b,
where b is the width of belt. In case the pulleys cannot be arranged, as shown in Fig. (a), or when the
reversible is desired, then a quarter turn belt drive with guide pulley, as shown in Fig. (b), may be used.

4. Belt drive with idler pulleys. A belt drive with an idler pulley, as shown in Fig. (a), is used with shafts
arranged parallel and when an open belt drive cannot be used due to small angle of contact on the smaller
pulley. This type of drive is provided to obtain high velocity ratio and when the required belt tension
cannot be obtained by other means. When it is desired to transmit motion from one shaft to several shafts,
all arranged in parallel, a belt drive with many idler pulleys, as shown in Fig. (b), may be employed.

5. Compound belt drive. A compound belt drive, as shown in Fig., is used when power is transmitted from
one shaft to another through a number of pulleys.

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6. Stepped or cone pulley drive. A stepped or cone pulley drive, as shown in Fig, is used for changing the
speed of the driven shaft while the main or driving shaft runs at constant speed. This is accomplished by
shifting the belt from one part of the steps to the other.

7. Fast and loose pulley drive. A fast and loose pulley drive, as shown in Fig., is used when the driven or
machine shaft is to be started or stopped when ever desired without interfering with the driving shaft. A
pulley which is keyed to the machine shaft is called fast pulley and runs at the same speed as that of
machine shaft. A loose pulley runs freely over the machine shaft and is incapable of transmitting any
power. When the driven shaft is required to be stopped, the belt is pushed on to the loose pulley by means
of sliding bar having belt forks.

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The velocity ratio of a belt drive may also be obtained as discussed below:
It can be known that peripheral velocity of the belt on the driving pulley,

and peripheral velocity of the belt on the driven or follower pulley,

When there is no slip, then 𝑉𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑉2 ;

Velocity Ratio of a Compound Belt Drive

Sometimes the power is transmitted from one shaft to another, through a number of pulleys, as shown in fig.
Consider a pulley 1 driving the pulley 2. Since the pulleys 2 and 3 are keyed to the same shaft, therefore the
pulley 1 also drives the pulley 3 which, in turn, drives the pulley 4.

Slip of Belt
In the previous articles, we have discussed the motion of belts and shafts assuming a firm frictional grip
between the belts and the shafts. But sometimes, the frictional grip becomes insufficient. This may cause
some forward motion of the driver without carrying the belt with it. This may also cause some forward
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motion of the belt without carrying the driven pulley with it. This is called slip of the belt and is generally
expressed as a percentage. The result of the belt slipping is to reduce the velocity ratio of the system. As the
slipping of the belt is a common phenomenon, thus the belt should never be used where a definite velocity
ratio is of importance.

Length of an open Belt Drive

Open belt drive has already been discussed that both the pulleys rotate in the same direction as shown in Fig.

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Length of a Cross Belt Drive

It has already been discussed that in a cross belt drive, both the pulleys rotate in opposite directions as
shown in Fig.

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It may be noted that the above expression is a function of (r1 + r2). It is thus obvious that if sum of the radii
of the two pulleys be constant, then length of the belt required will also remain constant, provided the
distance between centres of the pulleys remain unchanged.
Power transmitted by a Belt
Fig. shows the driving pulley (or driver) A and the driven pulley (or follower) B. We have already discussed
that the driving pulley pulls the belt from one side and delivers the same to the other side. It is thus obvious
that the tension on the former side (i.e. tight side) will be greater than the latter side (i.e. slack side) as
shown in Fig.

Ratio of Driving Tensions for Flat Belt Drive

Consider a driven pulley rotating in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig.

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The above expression gives the relation between the tight side and slack side tension in terms of coefficient
of friction and the angle of contact.
Determination of Angle of Contact

When the two pulleys of different diameters are connected by means of an open belt as shown in Fig. (a),
then the angle of contact or lap () at the smaller pulley must be taken into consideration.
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A little consideration will show that when the two pulleys are connected by means of a crossed belt as
shown in Fig. (b), then the angle of contact or lap () on both the pulleys is same

Centrifugal Tension
Since the belt continuously runs over the pulleys, therefore, some centrifugal force is caused, whose effect is
to increase the tension on both, tight as well as the slack sides. The tension caused by centrifugal force is
called centrifugal tension. At lower belt speeds (less than 10 m/s), the centrifugal tension is very small, but
at higher belt speeds (more than 10 m/s), its effect is considerable and thus should be taken into account.
Consider a small portion PQ of the belt subtending an angle d the centre of the pulley as shown in Fig.

It is known that length of the belt 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟, and mass of the belt 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

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Thus centrifugal tension has no effect on the power transmitted.
The ratio of driving tensions may also be written as,

Where 𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡1 = maximum or total tension in the belt.

Maximum Tension in the Belt
A little consideration will show that the maximum tension in the belt (𝑇𝑇) is equal to the total tension in the
tight side of the belt (𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡1 ).
Let 𝜎𝜎 = maximum safe stress in 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 , 𝑏𝑏 = width of the belt in 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, and 𝑡𝑡 =thickness of the belt in 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Maximum tension in the belt, 𝑇𝑇 = maximum stress X cross-sectional area of belt = 𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏.
When centrifugal tension is neglected, tension in the tight side of the belt,
𝑇𝑇 (𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡1 ) = 𝑇𝑇1
And when centrifugal tension is considered, tension in the tight side of the belt,
𝑇𝑇 (𝑇𝑇𝑡𝑡1 ) = 𝑇𝑇1 + 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶
Condition for the Transmission of Maximum Power
Power transmitted by a belt,
𝑃𝑃 = (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 )𝑉𝑉
Where 𝑇𝑇1 = tension in the tight side of the belt in 𝑁𝑁, 𝑇𝑇2 = tension in the slack side of the belt in 𝑁𝑁, and 𝑉𝑉 =
velocity of the belt in 𝑚𝑚⁄𝑠𝑠.
Also,

Substituting the value of 𝑇𝑇2 in 𝑃𝑃 = (𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇2 )𝑉𝑉,

Substituting the value of 𝑇𝑇1 in 𝑃𝑃 = �𝑇𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑇1 ⁄𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 �𝑉𝑉 = 𝑇𝑇1 �1 − 1⁄𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 �𝑉𝑉 = 𝑇𝑇1 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉,
𝑃𝑃 = (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 )𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = (𝑇𝑇 − 𝑚𝑚𝑉𝑉 2 )𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑚𝑚𝑉𝑉 3 )𝐶𝐶
For maximum power, differentiate the above expression with respect to V and equate to zero,

It shows that when the power transmitted is maximum, 1/3rd of the maximum tension is absorbed as
centrifugal tension.
29
Thus velocity of the belt for maximum power is given as,

Exercise Problems:
1) An engine, running at 150 r.p.m., drives a line shaft by means of a belt. The engine pulley is 750 mm
diameter and the pulley on the line shaft being 450 mm. A 900 mm diameter pulley on the line shaft drives a
150 mm diameter pulley keyed to a dynamo shaft. Find the speed of the dynamo shaft, when 1. there is no
slip, and 2. there is a slip of 2% at each drive.
Solution:
Given : N1 = 150 r.p.m. ; d1 = 750 mm ; d2 = 450 mm ; d3 = 900 mm ; d4 = 150 mm

2) Find the power transmitted by a belt running over a pulley of 600 mm diameter at 200 r.p.m. The
coefficient of friction between the belt and the pulley is 0.25, angle of lap 160° and maximum tension
in the belt is 2500 N.
Solution:
Given: d = 600 mm = 0.6 m ; N = 200 r.p.m. ; μ = 0.25 ; 𝜃𝜃= 160° = 160 × π/ 180 = 2.793 rad ; T1 = 2500 N
Velocity of the belt,

30
3) A casting weighing 9 kN hangs freely from a rope which makes 2.5 turns round a drum of 300 mm
diameter revolving at 20 r.p.m. The other end of the rope is pulled by a man. The coefficient of friction is
0.25. Determine 1. The force required by the man, and 2. The power to raise the casting.
Solution:
Given : W = T1 = 9 kN = 9000 N ; d = 300 mm = 0.3 m ; N = 20 r.p.m. ; μ = 0.25

4) Two pulleys, one 450 mm diameter and the other 200 mm diameter are on parallel shafts 1.95 m apart and
are connected by a crossed belt. Find the length of the belt required and the angle of contact between the belt
and each pulley. What power can be transmitted by the belt when the larger pulley rotates at 200 rev/min, if
the maximum permissible tension in the belt is 1 kN, and the coefficient of friction between the belt and
pulley is 0.25 ?
Solution:
Given : d1 = 450 mm = 0.45 m or r1 = 0.225 m ; d2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m or r2 = 0.1 m ; x = 1.95 m ; N1 =
200 r.p.m. ; T1 = 1 kN = 1000 N ; μ = 0.25

31
5) A shaft rotating at 200 r.p.m. drives another shaft at 300 r.p.m. and transmits 6 kW through a belt. The
belt is 100 mm wide and 10 mm thick. The distance between the shafts is 4m. The smaller pulley is 0.5 m in
diameter. Calculate the stress in the belt, if it is 1. an open belt drive, and 2. a cross belt drive. Take μ =0.3.
Solution:
Given : N1 = 200 r.p.m. ; N2 = 300 r.p.m. ; P = 6 kW = 6 × 103 W ; b = 100 mm ; t = 10 mm ; x = 4 m ; d2
= 0.5 m ; μ = 0.3
Let 𝜎𝜎= Stress in the belt.
1. Stress in the belt for an open belt drive
First of all, let us find out the diameter of larger pulley (d1).

