Surjya Narayana Pati

Life Cycle Assessment
This book offers an itemized analysis of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for use in
any processes, products, services, industries, organizations, and so forth. Various
challenges faced during applications of LCA and its extension are discussed,
including their benefts. Further, the book provides practical examples of LCA in
different core sectors, such as cement and construction. Each chapter functions
as a stand-alone unit within the book and defnes its individual role within the
overall concept of LCA.
Features:
• Covers Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and future challenges, including

practical applications as a climate change tool.
• Connects life cycle management and LCA/environmental management.
• Explains benefts of LCA studies for both internal and external purposes
in terms of various impact parameters.
• Identifes different raw materials or alternate energy mediums for chang-
ing inputs to reduce environmental impacts.
• Discusses conceptual extensions of LCA, such as LCC, LCSA, SLCA,
and OLCA.
This book is aimed at professionals in all engineering areas and in environmental

studies.
Future Challenges
Surjya Narayana Pati

First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
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© 2023 Surjya Narayana Pati
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ISBN: 978-1-032-07402-3 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-07403-0 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20675-0 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750
Typeset in Times
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents
List of Figures .................................................................................................... ix
List of Tables ....................................................................................................... x
Preface................................................................................................................. xi
Acknowledgment ..............................................................................................xiii
Author Biography ............................................................................................ xiv
List of Abbreviations ........................................................................................ xv
Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1

1.1 Life Cycle Thinking ............................................................. 1
1.2 Corporate Sustainability ....................................................... 3
1.3 Life Cycle Analysis .............................................................. 4
Chapter 2 Environmental Management System .............................................. 9

2.1 Background........................................................................... 9
2.2 Global Movement ................................................................. 9
2.3 Necessity of Environmental Management System ............. 11
2.4 International Standards ...................................................... 14
2.5 Implementation ................................................................... 14
2.6 Extension ............................................................................ 15
2.7 Rebooting ........................................................................... 15
2.8 Reduction of Carbon and Water Footprints........................ 15
2.9 Reorientation ...................................................................... 16
2.10 Factors to Consider ............................................................. 16
2.11 Sustainable Future .............................................................. 16
2.12 Continual Improvement ...................................................... 17
Chapter 3 Life Cycle Assessment .................................................................. 19

3.1 Backdrop............................................................................. 19
3.2 Framework .......................................................................... 21
3.3 Goal and Scope................................................................... 25
3.4 Inventory Analysis .............................................................. 26
3.5 Data Source ........................................................................ 28
3.6 Data Variability and Consistency ....................................... 28
3.7 Validation ........................................................................... 29
3.8 Process Flow....................................................................... 29
3.9 Functional Unit ................................................................... 30
3.10 System Boundaries ............................................................. 30
3.11 Allocation Procedure .......................................................... 31
v
vi Contents
3.12 Impact Assessment ............................................................. 31

3.13 Limitations and Uncertainties ............................................ 34
3.14 Greenhouse Gas.................................................................. 35
3.15 Acidifcation Potential ........................................................ 36
3.16 Resource Depletion............................................................. 37
3.17 Land Use ............................................................................. 37
3.18 Normalization ..................................................................... 37
3.19 Uncertainty Analysis .......................................................... 38
3.20 Interpretation ...................................................................... 38
3.21 Classifcation ...................................................................... 39
Chapter 4 Life Cycle Tools ............................................................................ 43

4.1 Life Cycle Assessment: Environment ................................ 43
4.2 Life Cycle Costing .............................................................. 44
4.3 Social Life Cycle Assessment ............................................ 45
4.4 Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment ................................ 49
4.5 Organizational Life Cycle Assessment .............................. 51
Chapter 5 Guidance for Life Cycle Inventory................................................ 55

5.1 Life Cycle Inventories ........................................................ 55
5.2 Data Collection ................................................................... 56
5.3 Documentation and Review................................................ 57
5.4 Input and Output Data ........................................................ 57
5.5 Capacity Building ............................................................... 58
5.6 Future Outlook ................................................................... 59
5.7 Integration .......................................................................... 59
Chapter 6 Application of Life Cycle Assessment .......................................... 63

6.1 Life Cycle Thinking: Policy Makers .................................. 63
6.2 Attributional Life Cycle Assessment .................................. 64
6.3 Consequential Life Cycle Assessment................................ 65
6.4 Integration and Harmonization .......................................... 67
6.5 Industrial Unit..................................................................... 68
6.6 Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises ................................ 68
6.7 Corporate Level .................................................................. 69
6.8 Consumer Perspective ........................................................ 69
Chapter 7 Climate Change and Life Cycle Assessment ................................ 71

7.1 On the Horizon ................................................................... 71
7.2 Environmental Mechanism ................................................ 72
7.3 Reduction Measure of GHG ............................................... 72
Contents vii
7.4 Carbon Sequestration ......................................................... 73

7.5 Carbon Capture through Algae .......................................... 74
7.6 Ozone Formation ................................................................ 74
7.7 Eutrophication .................................................................... 76
7.8 Ecotoxicity .......................................................................... 76
7.9 Human Toxicity .................................................................. 77
7.10 Abiotic Resources ............................................................... 77
7.11 Afforestation ....................................................................... 78
7.12 Land Use ............................................................................. 78
7.13 Water Use ........................................................................... 79
Chapter 8 Life Cycle Interpretation ............................................................... 81

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 81
8.2 Identifcation of Issues ........................................................ 81
8.3 Evaluation ........................................................................... 82
8.4 Sensitivity Check ................................................................ 82
8.5 Consistency Check ............................................................. 83
8.6 Interpretation ...................................................................... 83
8.7 Critical Review ................................................................... 84
Chapter 9 Case Studies of Different Countries.............................................. 85

9.1 USA .................................................................................... 85
9.2 UK ...................................................................................... 85
9.3 Spain ................................................................................... 86
9.4 Brazil .................................................................................. 87
9.5 Switzerland ......................................................................... 88
9.6 Indonesia............................................................................. 88
9.7 Czech Republic ................................................................... 89
9.8 China .................................................................................. 90
9.9 Germany ............................................................................. 91
9.10 India .................................................................................... 92
9.10.1 Building Construction .......................................... 93
9.10.2 Building Operation ............................................... 93
9.10.3 Building Maintenance .......................................... 94
9.10.4 Building Demolition ............................................. 94
Chapter 10 Future Challenges for Life Cycle Assessment .............................. 97

10.1 Awareness of Life Cycle Thinking..................................... 97
10.2 Mitigation of Climate Change ............................................ 98
10.3 Globalization ...................................................................... 98
10.4 Integration .......................................................................... 99
10.5 Exergy Assimilation ......................................................... 100
viii Contents
10.6 Circular Economy............................................................. 101

10.7 Carbon Capture and Utilization........................................ 102
10.8 Carbon Neutrality ............................................................. 102
10.9 Sustainable Consumption and Production........................ 103
10.10 LCA in Higher Education................................................. 104
10.11 Data Inventory and LCA Software ................................... 105
10.12 Conclusion........................................................................ 106
Bibliography .................................................................................................... 109
Index ..................................................................................................................115
Figures
2.1 Global trend of environmental demand for sustainability. 10
2.2 Evolution of EMS over six decades. 13
2.3 Various input data required from tools for environmental
concepts. 13
3.1 Extended boundary for life cycle assessment in cement
production. 23
3.2 Life cycle assessment of cement industry. 24
3.3 LCT-LCA stages and application. 24
3.4 Life cycle impact categories. 40
4.1 Life cycle sustainability assessment. 50
4.2 Life cycle and sustainability system. 51
9.1 Application of sustainability for the construction industry. 95
ix
Tables
3.1 Chronological Development of Life Cycle Assessment 20
3.2 Life Cycle Thinking When Adopted in LCA Studies 22
3.3 Material Balance for 1 Tonne of Clinker of 2.75 MTPA
Capacity Cement Plant 28
3.4 Impact Categories 32
3.5 Increased Blended Cement Production and Its Impact 33
3.6 Comparison of Product Alternatives 33
3.7 Impact Assessment of Different Building Materials 40
3.8 Details of Four Commercial Buildings 41
3.9 Impact Assessment of Typical Commercial Building 42
3.10 Comparison of Cement Having Different Percentages of Fly Ash 42
x
Preface
Energy and the environment are two sides of the same coin. When we make
efforts to reduce consumption of energy, then the environmental impact is
reduced. We need to tackle the use of emerging innovative technologies, shifting
to renewable energy, and practicing six “re-methodologies.” That which we can-
not measure, we cannot control. In the past two decades scientist and engineers
around the world have made efforts to integrate social, fnancial, and environ-
mental parameters to evaluate impacts on a single index in terms of sustainability.
Still, we are struggling for clarity in implementation due to the variable param-
eters of different geographical locations. However, a number of life cycle assess-
ments (LCAs) with extended tools, such as environmental life cycle assessment
(ELCA), life cycle costing (LCC), social life cycle assessment (SLCA), organi-
zational life cycle assessment (OLCA), and life cycle sustainability assessment
(LCSA), have been developed and are now in use. LCA is not stand-alone tool; it
is iterative and fexible in nature so as to assimilate various sustainable develop-
ment goals. Building such momentum helps to accelerate progress towards reduc-
tion of environmental impacts and more sustainable use of natural resources,
bring effciencies in the use of energy, and minimize impacts on ecosystems.
This book provides insight into the concept of life cycle thinking at every phase
of product and services, which helps avoid piecemeal approaches and wards off
the concept of shifting environmental burdens. But one will encounter problems
while integrating different parameters of environmental, economic, and social
natures. The focus of LCA as a whole encompasses not only the environmental
impacts but also social and economic impacts. It is an important assessment tool
globally certifed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
accepted by companies from all trades and services.
The present book contains ten chapters. Chapter 1 defnes life cycle thinking,
life cycle analysis, and corporate sustainability. Chapter 2 describes environmental
management systems and their benefts. Chapter 3 explains the four phases—goal
and scope, inventory of data, impact analysis, and interpretation of results—of
life cycle assessment and its methodology. Chapter 4 discusses fve distinct types
of LCA techniques. Chapter 5 highlights the Shonan Guidance Principles, also
known as global guidance principles for life cycle assessment databases. Chapter
6 elucidates different applications of life cycle assessment. Chapter 7 connects the
impacts of LCA to climate change. Chapter 8 delineates various principal issues
that come up during interpretation of LCA results. Chapter 9 presents LCA case
studies from major foreign countries. Chapter 10 identifes a number of future
challenges for LCA.
We know that LCA is a science-based environmental managemental tool to
access resource consumption and usage of electrical and thermal energy and its
output in terms of emissions of gases, dust pollutants, and their local, regional,
and global impact. This book will be useful to those hailing from all engineering
xi
xii Preface
disciplines and industries. I am confdent that students of the environment or

environmental engineers working within industry will appreciate this book in
particular.
Dr. Surjya Narayana Pati

Director, NICE
Acknowledgment
I profusely thank Prof. Mathias Finkbeiner of Berlin, Prof. Guido Sonnemann
of Bordeaux, Dr. M. Salahuddin, Dr. R. R. Khan, and Mr. B. S. Roy for their
cooperation and help. I have freely drawn upon completed R&D work, project/
status reports of LCA studies and published papers conducted during my associa-
tion with the National Council for Cement and Building Materials, Ballabgarh,
Institute of Directors (IOD), New Delhi and New India Cement Engineering
(NICE) Consultants, Faridabad.
I would like to thank all my family members, my wife Pratibha, and my
children Soumya, Swedha, and Swayam for their encouragement and patience
while preparing the manuscript. I would also like to thank my family and friends
for their cooperation and patience, especially during the diffcult period of the
COVID-19 pandemic.
xiii
Author Biography
Dr. Surjya Narayana Pati, Senior Consultant (LCA), Director, NICE, and for-
mer Joint Director, National Council for Cement and Building Materials (NCB),
has extensive research experience spanning over more than four decades in the
areas of life cycle management, environmental management, quality control, and
project planning and monitoring.
A CSIR scholar and doctoral recipient in chemical kinetics in 1978, he has been
a front-runner for incorporating the concept of life cycle assessment (LCA) in
Indian cement and construction industry for green and sustainable development.
He has been associated with several LCA projects. He was advisor to an LCA
project on PET bottles carried out by IIT New Delhi. He led the NCB team that
worked for Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) projects for developing envi-
ronmental norms for Indian cement, refractory, and plywood industries. He was
associated with more than 75 R&D and sponsored projects. He has published
more than 60 papers in different national and international journals and proceed-
ings. He has reviewed several papers for the International Journal of Life Cycle
Assessment (IJLCA). He was a member of various committees of the Bureau
of Indian Standards (BIS) on environmental management and LCA subcommit-
tees. He was a faculty member at different institutes in more than 50 training
courses on different topics of environmental management, especially on LCA.
He was also a member of several review committees for mega-projects funded by
the Ministry of Environment and Forest (Govt. of India). He has guided several
BTech and MTech students of environmental engineering for their project assign-
ment. He also contributed papers to seminars and workshops on LCA organized
by the UNEP and SETAC in 2010, 2012, and 2014 and to the International Life
Cycle Management Conferences of 2015 and 2017. He has visited a number of
universities and research institutes of foreign countries.
xiv
Abbreviations
ALCA Attributional Life Cycle Assessment
AP Acidifcation Potential
AQM Air Quality Management
BAT Best Available Technology
BDL Below Detectable Limits
CBA Cost Beneft Analysis
CCU Carbon Capture and Utilization
CE Circular Economy
CLCA Consequential Life Cycle Assessment
CML Leiden University Institute of Environmental Sciences
COP Conference of the Parties (to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change)
CPP Captive Power Plant
CT Clean Technology
DFE Design for Environment
EAu Environment Audit
EC European Commission
EEA European Environment Agency
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
ELCA Environmental Life Cycle Assessment
EMA Energy Material Analysis
EMP Environmental Management Planning
EMS Environmental Management System
EPD Environmental Product Declaration
EPE Environmental Performance Evaluation
ER Environmental Risk
ERA Environmental Risk Assessment
EU European Union
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GWI Global Warming Index
GWP Global Warming Potential
HRA Health Risk Assessment
HT Human Toxicity
IE Industrial Ecology
IEA International Energy Agency
IJLCA International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment
ILCD International Reference Life Cycle Data System
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISCM Integrated Substance Chain Management
ISO International Organization for Standardization
IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute
xv
xvi Abbreviations
LCA Life Cycle Assessment

LCC Life Cycle Costing
LCI Life Cycle Inventory
LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment
LCM Life Cycle Management
LCSA Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment
LCT Life Cycle Thinking
LUC Land Use Change
MIC Methyl Isocyanate
NCB National Council for Cement and Building Materials
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
ODS Ozone-Depleting Substances
OLCA Organizational Life Cycle Assessment
PLA Product Line Analysis
R&D Research and Development
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
SETAC Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry
SFA Substance Flow Analysis
SLCA Social Life Cycle Assessment
SMEs Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises
TQEM Total Quality Environmental Management
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WRI World Resources Institute
1 Introduction
The environment is not a new concept, in its current incarnation. It might be

novel, but its roots are ancient and global in nature. The majority of early civili-
zation lived in remarkably close proximity to and in harmony with nature. In all
philosophy, worship of nature is part of daily life. In Sanātana Dharma, Jainism,
Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and for Native Americans and other tribes,
the importance of striving for balance and living in respect of and harmony with
nature has been emphasized. However, it seems that these philosophies have not
carried over into contemporary mainstreams, due to modern lifestyles. In recent
years, the concept of the environment has taken on a never-before-seen sense
of urgency as we have witnessed the degradation of forests and massive global
industrialization on unprecedented scales.
In the process of industrial and economic progress, how to achieve the goal of
harmonious development between society and industries is an important issue not
only for governments but also for the whole world and its ecosystems. In the last
one and half centuries, most of our industrial activities have wreaked havoc on
nature. But in the 1960s and 1970s, the industrial world recognized the gigantic
environmental problem and the need for its abatement. Given the problems of
environmental pollution and energy consumption and intensifcation of resource
exhaustion, governments and international organizations have been rethinking
and working seriously to determine what kind of role enterprise should play in the
process of social development. The biggest threat to humanity is climate change;
rising temperatures have caused melting ice peaks, forest fres, inundation of low
lying sea coast, rise of sea levels, uneven precipitation in turn causing isolated
sporadic heavy rains and fooding of cities, overfowing of rivers and frequent
landslides, and other natural calamities around the world.
As an important component of society, enterprises have caused numerous environ-
mental problems due to consumption of various raw materials and thermal and elec-
trical energy resources for manufacturing different products or services. Therefore,
companies should not only operate in pursuit of proft but also take on social respon-
sibilities by serving various stakeholders such as the government, community, cus-
tomers, and employees and paying attention to the safety of their products, processes,
and their impact on the environment. The public has the right to know about the
social responsibility performance of companies, and government is strengthening
regulations on the environment and corporate social responsibility disclosures.
1.1 LIFE CYCLE THINKING