32
By solving the above equations, 𝑇𝑇1 = 1267𝑁𝑁 and 𝑇𝑇2 = 503𝑁𝑁
Maximum tension in the belt, 𝑇𝑇1 = 1267 = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 = 𝜎𝜎 × 100 × 10 = 1000𝜎𝜎
1267
𝜎𝜎 = = 1.267 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 1.267𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
1000

By solving the above equations, 𝑇𝑇1 = 1184𝑁𝑁 and 𝑇𝑇2 = 420𝑁𝑁

Maximum tension in the belt, 𝑇𝑇1 = 1184 = 𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎𝜎 = 𝜎𝜎 × 100 × 10 = 1000𝜎𝜎
1184
𝜎𝜎 = = 1.184 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 = 1.184𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
1000
6) Determine the width of a 9.75 mm thick leather belt required to transmit 15 kW from a motor running at
900 r.p.m. The diameter of the driving pulley of the motor is 300 mm. The driven pulley runs at 300 r.p.m.
and the distance between the centre of two pulleys is 3 metres. The density of the leather is 1000 kg/m3. The
maximum allowable stress in the leather is 2.5 MPa. The coefficient of friction between the leather and
pulley is 0.3. Assume open belt drive and neglect the sag and slip of the belt.
Solution:
Given: t = 9.75 mm = 9.75 × 10–3m ; P = 15 kW = 15 × 103W ; N1 = 900 r.p.m. ; d1 = 300 mm = 0.3 m ;
N2 = 300 r.p.m. ; x = 3m ; 𝜌𝜌= 1000 kg/m3 ; 𝜎𝜎 =2.5 MPa = 2.5 × 106 N/m2 ; μ = 0.3.
First of all, let us find out the diameter of the driven pulley (d2).

33
Unit:III CAM
Introduction
Cam – a mechanical device used to transmit motion to a follower by direct contact. Where Cam – driver
member, Follower – driven member. The cam and the follower have line contact and constitute a higher
pair. In a cam – follower pair, the cam normally rotates at uniform speed by a shaft, while the follower may
is predetermined, will translate or oscillate according to the shape of the cam. A familiar example is the
camshaft of an automobile engine, where the cams drive the push rods (the followers) to open and close the
valves in synchronization with the motion of the pistons.
Applications:
The cams are widely used for operating the inlet and exhaust valves of Internal combustion engines,
automatic attachment of machineries, paper cutting machines, spinning and weaving tex
Example of cam action

Classification of Followers
(i) Based on surface in contact. (Fig.3.1)
(a) Knife edge follower
(b) Roller follower
(c) Flat faced follower
(d) Spherical follower

34
 Fig. 3.1 Types of followers
(ii) Based on type of motion: (Fig. 3.2)
(a) Oscillating follower
(b) Translating follower

Fig.3.2
(iii) Based on line of motion:
(a) Radial follower: The lines of movement of in-line cam followers pass through the centers of the
camshafts (Fig. 3.1a, b, c, and d).
(b) Off-set follower: For this type, the lines of movement are offset from the centers of the camshafts (Fig.
3.3a, b, c, and d).

Fig.3.3 Off set followers

Classification of Cams
Cams can be classified based on their physical shape.
a) Disk or plate cam (Fig. 3.4 a and b): The disk (or plate) cam has an irregular contour to impart a
specific motion to the follower. The follower moves in a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the
camshaft and is held in contact with the cam by springs or gravity.

35
 Fig. 3.4 Plate or disk cam.
b) Cylindrical cam (Fig. 3.5): The cylindrical cam has a groove cut along its cylindrical surface. The roller
follows the groove, and the follower moves in a plane parallel to the axis of rotation of the cylinder.

Fig. 3.5 Cylindrical cam.

c) Translating cam (Fig. 3.6a and b). The translating cam is a contoured or grooved plate sliding on a
guiding surface(s). The follower may oscillate (Fig. 3.6(a)) or reciprocate (Fig. 3.6(b)). The contour or
the shape of the groove is determined by the specified motion of the follower.

Fig. 3.6 Translating cam

Terms Used in Radial Cams

Fig.3.7
Pressure angle: It is the angle between the direction of the follower motion and a normal to the pitch curve.
This angle is very important in designing a cam profile. If the angle is too large, a reciprocating follower
will jam in its bearings.
Base circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn to the cam profile.
Trace point: It is the reference point on the follower and is used to generate the pitch curve. In the case of
knife edge follower, the knife edge represents the trace point and the pitch curve corresponds to the cam
profile. In the roller follower, the centre of the roller represents the trace point.
Pitch point: It is a point on the pitch curve having the maximum pressure angle.
Pitch circle: It is a circle drawn from the centre of the cam through the pitch points.
Pitch curve: It is the curve generated by the trace point as the follower moves relative to the cam.For a
knife edge follower, the pitch curve and the cam profile are same where as for a roller follower; they are
separated by the radius of the follower.
Prime circle: It is the smallest circle that can be drawn from the centre of the cam and tangent to the point.
For a knife edge and a flat face follower, the prime circle and the base circle and the base circle are identical.
For a roller follower, the prime circle is larger than the base circle by the radius of the roller.
Lift (or) stroke: It is the maximum travel of the follower from its lowest position to the topmost position.
Motion of the Follower
36
Cam follower systems are designed to achieve a desired oscillatory motion. Appropriate displacement
patterns are to be selected for this purpose, before designing the cam surface. The cam is assumed to rotate
at a constant speed and the follower raises, dwells, returns to its original position and dwells again through
specified angles of rotation of the cam, during each revolution of the cam.
Some of the standard follower motions are as follows:
They are, follower motion with,
(a) Uniform velocity
(b) Modified uniform velocity
(c) Uniform acceleration and deceleration
(d) Simple harmonic motion
Displacement diagrams: In a cam follower system, the motion of the follower is very important. Its
displacement can be plotted against the angular displacement θ of the cam and it is called as the
displacement diagram. The displacement of the follower is plotted along the y-axis and angular
displacement θ of the cam is plotted along x-axis. From the displacement diagram, velocity and acceleration
of the follower can also be plotted for different angular displacements θ of the cam. The displacement,
velocity and acceleration diagrams are plotted for one cycle of operation i.e., one rotation of the cam.
Displacement diagrams are basic requirements for the construction of cam profiles. Construction of
displacement diagrams and calculation of velocities and accelerations of followers with different types of
motions are discussed in the following sections.
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with Uniform Velocity
Fig.3.8 shows the displacement, velocity and acceleration patterns of a follower having uniform velocity
type of motion. Since the follower moves with constant velocity, during rise and fall, the displacement
varies linearly with θ. Also, since the velocity changes from zero to a finite value, within no time,
theoretically, the acceleration becomes infinite at the beginning and end of rise and fall.

Fig.3.8
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the Follower Moves with Simple Harmonic
Motion
In fig.3.9, the motion executed by point Pl, which is the projection of point P on the vertical diameter is
called simple harmonic motion. Here, P moves with uniform angular velocity ωp, along a circle of radius
r (𝑟𝑟 = 𝑠𝑠⁄2).

37
Fig.3.9

Fig.3.10

38
39
 Fig.3.11
Construction of Cam Profile for a Radial Cam
In order to draw the cam profile for a radial cam, first of all the displacement diagram for the given motion
of the follower is drawn. Then by constructing the follower in its proper position at each angular position,
the profile of the working surface of the cam is drawn. In constructing the cam profile, the principle of
kinematic inversion is used, i.e. the cam is imagined to be stationary and the follower is allowed to rotate in
the opposite direction to the cam rotation.
The construction of cam profiles for different types of follower with different types of motions are discussed
in the following examples.
Practise problems:
(1) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:
Follower type = Knife edged, in-line; lift = 50mm; base circle radius = 50mm; out stroke with SHM, for 600
cam rotation; dwell for 450 cam rotation; return stroke with SHM, for 900 cam rotation; dwell for the
remaining period. Determine max. velocity and acceleration during out stroke and return stroke if the cam
rotates at 1000 rpm in clockwise direction.
Displacement diagram:

Cam profile:
• Construct base circle.
• Mark points 1,2,3…..in direction opposite to the direction of cam rotation.
• Transfer points a,b,c…..l from displacement diagram to the cam profile and join them by a smooth free
hand curve.
• This forms the required cam profile.

40
Calculations:

(2.) Draw the cam profile for the same operating conditions of problem (1), with the follower offset by
10 mm to the left of cam center.
Displacement diagram: Same as previous problem.
Cam profile: Construction is same as previous case, except that the lines drawn from 1,2,3…. are tangential
to the offset circle of 10mm dia. as shown in the fig.

(3) Draw the cam profile for following conditions:

41
Follower type = roller follower, in-line; lift = 25mm; base circle radius = 20mm; roller radius = 5mm; out
stroke with UARM, for 1200 cam rotation; dwell for 600 cam rotation; return stroke with UARM, for 900 cam
rotation; dwell for the remaining period. Determine max. velocity and acceleration during out stroke and
return stroke if the cam rotates at 1200 rpm in clockwise direction.
Displacement diagram:

Cam profile:
• Construct base circle and prime circle (25mm radius).
• Mark points 1,2,3…..in direction opposite to the direction of cam rotation, on prime circle.
• Transfer points a,b,c…..l from displacement diagram.
• At each of these points a,b,c… draw circles of 5mm radius, representing rollers.
• Starting from the first point of contact between roller and base circle, draw a smooth free hand curve,
tangential to all successive roller positions.
• This forms the required cam profile.

Calculations:

42
(4.) Draw the cam profile for conditions same as in (3), with follower off set to right of cam center by
5mm and cam rotating counter clockwise.
Displacement diagram: Same as previous case.
Cam profile: Construction is same as previous case, except that the lines drawn from 1,2,3…. are tangential
to the offset circle of 10mm dia. as shown in the fig.

Unit:IV GEAR DRIVE

Introduction
The slip and creep in the belt or rope drives is a common phenomenon, in the transmission of motion or
power between two shafts. The effect of slip is to reduce the velocity ratio of the drive. In precision
machine, in which a definite velocity ratio is importance (as in watch mechanism, special purpose
machines..etc), the only positive drive is by means of gears or toothed wheels.
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth. The gear teeth
act like small levers. Gears are highly efficient (nearly 95%) due to primarily rolling contact between the
teeth, thus the motion transmitted is considered as positive. Gears essentially allow positive engagement
between teeth so high forces can be transmitted while still undergoing essentially rolling contact. Gears do
not depend on friction and do best when friction is minimized.
Let the wheel A be keyed to the rotating shaft and the wheel B to the shaft, to be rotated. A little
consideration will show, that when the wheel A is rotated by a rotating shaft, it will rotate the wheel B in the
opposite direction as shown in Fig. 4.1 (a). The wheel B will be rotated (by the wheel A) so long as the
tangential force exerted by the wheel A does not exceed the maximum frictional resistance between the two
wheels. But when the tangential force (P) exceeds the frictional resistance (F), slipping will take place
between the two wheels. Thus the friction drive is not a positive drive.

43
 Fig. 4.1.
In order to avoid the slipping, a number of projections (called teeth) as shown in Fig. 5.1 (b), are provided
on the periphery of the wheel A, which will fit into the corresponding recesses on the periphery of the wheel
B. A friction wheel with the teeth cut on it is known as toothed wheel or gear. The usual connection to
show the toothed wheels is by their pitch circles.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Gear Drive
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of the gear drive as compared to belt, rope and chain
drives :
Advantages:
1. It transmits exact velocity ratio.
2. It may be used to transmit large power.
3. It has high efficiency.
4. It has reliable service.
5. It has compact layout.
Disadvantages:
1. The manufacture of gears requires special tools and equipment.
2. The error in cutting teeth may cause vibrations and noise during operation.
Classification of Toothed Wheels
Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of revolution. The axes may be
1. Gears for connecting parallel shafts,
2. Gears for connecting intersecting shafts,
3. Gears for neither parallel nor intersecting shafts.
Gears for connecting parallel shafts
1. Spur gears: Spur gears are the most common type of gears. They have straight teeth, and are mounted on
parallel shafts. Sometimes, many spur gears are used at once to create very large gear reductions. Each
time a gear tooth engages a tooth on the other gear, the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise. It
also increases the stress on the gear teeth. To reduce the noise and stress in the gears, most of the gears in
your car are;
Spur gears are the most commonly used gear type. They are characterized by teeth, which are perpendicular
to the face of the gear. Spur gears are most commonly available, and are generally the least expensive.
• Limitations: Spur gears generally cannot be used when a direction change between the two shafts is
required.
• Advantages: Spur gears are easy to find, inexpensive, and efficient.

Spur gears
2. Parallel helical gears: The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. When two
teeth on a helical gear system engage, the contact starts at one end of the tooth and gradually spreads as
the gears rotate, until the two teeth are in full engagement.

Helical gears
44
This gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much more smoothly and quietly than spur gears. For
this reason, helical gears are used in almost all car transmission. Because of the angle of the teeth on helical
gears, they create a thrust load on the gear when they mesh. Devices that use helical gears have bearings that
can support this thrust load. One interesting thing about helical gears is that if the angles of the gear teeth are
correct, they can be mounted on perpendicular shafts, adjusting the rotation angle by 90 degrees. Helical
gears to have the following differences from spur gears of the same size:
• Tooth strength is greater because the teeth are longer,
• Greater surface contact on the teeth allows a helical gear to carry more load than a spur gear
• The longer surface of contact reduces the efficiency of a helical gear relative to a spur gear
Rack and pinion: (The rack is like a gear whose axis is at infinity mathematically but practically a gear of
larger length.)
Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational motion to translational motion by means of a gear
mesh. (They are in theory a gear with an infinite pitch diameter). In theory, the torque and angular velocity
of the pinion gear are related to the Force and the velocity of the rack by the radius of the pinion gear, as is
shown. Perhaps the most well-known application of a rack is the rack and pinion steering system used on
many cars in the past.
Gears for connecting intersecting shafts: Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a shaft's rotation
needs to be changed. They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees apart, but can be designed to
work at other angles as well. The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or hypoid. Straight bevel gear
teeth actually have the same problem as straight spur gear teeth, as each tooth engages; it impacts the
corresponding tooth all at once. Just like with spur gears, the solution to this problem is to curve the gear
teeth. These spiral teeth engage just like helical teeth: the contact starts at one end of the gear and
progressively spreads across the whole tooth.

Straight bevel gears Spiral bevel gears

On straight and spiral bevel gears, the shafts must be perpendicular to each other, but they must also be in
the same plane. The hypoid gear, can engage with the axes in different planes. This feature is used in many
car differentials. The ring gear of the differential and the input pinion gear are both hypoid. This allows the
input pinion to be mounted lower than the axis of the ring gear. Figure shows the input pinion engaging the
ring gear of the differential. Since the driveshaft of the car is connected to the input pinion, this also lowers
the driveshaft. This means that the driveshaft doesn't pass into the passenger compartment of the car as
much, making more room for people and cargo.

Hypoid gears
Neither parallel nor intersecting shafts: Helical gears may be used to mesh two shafts that are not parallel,
although they are still primarily use in parallel shaft applications. A special application in which helical
gears are used is a crossed gear mesh, in which the two shafts are perpendicular to each other.

45
 Crossed-helical gears
Worm and worm gear: Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is common for worm
gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater.

Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the worm can easily turn the gear,
but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so shallow that when the gear
tries to spin it, the friction between the gear and the worm holds the worm in place. This feature is useful for
machines such as conveyor systems, in which the locking feature can act as a brake for the conveyor when
the motor is not turning. One other very interesting usage of worm gears is in the Torsen differential, which
is used on some high-performance cars and trucks.
Terms Used in Gears

Fig. 4.2. Spur Gear and Pinion pair

Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.
Base Circle: The circle from which is generated the involute curve upon which the tooth profile is based.
Center Distance: The distance between centers of two gears.
Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle circumference per tooth.
Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch Circle
Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it fits on the
meshing gear.
Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.
Diametral Pitch: Teeth per mm of diameter.
Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of the tooth.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.
Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the bottom of the teeth
Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both gears are the same size, they are both called "gears".
Land: The top surface of the tooth.
Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels, between the first point
of contact and the last.
46
Module: Millimeter of Pitch Diameter to Teeth.
Pinion: The smaller of two meshed gears.
Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center of the gear to the pitch
point.
Diametral pitch: Teeth per millimeter of pitch diameter.
Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of two meshing gears, where the Line of Centers
crosses the pitch circles.
Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the Line of Centers.
Root Circle: The circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth spaces.
Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into the space between teeth on the mating gear.
Gear-Tooth Action
Fundamental Law of Gear-Tooth Action
Figure shows two mating gear teeth, in which
• Tooth profile 1 drives tooth profile 2 by acting at the instantaneous contact point K.
• 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2 is the common normal of the two profiles.
• 𝑁𝑁1 is the foot of the perpendicular from 𝑂𝑂1 to 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2
• 𝑁𝑁2 is the foot of the perpendicular from 𝑂𝑂2 to 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2 .
Although the two profiles have different velocities 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2 at point K, their velocities along 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2 are
equal in both magnitude and direction. Otherwise the two tooth profiles would separate from each other.
Therefore,

Note that the intersection of the tangency 𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁2 and the line of center 𝑂𝑂1 𝑂𝑂2 is point P, and from the similar
triangles,

Thus, the relationship between the angular velocities of the driving gear to the driven gear, or velocity ratio,
of a pair of mating teeth is

Point P is very important to the velocity ratio, and it is called the pitch point. Pitch point divides the line
between the line of centers and its position decides the velocity ratio of the two teeth. The above expression
is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
Constant Velocity Ratio
For a constant velocity ratio, the position of P should remain unchanged. In this case, the motion
transmission between two gears is equivalent to the motion transmission between two imagined slip-less
cylinders with radius R1 and R2 or diameter D1 and D2. We can get two circles whose centers are at O1 and
O2, and through pitch point P. These two circles are termed pitch circles. The velocity ratio is equal to the
inverse ratio of the diameters of pitch circles. This is the fundamental law of gear-tooth action.
The fundamental law of gear-tooth action may now also be stated as follow (for gears with fixed center
distance). A common normal (the line of action) to the tooth profiles at their point of contact must, in all
positions of the contacting teeth, pass through a fixed point on the line-of-centers called the pitch point.
Any two curves or profiles engaging each other and satisfying the law of gearing are conjugate curves, and
the relative rotation speed of the gears will be constant(constant velocity ratio).
Conjugate Profiles
To obtain the expected velocity ratio of two tooth profiles, the normal line of their profiles must pass
through the corresponding pitch point, which is decided by the velocity ratio. The two profiles which satisfy
this requirement are called conjugate profiles. Sometimes, we simply termed the tooth profiles which
satisfy the fundamental law of gear-tooth action the conjugate profiles.