Life cycle thinking (LCT) is essential for forging a path to sustainability by
expanding the focus on the production site to the whole product life cycle, which
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-1 1
2 Life Cycle Assessment
facilitates links between economic and environmental dimensions within an

organization. Life cycle thinking is about widening views to expand the tradi-
tional focus on manufacturing processes to incorporate various aspects associ-
ated with products over their entire life cycle. The producer becomes responsible
for the product from the cradle to grave and must, for instance, develop products
with improved performance in all phases of the product life cycle. The main goal
of product LCT is to reduce resource use and emissions as well as improve social
performance in various stages of a product’s life. In this way, companies achieve
cleaner products and processes, a competitive advantage in the marketplace, and
more sustainable business practices.
LCT philosophy will be useful in future business practices. It is based on the
principle of pollution prevention where environmental impacts are reduced at the
source itself. These principles have so far been implemented internally in orga-
nizations via cleaner production, best available technology (BAT), and adapting
environmental management systems (EMSs). LCT expands the concept of pollu-
tion prevention to include the whole product life cycle and sustainability. Sources
of reduction are achieved by adapting a circular economy (CE) through the “Six
Re-philosophy”:
1. Rethinking the product and its function. For example, the product may
be used more effciently, thereby reducing energy use and other natural
resources.
2. Reducing energy and material used throughout the product life cycle.
3. Replacing harmful substances with more environmentally friendly
alternatives.
4. Recycling select materials that can be easily recycled and used to build
the product.
5. Reusing parts of the product to create new products.
6. Repairing the product instead of replacing it, and designing the product
so it is easy to repair.
In each life cycle stage, there is the potential to lower resource consumption and
improve the performance of products. It is an iterative process.
The concept of corporate sustainability originates from the broader concept
of sustainability, which itself was shaped through several NGOs and public
and academic infuences over time, including the sustainability movement of
the early 21st century. The environmental counter technology movement in
1960s and 1970s the “No growth” philosophy which emerged in 1970s as well
as contribution from the discipline of ecology. During 1980s, social issues
became more prominent, including human rights the quality of life as well
as poverty elevation, especially in less developed countries. Public pressure
increased for new approaches to environment and development and to integrate
Environmental Protection with a development that would ultimately lead to an
elevation of poverty. The defnition of sustainability became known on a global
level through the report by the Brundtland Commission, formerly the World
Introduction 3
Commission on the Environment and Development (WCED, 1987), an entity of

the United Nations.
The WCED related sustainability to environmental integrity and social equity,
but also to corporations and economic prosperity by coining the term sustainable
development, defned as “development that meets the needs of present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED,
1987, p. 43). The 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in widespread
acceptance of this defnition by business leaders, politicians, and NGOs. For
organizations, it implied the challenge to simultaneously improve social and
human welfare while reducing their ecological impact and ensuring the effective
achievement of organizational objectives. Based on the WCED defnition, as well
as on infuence from strategy and management planners, a variety of subsequent
defnitions of sustainability emerged in relation to organizations, in particular
corporate sustainability.
1.2 CORPORATE SUSTAINABILITY

The concept of corporate sustainability has gained importance in recent years in
both organizational policies as well as practices. While there still exists a lack
of clarity on what constitutes corporate sustainability and how to best achieve it,
many scientists and management scholars suggest that the pathway for adaptation
of corporate sustainability principles leads out of the adaptation of a sustainability-
oriented organizational culture. In a closer examination by various school of
thoughts it has been observed that there is an intrinsic bond or link between the
cultural orientation of an organization and pursuit of corporate sustainability prin-
ciples. In recent years, many organizations have introduced or changed policies,
products, and/or processes to address pollution, minimize resources and energy
consumption, and improve community and stakeholder relations. Several schol-
ars, however, maintain that these changes are insuffcient, superfcial, and not
conducive to the formation of sustainable organizations and industries on a large
scale. It has been argued that to respond to environmental and social challenges
organizations will have to undergo signifcant cultural changes and transforma-
tions. The central idea is that organizations will have to develop a sustainability-
oriented organizational culture when moving towards corporate sustainability.
We are aware that corporate sustainability is a term that doesn’t stand alone. It
relates to growth of the corporation in a situation where the corporation ensures
both growth of society and protection of the environment. A new term now in
vogue is sustainable green development. Sustainability management theory has
always emphasized supporting climate change and percolating sustainability into
organizations. The assumption is that companies in which top management takes
interest in these issues can manage them consistently. The key to successful gov-
ernance is translating sustainability performance improvement goals into execu-
tive targets. An integrated approach and an emphasis on sustainability becomes
necessary because of the complexity, crucial linkages, and vast interrelation
found in the problem of managing fragile resources and energy and expanding
populations. The desired balance and holistic approaches as well as sustainable

development are an expression of global efforts to balance all resources, popula-
tions, and cultures and to overcome traditional industrial models of rapid growth
and higher proftability.
Sustainable development can become an alternative concept in providing for
a viable environment and protection of ecosystems. In attempting to avoid total
degradation, there is an emphasis on global interdependence and a conscious
effort to avoid drifts towards catastrophe. In order to implement this develop-
ment in corporations, there needs to be a committed chief sustainability offcer.
In subsequent chapters, tools like life cycle assessment, required to achieve sus-
tainability, are discussed in detail and the essential components of sustainabil-
ity are outlined. It is a compelling vision of a sustainable future, building goals
and targets for all levels of the organization. Reversing what is unsustainable
requires innovative measures consistent with a vision of a pathway to sustainabil-
ity and must be accompanied by identifying and reversing unsustainable policy.
Applying leverage, a corporation will have a successful transition using an array
of measures that strengthen its sustainability mindset throughout the organization
by raising awareness and educating all stakeholders. This is also achievable by
changing the rules regarding incentives to advance sustainable practices in day-
to-day activities. Adaptive management and governance need capacity to manage
process through continuous monitoring, learning, and course correction to reduce
the cost and image damage of not meeting internationally agreed-upon goals.
Sustainability is a process that tells of a development of all aspects of human life
affecting sustenance. It means resolving the confict between various competing
goals, and involves the simultaneous pursuit of economic prosperity, environ-
mental quality, and social equity, famously known as three dimensions or triple
bottom line with the resultant vector being technology; hence it is a continually
evolving process.
1.3 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

In the beginning there might be a little confusion between life cycle analysis and
life cycle assessment, but both evaluate all stages of products or services. Life
cycle analysis and life cycle assessment are the same thing, but the latter is the
term more widely adopted in the United States, whereas the former is used more
often within the United Kingdom. So, what is life cycle analysis (LCA), and what
does it tell us? In short, LCA is the act of measuring the environmental impact
of a product or service throughout its life cycle, from resource used to create the
product or service, across its use by users, to its end of life. An LCA measures
the environmental impact of each distinct part involved in creating and using the
products and services, such as energy use in the production, fuel use in the trans-
port, and end-of-life ecological costs. This helps us compare products, materials,
and method used, providing useful information by which to make decision that
could help the environment. There is quite a lot involved in an LCA and it can be
quite costly and time-consuming to implement, but it helps us to understand how
Introduction 5
different products and services, when designed differently, can reduce the impact
on our planet.
European agency given defnition of both “Life Cycle Analysis” and “Life
Cycle Assessment” involves the evolution of the environmental aspects of a
product system through all stages of life cycle. Sometimes also called “life cycle
approach,” “cradle to grave analysis,” or “eco-balance,” LCA represents a rapidly
emerging family of tools and techniques designed to help in environmental man-
agement and longer term in sustainable development. The concept of conducting
a detailed examination of the life cycle of a product or process is a recent one
that emerged in response to increased environmental awareness on the part of the
public, industry, and governments.
The immediate precursor of life cycle analysis and life cycle assessments
were the global modeling studies and energy audits of the late 1960s and early
1970s. These attempted to assess the resource cost and environmental implica-
tions of different patterns of human approaches. LCAs were an obvious exten-
sion and became vital to support the development of eco-leveling schemes that
are operating or planned in several countries around the world. In order for eco-
levels to be granted to choose products, the awarding authority needs to be able
to evaluate the manufacturing processes involved, the energy consumption in
manufacture and use, and the amount and type of waste generated. To accurately
assess the burdens placed on the environment by the manufacturer of an item,
one must follow a certain procedure involving two main stages. The frst stage
is collection of data, and the second is interpretation of that data.
Several different terms have been coined to describe the processes. One of the
frst terms used was life cycle analysis, but more recently two terms have come
to largely replace that one: life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle inventory
(LCI). These better refect the different stages of the process. LCA is a potentially
powerful tool that can assist regulators to formulate environmental legislation,
help manufacturers analyze their processes and improve their products, and per-
haps enable consumers to make more informed choices. Like most tools, it must
be correctly used. However, a tendency for LCA to be used to “prove” the superi-
ority of one product over another has brought the concept into disrepute in some
areas. Taking as an example the case of a manufactured product, LCA involves
making detailed measurements during the manufacture of the product, from the
mining of the raw materials used in its production and distribution, to its use, pos-
sible reuse or recycling, and its eventual disposal. LCAs enable a manufacturer
to quantify how much energy and raw materials are used, and how much solid,
liquid, and gaseous waste is generated, at each stage of the product’s life.
Such a study would normally ignore second-generation impacts, such as energy
required to fre the bricks used to build the kilns used for manufacture of raw
material. However, deciding which is the “cradle” and which the “grave” for such
studies has been one of the points of contention in the relatively new science of
LCA, and in order for LCAs to have value there must be standardization of meth-
odology and consensus as to where to set the limits. Much of the focus worldwide
to date has been on agreeing on the methods and boundaries to be used when
making such analysis, and now they are accepted widely. While carrying out an
LCA is a lengthy and very detailed exercise, the data collection stage is in theory
at least relatively uncomplicated, provided the boundary of the study has been
clearly defned, the methodology is rigorously applied, and reliable high-quality
data is available. While such a record is helpful and informative, on its own it is
not suffcient. Having frst compiled the detailed inventory, the next stage should
be to evaluate the fndings. The second stage of LCA is more diffcult, since it
requires the interpretation of data and value judgments. An LCI will reveal, for
example, how many kilos of pulp, how much electricity, and how many gallons of
water are involved in producing a quantity of paper. Only by then assessing these
statistics can a conclusion be reached about the product’s overall environmental
impact. This includes the necessity to make judgments based on assembled fg-
ures to assess the likely signifcance of the various impacts, reported by the World
Resources Institute (WRI).
Many problems arise from making decisions without a scientifc basis, such
as whether three tonnes of emitted sulfur is more harmful than the emission of
just a few kilograms of more toxic pollutants, which is necessarily subjective.
How can one compare heavy energy demand with heavy water use that imposes
greater environmental burdens? How should the use of non-renewable mineral
resources like oil gas or coal be compared with the production of pulp for paper
manufacturing? How should the combined impact of the landflling waste, air and
groundwater pollution, transport impacts, and so forth be compared with those
produced by burning waste from energy production, which contribute emissions
predominantly to the air? Some studies attempt to aggregate the various impacts
into clearly defned categories, for example the possible impact on the ozone layer,
or the contribution to acid rain. Others go still further and try to add aggregated
fgures to arrive at a single “score” of the product or process being evaluated.
It is doubtful whether such simplifcation will be generally benefcial. Reliable
methods for aggregating fgures generated by LCA and using them to compare
the life cycle impacts of different products do not yet exist. However, a great
deal of work is currently being conducted on this aspect of LCA as to arrive at a
standardized method of interpreting the collected data. Many times, LCAs have
reached different and sometimes contradictory conclusions about similar prod-
ucts. Comparisons are rarely easy because of different assumptions and cutoff
points are used, for example, in the case of food packaging, regarding size and
form of containers, the performance and production and distribution systems,
and the form and type of energy used. To compare two items that are identically
in size and distributed and recycled at the same rate is relatively simple, but even
they require assumptions. For example, they must consider whether deliveries
were made in a nine-tonne truck or a larger one, whether it used diesel or petrol,
and drove on congested city center roads, where fuel effciencies are lower, or on
village roads or state/national highways, where fuel effciency might be better.
Recycling introduces a further challenge. In the case of materials like steel and
aluminum, which can technically be recycled an indefnite number of times with
some melt losses, there is no longer a grave. But in the case of paper, which can
Introduction 7
theoretically be reprocessed four to fve times before fbers are too short or to
have viable strength, should calculations assume that it will be recycled four times
or not? What return rates, for example, should be assumed for factory refllable
containers? For both refllable containers and materials sent for recycling, the
transport distance in each specifc case is a major infuence on the environmental
impacts associated with the process. An LCA that concludes that recycling of
low-value renewable material in one city is environmentally preferable may not
hold for different, more remote cities where reprocessing facilities incur large
transport impacts. LCA has begun to be used to evaluate a city or region’s future
waste management options. The LCA or environmental assessment covers the
environmental and resource impacts of alternate disposal processes, as well as
those other processes that are affected by disposable strategy such as different
types of collection schemes for recyclable material changed transport patterns
and so on. The complexity of the task and the number of assumptions that must
be made should be accounted for in the calculation of impact.
The concept of life cycle thinking is being practiced globally by adopting
LCA. It is rapidly emerging as a decision-making driver for industries, stakehold-
ers, and the government—the decision maker. Many companies around the globe
are reexamining their business operation and relationship in fundamental ways.
They are exploring the concept of sustainable development, seeking to integrate
their pursuit of proftable growth with the assurance of environmental protection
and quality of life for present and future generations. LCA attempts to provide a
systematic approach to quantifying resource consumption in terms of materials
and both thermal and electrical energy, its impact on local, regional, and global
environments to air, water, and land associated throughout the life cycle to avoid
a piecemeal approach to the system of products, processes, and services.
Major advantages of the life cycle approach include sifting of the environmen-
tal pollution problems from various stages, geographic locations, and environ-
mental media, which ensures transparency with better alternate paths available
for the mitigation of various pollutants. Hence, LCA is an effective scientifc
analytical tool for systematic evaluation, referred to as “cradle-to-grave” or even
“cradle-to-cradle.” It takes into consideration that all product life cycle stages,
starting from extracting, transporting, and processing raw materials, manufactur-
ing and product transportation and distribution, use/reuse, and recycling and also
waste management, can be optimized to minimize environmental and economic
impacts. It is used to measure and compare the environmental impacts of prod-
ucts and services, frequently using computer modeling software.
Most LCA measurements are made by summing the unit of energy consumed
in the extraction of raw materials, transport, manufacture, product distribution,
and fnal disposal of a product or service. According to the ISO 14040 series
standards, LCA assesses the potential environmental aspects associated with a
product or service in four stages:
• Setting a goal and scope of the LCA study.