47
Although many tooth shapes are possible for which a mating tooth could be designed to satisfy the
fundamental law, only two are in general use: the cycloidal and involute profiles.
The involute has important advantages; it is easy to manufacture and the center distance between a pair of
involute gears can be varied without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances between shaft
locations are not required when using the involute profile. The most commonly used conjugate tooth curve
is the involute curve.
Conjugate action: It is essential for correctly meshing gears, the size of the teeth (the module) must be the
same for both the gears. Another requirement - the shape of teeth necessary for the speed ratio to remain
constant during an increment of rotation; this behavior of the contacting surfaces (ie. the teeth flanks)
is known as conjugate action.

Forms of Teeth
Involute Profile
The following examples are involute spur gears. We use the word involute because the contour of gear teeth
curves inward. Gears have many terminologies, parameters and principles. One of the important concepts is
the velocity ratio, which is the ratio of the rotary velocity of the driver gear to that of the driven gears.
Generation of the Involute Curve

Involute curve
The curve most commonly used for gear-tooth profiles is the involute of a circle. This involute curve is the
path traced by a point on a line as the line rolls without slipping on the circumference of a circle. It may also
be defined as a path traced by the end of a string, which is originally wrapped on a circle when the string is
unwrapped from the circle. The circle from which the involute is derived is called the base circle.
The involute profile of gears has important advantages;
1. It is easy to manufacture and the center distance between a pair of involute gears can be varied
without changing the velocity ratio. Thus close tolerances between shaft locations are not required.
The most commonly used conjugate tooth curve is the involute curve.
2. In involute gears, the pressure angle, remains constant between the point of tooth engagement and
disengagement. It is necessary for smooth running and less wear of gears.
3. The face and flank of involute teeth are generated by a single curve where as in cycloidal gears,
double curves (i.e. epi-cycloid and hypo-cycloid) are required for the face and flank respectively.
Thus the involute teeth are easy to manufacture than cycloidal teeth.
In involute system, the basic rack has straight teeth and the same can be cut with simple tools.
Cycloidal profile:
48
A cycloid is the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls without slipping on a
fixed straight line. When a circle rolls without slipping on the outside of a fixed circle, the curve traced by a
point on the circumference of a circle is known as epi-cycloid. On the other hand, if a circle rolls without
slipping on the inside of a fixed circle, then the curve traced by a point on the circumference of a circle is called hypo-
cycloid.
Advantages of Cycloidal gear teeth:
1. Since the cycloidal teeth have wider flanks, therefore the cycloidal gears are stronger than the
involute gears, for the same pitch. Due to this reason, the cycloidal teeth are preferred specially for
cast teeth.
2. In cycloidal gears, the contact takes place between a convex flank and a concave surface, where as in
involute gears the convex surfaces are in contact. This condition results in less wear in cycloidal
gears as compared to involute gears. However the difference in wear is negligible
3. In cycloidal gears, the interference does not occur at all. Though there are advantages of cycloidal
gears but they are outweighed by the greater simplicity and flexibility of the involute gears.

Systems of Gear Teeth

The following four systems of gear teeth are commonly used in practice:
1. 14 1�2 ° Composite system
2. 14 1�2 ° Full depth involute system
3. 20° Full depth involute system
4. 20° Stub involute system
The 14½O composite system is used for general purpose gears.
It is stronger but has no interchangeability. The tooth profile of this system has cycloidal curves at the top
and bottom and involute curve at the middle portion.
The teeth are produced by formed milling cutters or hobs.

49
The tooth profile of the 14 1�2 ° full depth involute system was developed using gear hobs for spur and
helical gears.
The tooth profile of the 20° full depth involute system may be cut by hobs.
The increase of the pressure angle from 14 1�2 ° to 20° results in a stronger tooth, because the tooth acting
as a beam is wider at the base.
The 20° stub involute system has a strong tooth to take heavy loads.
Length of Path of Contact
The following four systems of gear teeth are commonly used in practice:

Consider a pinion driving wheel as shown in figure. When the pinion rotates in clockwise, the contact
between a pair of involute teeth begins at K (on the near the base circle of pinion or the outer end of the
tooth face on the wheel) and ends at L (outer end of the tooth face on the pinion or on the flank near the base
circle of wheel). MN is the common normal at the point of contacts and the common tangent to the base
circles. The point K is the intersection of the addendum circle of wheel and the common tangent. The point
L is the intersection of the addendum circle of pinion and common tangent.
The length of path of contact is the length of common normal cut-off by the addendum circles of the wheel
and the pinion. Thus the length of part of contact is KL which is the sum of the parts of path of contacts KP
and PL. Contact length KP is called as path of approach and contact length PL is called as path of recess.
𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑎 = 𝑂𝑂1 𝐿𝐿 = Radius of addendum circle of pinion, and 𝑅𝑅𝐴𝐴 = 𝑂𝑂2 𝐾𝐾 = Radius of addendum circle of wheel
𝑟𝑟 = 𝑂𝑂1 𝑃𝑃 = Radius of pitch circle of pinion, 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑂𝑂2 𝑃𝑃 = Radius of pitch circle of wheel. Radius of the base
circle of pinion = 𝑂𝑂1 𝑀𝑀 = 𝑂𝑂1 𝑃𝑃 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜙𝜙 and radius of the base circle of wheel = 𝑂𝑂2 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑂𝑂2 𝑃𝑃 cos 𝜙𝜙 =
𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜙𝜙. From right angle triangle 𝑂𝑂2 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾

Path of approach: KP

Similarly from right angle triangle 𝑂𝑂1 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Path of recess: PL

Length of path of contact: KL

Length of Arc of Contact

Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to the end of engagement
of a given pair of teeth. In Figure, the arc of contact is EPF or GPH.

50
Considering the arc of contact GPH.
The arc GP is known as arc of approach and the arc PH is called arc of recess. The angles subtended by
these arcs at O1 are called angle of approach and angle of recess respectively.

Contact Ratio (or) Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact

The contact ratio or the number of pairs of teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the length of the arc of
contact to the circular pitch.

Interference in Involute Gears

The tooth tip of the pinion will then undercut the tooth on the wheel at the root and damages part of the
involute profile. This effect is known as interference, and occurs when the teeth are being cut and weakens
the tooth at its root. In general, the phenomenon, when the tip of tooth undercuts the root on its mating gear
is known as interference.

Similarly, if the radius of the addendum circles of the wheel increases beyond 𝑂𝑂2 𝑀𝑀, then the tip of tooth on
wheel will cause interference with the tooth on pinion. The points 𝑀𝑀 and 𝑁𝑁 are called interference points.
The interference may only be prevented, if the point of contact between the two teeth is always on the
involute profiles and if the addendum circles of the two mating gears cut the common tangent to the base
circles at the points of tangency.
1. Height of the teeth may be reduced.
2. Under cut of the radial flank of the pinion.
3. Centre distance may be increased. It leads to increase in pressure angle.
Minimum number of teeth on the pinion avoid Interference ‘t’

51
Minimum number of teeth on the wheel avoid Interference ‘T’

Backlash:
The gap between the non-drive face of the pinion tooth and the adjacent wheel tooth is known as backlash.
Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when gears change direction. The term "backlash" can also be
used to refer to the size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes; thus, one could speak of a pair of
gears as having, for example, "0.1 mm of backlash."
Practise problems:
1) Two gears in mesh have a module of 8 mm and a pressure angle of 20°. The larger gear has 57 teeth while
the pinion has 23 teeth. If the addenda on pinion and gear wheel are equal to one module (1m), find
a. The number of pairs of teeth in contact and
b. The angle of action of the pinion and the gear wheel.
Solution:
Data: t =23; T = 57; addendum = 1m = 8mm and f=20°

52
2.) Two gear wheels mesh externally and are to give a velocity ratio of 3 to 1. The teeth are of involute form
; module = 6 mm, addendum = one module, pressure angle = 20°. The pinion rotates at 90 r.p.m. Determine:
1. The number of teeth on the pinion to avoid interference on it and the corresponding number of teeth on
the wheel, 2. The length of path and arc of contact, 3.The number of pairs of teeth in contact, and 4. The
maximum velocity of sliding.
Solution:

The number of teeth on the pinion to avoid interference is given by,

And corresponding number of teeth on the wheel is given by,

Length of path and arc of contact:

The pitch circle radius of pinion is given by,

The path of approach (i.e. path of contact when engagement occurs) is given by,

Length of arc of contact is given by,

53
Unit:V GOVERNORS
5.1 Governors
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are variations in the load
e.g. when the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases, therefore it becomes necessary to increase the
supply of working fluid. A little consideration will show, that when the load increases, the configuration of
the governor changes and a valve is moved to increase the supply of the working fluid; conversely, when
the load decreases, the engine speed increases and the governor decreases the supply of working fluid. We
can observe that the function of a flywheel in an engine is entirely different from that of a governor. It
controls the speed variation caused by the fluctuations of the engine turning moment during each cycle of
operation. It does not control the speed variations caused by a varying load. The varying demand for power
is met by the governor regulating the supply of working fluid.
5.2 Types of Governors
The governors may, broadly, be classified as
1. Centrifugal governors, and
2. Inertia governors.
The centrifugal governors, may further be classified as follows :

5.3 Centrifugal Governors

The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal
and opposite radial force, known as the controlling force. Centrifugal governor consists of two balls of
equal mass, which are attached to the arms as shown in Fig. 5.1. These balls are known as governor balls or
fly balls. The balls revolve with a spindle, which is driven by the engine through bevel gears. The upper
ends of the arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that the balls may rise up or fall down as they revolve about
the vertical axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve, which is keyed to the spindle. This sleeve
revolves with the spindle; but can slide up and down. The balls and the sleeve rises when the spindle speed
increases, and falls when the speed decreases. In order to limit the travel of the sleeve in upward and
downward directions, two stops S, S are provided on the spindle. The sleeve is connected by a bell crank
lever to a throttle valve. The supply of the working fluid decreases when the sleeve rises and increases when
it falls. When the load on the engine increases, the engine and the governor speed decreases. This results in
the decrease of centrifugal force on the balls. Hence the balls move inwards and the sleeve moves
downwards.
The downward movement of the sleeve operates a throttle valve at the other end of the bell crank lever to
increase the supply of working fluid and thus the engine speed is increased. In this case, the extra power
output is provided to balance the increased load. When the load on the engine decreases, the engine and the
governor speed increases, which results in the increase of centrifugal force on the balls. Thus the balls move
outwards and the sleeve rises upwards. This upward movement of the sleeve reduces the supply of the
working fluid and hence the speed is decreased. In this case, the power output is reduced. The controlling
force is provided either by the action of gravity as in Watt governor or by a spring as in case of Hartnell
governor.

54
A governor controls engine speed. As it rotates, the weights swing outwards, pulling down a spindle that
reduces the fuel supply at high speed. When the balls rotate at uniform speed, controlling force is equal to
the centrifugal force and they balance each other.

Fig. 5.1.
Terms Used in Governors
The following terms used in governors are important from the subject point of view;
1. Height of a governor. It is the vertical distance from the centre of the ball to a point where the axes
of the arms (or arms produced) intersect on the spindle axis. It is usually denoted by h.
2. Equilibrium speed. It is the speed at which the governor balls, arms etc., are in complete
equilibrium and the sleeve does not tend to move upwards or downwards.
3. Mean equilibrium speed. It is the speed at the mean position of the balls or the sleeve.
4. Maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds. The speeds at the maximum and minimum radius of
rotation of the balls, without tending to move either way are known as maximum and minimum
equilibrium speeds respectively.
Note: There can be many equilibrium speeds between the mean and the maximum and the mean and the
Minimum equilibrium speeds.
5. Sleeve lift. It is the vertical distance which the sleeve travels due to change in equilibrium speed.
5.4 Watt Governor
The simplest form of a centrifugal governor is a Watt governor, as shown in Fig. 5.2. It is basically a conical
pendulum with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. The arms of the governor may be connected to
the spindle in the following three ways :
1. The pivot P, may be on the spindle axis as shown in Fig. 5.2 (a).
2. The pivot P, may be offset from the spindle axis and the arms when produced intersect at O, as
shown in Fig. 5.2 (b).
3. The pivot P, may be offset, but the arms cross the axis at O, as shown in Fig. 5.2 (c).

Fig. 5.2.
55
It is assumed that the weight of the arms, links and the sleeve are negligible as compared to the weight of the
balls. Now, the ball is in equilibrium under the action of the following;
1. the centrifugal force (FC) acting on the ball,
2. the tension (T) in the arm, and
3. the weight (w) of the ball.
Taking moments about point O, then;

When g is expressed in m/s2 and ω in rad/s, then h is in metres. If N is the speed in r.p.m., then

Note : We see from the above expression that the height of a governor h, is inversely proportional to
N2.Therefore at high speeds, the value of h is small. At such speeds, the change in the value of h
corresponding to a small change in speed is insufficient to enable a governor of this type to operate the
mechanism to give the necessary change in the fuel supply. This governor may only work satisfactorily at
relatively low speeds i.e.from 60 to 80 r.p.m.
Practise Problem:
(1.) Calculate the vertical height of a Watt governor when it rotates at 60 r.p.m. Also find the change in
vertical height when its speed increases to 61 r.p.m.
Solution:
Given: N1 = 60 r.p.m. N2 = 61 r.p.m.
Initial height is given by,

Change in vertical height

Final height is given by,

5.5 Porter Governor

The Porter governor is a modification of a Watt’s governor, with central load attached to the sleeve as
shown in Fig. 5.3 (a). The load moves up and down the central spindle. This additional downward force
increases the speed of revolution required to enable the balls to rise to any predetermined level. Consider the
forces acting on one-half of the governor as shown in Fig. 6.3 (b).

56
 Fig. 5.3.

Though there are several ways of determining the relation between the height of the governor (h) and the
angular speed of the balls (ω), yet the following two methods are important from the subject point of view:
1. Method of resolution of forces ; and
2. Instantaneous centre method.
1. Method of resolution of forces
Considering the equilibrium of the forces acting at D,

57
2. When the loaded sleeve moves up and down the spindle, the frictional force acts on it in a direction
opposite to that of the motion of sleeve. If F = Frictional force acting on the sleeve in Newtons, then the
above equations get reduced as,

The + sign is used when the sleeve moves upwards or the governor speed increases and negative sign is used
when the sleeve moves downwards or the governor speed decreases.
2. Instantaneous centre method
In this method, equilibrium of the forces acting on the link BD are considered. The instantaneous centre I
lies at the point of intersection of PB produced and a line through D perpendicular to the spindle axis, as
shown in Fig. 6.4. Taking moments about the point I,

58
 Fig. 6.4.

Practise Problems:
(2.) Porter governor has equal arms each 250 mm long and pivoted on the axis of rotation. Each ball has a
mass of 5 kg and the mass of the central load on the sleeve is 25 kg. The radius of rotation of the ball is 150
mm when the governor begins to lift and 200 mm when the governor is at maximum speed. Find the
minimum and maximum speeds and range of speed of the governor.
Solution:
Given: BP = BD = 250 mm = 0.25 m ; m = 5 kg ; M = 15 kg ; r1 = 150 mm= 0.15m; r2 = 200 mm = 0.2 m

59
 Fig. 6.5.
The minimum and maximum positions of the governor are shown in Fig. 6.5 (a) and (b) respectively.
Minimum speed when r1 = BG = 0.15 m
Let N1 = Minimum speed.
From Fig. 6.5 (a), height of the governor,

Range of speed = N2 – N1 = 154.4 – 133.8 = 20.7 r.p.m.

(3.) The arms of a Porter governor are each 250 mm long and pivoted on the governor axis. The mass of
each ball is 5 kg and the mass of the central sleeve is 30 kg. The radius of rotation of the balls is 150 mm
when the sleeve begins to rise and reaches a value of 200 mm for maximum speed. Determine the speed
range of the governor. If the friction at the sleeve is equivalent of 20 N of load at the sleeve, determine how
the speed range is modified.
Solution:
Given : BP = BD = 250 mm ; m = 5 kg ; M = 30 kg ; r1 = 150 mm ; r2 = 200 mm
First of all, let us find the minimum and maximum speed of the governor. The minimum and maximum
position of the governor is shown in Fig. 6.6 (a) and (b) respectively.
Let N1 = Minimum speed when r1 = BG = 150 mm, and N2 = Maximum speed when r2 = BG = 200 mm.
Speed range of the governor
From Fig. 6.6 (a), height of the governor is given by,

From Fig. 6.6 (b), height of the governor,

60
Speed range of the governor = N2 – N1 = 204.4 – 177 = 27.4 r.p.m.
Speed range when friction at the sleeve is equivalent of 20 N of load (i.e. when F = 20 N)
When the sleeve moves downwards, the friction force (F) acts upwards and the minimum speed is given by;

Speed range of the governor = N2 – N1 = 210 – 172 = 38 r.p.m.

(4.) A Porter governor has all four arms 250 mm long. The upper arms are attached on the axis of rotation
and the lower arms are attached to the sleeve at a distance of 30 mm from the axis. The mass of each ball is
5 kg and the sleeve has a mass of 50 kg. The extreme radii of rotation are 150 mm and 200 mm. Determine
the range of speed of the governor.
Solution:
Given : BP = BD = 250 mm ; DH = 30 mm ; m = 5 kg ; M = 50 kg ; r1 = 150 mm ; r2 = 200 mm
First of all, let us find the minimum and maximum speed of the governor. The minimum and maximum
position of the governor is shown in Fig. 6.8 (a) and (b) respectively.

Fig. 6.8.
Let N1 = Minimum speed when r1 = BG = 150 mm; and N2 = Maximum speed when r2 = BG = 200 mm.
From Fig. 18.8 (a), height of the governor,

From Fig. 6.8(b), height of the governor,

61
From Fig. 6.8(b), height of the governor,

Range of speed = N2 – N1 = 238 – 208 = 30 r.p.m.