• Compiling an inventory of relevant inputs and outputs.
• Evaluating the potential and environmental impacts—local, regional,

and global with relevant functional units.
• Interpreting the result of the inventory and impact phase in relation to
the objective of the study.
LCA has some limitations. For example, a great deal of basic research must be
completed to establish baselines for specifc areas and times against which to
compare environmental impacts. Also, impacts will vary by type of raw materials,
source of power, water, region, and so forth, so it is exceedingly diffcult to compare
products or processes on a global scale. The business world demands sustainability
in any market driven by aspiration of various environmental management tools and
their realignments in groups to achieve long-term global goals and targets.
Now companies are eager to adapt different tools to increase competitiveness
and achieve sustainable results. Sustainable development can be attainable by
LCA through better governance of natural resources, more use of renewable
energy, and using BAT and best practices to approach zero emissions, over and
above other three pillars of economy, environment, and society.
This book envisages the possibility of integrating LCA, LCC, SLCA, and newly
emerging EMS tools to generate results that are more relevant in the pursuit of
global goals. Global strategies are developed to promote LCT based on lessons
learned from environmental LCA. It will be better to get the whole picture of
sustainability, hence it is vital to extend LCA to encompass the organizational
along with the environmental, economic, and social. Combining ELCA, SLCA,
and OLCA will contribute to an assessment of products, processes, or services that
provides more relevant results in the context of sustainability. The only solution
lies in the radical quick shift in our thinking about global organizations, that in
many countries collaborations should involve policy makers and governmental
organizations, especially for developing and emerging economies.
2 Environmental
Management System
2.1 BACKGROUND
Since the industrial revolution, scientists universally agree that rapid industrialization
and the fast growth of the human population and their activities have harmed the
global environment. But it has been multiplied manyfold due to the increasing
consumption rate of natural resources because of prevailing modern urban and
luxurious lifestyles.
Environmental groups, NGOs, and other public institutions emphasize the
necessity of business sustainability to achieve a global economy that supports
today’s population of 7.6 billion and to meet the needs of the projected 9 billion
people in 2050. By mid-century, the mean annual temperature is projected to
increase by 1.1°C to 2.3°C under the moderate climate-change scenario of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, with anticipated deterioration of
climatic conditions. Economic development essentially takes place on natural
resource bases, which are inestimable. Nothing is infnite; hence depreciation of
natural capital is inevitable given human economic activity.
2.2 GLOBAL MOVEMENT

The growing impact of human activities on the planet causes various environmen-
tal disasters. It is said that “one cannot manage what one cannot measure,” but it is
an incredibly challenging task to create single metric that can capture all human
impacts on the environment. Global trends towards sustainability to maintain the
ecosystem are aroused due to overpopulation, consumption, and simultaneous
declines in resource availability. The challenge of sustainable development arises
from two major converging trends. Efforts are being through various environ-
mental tools but they do not encompass all the impact parameters. The environ-
ment and energy are two sides of the same coin.
Emerging technologies can eliminate or reduce environmental pollution,
energy consumption, and intensifcation of resource exhaustion by alternative
materials. These are the major issues dealt with by various government and inter-
national organizations who have already been rethinking the role of enterprise
in remedial measures. As an important component of society, enterprise has
caused numerous problems due to extracting material resources from the Earth.
Manufacturing units are not only operating in the pursuit of proft but also
undertake social and environmental responsibility by adapting innovative ideas
with emerging technologies. They encourage R&D activities with the cooperation
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-2 9
of educational institutes and the help of government, community, customer, and

employee stakeholders and by paying attention to the safety of their products and
processes with respect to the environment.
The awareness of environmental issues among the public is rapidly spreading
around the globe due to the impact of climate change and other natural disasters.
The public has the right to know about the social and environmental responsibility
performance of companies, and the government is strengthening relevant regulations.
Figure 2.1 depicts the global trend of environmental demand for sustainability.
In view of this, an environmental management system becomes crucial. Such
a system has grown up over a period of six decades. It comprises all the inputs of
natural resources and its mitigation by various environmental tools are required to
integrate to implement for all human activities like all manufacturing processes,
products, services, transportation, construction, and so forth. The circular economy
(CE) is the newest buzzword in sustainable development, emphasizing the conser-
vation of resources through recycling, reuse, replacement, and minimizing adverse
environmental impacts, promising economic growth without destruction or waste,
and aimed at eliminating waste and the continual use of resources.
Hence, CE is a systemic approach to economic development designed to beneft
businesses, society, and the environment, and it aims to gradually decouple growth
from the consumption of fnite resources. In the CE approach, it is vital to focus on
FIGURE 2.1 Global trend of environmental demand for sustainability.

Environmental Management System 11
renewable and clean sources of energy such as solar and wind. Use of waste mate-
rials or by products from other industries by synergizing of multiple industries
could transmit benefts to improve the environment, and the security of the supply
of raw materials and saving of natural resources increases competitiveness and
boosts economic growth.
2.3 NECESSITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Environmental management is entirely an emerging and dynamic concept.
Environmental management is concerned with the management for environment
encompassing a business or activity. EMS is the systematic attempt by organizations
to identify, measure, document, and reduce their environmental footprint by
integrating various functions with the day-to-day affairs of management and
decision-making. Industrial growth could stand frmly if the health of the
population and industrial workers and their family members are positively
addressed.
Environmental tragedies, such as the leakage of MIC gas in the Union Carbide
plant in Bhopal, are happening throughout the world regularly. So, it is highly
necessary to manage and control environmental deterioration. With the growth
of populations and industrialization the problems of overexploitation and natural
resources depletion have reached alarming proportions in all parts of the globe,
particularly in emerging and developing countries. Pollution of air space, land
areas, and bodies of water, including oceans, are taking place rapidly throughout
the world. Plastic pollution in the ocean bed is at an alarming stage. To ensure
a healthy environment for the present as well as future generations, we need
to manage all the components of the environment, adopting all available tools
and regulating all industrial processes and products. The presence of EMS may
indicate environmental friendliness of an organization, but the uncertainty of
measurement related to indicators and indices may yield an unreliable picture of
the environmental performance of the organization.
EMS represents the organizational structure, responsibilities, sequences, processes,
and preconditions for the implementation of an environmental corporate policy.
The basic functions of good environmental management are goal setting; infor-
mation management; support of decision-making, organizing and planning of
environmental management, environmental management programs, piloting,
implementation and control, communication, internal and external auditing, and
so forth. To control and properly manage pollutants, various governments have
developed environmental regulations that organizations must comply with or face
penalties, fnes, and liability. Facilities often respond to these regulations and
problems with successful solutions designed to meet the latest regulations but
rarely coordinate their environmental activities into an overall management sys-
tem. Environmental issues are becoming more complex, and the cost of waste
management continues to rise.
The traditional way of addressing environmental issues in a reactive, ad hoc,
end-of-pipe manner has proven to be highly ineffcient. Increasingly, businesses
have realized that environmental problems would be better managed in a sys-

tematic way. Just as businesses develop fscal management systems to promote
the effcient use and management of monetary resources, they realize that envi-
ronmental management systems developed and integrated into the organizational
structure will reduce risks from pollution and will help provide an opportunity
to be more effcient and organized. EMSs help integrate environmental issues
into business decisions and practices. They provide a framework for managing
environmental responsibilities in a more systematic way. An EMS approach
incorporates periodic review by top management and emphasizes continuous
improvement instead of crisis management.
The systematic nature of the EMS allows an organization to focus on imple-
mentation and to take a more inclusive and proactive approach. Pollution can
be minimized if all the industries and various organizations meticulously imple-
ment the EMS. There are many environmental parameters measured by various
environmental tools to support fve concepts to achieve the goal for sustainable
development. In fact, the importance of the environment and its impact has been
felt since the 1970s; over the last fve decades many tools and instruments have
been developed to mitigate the environmental degradation to a reasonable extent.
Figure 2.2 shows how the evolution of EMS has taken place to deal with environ-
ment, and Figure 2.3 depicts how various input data required from different tools
for fve different environmental concepts of EMS contribute towards achieving
the goal of sustainable development. At present, LCT plays the very vital role
of dealing with all input and output analyses of environmental data by adopting
LCA. The LCA study needs to generate environmental data through measuring,
monitoring, analyzing, and reviewing to identify hot spots and impacts of prod-
ucts, processes, or services.
In view of the large number of environmental parameters, a system was
developed to manage it—a methodology developed by the international community
as Environmental Management System (EMS) to use it for industries, organizations,
and institutions as ISO 14000 series covering various usages. The EMS approach
and content described herein are based upon well-established overall approaches
as well as detailed advantages. An EMS provides the structure to establish a
component of other strategic and business planning efforts for broad environmental
performance goals, objectives, and targets and to assess organizational performance
in meeting these goals.
An EMS is part of an organization’s management system used to develop and
implement its environmental policy and manage its environmental aspects. It comprises
a set of management processes and procedures that allows an organization to analyses,
control, and reduce the environmental impact of its activities, products, and services,
and operate with greater effciency and control. An EMS is appropriate for all kinds of
organizations of varying sizes in both the public and private sectors. For an EMS to be
effective, it should be involved in the monitoring, tracking, summarizing, and report-
ing of environmental information to internal and external stakeholders.
There is also a need for integrating cross-functional activities to include envi-
ronmental training of personnel. Finally, there is the need for formal procedures
FIGURE 2.2 Evolution of EMS over six decades.
FIGURE 2.3 Various input data required from tools for environmental concepts.
and the availability of these specialized procedures and information to be avail-

able to people in new product development, recycling, and pollution prevention.
A frm’s commitment to an EMS will be a determining factor in the success of
the system and the extent of the benefts derived from environmental initiatives.
A vigorous debate is now occurring around the question of whether initiatives to
improve the environmental performance of corporations, either compliance-driven
or voluntary, have consistent impacts on the fnancial performance of these frms.

EMS reporting is useful both for internal and external parties depending upon the
type of environmental tools used. Whereas LCA, one of the EMS tools can be
used both internal as well as external purpose.
2.4 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

ISO 14000 refers to a family of voluntary standards and guidance documents
to help organizations address environmental issues. Included in the family are
standards for EMS, environmental and EMS auditing, environmental labeling,
performance evaluation, LCA. In September 1996, the ISO published the frst
edition of ISO 14001, the specifc standard for EMSs. This international volun-
tary standard is a specifcation of what is required for an EMS to receive certi-
fcation or registration under ISO and can be used to guide development of an
EMS whether certifcation is anticipated or not. A second edition of ISO 14001
was published in 2004, updating the standard. Other standards in the series are
guidelines, many to help achieve to ISO 14001, although they can be used “stand-
alone.” These include the following:
• ISO 14001–1996, 2004, and 2016 EMS.

• ISO 14004–2016 provides guidance and implementation of EMSs.
• ISO 14040–1997 and 2006 Environmental Management—Life Cycle
Assessment—Principles and Framework.
• ISO 14041–1998 Environmental Management—Life Cycle Assessment—
goal and scope defnition and inventory analysis (withdrawn).
Life Cycle Impact Assessment (withdrawn).
Life Cycle Interpretation (withdrawn).
requirements and guidelines.
2.5 IMPLEMENTATION
An EMS enables an organization to establish an environmental policy appropriate
to itself; identify the environmental aspects arising from the organization’s past,
existing, or planned activities, products, or services, to determine those aspects
that can have signifcant impacts on the environment; identify the relevant legisla-
tive and regulatory requirements; identify priorities and set appropriate environ-
mental objectives and targets; establish a structure and program to implement the
policy and achieve objectives and targets; facilitate planning, control, monitoring,
corrective action, auditing, and review activities to ensure both that the policy is
complied with and that the environmental management system remains appropri-
ate; and be capable of adapting to changing circumstances. One may fnd that an
EMS does not involve a drastic change from the way an organization is conduct-
ing business now. In fact, most organizations fnd that they have many of the
pieces of an EMS already in place. The EMS builds on what you are doing well
now and provides a structured approach to improve what you want to do better.
2.6 EXTENSION
Sustainable development in its broadest sense includes developing the poten-
tial uses of the environment while also making humans able to manage its
health: a humane consideration. It strikes a balance between short-term inter-
ests and long-term benefts, between economic growth and protection of the
environment. As a new paradigm of development environmental sustainabil-
ity, this indicates effective use of the environment and empowerment of people
to design and participate in the process of its management. Hence, it needs a
thorough analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities for
economic development now and in the future. This will create the much-needed
awareness for prioritization of economic activities in the country to make the
best use of limited available natural resources. Scientists, engineers, and LCA
practitioners who develop decision support, or make decisions where sustain-
ability is a concern, should understand the need to view the solutions in terms
of LCT and to consider trade-offs between environmental impacts and between
the three sustainability dimensions. Designers and engineers who develop
products and technical systems should be able to critically read and evalu-
ate LCA information about the alternatives that they are considering, and the
environmental sustainability specialists among them should also be able to per-
form LCA studies to identify hot spots in the system. The applications of LCA
and LCT by policy makers and decision makers in government and industry is a
key factor for dealing with sustainability.
2.7 REBOOTING
As highlighted in the UN Secretary-General’s Earth Day message, countries’
responses to the economic crisis should include investment in green jobs and green
transition through more resilient infrastructure, including water, energy, transporta-
tion, health, and sanitation networks. Low-carbon investments in transportation
and energy can deliver more jobs per dollar spent than fossil fuels; seizing these
investments can accelerate the transition.
2.8 REDUCTION OF CARBON AND WATER FOOTPRINTS

Countries should avoid bailing out polluting industries unless they commit to
becoming carbon neutral and ending fossil fuel subsidies. Climate risk should be
part of any fnancial and policy decisions, and countries should consider putting
a price on carbon. International cooperation will be critical to make all of this
happen while leaving no one behind.
2.9 REORIENTATION
Countries should explore ways to prepare more ambitious environmental plans
and national adaptation processes. Their efforts to reinvigorate the economy fol-
lowing the COVID-19 health crisis should be mutually reinforcing with sustain-
able development goals (SDGs). During this period, most of the world breathed
fresh air and human activities came to a grinding halt for a couple of months,
making nature and its wild inhabitants smile for a moment. All of us should reori-
ent our working activities while ready to adopt some innovative and radical way
of doing offce work or business, keeping long time interest of our earth’s nature.
2.10 FACTORS TO CONSIDER

Unfortunately, it has taken the present global pandemic to make everybody to
rethink their activities, including how to adopt various environmental management
tools. The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered organizational and technological
changes to the way businesses to operate. These could adversely affect productivity
growth if they erode capital or disrupt the accumulation of physical or human capital.
Appropriate policies and regulations concerning fnance, construction, and environ-
mental protection can help reduce the frequency of adverse shocks. The present state
of economic development, including the state of the environment, makes it neces-
sary to broaden management’s understanding of the natural environment. It has been
observed throughout the globe that during the period of “Lock Down” and “Shut
Down,” the pollution levels of both water bodies and atmospheric air have drasti-
cally reduced due to closures of industrial activities and a pause in human travel by
road, rail, and air. During this period, we have observed the precarious condition of
both the haves and have-nots. Some luxury habits need to be restricted to minimize
environmental impacts. Now environment regulator is taking help of satellite imag-
ery technology to assess the emission level of not only individual industry but also
local and regional pollutants' status of the area. Hence, it has become imperative to
consider ecological consequences while setting up brownfeld or greenfeld projects.
Technology is available today to reduce environmental pollution, and it must be used
to correct the excesses of ecological brutality and to minimize the degree of environ-
mental degradation. Take, for example, working from home. It may not be the end of
the offce, but it is the end of the old way of viewing the offce and its management.
These are important steps forward, but we need an even greater response. There are
a few ways national governments and others can continue the momentum this year
and better advance the EMS agenda.
2.11 SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

A consensus on ways to recover better and greener, as recently suggested by
environmental experts, can provide an important opportunity to foster coopera-
tion and learning between countries. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown us
the importance of healthy, connected, and resilient societies. We cannot achieve
these goals over the long term without collective climate action. Key climate
events may be delayed, but the climate emergency cannot. As UN Secretary-
General António Guterres said at the Petersburg Climate Dialogue, “they say
it’s darkest just before the dawn.” These are dark days, but they are not days
without hope. We have a short and rare opportunity to change our world for the
better. We must use the experience of COVID-19 as an impetus to speed up our
efforts to secure a safe and sustainable future for all. International cooperation
and multilateralism will remain more important than ever. It is time to reinvent
and reenergize the way we cooperate and reach decisions, interdependently
with a renewed sense of solidarity and urgency among developing and devel-
oped nations of the world.
In the present digital era, scientists and technocrats are expected to be globally
competent, which means they should have the ability to work effciently and
comfortably in a transnational scientifc world with knowledge of environmental
impacts on global society. Most of the corporations around the world are revisiting
on a continuous basis their business activities, operations, and relationships in a
fundamental way in aligning with global environmental and social requirements
under the SDGs. They are also exploring the concept of sustainable development,
seeking to integrate their pursuit of proftable growth with the assurance of environ-
mental protection and quality of life for present and future generations. Based on
this new perspective, some companies are beginning to make signifcant changes in
their policies, commitments, and business strategies. As an example, the real estate
and construction sectors can be exceptional to the fact that they are the fat consumer
of most of the natural resources including energy and water, if it is analyzed through
out of its life. Hence LCA study of the construction industry has been discussed in
a subsequent chapter of this book that examines the effort one of the major con-
struction companies to explore how commercial buildings can evolve over time to
better meet the need for global sustainable development while enhancing their value
to all stakeholders. Contemporary society has undergone a paradigm shift from
environmental protection towards sustainability. Sustainability does not only focus
on environmental impact; it consists of three dimensions, including the environ-
ment, economy, and social well-being, which it seeks to balance and even optimize.
Today, sustainability is accepted by all stakeholders as a guiding principle for both
for corporate strategies and public policy making. However, the biggest challenge
for most organizations remains in the real parameters to measure and control to
adopt the sustainability concept and implementing it.
2.12 CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT

An EMS is a structured system or management tool that, once implemented,
helps an organization identify the environmental impacts resulting from its busi-
ness activities and to improve its environmental performance. The system aims
to provide a methodical approach to planning, implementing, and reviewing an
organization’s environmental management. Most organizations will have systems
for managing their human resources, business objectives, and fnances as well as
occupational health, safety, and security. An EMS will work more effectively
if it is designed to operate in line with an organization’s existing systems and
processes, such as the planning cycle, the setting of targets and improvement pro-
grams, corrective and preventive action, and management review. The environ-
mental aspects of an organization are those activities, products, and services of an
organization that have or can have an impact on the environment. An EMS enables
an organization to identify its environmental aspects and determines which of
them can have a signifcant impact on the environment. This helps an organization
understand how it interacts with the environment. This in turn guides an organi-
zation in determining where environmental controls or improvements are needed,
and in the setting of priorities for action to improve environmental performance.
It is heartening to note that industry is responding to the governmental guidelines
on the environment. The list of drivers are laws and regulations, technological
developments, expansion of global markets, loss of market share or key clients,
emerging market opportunities, new employment patterns, new organizational
structures, global environmental issues, need to reduce cost, new competitors,
potential to improve the bottom line through increased effciencies, demonstrat-
ing leadership and improving image and reputation, compliance and risk manage-
ment, personal passion, and commitment to making a difference. Environmental
indicators tend to relate to the environmental sphere closest to human activity and
can include economic, social, and sustainability parameters too. They measure
the quality of the living and working environment, usually for the three spheres
of air, land, and water, and may include measures for productive use of resources.
Ecological indicators relate more to ecosystems. Because it is holistic, systemic,
and rigorous, environmental LCA is the preferred technique when it comes to
compiling and assessing information about potential environmental impacts of a
product. It has been standardized in the ISO 14040 and 14044 and is applied by
practitioners globally. As emerging techniques, SLCA and OLCA are likely to
play key roles in complementing ELCA-related inputs.
3.1 BACKDROP
Organizations all over the world are now in search of excellence in their energy
and environmental achievements. It is well known that the main source of envi-
ronmental deterioration and energy consumption and reduction of all emissions
needs innovative technology to adopt to bring down pollution level, if possible,
to zero. Now in some of leading industries, their emissions are not any more
confnement to the point sources and process related because of emerging and
advanced technologies. They also use IT technologies like artifcial intelligence
(AI), cloud, and blockchain adopted for manufacturing of the products and han-
dling over all transportation system and the supply chain. The challenge of future
decades is to help to reduce climate change through clean sustainable technol-
ogy. There are various approaches to environmental management for sustainable
development. Numbers of ideas and methods supporting better management have
arisen within several disciplines. Since environmental awareness has increased in
society, more attention has been focused on various environmental management
concepts and tools to achieve the goal for a sustainable future.
Achieving sustainable development depends broadly on fve concepts, includ-
ing LCT, DFE, CT, IE, and TQEM, of course with the support of AI and other
IT-driven support. However, there are a number of methodologies to achieve
the goal, which can be broadly divided into two broad categories covering the
ecosphere and technosphere and are more than one and half dozen various tools
to deal with environmental management. Those common around the globe are
LCA, LCC, environmental risk assessment (ERA), environmental impact assess-
ment (EIA), environmental management planning (EMP), environmental auditing
(EA), cost beneft analysis (CBA), Health Risk Analysis (HRA), and so forth.
In the early years of LCA history, environmental concerns were addressed
inconsistently by various methods. Only the organization’s interests in terms
fnancial benefts were taken into account, and environmental issues were neglected
in LCA studies carried out during that time. But energy and environment are two
sides of the same coin. If one can save energy, one will save the environment. LCA’s
origins date back six decades to energy analysis studies in the 1960s and 1970s.
The LCA of packaging studies by Coca-Cola’s confnement to limited objective
could not be appreciated probably due to partial interpretation. But since then,
LCA has improved to a great extent and various environmental impacts have
widened and sharpened.
LCA grew into a broad tool for exploring potential impacts in terms of several
environmental metrics and resource depletion in the early 1990s under the aus-
pices of leading global industry leaders, educational institutes both individually as
well as in conjunction with organizations like the UNEP, USEPA, SETAC, IVL,
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-3 19
EU, Chalmers University, and Leiden University, who helped develop international
standards with the help of the ISO. In the last two decades, developments in the
methodology of LCA have been connected to the understanding of LCA as an
instrument for decision-making. Now LCA has been established as a prospective
assessment of the consequences of a choice between several substitutable product
or decision-making context in terms of the stakeholders involved, issues that are
important for sustainability of the relevant product or process system. As invento-
ries got more complex, the initial focus on accounting for the physical fows in a
product life cycle was gradually extended with a translation of the inventory results
into environmental impact potentials. In other words, from a list of resource uses
and emissions a set of indicator scores for an assessed product was calculated,
representing contributions to several impact categories, such as climate change,
acidifcation, eutrophication, resource scarcity, and human toxicity. A detailed
chronological development of the LCA movement is given in Table 3.1.
TABLE 3.1
Chronological Development of Life Cycle Assessment
Year LCA: Chronological Development Remarks
1963 First LCA: Energy Oriented Study World Energy Conference
1969 First LCA: Comparing Beverage Coca-Cola Industry
Containers
1970 Input–Output Analysis for Environment Wassily Leontief, Carnegie Mellon
(EIO-LCA Method) University (CMU)
1974 First Peer Reviewed LCA Study: Nine USA EPA
Beverage Container Alternatives
1984 First Impact Assessment Method Based BUS
on Critical Volumes Introduced
1989 Commercial LCA Software GaBi First PE International, Germany (Now
Version Think Step)
1990 First Version of SimaPro LCA Software Pre-Consultants, the Netherlands
1990 First Workshop on Framework of LCA SETAC, USA
1992 Impact Assessment Methodology Heijungs et al.
CML-92
1993 LCA Framework, Terminology and SETAC, USA
Methodology Developed
1996 First Issue of International Journal of IJLCA
Life Cycle Assessment Published
1997 First International Standard on LCA ISO 14040
Principles and Framework
1998 Standard on LCA Goal and Scope ISO 14041
Defnition
1999 Damage Oriented Methodology Goedkoop and Spriensma
Eco-Indicator 99 Emerges
2000 Standard on Life Cycle Impact ISO 14042
Assessment
Life Cycle Assessment 21
TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

Year LCA: Chronological Development Remarks
2000 Standard on Life Cycle Impact ISO 14043
Interpretation
2002 Life Cycle Initiative Released UNEP/SETAC
2003 The LCI Database Eco Invent Version Eco invent
1.0
2006 Establishing of a General ISO 14040 and ISO 14044
Methodological Framework and
Guideline for LCA
2008 A Framework for Life Cycle Klopffer
Sustainability Analysis Proposed
2009 Guidelines for Social LCA of Products UNEP/SETAC and Life Cycle
Initiative
2010 International Reference Life Cycle Data (JRC, EC) European Union
System (ILCD) Handbook
2011 Global Guidance Principles for LCA UNEP/SETAC and Life Cycle
Databases Initiative
2012 Product Environmental Footprint and European Commission
Organizational Environmental
Footprint
2013 Guidance on Organizational LCA UNEP/SETAC and Life Cycle
Initiative
2016 Attributional and Consequential LCA in IJLCA
ILCD
3.2 FRAMEWORK
The concept of LCT is being practiced by using the environmental management
tool popularly known as LCA, which has become useful and prevalent in research,
industry, and policy making. It has evolved rapidly from a product attributional
tool to one that is being more commonly used by policy makers and standards
bodies for broad and interrelated effects beyond the product, for example, to help
design large-scale consequential environmental and energy solutions. Enabling
complex issues to be assessed over a life cycle basis is benefcial in many respects.
Table 3.2 provides advantages of LCT, when adopted in LCA studies encompass-
ing all phases from “cradle to grave.” However, benefts are not obtained if proce-
dures are not properly followed.
In principle, LCA is simply a scientifc approach to embrace all activities that
go into making, transporting, using, and disposing of a product or service. LCA
avoids shifting of the environmental pollution burdens from various stages, geo-
graphic locations, and environmental media, which ensures better alternate paths
available for the mitigation of various pollutants. Hence, LCA is an effective
analytical tool for the systematic evaluation of various environmental impacts,
TABLE 3.2
Life Cycle Thinking When Adopted in LCA Studies
SL. No. Departments Steps Taken for Improvement Gaps in Beneﬁts
1 Design All phases integrated, which When single phase segregated
contributes total impact refects partial impacts
2 Plant Hot spots identifed for Environmental problem can be
performance improvement fxed or may escape
unnoticed
3 Supply Chain Capable of covering whole supply Shifting of problems may take
chain system place if not wholly covered
4 Marketing Evaluation and advantage shown Unable to compare in totality
in the entire system
5 Consumers Get information on environmental Should provide all
impacts of all phases information, if not covered all
phases
6 Local Market Attracts local consumers based on Short-term decision may lead
environmentally friendly image to environmental
disadvantages
7 Image Building Financial investors look for better Environmental impacts create
environmental image for further poor performance and leads
investment to support to ineffciencies in overall
sustainable project management system due to
not being cost effective
either of a product or service system, from extraction and processing of raw

materials through manufacture, delivery, use, and fnally, its waste management.
The functional unit is the second basic term in an LCA. It has an especially sig-
nifcant role to play in terms of inventory and impact analysis. For example, for
the cement industry, the functional unit is the kg/tonne of production. It is impor-
tant to note that systems with equivalent functions are compared. Therefore, it is
possible to defne services as systems and compare them with tangible products
based on equivalent functions by means of the functional units. This requires
rigorous data collection with interpretation and review, which helps the indus-
try in both internal and external decision-making for its sustainability in the
local and global perspectives. It is a powerful tool that can be used to place the
product in its role for sustainable development. In recent years, LCA has been
watched with keen interest as a method for evaluating environmental load to
realize sustainability. Taking as an example the case of manufactured products,
Figure 3.1 illustrates the process and boundary of cement manufacturing, along
with the extended boundary for cement manufacturing unit. Now most of the
cement plants in India have their captive power plants (CPPs). In view of this the
boundary has been extended to its CPP. It must be linked for input of electrical
energy to the cement plant, depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study.
The environmental impacts associated with any process or product must analyze
FIGURE 3.1 Extended boundary for life cycle assessment in cement production.
the entire life of that product and consider the environmental impact or burdens
of each activity along the way. Thus, product or process LCAs typically consider
the extraction of the raw materials and manufacturing processes that turn those
raw materials into useful products, transportation of those products, their use,
and their eventual disposal or reuse. The scope of study is often called “cradle-
to-grave” or, including the reuse potential, “cradle-to-cradle” LCA. If the impact
is evaluated up to the product only, it is known as “cradle-to-gate.” Figure 3.2
depicts types of LCAs depending on the goal and scope of the studies and inven-
tory, impact assessment, and interpretation for application of alternative paths
for continual improvement.
LCA studies become vital to support the development of eco-labeling schemes
that are operating or planned in several countries around the world. Quantifying
energy and resource fows at each step in the life of a product or process is
vital. The emissions from those fows and its impact cover on the complex
ecosystem locally, regionally, and globally. To make that impossible task man-
ageable, LCA practitioners integrate primary and secondary data and make
FIGURE 3.2 Life cycle assessment of cement industry.
FIGURE 3.3 LCT-LCA stages and application.
some simplifying assumptions at every step of the entire fow and use software
that employs computer databases in ways that would not have been feasible a
decade ago. Various international organizations are always working on LCA
activities consisting of four well-defned and distinct stages in the entire proce-
dure, such as goal and scope defnition, inventory analysis, impact assessment,
and its interpretation for its application as shown in Figure 3.3. LCA is iterative
in nature.
LCAs enable a manufacturer to quantify how much energy and raw materi-
als are used, and how much solid, liquid, and gaseous waste is generated at each
stage of the product’s life. Such a study would normally ignore second-generation
impacts, such as the energy required to fre the bricks used to build the kilns used
to manufacture the raw material. However, deciding which is the “cradle” and
which the “grave” for such studies has been one of the points of contention in the
relatively new science of LCA, and for LCAs to have value there must be stan-
dardization of methodologies and consensus as to where to set the limits. While
carrying out an LCA is a lengthy and incredibly detailed exercise, the data col-
lection stage is in theory at least relatively uncomplicated, provided the boundary
of the study has been clearly defned, the methodology is rigorously applied, and
reliable, high-quality data are collected.
3.3 GOAL AND SCOPE

LCA is an environmental management tool for businesses to achieve sustainable
development, which requires the ability to rationalize on the lines of life cycle think-
ing. In the last decade, there have been many advances in LCA methodology, espe-
cially through the scientifc work of the Society of Environmental Toxicology and
Chemistry (SETAC). The ISO has promoted the standardization of these methods.
There has been extensive development and trials by the ISO for bringing uniformity
in conducting all four stages of LCA through the publication of ISO standards for
the distinct stages of LCA study. In ISO 14040, LCA is defned as “compilation and
evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product/
process system throughout its life cycle.” ISO standard 14044 states some basic
requirements like recording of data and its validation. Besides ensuring accordance
with the explicit requirements of the standards, the ISO standards require a review/
monitor to ensure that the methods adopted to carry out the life cycle assessment
are scientifcally and technically valid. For the inventory phase, the most critical
issue is the way data is collected and recorded. Impact assessment per ISO guide-
lines requires that the characterization should be documented in a transparent man-
ner and that selection and defnition of the impact categories should be identifed
and justifed as per the goal and scope of the study.
LCA interpretation and understanding of the results will greatly help in decision-
making, which would be benefcial both in the planning of environmental
strategies and in governing business in the present world. Industry can contrib-
ute to society by operating in a more sustainable way and fnding a roadmap
that consumes less energy and conserves resources judiciously and optimally.
Sustainable development is the need of the hour. Achieving sustainability
requires LCT among scientists, plant/environmental engineers, and manag-
ers of the cement industry as its emissions of carbon dioxide are second only
to those of thermal power stations. Production can no longer be performed in
isolation and, hence, must consider interactions among various industries to
utilize one another’s waste for better global and ecological balance. An advan-
tage of the cement industry is having the world’s best and biggest incinerators,
namely, kilns, to consume all types of hazardous wastes, including those of

other industries, which otherwise would have been disposed of by polluting
the atmosphere to a greater extent. Implementing LCA studies will only yield
tangible benefts to any industry with a serious commitment and sincere efforts
by management.
The frst important initiation step in carrying out an LCA is defning the goal.
It is worthwhile spending the extra time and effort to defne clearly the main envi-
ronmental issues to be tackled. In this initial stage both the subject and the scope
of the LCA are defned according to the intended purpose of the study. As the
study progresses and more insights are gained, the goal defnition can be revised
accordingly. Goal and scope can be formulated by giving a general picture of the
characteristics of LCA by defning the following few aspects like its scope, pur-
pose, and target group. It is important to identify the level of detail required for
the application of the results remembering that the results of this study can never
be more accurate than what the input allows. Therefore, efforts should be made to
specify the level of detail, for instance over space and time.
The subject to be studied and its specifcation should clearly describe details
relating to the product, its amount, the time span, and its function to quantify
total input and output. The purpose of the study may be for internal or external
use on products or processes for the planning needed for environmental improve-
ment. LCA entails comparing and quantifying the environmental parameters for
various products or processes with distinct set of inputs to prepare a road map for
individual requirements. Studies meant for external target groups or agencies usu-
ally need more elaboration covering all aspects and more extensive evidence than
internal studies to identify the priority of hot spots for minimizing environmental
impact. Support in decision-making involves showing results, and improvement
analysis provides the information needed for decision-making.
3.4 INVENTORY ANALYSIS