Sensitiveness of Governors
Consider two governors A and B running at the same speed. When this speed increases or decreases by a
certain amount, the lift of the sleeve of governor A is greater than the lift of the sleeve of governor B. It is
then said that the governor A is more sensitive than the governor B.
In general, the greater the lift of the sleeve corresponding to a given fractional change in speed, the greater is
the sensitiveness of the governor. It may also be stated in another way that for a given lift of the sleeve, the
sensitiveness of the governor increases as the speed range decreases. This definition of sensitiveness may be
quite satisfactory when the governor is considered as an independent mechanism. But when the governor is
fitted to an engine, the practical requirement is simply that the change of equilibrium speed from the full
load to the no load position of the sleeve should be as small a fraction as possible of the mean equilibrium
speed. The actual displacement of the sleeve is immaterial, provided that it is sufficient to change the energy
supplied to the engine by the required amount. For this reason, the sensitiveness is defined as the ratio of the
difference between the maximum and minimum equilibrium speeds to the mean equilibrium speed.
Let N1 = Minimum equilibrium speed, N2 = Maximum equilibrium speed, and

Sensitiveness of the governor is given as,

Hunting
A governor is said to be hunt if the speed of the engine fluctuates continuously above and below the mean
speed. This is caused by a too sensitive governor which changes the fuel supply by a large amount when a
small change in the speed of rotation takes place. For example, when the load on the engine increases, the
62
engine speed decreases and, if the governor is very sensitive, the governor sleeve immediately falls to its
lowest position. This will result in the opening of the control valve wide which will supply the fuel to the
engine in excess of its requirement so that the engine speed rapidly increases again and the governor sleeve
rises to its highest position. Due to this movement of the sleeve, the control valve will cut off the fuel supply
to the engine and thus the engine speed begins to fall once again. This cycle is repeated indefinitely. Such a
governor may admit either the maximum or the minimum amount of fuel. The effect of this will be to cause
wide fluctuations in the engine speed or in other words, the engine will hunt.
Isochronous Governors
A governor is said to be isochronous when the equilibrium speed is constant (i.e. range of speed is zero) for
all radii of rotation of the balls within the working range, neglecting friction. The isochronism is the stage of
infinite sensitivity.
Let us consider the case of a Porter governor running at speeds N1 and N2 r.p.m.

For isochronism, range of speed should be zero i.e. N2 – N1 = 0 or N2 = N1. Therefore from equations
above, h1 = h2, which is impossible in case of a Porter governor. Hence a Porter governor cannot be
isochronous.
Note : The isochronous governor is not of practical use because the sleeve will move to one of its extreme
positions immediately the speed deviates from the isochronous speed.
Stability of Governors
A governor is said to be stable when for every speed within the working range there is a definite
configuration i.e. there is only one radius of rotation of the governor balls at which the governor is in
equilibrium. For a stable governor, if the equilibrium speed increases, the radius of governor balls must also
increase.
Note : A governor is said to be unstable, if the radius of rotation decreases as the speed increases.
Effort and Power of a Governor
The effort of a governor is the mean force exerted at the sleeve for a given percentage change of speed (or
lift of the sleeve). It may be noted that when the governor is running steadily, there is no force at the sleeve.
But, when the speed changes, there is a resistance at the sleeve which opposes its motion. It is assumed that
this resistance which is equal to the effort, varies uniformly from a maximum value to zero while the
governor moves into its new position of equilibrium.
The power of a governor is the work done at the sleeve for a given percentage change of speed.
It is the product of the mean value of the effort and the distance through which the sleeve moves.
Mathematically,
Power = Mean effort × lift of sleeve
The effort and power of a Porter governor may be determined as discussed below.
Let N = Equilibrium speed and c = Percentage increase in speed.
Increase in speed = c.N and increased speed = N + c.N = N (1 + c)
P = Mean force exerted on the sleeve during the increase in speed or the effort of the governor.

If F is the frictional force (in newtons) at the sleeve, then;

The power of a governor is the product of the governor effort and the lift of the sleeve.
Let x = Lift of the sleeve.
Governor power = P × x

63
CLUTCHES AND BRAKES
Clutches:
A Clutch is a mechanical device which is used to connect or disconnect the source of power from the
remaining parts so the power transmission system at the will of the operator. The flow of mechanical power
is controlled by the clutch.
Types of Clutches
(i) Positive Clutches (ii) Friction clutches
Positive Clutches: In this type of clutch, the engaging clutch surfaces interlock to produce rigid joint they are
suitable for situations requiring simple and rapid disconnection, although they must be connected while
shafts are stationery and unloaded, the engaging surfaces are usually of jaw type. The jaws may be square
jaw type or spiral jaw type. They are designed empirically by considering compressive strength of the
material used.
The merits of the positive clutches are
. (i) Simple (ii) No slip (iii) No heat generated compact and low cost.

Friction Clutches: Friction Clutches work on the basis of the frictional forces developed between the two or
more surfaces in contact. Friction clutches are usually – over the jaw clutches due to their better
performance. There is a slip in friction clutch. The merits are
(i) They friction surfaces can slip during engagement which enables the driver to pickup and
accelerate the load with minimum shock.
(ii) They can be used at high engagement speeds since they do not have jaw or teeth
(iii) Smooth engagement due to the gradual increase in normal force.
The major types of friction clutches are
(i) Plate clutch (Single plate) (multiple plate)
(ii) Cone clutch
(iii) Centrifugal clutch
(iv) Dry
(v) Magnetic current clutches
(vi) Eddy current clutches.
Single plate clutch:
A single plate friction clutch consisting of two flanges shown in fig 2. One flange is rigidly keyed in to the
driving shaft, while the other is free to move along the driven shaft due to spliced connection. The actuating
force is provided by a spring, which forces the driven flange to move towards the driving flange. The face of
the drive flange is linked with friction material such as cork, leather or ferodo

Torque transmitted by plate or disc clutch

64
 A friction disk of a single plate clutch is shown in above fig
The following notations are used in the derivation
Do = Outer diameter of friction disc (mm), Di = Inna diameter of friction disc (mm), P = pressure of
intensity N/mm2, F = Total operating force (N) (Axial force), T = torque transmitted by friction (N-mm).
Consider an elemental ring of radius 𝑟𝑟 and radial thickness 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, Area of elemental length = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, Axial
force length = 2𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 𝑃𝑃, (μ or f) friction force = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜇𝜇, Friction torque = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 × 𝑟𝑟

There are two criteria to obtain the torque capacity – uniform pressure and uniform wear
1. Uniform pressure Theory:
In case of new clutches, un playing assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire surface area of the
friction disc. With this assumption, P is regarded as constant.
Equation – 1 becomes

From Equation -2

65
Substituting the value of p from equation 3

Torque transmitted by n- friction surfaces

2. Uniform Wear Theory:

According to this theory, it is assumed that the wear is uniformly distributed over the entire surface of the
friction disc. This assumption is used for workout clutches. The axial wear of the friction disc is proportional
to the frictional work. The work done by the frictional force (𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇) and subbing velocity (2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋) where ‘𝑁𝑁’ is
speed in rpm. Assuming speed 𝑁𝑁 and coefficient of friction ‘𝜇𝜇’ is constant for given configuration
Wear ∝ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = constant 𝐶𝐶
When clutch plate is new and rigid. The wear at the outer radius will be more, which will release the
pressure at the outer edge due to the rigid pressure plate this will change the pressure distribution. During
running condition, the pressure distribution is adjusted in such a manner that the product pressure is
constant, 𝐶𝐶.
From equation - (1)

From equation - (2)

Substitute the value of C from equation – (7)

66
Torque transmitted by “n” friction plates

Maximum pressure occurs at inner radius

Note: The major portion of the life of friction lining comes under the uniform wear friction lining comes
under the uniform wear criterion in design of clutches uniform wear theory is justified.
Problems:
1. A single plate friction clutch of both sides effective has 300 mm outer diameter and 160 mm inner
diameter. The coefficient of friction o.2 and it runs at 1000 rpm. Find the power transmitted for uniform
wear and uniform pressure distributions cases if allowable maximum pressure is 0.08 MPa.
Given:
N1 = I = 2, D0 = 300 mm D1 = 160mm μ = 0.2, N = 1000 rpm p = 0.08 Mpa = 0.08 N /mm2
Solution:
i. Uniform wear theory:

Axial Force

From DDH 13.32 or Equation - (11)

Torque transmitted

Power transmitted

ii. Uniform wear theory:

Axial Force

Torque transmitted

Power transmitted

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2. A car engine develops maximum power of 15 kW at 1000 rpm. The clutch used is single plate clutch both
side effective having external diameter 1.25 times internal diameter μ = 0.3. Mean axial pressure is not to
exceed 0.085 N/mm2. Determine the dimension of the friction surface and the force necessary to engage the
plates. Assume uniform pressure condition.
Given p = 15 kW, n – 1000rpm, I =2 both sides are effective D0 = 1.25 D1, μ = 0.3, p = 0.085 N/mm2
Torque transmitted

Mean Diameter

Axial Force

Torque transmitted

Thickness of disc h = 2 mm
3. Design a single plate clutch consist of two pairs of contacting surfaces for a torque capacity of 200 N-m.
Due to space limitation the outside diameter of the clutch is to be 250mm
Given: Single plate clutch, Torque = 2 x 105 N-mm, D0 = 250mm I = 2 (since two pairs of contacting
surfaces)
Solution:
Assume suitable friction material – leather μ = 0.3 to 0.5 P = varies from 0.07 to 0.29 Mpa select μ = 0.4, P
= 0.135 Mpa – N /mm2
1. Torque transmitted= 2 x 105 N-mm
2. Mean diameter
Assuming uniform wear theory

3. Axial force :
For uniform, wear condition

Torque transmitted

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By trial and error method
Inner dia Di = 85.46 mm is 86 mm, outer dia D0 = 250 mm given, mean m = dia of friction surface Dm =
168 mm, Fa = 0.212 x 86 (250 – 86) = 2990 N
Multiple plate clutch
Fig. shows a multiple plate clutch. The driving discs are splined to the driving shaft so that they are free to
slip along the shaft but must rotate with it. The driven discs drive the housing by means of bolts along which
they are free to slide. The housing is keyed to the driven shaft by a sunk key. In the clutch shown there are
five pairs of friction surfaces. The driving discs may be pressed against the driven discs by a suitable
mechanism so that the torque may be transmitted by friction between the discs.

Multi disc Clutch:

Equations derived for torque transmitting velocity of single plate are modified to account for the number of
pairs of contacting surfaces in the following way.
For uniform pressure,

Uniform wear

Where I = number of pairs of contacting surfaces.

For uniform pressure theory

Maximum pressure occurs at inner radius

Problem:
1. A multi plate clutch having effective diameter 250mm and 150mm has to transmit 60 kW at 1200 rpm.
The end thrust is 4.5 kN and coefficient of friction is 0.08 calculate the number of plates easuming
(i) Uniform wear and (ii) uniform pressure distribution on the plates
Given: D0 = 250 mm Di = 150mm, P = 60 kW, N = 1200 rpm, Fa = 4.5 kN = 4500N, μ = 0.08

Torque

69
(i) Uniform wear theory
Mean diameter

Number of friction plates, i = 13.26 ≅ 14 (even numbers)

Total number of plates i + 1 = 14 + 1 = 15
Uniform pressure

i = 12.99 ≅ 14 (even number)

Total number of plates = 14 + 1 = 15
Problem 4:
A multi plate clutch of alternate bronze and steel plates is to transmit 6 kW power at 800 rpm. The inner
radius is 38 mm and outer radius is 70 mm. The coefficient of friction is 0.1 and maximum allowable
pressure is 350 kN/m2; determine
(i) Axial force required
(ii) Total number of discs
(iii) Average pressure and
(iv) Actual maximum pressure
Given: P = 60 kW, N = 800 rpm, R1 = 38mm, Di= 76 mm R0 = 70, D0 = 140mm, μ = 0.1, P = 350 kN/m2 =
0.35 N/mm2
1. Axial force

Torque to be transmitted

Assuming uniform wear theory

Mean Diameter

Torque transmitted

Number of driving (steel) discs

70
Number of driven (bronze) discs

3. Average pressure occurs at mean diameter

Axial force

Average pressure

4. For 6 friction surface, torque transmitted

Maximum pressure occur at inner radius

Problem 5:
In a maultilate clutch radial width of the friction material is to be 0.2 of maximum radius. The coefficient of
friction is 0.25. The clutch is 60KW at 3000 rpm. Its maximum diameter is 250mm and the axial force is
limited is to 600N. Determine (i) Number of driving and driven plates (ii) mean unit pressure on each
contact surface assume uniform wear.
Given: Radial width = 0.2 Ro, μ = 0.25, P = 60KW, N = 3000rpm, D0 = 250mm (Ro = 125mm), Fa = 600N
uniform wear condition.
Solution:
b = Ro- Ri
0.2Ro = Ri
Ri= 0.8Ro = 0.8 x 125 = 100mm
Inner diameter 2x100 = 200mm
i) Number of disc
Torque transmitted

For uniform wear condition,

Mean diameter,

Torque Transmitted,

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Number of active surfaces n =12 (n must be even number)
Number of disc on the driver shaft

Number disc on the driven shaft

𝑛𝑛 12
𝑛𝑛2 = +1= +1=7
2 2
Total number of plates : 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 = 6 + 7 = 13
ii) Mean unit pressure

iii) for actual mean unit pressure

Actual axial force

Actual mean unit pressure 𝑃𝑃 = 0.032 𝑁𝑁⁄𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2

A Multiple plate clutch has steel on bronze is to transmit 8 KW at 1440 rpm. The inner diameter of the
contact is 80mm and outer diameter of contact is140 mm. The clutch operates in oil with coefficient of
friction of 0.1. The overage allowable pressure is 0.35Mpa. Assume uniform wear theory and determine the
following.
a) Number of steel and bronze plates
b) Axial force required
c) Actual maximum pressure
Given P = 8KW, N = 1440 rpm, D1 = 80mm, Do = 140mm, μ = 0.1, P = 0.35 N / mm2
Uniform Wear Theory.
Solution:
a) Number of steel and bronze plates
For uniform wear theory
Axial force

Mean diameter

Torque transmitted

Also

No. of Active surface is 4

72
Number discs on the driver shaft (Bronze)

Number disc on the driven shaft (Steel)

Total No. of disc 𝑛𝑛1 + 𝑛𝑛2 = 2 + 3 = 5

b) Axial force required

c) Actual maximum pressure since maximum presser occur at inner diameter

Cone clutch
A simple form of a cone clutch is shown in fig. It consists of ;i driver or cup and the follower or cone. The
cup is keyed to the driving shaft by a sunk key and has an inside conical surface or face which exactly fits
the outside conical surface of the cone. The slope of the cone face is made small enough to give a high
normal force. The cone is fitted to the driven shaft by a feather key. The follower may be shifted along the
shaft by a forked shifting lever in order to engage the clutch by bringing the two conical surfaces in contact.
Advantages and disadvantages of cone clutch:
Advantages:
1. This clutch is simple in design.
2. Less axial force is required to engage the clutch.
Disadvantages :
1. There is a tendency to grab.
2. There is some reluctance in disengagement.
Strict requirements made to the co-axiality of the shafts being connected
Torque transmitted by the cone clutch:
Let Di = Inner diameter of cone, Ri = inner radius of cone, Do = Outer diameter of cone, Ro = Outer radius
of cone, Rm = mean radius of cone, Dm = mean diameter of cone, µ = Semi cone angle or pitch cone angle
or face angle, P = Intensity of normal pressure at contact surface, μ = Coefficient of friction, Fa = Axial
force,

Consider an elemental ring of radius ‘r’ and thickness ‘dr’ as shown in the figure.

73
Moment of friction force about the axial

Uniform pressure theory: p constant

Equation (1) becomes

Equation 2 becomes

Substitutes the value of P from equation (3)

Where

Axial force

Uniform wear:
For uniform wear condition

Equation (1) become

74
Equation (2) become

Substitute for C

If the clutch is engaged when one member is stationary and other rotating, then the cone faces will tend to
slide on each other in the direction of an element of the cone. This will resist the engagement and then force.
Axial load

Force width

Outer diameter

Inner diameter

Problem:
A cone clutch is to transmit 7.5 KW at 600 rpm. The face width is 50mm, mean diameter is 300mm and the
face angle 15°. Assuming co efficient of friction as 0.2, determine the axial force necessary to hold the
clutch parts together and the normal pressure on the cone surface.
Given P = 7.5 KW, N = 600 rpm, b = 50mm, Dm = 300mm, ∝ = 15° μ = 0.2
Solution:

Torque transmitted

Also

A friction cone clutch has to transmit a torque of 200 N-m at 1440 rpm. The longer diameter of the cone is
350mm. The cone pitch angle is 6.25°the force width is 65mm. the coefficient of friction is 0.2. Determine i)
the axial force required to transmit the torque. ii) The average normal pressure on the contact surface when
maximum torque is transmitted.
Data T = 200 N-m, 2 ×105 N-mm N = 1440 rpm Do = 350, ∝ = 6.25° b = 65mm, μ = 0.2
Solution
I) Axial force
Outer diameter
75
Torque transmitted

Axial force required

ii) Average normal pressure

Average Normal pressure

An engine developing 30 KW at 1250 rpm is filted with a cone clutch. The cone face angle of 12.5°. The
mean diameter is 400 rpm μ = 0.3 and the normal pressure is not to exceed 0.08 N / mm2. Design the clutch
Date: P = 30KW, N = 1250 rpm, µ = 12.5°, Dm = 400mm, μ = 0.3, P = 0.08 N/ mm2
Solution
i) Torque transmitted

ii) Axial force Fa

Dimensions

Inner diameter

Outer diameter

BRAKES
A brake is defined as a machine element used to control the motion by absorbing kinetic energy of a moving
body or by absorbing potential energy of the objects being lowered by hoists, elevators, etc. The obsorbed
energy appears as heat energy which should be transferred to cooling fluid such as water or surrounding air.
The difference between a clutch and a brake is that whereas in the former both the members to be engaged
are in motion, the brake connects a moving member to a stationary member.
Block or shoe brake
A single-block brake is shown in fig. It consists of a short shoe which may be rigidly mounted or pivoted to
a lever. The block is pressed against the rotating wheel by an effort Fat one end of the lever. The other end
76
of the lever is pivoted on a fixed fulcrum O. The friclional force produced by the block on the wheel will
retard the rotation of the wheel. This type of brake is commonly used in railway trains. When the brake is
applied, the lever with the block can be considered as a free body in equilibrium under the action of the
following forces.
1. Applied force 𝐹𝐹 at the end of the lever.
2. Normal reaction 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛 between the shoe and the wheel.
3. Frictional or tangential braking force 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃 between the shoe and the wheel.
4. Pin reaction.
Let
𝐹𝐹 = Operating force, 𝑀𝑀𝑖𝑖 = Torque on the wheel, 𝑟𝑟 = Radius of the wheel, 2𝜃𝜃 = Angle of contact surface of
the block, μ = Coefficient of friction.