The LCI analysis step involves compilation of an inventory comprising relevant
inputs and outputs of a product or process system, covering multiple environ-
mental aspects. The data inventory takes place for each unit process or activity
defned in the system. Depending on the study and aims, data may be collected
frsthand from measurements and estimates of key activities or may be based on
information drawn from existing LCA databases. Distinct levels of consideration
are possible, including individual processes and sub-systems (e.g., energy supply,
transport). A complete study may consist of several different layers of analysis
from specifc activities up to the whole life cycle of a product.
The LCI portion of the study is often considered in stages. A cradle-to-
gate inventory for cement would include all resources and energy required to
produce cement, the “gate” of the plant. A cradle-to-grave inventory would
cover all unit processes extending from the original resources on to the fnal
disposal into the environment. Data analysis considers environmental inputs
and outputs for an example of LCI data for construction industry. Tools and
software are available for assistance. In a fully executed LCA study, all the
environmental inputs and outputs associated are considered. LCI has demon-
strated considerable beneft as it is an accounting system for encompassing
total mass and energy fows. It builds upon conventional process management
techniques based on inputs of all raw materials, energy along with construction
engineering technology and quality control, but it demands a consistency of
accounts across many operations and life cycle activities.
Managers and engineers recognize that LCI can help them keep more accurate
and more comprehensive inventories of energy consumption and raw materials
usage—and doing so while providing a “zoom lens” from unit process to com-
plete facilities, to corporate divisions, to the level of the company or across the
industry and fnally the government and policy maker to take appropriate decision
for sustainability both for industry as well as overall environment. This process can
help identify savings and/or uncover alternative fuels or raw materials or how to
encourage further to produce durable concrete structures by the policy maker to
achieve improvement in environmental parameters.
Identifcation of specifc data and its collection depends on goal and scope of
LCA study. The challenges of data collection need practical guidance on how
to collect throughout supply chain for each item. The collection of data is time
consuming because quality data is required on many processes and many items
in each process, and because the appropriate data is often not readily available.
Basic pollutants emitted from different activities need to be measured and ana-
lyzed by standard methods. Each box in the fowchart represents a particular
process or cluster of processes. For each process or cluster of processes, one
needs to collect information on the raw material, thermal and electrical energy
input and output fows keeping data on all types of emission covering other
environmental aspects. Design a questionnaire/data information sheet; collect
the data; and check the gathered data for consistency. It is important to check
whether the data are complete and whether they correspond with data from
other sources.
One way of checking data is to draw up simple balance sheets for each pro-
cess, because the total input of a process should equal the total output, including
emissions and waste. These balance sheets may be based on the product’s mass
or on a specifc element, such as carbon. Valuable time can be saved by adequate
planning, so start collecting data as soon as possible because this takes most of
the time. It is one of the toughest and most important tasks in an LCA study and
depends on the cooperation of all concerned for detailed compilation of relevant
data. It is useful to make estimates before collecting data because this can provide
a feeling for the fgures involved and may enable you to identify missing data.
When designing and formulating questionnaires, one should bear in mind that most
of data providers are unfamiliar with LCA and may easily misinterpret the ques-
tions. Always remember that the reliability of the result will depend on the quality
of the data. Detailed input and output of a cement plant is given in Table 3.3. This
TABLE 3.3
Material Balance for 1 Tonne of Clinker of 2.75 MTPA Capacity Cement
Plant
Inputs Quantity (kg) Outputs Quantity (kg)
Limestone 1496 Clinker 1000
Coal 140.3 CO2 828.4
Other 15.11 SO2 Below detectable limits
Nox 0.86
Air (Kiln) 1114 PM (Kiln) 0.22
Air (Cooler) 1500 Dust in Cooler 0.12
Exist Air 2435.8
Total Input 4265.4 Total Output 4265.4
Note: This is a typical case for illustrative purposes.
table gives a clear picture of the hot spots to identify and how to take appropriate
action to minimize different impacts on continual basis.
3.5 DATA SOURCE

Data can be classifed into two groups, namely, primary and secondary sources.
The primary sources are from actual determinations of various test samples col-
lected and tested. To get a better view of environmental impact wherever data is
not available, data from literature is also included. Prior to the data collection and
collation, it is important to record the input and output fgures of one year in each
unit for impact study. Each data set thus obtained (primary or secondary) focuses
on the main materials used, their consumption, thermal from coal, electrical, total
production, total emissions, and other environmental issues. The geographical
locations are recorded in detail to get a balanced representation of the whole
specifc area. Production and manufacturing processes are intended to be repre-
sentative of current technology and plants. Thus, the primary and secondary data
so collected is the most recent year (say, one-year data, which needs validation for
the study) and refer to the current practices being followed at the best plant using
the same technology and elsewhere in the country or even world.
3.6 DATA VARIABILITY AND CONSISTENCY

The secondary data collected from the plant is the average of three year’s opera-
tion time. But validation of plant data was made for one year by taking measure-
ments of major emissions. Since the production is constant, the various inputs and
outputs of various sections are nearly constant. Wherever there is variation, it was
explained. However, the variations in data on the primary sources are within a
reasonable range on a case-to-case basis under certain circumstances.
3.7 VALIDATION
As LCI data quantity is meaningful only if the infow and outfow are regulated in
relation to a well-defned system, all input and output data were collected as per
guidelines of ISO system. The chemical analysis of material inputs and outputs,
like emissions and products, are to be carried out for validation. Major emissions
are monitored at the plant level for validation. However, some default emission
factors are also adopted due to some gaps in the required data.
3.8 PROCESS FLOW

The inventory analysis forms the core of LCA and is the most time-consuming
activity. It is split here into four steps: designing the process fowchart, collecting
the data, defning the system boundaries, and fnally, processing the data. These
steps describe the gathering and processing of the environmental interventions
that appear during the life cycle of a product or process. This step introduces the
frst part: constructing the process fowchart. It is recommended that all steps
dealing with the inventory analysis be read before work is begun on any one
of them because constructing the fowchart is an iterative process that one may
have to repeat several times. The process fowchart is a qualitative and graphical
representation of all relevant processes involved in the life cycle of the system
studied. It is composed of a sequence of processes represented by boxes, linked
by material fows represented by arrows. It is recommended that this convention
be used consistently. The main goal of the process fowchart is to create an over-
view; hence, one should focus on the most relevant processes and environmental
interventions rather than striving for 100-percent coverage. Depending on goal
defnition either one needs a comprehensive fowchart with relatively little detail
or a limited fowchart which focuses on a few processes in much more detail. Put
this in the center of one’s process fowchart and identify relevant processing steps
along with major material and energy inputs and outputs.
Therefore, extend the process fowchart with the processes which appear
before and after the manufacture of the product. The previous stages will include
the mining of major manufacturing and processing of raw materials and compo-
nents. A process fowchart should also indicate where power is generated in the
same manufacturing unit. A few boxes can usually be combined into one or two
boxes so that they can be more easily handled. You can, for instance, integrate all
the transactions of one activity into a single box. You will discover that the com-
plexity of a process fowchart largely depends on the way in which data can be
obtained. Keep in mind that one should concentrate on those steps that generate
the largest environmental impacts. Early on in an LCA, it may be diffcult to iden-
tify these steps, but it will become simpler as the study progresses. In this initial
stage one should try to obtain a broad view without going into too much detail.
The fowchart is only a model of reality. It could be helpful to arrange fow-
chart such that it matches the information sources. The outcome of this step is a
graphical representation of the subject under study. In principle, a process fow-

chart should start at the extraction of materials from the environment by a mining
step and include any other inputs involved. It should end with the product (cradle-
to-gate) or emissions and waste (cradle-to-grave). However, at each step the cor-
responding emissions and waste generated should be included. After constructing
an initial process fowchart, one may start to collect data. During this collection
phase, one may discover that some process steps would require to be distributed
further because no general information can be obtained. However, one should
remember to concentrate on those steps that are suspected of contributing most to
the environmental impact.
3.9 FUNCTIONAL UNIT

The functional unit in any LCA study plays a vital role because the functional unit
always referred to all inputs and outputs to determine all environmental param-
eters and its impact (e.g., GWP, AP, HT) for cement industry common functional
is considered per tonne of type of product, because cement plants process huge
amount of raw materials to produce 8000–10,000 tonnes per day of clinker, with
other blending materials and gypsum, it produces more cement. The functional
unit is reference point for deciding unique process to include and to what extent
they are drawn. It is therefore essential to ensure that functional unit fully cap-
tures the relevant functional aspects of the goal of the study system to support a
fair and relevant quantitative comparison of alternate ways for providing knowl-
edge of functions provided by the alternate product system must be used to defne
a functional unit. The functional unit right from the beginning should be well
analyzed before fnalizing because it is signifcantly infuenced the way LCA per-
formed it is resulting an interpretation specially in comparative studies plays a
very crucial role.
3.10 SYSTEM BOUNDARIES

This step deals with the specifcation of the system boundaries. Having created the
process fowchart and begun collecting data, one must now have some insight into the
critical processes that must be included and into the availability of data. This insight
together with the goal defnition, will allow one to defne the system boundaries.
In the beginning one needs the preliminary results of the three preceding steps:
goal defnition, process fowchart, and the data collected. One can then determine
which parts need lesser or further detail. LCA deals with the environmental impact
of a product or process during its entire life cycle. This environmental load com-
prises all extractions from and all emissions into the environment which arise during
the life of the product. LCA should therefore specify extractions and emissions.
Many processes generate several distinct products because of co-production, recy-
cling, or waste processing. The result from this step will include a description of how
the boundary between the environment and the system studied has been set up and
which emissions and extractions will be considered; a description of how the bound-
ary with other related systems has been defned in cases of co-production, recycling,
and waste processing; the reasons for excluding certain processes; and fnally, a list
of the processes for which data is lacking and which are expected to have consider-
able infuence. After completion of this step the collection of data can be continued.
When the process boundaries are described and suffcient data has been collected,
one may continue with the next step of the processing of data.
3.11 ALLOCATION PROCEDURE

One of the most complex components of modeling data for an LCI is correctly
allocating input and output quantities to co-products so that all fows are fairly
given to each product output.
Wherever possible, allocation should be avoided by dividing the unit process to be

allocated into two or more sub-processes and collecting the input and output data
related to these sub-processes or expanding the product system to include the addi-
tional functions related to the co-products. Where allocation cannot be avoided,
the system inputs and outputs should be partitioned between its various products
or functions in a way that refects the underlying physical relationships between
them, i.e., they must refect the way in which the inputs and outputs are changed by
quantitative changes in the products or functions delivered by the system. Where
physical relationship alone cannot be established or used as the basis for allocation
the inputs should be allocated between the products and functions in a way that
refects other relationships between them. For example, environmental input and
output data might be allocated between co-products in proportion to the economic
value of the products.
3.12 IMPACT ASSESSMENT

Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) evaluates the possible environmental impact
associated with measured environmental inputs and outputs. It is important to
note here that LCA is not a single-issue tool; rather, the analysis encompasses
numerous environmental issues (e.g., energy, air pollution, climate change), thus
allowing for a broad consideration of the impact of the system. The results of
an LCI study will be a quantitative profle of environmental parameters; infor-
mation may be frst examined at a disaggregated level right from the inventory
(e.g., carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide) or may be grouped or aggregated accord-
ing to environmental indicator categories like greenhouse gases. The selection of
impact categories can either align with traditional categories like global warm-
ing, acidifcation and resource depletion or it can defne various other categories
that represent specifc issues for the decision maker in the given procedure. The
framework for the procedure should be laid down by the concept of associat-
ing the LCI results with the environment. Thus, the issues of concern or what
to protect are identifed as LCIA categories. Table 3.4 depicts impact categories
TABLE 3.4
Impact Categories
Inventory Impact Category Justifcation
Limestone, Coal, Resource Elemental analysis of material inputs
Clay, etc. Depletion expressed in kg Sb eq.
CO2 Global Warming These GHG are accounted for Global
warming
CO Human Toxicity CO is a human and animal toxicant, as
Global Warming well as impact on Ozone formation and
Ecotoxicity GHG too. It participates in frst two of
these environmental mechanism without
losing its potency,
NOx Acidifcation Double counting should be avoided.
Global Warming
SO2 Acidifcation SO2 contributes to deteriorating human
Ecotoxicity health through PM and restricts the
visibility.
PM2.5 Human Toxicity Suspended particulate matter below PM2.5
Ecotoxicity has great human health hazard.
Heavy Human Toxicity These elements participate in the impact
Metals category human toxicity.
Organic Human Toxicity Participate in human health toxicity
Pollutants category,
of several types and properties for classifying inventory. LCA involves making
detailed measurements during manufacture of the product, from the mining of
the raw material used in this production and the product distribution, through to
its use, possible reuse, or recycling and its disposal.
The LCIA is not comprehensive even on a relative basis. Gaps and omissions
in inventory data and LCIA methods and results are inevitable due to many factors.
The next element of the LCIA framework concerns the assignment of inventory
results to various categories. Several basic impact category classes are recognized
that user must distinguish and consider in planning and conducting an LCIA.
These include parallel mechanisms—the same emissions may contribute to two
or more exclusive categories. Hence the emission should be allocated over the rel-
evant categories to avoid double counting, which is a key factor. Table 3.5 shows
increases in blended cement production and their impact, and Table 3.6 shows
product variation effects on its three major impacts.
Serial mechanisms are where an emission agent may participate in two or
more categories one after the other; there is a need to consider if the categories
should also be considered depending upon the intensity of the impacts. Indirect
mechanisms are where the products of one category (e.g., the original causing
TABLE 3.5
Increased Blended Cement Production and Its Impact
AP
GWP (kg SO2 CO2 SO2 Dust
Cement Plant (kg CO2 equiv.) equiv.) (kg) NOx (kg) (kg) (kg)
Plant A 1490 1600 825 2.23 0.0351 0.171
(10% PPC Increase)
Plant A 1440 1550 799 2.16 0.0341 0.167
(20% PPC Increase)
Plant B 1140 1010 723 1.41 0.0281 0.154
(10% PPC Increase)
Plant B 1120 995 711 1.38 0.0281 0.153
(10% PSC Increase)
Plant C 1020 846 664 1.19 0.0147 0.142
(5% PPC Increase)
Plant D 2540 2390 1550 3.36 0.0382 0.165
(10% PPC Increase)
Plant D 2460 2310 1500 3.25 0.0374 0.163
(20% PPC Increase)
TABLE 3.6
Comparison of Product Alternatives
GWP (kg CO2 LU
Cement Type per tonne) ED (MJ) (m2 yr)
OPC 778 3926 0.23
PPC (35% Fly ash) 572 3173 0.17
PSC (50% Slag) 490 2871 0.15
Saving (PPC) 206 753 0.06
Saving (PSC) 288 10 55 0.08
the release of another substance) may be the starting point for another category;
there is a need to consider if the other categories should be included. Combined
mechanisms are impacts caused by a combination of two or more emissions; one
school of thought is that assumptions are made regarding the background concen-
tration of the other emitted substances.
The second step of classifcation is assigning inventory inputs/outputs to
applicable impact categories. Classifcation depends on whether the inventory
item is an input or an output, what the disposition of the output is and in some
cases the material properties for a particular inventory item. One inventory item
may have multiple properties and therefore would have multiple impacts. For
example, CO2 and NOx are both responsible for global warming but CO2 has
prominent role for global warming; whereas NOx has the potential to create
acidifcation also. Output inventory items from a process may have varying
dispositions, such as direct release (to air, water, or land), treatment or recycle/
reuse. Outputs with direct release dispositions are classifed into impact
categories for which impacts will be calculated in the characterization phase
of the LCIA. Outputs sent to treatment are considered inputs to a treatment
process and impacts are not calculated until direct releases from that process
occur. Outputs to recycle/reuse are considered inputs to previous processes and
impacts are not directly calculated for outputs that go to recycle/reuse. Note
that a product is also an output of a process; however, product outputs are not
used to calculate any impacts. Once impact categories for each inventory item
are classifed, life cycle impact category indicators are quantitatively estimated
through the characterization step.
3.13 LIMITATIONS AND UNCERTAINTIES