𝑎𝑎 = Distance between the fulcrum pin and the center of the shoe, 𝑏𝑏 = Distance between the center of the
shoe to the end of lever where the effort is applied, 𝑐𝑐 = Distance between the fulcrum pin and the line of
action of 𝐹𝐹𝑔𝑔 .
Consider the following three cases;
(i) Line of action of tangential force 𝐹𝐹0 passes through fulcrum

Taking moments about O,

Actuating force

In this case the actuating force is the same whether the direction of tangential force is towards or
away from the fulcrum.
(ii) Line of action of tangential force Fq is in between the center of the drum and the fulcrum
(a) Direction of 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃 is towards the fulcurm :

Taking moments about O,

77
Actuating force

(b) Direction of Fq is away from the fulcrum:

Taking moments about O,

Actuating force

(iii) Line of action of tangential force Fq is above the center of the drum and the fulcrum:
(a) Direction of 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃 is towards the fulcrum :

Taking moments about O,

Actuating force,

Note: If the direction of 𝐹𝐹0 is towards the fulcrum, use the clockwise rotation formula and if the direction of
𝐹𝐹0 is away from the fulcrum, use counter clockwise formula from the data handbook.
When the angle of contact between the block and the wheel is less than 60°, we assume that the normal
pressure is uniform between them. But when the angle of contact 2𝜃𝜃 is more than 60°, we assume that the
unit pressure normal to the surface of contact is less at the ends than at the center and the wear in the
direction of applied force is uniform. In such case we employ the equivalent coefficient of friction μ', which
is given by.
Equivalent coefficient of friction,

Where μ = Actual coefficient of friction 𝜃𝜃 = Semi block angle.

78
The brake is self-energizing when the friction force helps to apply the brake. If this effect is great enough to
apply the brake with zero external force, the brake is called self-locking i.e., the brake is self locking when
the applied force F is zero or negative.

Where w = Width of the shoe.

Example:
The block type hand brake shown in fig. 3.1 la has a face width of 45 mm. The friction material permits a
maximum pressure of 0.6 MPa and a coefficient of friction of 0.24. Determine; 1. Effort F, 2. Maximum
torque, 3. Heat generated if the speed of the drum is 100 rpm and the brake is applied for 5 sec. at full
capacity to bring the shaft to stop.

Solution:

Allowable pressure

Normal force,

Tangential force,

The various forces acting on the shoe are shown in fig. (3.11b) above. From the figure, a = 200 mm, b = 300
mm, c = 0. The tangential force 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃 , passes through the fulcurm.
Effort

Torque on the drum

Power absorbed

Heat generated during 5 sec = 5 x 2.375 = 11.875 kJ

Example:
79
A 400 mm radius brake drum contacts a single shoe as shown in fjg.3.12a, and sustains 200 N-m torque at
500 rpm. For a coefficient of friction 0.25, determine:
1. Normal force on the shoe.
2. Required force F to apply the brake for clockwise rotation.
3. Required force F to apply the brake for counter clockwise rotation.
4. The dimension c required to make the brake self-locking, assuming the other dimensions remains the
same.
5. Heat generated.

Solution:
Tangential friction force

Normal force on the shoe

From the figure, the tangential force 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃 lies between the fulcrum and the center of drum.. When the
force 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃 acts towards the fulcrum (clockwise rotation),
Actuating force

When the drum rotates in clockwise direction, self locking will occur. For self locking effort 𝐹𝐹 ≤ 0.

Heat generated

Example:
The layout of a brake to be rated at 250 N-m at 600 rpm is shown in figure. The drum diameter is 200 mm
and the angle of contact of each shoe is 120°. The coefficient of friction may be assumed as 0.3 Determine.
80
 1. Spring force F required to set the brake.
2. Width of the shoe if the value of pv is 2 N-m/mm2-sec

Solution:
Since 26 > 60°, equivalent coefficient of friction

The various forces acting on the shoes are shown in figure.

Left hand shoe:
For left hand shoe, a = 150 mm, b = 150 mm,

The tangential force 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃1 lies above the center of the drum and fulcrum, and acting away from the fulcrum
(counter clockwise).
Spring force

Tangential force

Right hand shoe:

The tangential force 𝐹𝐹𝜃𝜃2 lies below the center of the drum and the fulcrum, and acting towards the fulcrum
(clockwise).
Spring force

Tangential force

Torque

Spring force

The maximum load occurs on left hand shoe.

Tangential force

81
Normal force on left hand shoe

Surface velocity of drum

By data

Normal pressure

Also pressure

Width of the shoe

Band brakes
A band brake consists of a band, generally made of metal, and embracing a part of the circumference of the
drum. The braking action is obtained by tightenting the band. The difference in the tensions at each end of
the band determines the torque capacity.
Simple band brakes:
When one end of the band is connected to the fixed fulcrum, then the band brake is called simple band brake
as shown in figure
Let 𝑇𝑇1 = Tight side tension in 𝑁𝑁, 𝑇𝑇1 = Slack side tension in 𝑁𝑁, 𝜃𝜃 = Angle of lap in radians, 𝜇𝜇 = Coefficient of
friction, 𝐷𝐷 = Diameter of brake drum in mm, 𝑀𝑀1 = Torque on the drum in 𝑁𝑁 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚.
Ratio of tensions;

Braking force

Clockwise rotation of the drum:

Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

82
Force at the end of lever

Braking force

Slack side tension

Substitute the value of 𝑇𝑇2 in 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑇𝑇2 𝑏𝑏⁄𝑎𝑎 ;

𝑏𝑏 1
𝐹𝐹 = � 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 �
𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒 − 1
Counter clockwise rotation of the drum:
For counter clockwise rotation of the drum, the tensions 𝑇𝑇1 and 𝑇𝑇2 will exchange their places and for the
same braking torque, a larger force 𝐹𝐹 is required to operate the brake.

Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

Force at the end of lever

Braking force

Tight side tension

Substitute the value of 𝑇𝑇1 in 𝐹𝐹 = 𝑇𝑇1 𝑏𝑏⁄𝑎𝑎 ,

This type of brake does not have any self-energizing and self-locking properties.
Thickness of the band ℎ = 0.005𝐷𝐷
Width of band

where 𝜎𝜎𝑑𝑑 s is the allowable tensile stress in the band.

Differential band brakes:
In differential band brake the two ends of the band are attached to pins on the lever at a distance of 𝑏𝑏1 and 𝑏𝑏2
from the pivot pin as shown in figure. It is to be noted that when 𝑏𝑏2 > 𝑏𝑏1 , the force 𝐹𝐹 must act upwards in
order to apply the brake. When 𝑏𝑏2 < 𝑏𝑏1 , the force 𝐹𝐹 must act downwards to apply the brake.
83
Clockwise rotation of the drum:
Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

Braking force

Slack side tension

Substitute the value of 𝑇𝑇2 in 𝑇𝑇2 𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑇2 𝑏𝑏1 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹,

For the brake to be self locking, the force F at the end of the lever must be equal to zero or negative.

The condition for self-locking is

Counter clockwise rotation of the drum:

Taking moments about the fulcrum O,

𝑇𝑇2 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑇2 𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑏𝑏1 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

Braking force

Slack side tension

84
Substitute the value of 𝑇𝑇2 in 𝑇𝑇2 𝑏𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑇2 𝑒𝑒 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 𝑏𝑏1 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹

For self-brake locking, the force F must be zero or negative.

The condition for self-locking is

If 𝑏𝑏1 = 𝑏𝑏2 = 𝑏𝑏, the brake is called two way brake and is shown in figure. This type of brake can be used in
either direction of rotation with same effort.
Force at the end of lever

Example:
A simple band brake operates on a drum 0.6 m in diameter rotating at 200 rpm. The coefficient of friction is
0.25 and the angle of contact of the band is 270°. One end of the band is fastened to a fixed pin and the other
end to 125 mm from the fixed pin. The brake arm is 750 mm long. (i) What is the minimum pull necessary
at the end of the brake arm to .stop the wheel if 35kW is being absorbed? What is the direction of rotation
for minimum pull? (ii) Find the width of 2.4 mm thick steel band if the maximum tensile stress is not to
exceed 55N/mm2.

Solution:
Frictional torque

Braking for

Ratio of tensions

Clockwise rotation:
Force

Counter clockwise rotation:

85
Force

Therefore the minimum pull

The direction of rotation is clockwise.

Braking force

Tight side tension

Width of band

Problem:
In a simple band brake, the length of lever is 440 mm. The tight end of the band is attached to the fulcrum of
the lever and the slack end to a pin 50 mm from the fulcrum. The diameter of the brake drum is 1 m and the
arc of contact is 300°. The coefficient of friction between the band and the drum is 0.35. The brake drum is
attached to a hoisting drum of diameter 0.65 m that sustains a load of 20 kN. Determine;
1. Force required at the end of lever to just support the load.
2. Required force when the direction of rotation is reversed.
3. Width of stee! band if the tensile stress is limited to 50 𝑁𝑁/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2 .

Solution:
Torque on hoisting drum

The hoisting drum and the brake drum are mounted on same shaft.

Ratio of tensions

Clockwise rotation:
Force at the end of lever
86
Counter clockwise rotation:
Force

Thickness of band

Braking force

Tight side tension

Width of band

Problem:
A band brake shown in figure uses a V-belt. The pitch diameter of the V-grooved pulley is 400 mm. The
groove angle is 45° and the coefficient of friction is 0.3. Determine the power rating.

Solution:
Ratio of tensions for V-belt,

For clockwise rotation,

Force

Braking force

Torque on the drum

87
Power rating

Problem
Figure shows a two way band brake. It is so designed that it can operate equally well in both clockwise and
counter clockwise rotation of the brake drum. The diameter of the drum is 400 mm and the coefficient of
friction between the band and the drum is 0.3. The angle of contact of band brake is 270° and the torque
absorbed in the band brake is 400 N-m. Calculate;
1. Force F required at the end of the lever.
2. Width of the band if the allowable stress in the band is 70 MPa.

Solution:
Braking force

Ratio of tensions

Force at the end of lever

Band thickness

Braking force

Tight side tension

Width of band

88