The purpose of an LCIA is to evaluate the relative potential impacts of a product /
process system for various impact categories. There is no intent to measure the
actual impacts or provide spatial or temporal relationships linking the inventory
to specifc impacts. The LCIA is intended to provide a screening level evaluation
of impacts. In addition to lacking temporal or spatial relationships and provid-
ing only relative impacts, LCA is also limited by the availability and quality of
the inventory data. Complete data collection can be very time consuming and
expensive.
Sometimes, confdentiality issues may also inhibit the availability of primary
data. Uncertainties are also inherent in chemical ranking and scoring systems.
The scoring of toxicity properties approach used for human health and ecotoxic-
ity effects is a very cumbersome effort. Systems that do not consider the fate and
transport of chemicals in the environment can contribute to misclassifcations of
chemicals with respect to risk. Unless a sizable number of studies on these aspects
is available, it may not give an exact scenario because it takes a lot of time to col-
lect data on toxicity either in humans or in the ecosystem. Also, uncertainty is
introduced where it was assumed that all chronic endpoints are equivalent, which
is likely not the case. However, it should be noted that in the early stages of an
LCA study, chemical toxicity is often not considered at all.
This methodology is an attempt to consider chemical toxicity where it is often
ignored. Uncertainty in the inventory data depends on the responses to the avail-
ability of data and other limitations identifed during inventory data collection.
These uncertainties are carried into impact assessment. In general, in LCA, there
is uncertainty in the inventory data, which includes but is not limited to the fol-
lowing: missing individual inventory items, missing processes or sets of data due
to non-measurement, estimation uncertainty needs special attention, and alloca-
tion uncertainty/working with aggregated data. The goal defnition and scoping
processes help reduce the uncertainty from missing data, although it is certain
that some missing data will still exist. As far as possible, the remaining uncer-
tainties are reduced primarily through quality assurance/control measures to the
greatest possible extent.
Many studies are taken to a point where results are expressed as selected envi-
ronmental indicators or scores, be it for large scale system comparisons, technol-
ogy scenarios, or internal improvement assessments. LCA provides structure and
direction to help decision makers focus on key priorities for environmental sus-
tainability. Sets of indicators have been developed, addressing commonly agreed
upon and important environmental impact categories. Note, however, that addi-
tional environmental and other analysis will still be necessary to complete any
decision. LCA provides structure and direction to help decision makers focus on
key priorities for environmental sustainability.
3.14 GREENHOUSE GAS

The “greenhouse effect,” is defined as the changes in the Earth’s climate
caused by a changed heat balance in the Earth’s atmosphere. After water
vapor, CO2 is the most important greenhouse gas (GHG). Normally, bil-
lions of tonnes of carbon in the form of CO2 are absorbed by the oceans and
vegetation and are emitted to the atmosphere annually through natural pro-
cesses. When at equilibrium, the changes between absorption and emission
are roughly balanced. The additional anthropogenic sources of GHGs pres-
ent in the atmosphere may have shifted that equilibrium, acting as a “thermal
blanket,” and trapping heat from reflected sunlight that would otherwise pass
through the atmosphere.
Altering the atmosphere by trapping more heat has been modeled to have a
wide variety of effects on the earth’s climate, including longer growing seasons,
droughts, foods, increased glaciations, loss of the polar ice caps, sea level rise and
other displacements, including direct effects on human health through biologi-
cal agents. The speeds of these projected effects, coupled with their widespread
nature, imply a devastating effect on the entire biosphere. The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) global climate change model is used to estimate
the potential impacts to the environment from global warming. This model con-
verts quantities of GHGs into CO2 equivalents using IPCC-defned global warm-
ing potential equivalency factors. Global Warming Potential (GWP) equivalency
factors compare the ability of each GHG to trap heat in the atmosphere relative to
the heat-trapping ability of CO2. GHG data obtained for each LCA stage are mul-
tiplied by the relevant GWP100 (over a 100-year life span) to produce CO2 equiva-
lent values. As the equivalency factors are unitless values, any unit of weight can
be used if the unit of measurement is stated explicitly and is consistent throughout
the calculation.
This process is done for each GHG, with the decisive step being the summation
of all CO2 equivalents. The fnal sum, known as the Global Warming Index (GWI),
indicates the product’s potential contribution to global warming for each life cycle
stage. The following equation is used to calculate the GWI: Global Warming
Index = Σi wi x GWPi, where wi = weight of inventory fow i per functional unit
of product. GWPi = Global Warming Potential equivalency factor evaluated at
100 years = weight of CO2 with the same heat-trapping potential as a gram of
inventory fow. A 100-year life span was selected as the most suitable for the goal
of this effort, although other bases for calculating potential equivalency are also
available.
3.15 ACIDIFICATION POTENTIAL

Acidifcation, or acid rain, as it is commonly known, occurs when emissions of
sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) react in the atmosphere with
water, oxygen, and oxidants to form various acidic compounds. This mixture
forms a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Sunlight increases the rate of
most of these reactions. These compounds then fall to the earth in either wet form
(such as rain, snow, and fog) or dry form (such as gas and particles). About half of
the acidity in the atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition as gases
and dry particles. The wind blows these acidic particles and gases onto buildings,
and trees. In some instances, these gases and particles can eat away the things
on which they settle. Dry deposited gases and particles are sometimes washed
from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When that happens, the runoff water
adds those acids to the acid rain, making the combination more acidic than the
falling rain alone. The combination of acid rain plus dry deposited acid is called
acid deposition. Prevailing winds transport the compounds, sometimes hundreds
of miles, across states. Acid rain causes acidifcation of lakes and streams and
contributes to damage of trees at high elevations.
In addition, acid rain accelerates the decay of building materials and paints,
including irreplaceable buildings, statues, and sculptures that are part of “a
nation’s” cultural heritage. Prior to falling to the earth, SO2 and NOx gases
and their particulate matter derivatives, sulfates, and nitrates contribute to visibil-
ity degradation and impact public health. While calculating the acidifcation
indicator, several indicators exist for acidifcation, the most common reference
substances being hydrogen ions and sulfur dioxide. Either can be expressed
in terms of the other. Here we use SO2 as the reference chemical. The method
for calculating the acidifcation index is similar in approach to other impact
indicators: the LCI substances that are present in Table 3.7 below are multi-
plied by the equivalency factor for the acidifcation potential (AP) to arrive
at SO2 equivalent quantities. The SO2 equivalents for each life cycle stage
are summed to calculate the acidifcation index. The following equation out-
lines the calculation: Acidifcation Index = Σi wi x APi, where wi = weight of
inventory fow i per functional unit of product. APi = Acidifcation Potential
Equivalency Factor = weight of SO2 with the same potential acidifying effect
as a unit weight of inventory fow.
3.16 RESOURCE DEPLETION

Resource depletion is related to the inputs of materials into the industrial sys-
tem under study. Although resource depletion is identifed as a single envi-
ronmental issue for the purposes of environmentally preferable purchasing,
in fact, resource depletion is an umbrella term for several sub-issues, which
collectively can be considered of equal importance as all the remaining envi-
ronmental issues related to emissions. Resource depletion directly measures
the sustainability of industrial systems. If resources are being used at or below
their replacement rate, then their use does not affect the ability of future gen-
erations to maintain their quality of life. An example of a material used which
has sustainable resource is preferred for its consumption. It was discussed in the
earlier chapters. Resource depletion impact values can be presented as a single
value or as sub-values that represent each of the major types of resources being
consumed. Limestone is the single major resource for the cement sector; hence
it was the only substance considered.
3.17 LAND USE

Land transformation is the process of changing aspects of biodiversity and life
support functions (e.g., fora and fauna) from initial state to altered state. The
altered state, which may represent higher or lower quality, is a temporary one.
After the termination of human activity, the fora and fauna may undergo a cer-
tain degree of recovery. The difference between the initial and fnal steady state
is the transformation impact. The transformation impact is measured in units of
area (m2). Land occupation refers to the time during which the land is unavailable
for other uses (i.e., the duration of change of quality and how long the altered state
is maintained). It includes both duration of human land use and time taken for a
new steady state to be reached (i.e., recovery time).
The occupational impact represents the temporary changes in quality of an
area of land. Units are given in terms of m2 yr. Resource depletion/mineral
depletion refers to material consumption through the product manufactur-
ing. The Guinee and Huijengs method is used to characterize this impact.
Elemental analysis is done for each of the materials accounted for, followed
by multiplication with corresponding characterization factor. The fnal amount
of material used is expressed in the kg antimony equivalents. This character-
ization method is chosen as it considers the ultimate reserves and rates of
extraction only.
3.18 NORMALIZATION
Normalization is defned as the calculation of the magnitude of indicator results
relative to a reference situation. The reference situation may relate to a given
community, person, or other system, over a given period time. Other reference
situations may be adopted; future target situations may also be adopted. The
main aim of normalizing the indicator results is to better understand the
relative importance and magnitude of these results for each product system.
Normalization can also be used for checking inconsistencies, to provide and
communicate information on the relative signifcance of the category results,
and to prepare for additional procedures such as weighting or interpretation.
Commonly, normalization is adopted at a single-scale level (i.e., the reference
values taken correspond to the world).
3.19 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS

In this analysis, empirical data on uncertain ranges of specifc data are used
to calculate the total error range of the results. To assess the robustness of the
results, information is required on both validity and reliability. This analysis
is performed to account for whether appropriate (correct representativeness in
space, time, technology, etc.), process data (sources), and models have been
used. In the interpretation, the analyst looks for signifcant environmental
aspects (e.g., energy use, greenhouse gases, and dust level), signifcant con-
tributions to indicators or scores, and signifcant unit processes in the system.
For example, if the results of an impact assessment indicate a particularly high
value for the GWP indicator, the analyst could refer to the inventory to deter-
mine which outputs are contributing to the high value, and which unit processes
those outputs are coming from. This is also used as a form of quality control. It
helps provide more certain conclusions and recommendations. The procedure
typically involves examination of the sensitivity of results, performance of a
scenario analysis, a review data quality, and a comparison of the results to the
original goals of the study.
Decision-making for industrial activities, both in terms of government policy
and the decisions of companies, faces an increasingly challenging task in recent
decades. Production systems become more complex and automated in response
to rapid globalization and advancing process and management technologies.
Societies face complex choices in the pursuit of sustainable industrial develop-
ment. The global production system of goods and services becomes more exten-
sive under the infuence of globalization and technological change. Sustainable
development sets forth an agenda including economic, environmental, and social
objectives, which are often diffcult to satisfy simultaneously. Considering these
points, analysis of and information systems for industrial activities must evolve to
constructively inform decision-making.
3.20 INTERPRETATION
Interpretation is the fnal phase of an LCA. In the interpretation, the analyst looks for
signifcant environmental aspects (e.g., energy use, greenhouse gases), signifcant
contributions to indicators or scores, and signifcant unit processes in the system.

For example, if the results of an impact assessment had indicated a particularly high
value for the GWP indicator, the analyst could refer to the inventory to determine
which outputs are contributing to the high value, and from which unit processes
those outputs are coming. This is also used as a form of quality control. It helps
provide more certain conclusions and recommendations. The procedure typically
involves examination of the sensitivity of results, performance of a scenario analy-
sis, a review data quality, and a comparison of the results to the original goals of
the study.
When studying a single product or when improvements relate only to the
production process or phase, when comparing products with the same function,
a defnition of this function is necessary. Subsequently, you need to identify
the consequences of such a defnition for the product or process description.
In practice it has been observed that initially one should spend relatively more
time formulating the scope upon starting a new LCA. The goal def nition is
meant to give an overview of the premises of the study. When there is no
overview at the frst stage, try to formulate the ideas briefy and roughly and
then later adjust them, if necessary. When the goal defnition has been com-
pleted, continue the study by making the inventory analysis. This means that
one needs to proceed stage by stage by drawing up a process fowchart, col-
lecting data, defning the system boundaries, and processing the data, which
should be executed iteratively. Keeping in view the various impact categories,
Figure 3.4 shows a model of acidifcation impact using a category indicator
(proton release H+ aq.) and its impact on the endpoint.
3.21 CLASSIFICATION
In the frst step of classifcation, impact categories of interest are identifed in the
scoping phase of the LCA. Broadly, there are four major heads: the categories
are natural resource impacts, abiotic ecosystem impacts, potential human health,
and ecotoxicity impacts. LCA is a holistic yardstick of environmental perfor-
mance. The method is a science-based assessment of the environmental impacts
of products and services. LCA captures relevant environmental impacts from
cradle to grave, thereby providing comprehensive information on such issues as
ecological, climate change, land use, and resource depletion. LCA is a fexible
tool that provides vital support in environmental decision-making. Several docu-
ments developed under the auspices of the ISO (ISO 14040 series) describe the
general LCA approach and the issues that are involved in conducting LCA. These
standards have established a worldwide recognition of LCA as an important and
viable environmental management tool. LCA provides the basis of an informed
approach to environmental decision-making. Thus, those working with life cycle
issues, even in different sectors, can learn much from each other about ways of
organizing and benefting from LCA work. The construction industry shows that
FIGURE 3.4 Life cycle impact categories.
TABLE 3.7
Impact Assessment of Different Building Materials
Ready Mix
Impact Clay Bricks Aggregates Cement Concrete Steel Aluminum
Assessment (thousands) (1 tonne) (1 tonne) (1 m3) (1 tonne) (1 tonne)
GWP 400 2.0 1200 0.25 3000 5699
kg/tonne (CO2-Eq.)
AP 0.23 0.011 1.65 0.56 6.63 7.4
(SO2-Eq.)
LCA results can help in making decisions, whereas on the other hand, the envi-
ronmentally best solution may retard developmental activities. To get best pos-
sible alternative path efforts, one needs to have all possible inputs and outputs
to inform the impact assessment. LCA is simply a way to stop the never-ending
journey to reducing emissions. In construction, the use of materials plays a pivotal
role in various environmental impacts. Table 3.7 shows the two environmental
impacts of different building materials, a comparison that can help to select the
best materials to use.
It is interesting to observe that in one of the LCA studies, four commercial
buildings in India in different climate zones were selected for the study. Table 3.8
TABLE 3.8
Details of Four Commercial Buildings
Constructed Area for Gardening
Commercial Area Open Area Pavement Parking Area No. of
NO s. Building Type/ Usage Land Area (m2) (m2) (m2) Area (m2) (m2) (m2) No. of Floors Units
1 Gurgaon Offcial 4382 15885 1970 1922 6652 37 3B+G+8 2
(Tower&
3B+G+3
(Non-Tower)
2 Chennai IT Park 161850 797893 107107 80625 222638 26482 2B+G+ll/ 9
3B+G+9
3 Kolkata IT Park 104812 258012 70889 26212 18464 26212 B+G+ll 7
4 Hyderabad IT Park 106128 374642 63660 26540 149058 6540 2B+G+15 4
41
TABLE 3.9
Impact Assessment of Typical Commercial Building
Construction Building Building Demolition
Impact Category Unit Total Phase Operation Maintenance Phase
Global warming kg CO2 eq 7760.92 487.10 7167.93 54.94 50.95
(GWP 100)
Ozone layer kg CFC l.64E-05 l.85E-06 4.58E-06 l.81E-06 8.19E-06
depletion (ODP) –11 eq
Photochemical kg C2H4 3.42 0.22 3.12 0.03 0.05
oxidation
Acidifcation kg SO2 eq 101.56 2.29 98.70 0.23 0.34
Eutrophication kg PO4 eq 8.13 0.23 7.82 0.02 0.07
Nonrenewable, fossil MJ eq 14,349.00 986.55 11,912.98 178.61 1270.85
TABLE 3.10
Comparison of Cement Having Different Percentages of Fly Ash
PPC_25% PPC_30% PPC_35%OPC_ 40% OPC_50%
Impact category Unit OPC FA FA FA FA FA
GWP kg CO2 eq 1033.71 795.26 747.57 700.06 651.11 556.99
POCP kg 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.08
C2H4
AP kg SO2 eq 4.33 3.49 3.32 3.16 2.99 2.65
EP kg PO4-- 0.48 0.38 0.36 0.34 0.32 0.28
eq
Nonrenewable MJ eq 702.61 703.89 704.14 707.06 706.55 707.82
depicts details of commercial buildings of four different cities, three of them are
IT parks and one of them is an offce building. A detailed LCA study was carried
out. Table 3.9 gives six impact categories of different phases during construction
of a commercial building, including the construction phase, building operation,
building maintenance, and building demolition. It is remarkable that the operation
phase has maximum impact out of various environmental parameters. Table 3.10
shows clearly that if cement (OPC) is replaced by fy ash in different percent-
ages for PPC cement, it can have a lot of advantages in reducing environmental
impacts. In the comparison of different types of cement without compromising
with quality on long run, there is much advantage in reducing major environmental
impacts.
4 Life Cycle Tools
4.1 LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT: ENVIRONMENT

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) provides a systematic scientifc approach to quanti-
fying resource consumption and environmental releases to air, water, and soil asso-
ciated with products, processes, and services. It takes into consideration all product
life cycle stages from extracting and processing raw materials, manufacturing,
transportation and distribution, use/reuse, and recycling and waste management
to access the environmental and economic impacts. LCA is a decision-making
tool for governments and businesses. It is used to measure and compare the envi-
ronmental impacts of products and services, frequently using computer-modeling
software. Most LCA measurements will be made by summing the units of energy
consumed in the extraction of raw materials, transport, manufacture, distribution,
and fnal disposal of a product or service.
The application of LCA in different organizations can be useful for various pur-
poses. It can support decision-making in product and process development and be
used for monitoring the environmental performance of products. It can help with
strategic planning for continual environmental improvement. It also has a market-
ing purpose, namely, ecolabeling. It can also help in the selection of subcontractors
in supply chain. Using LCA for the growth of an enterprise, one application that can
trigger another that is inside gain from an LCA into product and environmental per-
formance can lead to decision about selection of suppliers. It is also seen that LCA
has traditionally been developed as a tool to be used as a product leveling. There is
an increasing interest in using LCA at the corporate level to refect the performance
of various individual plants in a life cycle perspective, which is particularly relevant
for large enterprises and for application related to monitoring of environmental per-
formance and strategic planning for image building.
The use of LCA to document and monitor environmental performance at a
corporate level is today often limited to few selected impact categories, including,
typically GHG, acidifcation potential, human toxicity, and footprint indicators
like carbon and water. At the product level, LCA is often used during product
development and for identifying environmental hot spots of a product or process
either within the organization or in its supply chain. For instance, until 1990,
LCA was used internally to identify hot spots in products and systems and for
process optimization. Other enterprises used LCA during the 1990s to set up new
priorities for changes in products and processes, such as saving or substituting
materials. In parallel to its application in product and process development, LCA
is often used for marketing purposes at various levels. Currently, LCA addresses
economic and social issues in the struggle to achieve sustainability goals.
As public concerns about the state of the environment have become increasingly
pronounced and consumers are more demanding and environmentally conscious,
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-4 43
enterprises have also placed a larger focus on quantifying their environmental

performance, using LCA and communicating results to publicly brand their enter-
prise as “green.” “Green” and “climate change” are two buzzwords for all activi-
ties of society. Most of the company's expectation for the use of LCA is not to
get a competitive advantage but to increase the company’s image or reputation in
contributing for environmental excellence. It helps in mitigating climate change
for sustainability. Ecolabels or environmental product declarations can establish
good environmental performance and be used to make a given product more
appealing for environmentally conscious consumers.
In the future, together with the development of guidelines of the organiza-
tion's environmental footprint, the corporate-level industry will also use LCA for
setting strategic objectives; some of the companies may also carry out studies to
better understand their environmental performance to implement environmen-
tal management system. LCA is a tool to implement a structured program of a
continual improvement in environmental performance and to manage communi-
cation and an enterprise’s environmental performance internally and externally.
There is thus often a relationship between the implementation of EMS and the
implementation of LCA within a company.
4.2 LIFE CYCLE COSTING

Life cycle assessment deals with environmental aspects, whereas life cycle cost-
ing (LCC) accounts for economic aspects, but both share common features and
objectives. It is to assess the impact over the whole life cycle of a process of all
product and present information in a manner that supports the decision-making
process. But the purpose of an LCC exercise is usually to integrate the total cap-
ital and operating cost and its components over extended periods and then to
present the fgures as a relative value that can easily be compared and assessed
against alternative tools. LCC does not explicitly deal with environmental impact,
although it can frequently be used to support environmentally sensitive impacts
and their resolution, specially where the operating and maintenance costs are sig-
nifcant. It has many similarities with LCA, and there is potential use in combin-
ing LCA with LCC. The key similarities are that both LCC and LCA use data on
qualities of materials used, service life of the materials used for maintenance, and
operational impacts of using the product. But in the end-of-life proportion to recy-
cling and disposal, such a combination has been realized to integrate LCC with
LCA. It is particularly important to show the relation between design choices and
resulting costs of energy and maintenance and operating costs including clean-
ing of buildings. Cleaning costs are often higher than the energy costs. Still few
inventories on cleaning products are available. While in many cases, they must be
using cleaning products much higher than their actual requirement without adopt-
ing appropriate methodology.
Discounting distinguishes LCC from LCA in which an environmental impact
occurring in the future can have the same signifcance as that occurring in the
present. Discount rates are considered acceptable in the LCC. To perform this
Life Cycle Tools 45
assessment, it is necessary to produce an inventory of the yearly total cost. It includes

the capital maintenance operational cost in considering energy saving measures
adopted. It is one of the simple ways of considering the cost of additional capital
investment reduction in the payback period. It entails defning the amount of time it
will take to recover the initial investment in energy saving and dividing the initial
installation cost by the annual energy cost saving. While simple payback is easy to
compute, its weakness is that it fails to factor in the time value of the money, infa-
tion, and the project’s lifetime operational and maintenance costs.
Although these techniques are widely appreciated, the application of these
techniques to real construction project chief gives little attention. Data for capital
costs of components and service are widely available but obtaining data for oper-
ating costs can be a challenging task. Obtaining real data for, say, building opera-
tions and maintenance costs is a problem because they are widely considered
commercially confdential. Components and systems that reduce building envi-
ronmental impacts are frequently associated with reducing life cycle resources
and hence usually with reducing running costs. The essential element of an LCC
exercise is to consider the energy cost of all options, particularly where the pro-
posed solution improves the energy effciency of the building because energy
prices can be expected to be signifcant during the life cycle of the building. It is
important that costs are assessed on the basis of rational forecast statistics as well
as current prices using a number of energy price scenarios will assert in-house
team of the building management system; to ascertain the future price rises an
understanding of the sensitivity of the building to future price increase potential
more important than trying through activate an accurate forecast of energy, such
a combination has been realized. It is particularly important to show the relation
between the design choices, and resulting utility costs for energy reduction, main-
tenance, operating, and cleaning costs are often higher than the energy cost. But
there are few inventories which are maintained.
4.3 SOCIAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

The goal of sustainable development is human well-being, contributing to
the needs of current and future generations. Most of the leading organizations
through, inter alia, a policy instrument are having global strategy supported by
methodology and techniques and tools which can contribute to sustainability
objective. In the feld of product and process assessment, some methods have
been developed recently, in which it includes policies and strategies for the social
economic aspects in the environmental dimension of sustainable development.
But in recent years several efforts have been pursued to cover in a more coherent
and integrated way all pillars of sustainable development. It is within this context
that these aspects have been perceived, such as when consumers ask themselves
about the social and economic circumstances under which a product is made.
Enterprises do not want to be linked to, for example, child labor or corruption
either within the organization or in the supply chain. Trade unions want to show
solidarity with their fellow workers.
Public authorities need to apply integrated product policy that is in place, for
example, in public procurement. Governments should ensure that all stakehold-
ers know that goods and services are produced in a sustainable way. When con-
sidering products and services in terms of sustainable development, a life cycle
perspective brings powerful insights. It aims to provide increased knowledge of
the three-pillars approach of sustainable development that considers people, the
planet, and proft, taking into account prosperity along the whole supply chain
from extraction of raw materials to the end of a product’s life. This all meant to
inform more comprehensive decision-making. There are two tools that have been
developed to assess part of this framework, the most famous being the environ-
mental life cycle assessment (ELCA). ELCA assesses the impact of economic
activity on the natural environment, and to a lesser extent on human health and
natural resources. Life cycle costing, discussed earlier, is a tool that primarily
focuses on the direct cost and beneft from the economic activity for people, the
planet, and proft. Until now no commonly accepted methodology was available
for internally and externally assessing the production of goods and services. It is
precisely what this tool presents is to deliver a way to assess the product based
on social and social economic indicators using the most current available state-
of-the-art methods. Integrating the ELCA and the LCC, it is complementing in
contributing full assessment of goods and service within the context of sustain-
able development. In the guidelines of life cycle assessment in reference to 1993,
a code of practice was established by SETAC/UNEP. At the beginning of 2010,
some research groups presented their methodologies for cradle-to-grave assess-
ment of goods and service with social criteria. Some of these methodologies
were branded as SLCA studies. In some of the methodologies, social issues were
referred, while others have gone one step further. By presenting such social LCA
at the same time, similar exercises were also undertaken in parallel by different
research groups of the worlds; as a result, several social assessment tools were
surfaced. It was motivated to include the use of LCA in developing countries, but
due to lack of expertise and data availability, social aspects were not be able to
include. In LCA studies in developing countries, some key social issues generated
negative perception. It can be anti-development-oriented, because it provides only
a picture of negative and more cognitive consequences but does not refect any
of the positive aspects of the development, namely, social and economic benefts.
Even if the value of LCA is appreciated, a justifcation for excessive cost is lack-
ing since it does not address the developing countries. But of late it is now picking
up extremely fast in developing countries.
Most signifcant concerns, that is, poverty eradication together with the social
aspects such as employment rates, wages, accidents, and working conditions, and
human rights were expressed. UNEP through one of its task force the aim were
expressed follows to convert the current environmental tool LCA into triple bot-
tom line sustainable development tool to establish a framework for all the coun-
try inclusion of socio economic beneft into LCA to determine the implication of
LCIA to provide an international forum for the setting of experience with integra-
tion of social aspect into LCA. It is not a new absorption that nearly every society is
Life Cycle Tools 47
supported by an environmental, a social and economic pillar. The interconnection

among the three pillars has been emphasized over the last few decades. Several
analyses also refer to art and cultural damage to societies. Within the context of
these guidelines, it is not possible to perform an in-depth review, so a society is
developing socially and economically within an environmentally conditioned con-
text. All underlined aspects are at least of some importance for the functioning of
the society. Today, the current level of awareness of the interconnection among
these several aspects is not adequate for optimal decision-making. Much too often
decisions are made based only on political and economic factors without consider-
ing the environmental or social criteria and cultural differences. And yet for some
time, now methodological frameworks have been developed by scientists to mea-
sure changes or transformation in parts of society in a holistic and integrated way.
During the last two decades those frameworks have been placed within the con-
text of sustainable development. The concept, within which SLCA was developed
and applied, includes the following concept of sustainable development, human
well-being, and sustainable consumption and production, along with the life cycle
thinking-related techniques for product and process assessment.
Environmental life cycle assessment normally referred to as life cycle assess-
ment is a technique that aims at addressing the environmental aspect of a product
and their potential and mental impacts throughout the product’s life cycle. The
term product refers to both goods and services. A product cycle includes all stages
of a product system from raw material acquisition or natural resource produc-
tion to the disposal of the product at the end of its life, including extracting and
processing of raw material manufacturing distribution use, reuse maintenance,
recycling, and fnal disposal. The four major phases of ELCA consist, as in LCA
and SLCA of goal and scope setting, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and
interpretation.
There are two types of consideration when orientation is suggested to earthy
assessment of social and, to some extent, economic aspects and technical con-
sideration. The orientation has engulfed and discussed through three topics: one
is the defnition of social impacts, second one is the classifcation of social and
social economic indicators, and third one is the development of subcategory of
social and socioeconomic impact assessment of products. Social impacts are con-
sequences of positive or negative pressures on social endpoints, that is, the well-
being of stakeholders.
Because of this complexity and this subjectivity, it is not recommended to
defne attributes of relationships unilaterally and from there defne sets of related
indicators isolated from stakeholder contexts. As for the environmental impact,
the doubt expressed by climate change deniers, defning social impact categories
needs to go through a subjective and intersubjective process is, preferred. It can
also ensure the comprehensiveness of the framework. The purpose of classifcation
into impact categories is to support the identifcation of stakeholders to classify
subcategory indicators within groups that have same impact and to support fur-
ther impact assessment and interpretation. The impact category should preferably
refect internationally recognized categorization standards.
However, efforts will have to be made while conducting SLCA to fnd and
redefne the appropriate indicators to assist the subcategories adapted to the con-
text and understanding. The frst thing needed when initiating a SLCA is a clear
statement of the purpose and goal. This statement describes the intended use and
pursuit. The study will then be defned to meet that purpose, within any con-
straints. Depending on the goal, a critical review may be planned. The second
step is to defne the scope. Defning the scope, the function and the functional unit
of the product are crucial. Based on that information the product system will later
be modeled using process input–output data.
The scope is also defned in the frst phase of the study; it encompasses issues
of depth and breadth of the study. It defnes the limits placed on the product life
cycle, which ideally exist on the border between the economy and nature. The
detailed information is to be collected and analyzed. It must be ensured that from
where the data will be coming from, how up to date this study will be, how infor-
mation will be handled, and where results will be applicable. ISO 14040-2006
states that the scope should be suffciently well defned to ensure that the breadth
and depth and detail of the study are compatible and suffcient to address the
stated goal. The process chains in LCA model provide a valuable starting point to
this system scope of SLCA. The process chain provides the details of the series
of operation performed in the making, treatment use, and disposal of a product.
Process chain is built with base and economic input and output supplemented
with the amount of data available. The economic input and output method con-
siders an entire economy, including all activities of all industry sectors, but the
processes are exaggerated. On the other hand, the process methodology covers
detailed information on specifc processes, but important parts of the product sys-
tem may be left out because of the diffculty of following the entire supply chain
in detail. It is necessary to specify the function and functional unit in SLCA.
As stated in ISO 14044-2006, the scope clearly specifes the functional perfor-
mance characteristics of the system being studied for its utility. The outcome of
the study of the product helps to inform consumers. Modeling the product system
is essential to identifying locations and specifc stakeholders involved. It is also
important in estimating the needs and targets for site-specifc data collection.
When using qualitative indicators and data in SLCA it may be diffcult to link
the results specifcally to the functional unit it is still necessary though we defne
the function unit product utility in the goal and scope of the case of the study as
this provides the necessary basis for the product system modeling. To help defne
a valuable functional unit fve steps are essential: (1) describe the product and its
properties, (2) determine the product’s social utility, (3) determine the relevant
market segment, (4) determine the relevant product alternates, and (5) determine
the reference fow for each of the product systems.
In SLCA, the defnition of the function needs to consider both technical and
social acceptability of the product, such as functionality (referring to the main
function), technical quality (such as stability and durability), ease of mainte-
nance, services rendered during use and disposal, aesthetics (such as appearance
and design), and images of the product; the total costs are related to purchase,
Life Cycle Tools 49
use, and disposal. The criteria to determine a product property is to be included

in the functional unit. The function one needs must be the function that two
products to be compared may differ, but the functional unit must be the same.
Of course, the difference function makes assessment weaker, but the functional
unit must be the same. The function you need must be based on outcome and not
on the item especially when the goal is to be compared between two products.
One of the primary purposes of the functional unit is to provide a reference to
which the input and output data can be normalized in a mathematical sense.
Therefore, the functional unit should be clearly defned and measurable, and the
functional limit should also be consistent with the goal and scope of the study.
ISO 14044-2006 defnes the reference fow as a measure of the output from the
processes in each product system required to fulfll the functional expression
by the functional unit.
4.4 LIFE CYCLE SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT

The world has undergone a paradigm shift from environmental protection towards
sustainability. Sustainability does not only focus on environmental impacts, but
consists of the three dimensions, including the environment, economy, and social
well-being, for which society needs to fnd a balance. Sustainability has become
mainstream in present activities. It is accepted by all stakeholders of corporate
houses, multinational companies, government, small-scale industry, and NGOs.
Unfortunately, this collective understanding merely relates to a general concept
rather than proactive actions by all. If we want to make sustainability happen as
a concrete reality in both public policy making and corporate strategy, it needs
strong commitment. To make it happen, we must be positive and strong will to do.
Now most of corporations and major industries and organizations are taking posi-
tive steps for sustainability. The life cycle perspective considers for products all
life cycle stages and for organizations the complete supply or value chains, from
raw material extraction and acquisition, through energy and material production
and manufacturing, to use and end-of-life treatment and fnal disposal. Another
important principle is comprehensiveness because it considers that all attributes
are aspects of environmental, economic, and social issues. By considering all
attributes and aspects within one assessment in a cross-media and multidimen-
sional perspective, potential tradeoffs can be identifed and assessed. LCA and life
cycle management has a pivotal role to play. LCA is the internationally accepted
method of measuring environmental performance. The pioneering work was done
by a SETAC working group. Based on the broad acceptance of the documented
work done by SETAC/UNEP (United Nations Environmental Programme) on the
life cycle initiative, the following scheme for life cycle sustainability assessment
represents as LCSA = LCA + LCC + SLCA. The UNEP and SETAC launched the
life cycle initiative to enable users around the world to put LCT into practice and
introduce life cycle management as one of their areas of work, in which measure-
ment of the environmental parameters of sustainability with LCA is well-established
tool; a similar approach was developed more recently for the economy: LCC.
This development is crucial because it fosters the opportunity of life cycle-based

sustainability assessments.
Based on the defnition for life cycle management and sustainability develop-
ment, it is suggested that accordingly life cycle sustainability management can
be defned as a strategic management system that aims at minimizing an organi-
zation’s negative impact on the natural and social environment by its product or
services. The entire product/service life cycle and value chain assure that natural
social and economic resources are sustained for future generation. This defnition
calls for close collaboration between stakeholders along the value chain and also
interaction with stakeholders who represent the natural and social environment.
Figure 4.1 explains LCSA using a triangle indicating the relationship with the envi-
ronment based on life cycle assessment (LCA), prosperity estimated through life
cycle costing (LCC), and fnally social life cycle assessment (SLCA), covering
people’s benefts. In the center of the triangle LCSA covers the three aspects of
environment, society, and economy.
The idea of LCSA builds on the so-called three pillars composed of envi-
ronmental, social, and economic pillars; the interpretation gained momentum
in the concept of triple bottom line. It is proposed that business should man-
age environmental, social, and economic aspects of sustainability in the same
feature in two ways, that is, fnancial aspects are typically managed in account-
ing. LCC is an abbreviation for life cycle costing which aimed to quantify all
costs associated with life cycle of a product that is directly covered by one or
more of the actors in the life cycle. LCC and SLCA are especially important to
integrate with LCA. An important requirement of LCSA is that the three pillars
FIGURE 4.1 Life cycle sustainability assessment.

Life Cycle Tools 51
of sustainability must be assessed using same system boundary and the same
element of product life cycle in all three assessments. While LCSA is much
less mature than LCA and there is little agreement how to perform it, LCSA
seems to assume that sustainability is something that can be balanced between
the environmental, social, and economic dimensions. Sustainability has become
the most common approach to development in the last three decades, entering
the discourse in numerous disciplines at all levels. Researchers, government
institutions at all levels of business, and civil society organizations all have their
own interpretation of the concept. Figure 4.2 illustrates the life cycle impacts
and sustainability system in the form of a model. The fgure explains how envi-
ronmental aspects and their impacts move outward for multistakeholders and
how the impact of industry is not confned to a site, but rather moves beyond
the boundary from local to regional to global, which engulfs social issues,
economical aspects, and environmental impacts.
4.5 ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

Organization Life Cycle Assessment (OLCA) has been promoted as a robust
quantitative tool like LCA in normal decision-making. While LCA was origi-
nally developed of for products, the benefts of the life cycle approach may be
extended to the more complex prospect of organizational assessment. Within this
context, the unit life cycle initiative launched the fexible tool life cycle assess-
ment of an organization to further explore the capability and applicability. OLCA
uses a life cycle perspective to satisfy and evaluate the input, output, and potential
environmental impacts of activity associated with an organization. This meth-
odology can serve multiple goals at the same time, identifying environmental
hot spots throughout the value chain, tracking the environmental performance,
supporting strategic decisions, and informing corporate sustainability reporting.
One goal that OLCA cannot currently fulfll is externally communicating com-
parisons between different organizations. Comparative assertion is neither robust
nor meaningful due to lack of consistent basis for comparison. But it is envisioned
for organizations of all sizes, both public and private, in all sectors, and all over
FIGURE 4.2 Life cycle and sustainability system.

the world. The frst tentative steps towards full OLCA application are currently
taking place and the outcome of these are already being used to improve orga-
nizations’ environmental performance. Broadening the base of implementation,
the logical next step is requiring accessible, practical guidelines and guidance.
Three different pathways describe how organizations with previous experience
with environmental tools can use this as a basis to think bigger and take an inte-
grated and holistic approach. Additionally specifc recommendation for small,
medium, and large is to provide practical way forward. The direction is given
for several situations that there is no one-size-fts-all application of OLCA. The
experience of few frst mover illustrates that the process and beneft of apply-
ing environmental multi-impact assessment of organization are increasingly rec-
ognizing that they need to understand their environmental impacts at all levels
including those throughout their value chain. Companies are engaging with part-
ners along the entire value chain to assist the opportunity for effciency, increase
competitiveness, and assess new markets as well as strengthen their capacity to
respond to risks such as those emerging from taking positive steps for reduction
of resources and climate change. Governments too are feeling a growing pressure
to become more sustainable through sustainable purchasing decisions in their
public procurement and more broadly throughout their activity.
All organizations have a vital role to play in efforts to reduce environmental
impacts: large corporations due to their relative share of resource depletion and
polluting and toxic emissions, and small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)
due to their collective impact. Therefore, static decisions with long-term implica-
tions should no longer be based merely on technical and economic considerations.
For organizations to take credible steps towards protection of the environment,
industry needs stable schemes to frame its approaches. In view of this, at the 2002
World Summit for Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, there was a call for
a comprehensive set of programs focusing on sustainable conjunction and produc-
tion. Several methodologies, tools, and techniques are available for organizations
to assess, compare, and show the environmental performance of their products,
including goods and services.
At the organizational level, all approach for many organizations in the EMS
could be satisfed by ISO 14001’s equal management and audit schemes. They
are procedural tools, and when including an organizing eco balance, they commonly
analyze only get-to-get process more over the past organizational environmen-
tal analysis approach. For example, carbon footprinting of corporations was
proposed with the greenhouse gas protocol initiatives WRI and WBCSD 2004,
2011, and ISO 14069. Another example of carbon disclosure projects is CDP
2014. In addition, they mostly concentrate on single environmental aspects
and indicators and hence have not followed an environmental multi-impact
approach. It should be acknowledged though that these methodologies have
been promoted and assessed to a certain extent, but it needs the application in
an organizational context.
LCA is a scientifc methodology to support sustainable production and con-
sumption patterns. LCA considers a comprehensive setup and environmental
Life Cycle Tools 53
aspects and potential impacts of a product over its entire life cycle from raw mate-
rial extraction through material processing, manufacture, distribution, use, repair,
maintenance, disposal, and recycling. It has been supported and promoted by
the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative among others for developing countries
as a robust quantity to tool for decision-making by producers and other stake-
holders. Many private and public sector organizations, multinational companies,
and various state and central governments have already committed to improve
the social environmental performance by adapting life cycle approaches. Many
consumers are already using life cycle information to make purchase decisions.
The benefts and potential lessons from the life cycle perspective are not limited
to products. Nevertheless, the assessment of an organization is often more com-
plex than that of products. There is more than one product life cycle performer
since most organizations are engaged in many products’ life cycles to different
degrees, having many departments and business divisions. Additionally, a large
part of the environmental impact may effect outside the organization. Because
many assorted products and sectors converge into one organization, the range
of waste and by-products can be huge. Environmental performance of organiza-
tions including activity up and down the value chain, mostly focusing on GHG
emissions, reveal that life cycle resource use and emissions could signifcantly
contribute to the environmental performance of organizations.
5 Guidance for Life
Cycle Inventory
5.1 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORIES

Today, technologies and processes are advancing at breakneck speeds for various
products and services that have become increasingly diverse in their sources of
materials, manufacturing, assembly locations, areas of use, and points of fnal
disposition. To accurately refect this diversity, data must be available for areas
where the activity embodied in a life cycle assessment takes place. When one
talks about LCA data, the focus is on Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) data, although
characterizing factors associated with the LCIA method are often included in
LCA databases. The technical basis from the practice of LCA has become more
standardized and as more decisions are supported with the methodology demand
for high quality documented transparent independently reviewed, data increases
tremendously in different countries. Applications of carbon and water footprint-
ing also can be supported by these LCA data because LCA data include all envi-
ronmental emissions and conjunctions. Coordinated global efforts to defne and
produce high-quality LCA data are required if LCA practice is to advance in
the most scientifc manner. Furthermore, a similar effort on data interchange is
required to allow for a maximum exchange of information among LCA practitio-
ners of different countries. In a global economy, how well product and services
are sourced from many countries? Databases as a repository of this information
are being established at a rapid pace. Data sets contained within the system must
meet increasingly rigorous criteria if they are to be consistent and exchangeable
among users worldwide.
Only with the widespread availability of healthy information will society be
able to make effcient and effective decisions on policies and design options that
will allow future generations to meet their own needs and aspirations. A life
cycle management framework for the environmental sustainability of products
describes the strategy to achieve this sustainability from the basis of an overall
vision that is supported by life cycle management systems and policies. These
strategies are achieved through implementation and execution of the program
and activities like design of the environment, green procurement, and recycling.
This is achieved when the vision of green economy results in the reality of sus-
tainable consumption and production patterns through resource effciency. All
these system program activities are made operational by tools such as LCA and
other life cycle approaches, which need appropriate data most easily provided by
reliable databases. Access is to credible information on the potential life cycle
environmental impacts of a product is especially crucial when we attempt to
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-5 55
communicate the preferable environmental characteristics of a product and hence

make a green claim to infuence institutional and individual consumers to pur-
chase products while considering their environmental footprints.
While this guidance provides a range of specifc benefts to other actors, one
of the major benefts is the understanding of their roles in the data chain and
what expectations they should have from the database manager regarding data
development, review, and use. It is expected that those actors in data supply roles
will especially appreciate the clarity this guidance brings to the requirement and
expectation of the data submitted for the assembly of data sets, particularly on
the recommended associated documentation. Using the general data collection
method in ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 is the starting point. This section proposes
the following steps: (1) prepare an inventory list of inputs and outputs, (2) defne
the mathematical relationships, (3) collect the raw data, (4) perform the calcula-
tions, (5) provide other supporting information. The developer also should docu-
ment relevant data and information for validation, review, and update purposes.
Data set end users, like practitioner, create LCA, a model with the respective data
sets into mathematical relationship. One has to process raw data and supportive
information. In order to have completeness, a list of inputs and outputs of the unit
process is needed before data are collected. This list needs to be in accordance
with the goal and scope and can be prepared using various steps for product, and
all imports such as material energy service input should always be included in
inventory list.
5.2 DATA COLLECTION

Guidance to the user on the process is of data collection, including not only
method of data collection but also suggestions on which data collection method to
apply in which situation and how to deal with the missing data and insight into the
documentation that is required. Data collection is the process of gathering data
for specifc purpose. Data collection provides the data needed to complete a unit
process data set, but it also covers what is needed for quality assurance bench-
mark comparisons and other similar data. It is linked to the process modeling the
application of the mathematical relationship where process modeling tells that
data are needed, and data collection is the process of locating the needed data.
This activity may overlap especially when data collection involves the calculation
of missing data. Data collection has also supported validation by collecting and
comparing raw data and inventory data. There are several ways to obtain useful
data. Interviews compile a complete list of fow diagrams of detail processing that
must be considered and addressed by process head of the plant. Develop a simple
questionnaire as clear and as short as possible for collection of data. Perform
statistical analysis for quality checks. Make sure that the result is representative
of the defnition and size of the sample. Data collectors should be aware of the
impact of the utility of the collected information. It is good practice to use a group
approach to organize the work in data collection where data owners and data col-
lectors collaborate. As an example, trade association often is good group to task
Guidance for Life Cycle Inventory 57
with the data collection because they will have expertise in the process and the
environmental regulatory requirements.
5.3 DOCUMENTATION AND REVIEW

Databases are intended to organize, store, and retrieve large amounts of digital
LCI data sets easily. They consist of an organized collection of LCI data sets.
The database will allow for interconnection if confrmed to a common set of
criteria including methodology. The computer result can be used with identifed
LCIA methods for life cycle assessment. Databases are managed using database
management system that store database content, allowing data creation and main-
tenance. In contrast, a data set’s very life is a collection of data sets that may not
conform to common criteria and does not allow for interconnection and common
application of LCA or LCIA purposes. An example of a data set library is the
UNEP/SETAC database registry. It is a specifc LCA database that would cover
situations where the data sets are looking at only limited interventions such as
carbon. These data bases follow the same criteria for general purpose LCI data-
bases but with a narrower scope. Each data set must have one of the following-
functional unit in case of a partial product system with defned use which need
not be quantifed as a fow but can be any quantifed use that is meter square-
references fow indicators of a single output are allocated processes.
Finally, to facilitate review a sensitivity analysis is recommended. Life cycle
assessment should use the most appropriate data set and modeling approaches to
meet the specifc goal and scope required to satisfactorily answer the questions
raised. Current LCI databases are often suffcient to provide the required infor-
mation to meet many consumers, industry, and government objectives. However,
additional details on the current data as well as supplemental data sources will
be needed to provide satisfactory answers to the emerging questions in the felds
of LCA and sustainability. The continuing evolution in consumer preferences,
green growth imperatives of an industry, and public policy forces continuous
development and improvement of data sets and methodologies for LCA to meet
these needs. The continuous development is extending data collection and mod-
eling methods. The purpose of this is to identify the additional requirement of
LCA data sets and databases to meet the evolving stakeholder needs and to fulfll
the specifc goal and scope of an assessment. The overall guiding principle is
extended adaptive approaches. Aims to describe how environmentally relevant
fow for a product system will change in response to decision on products and
volume are alternate technologies in response to it changing the demand.
5.4 INPUT AND OUTPUT DATA

The compilation of input and output data as a part of national accounts by national
agencies is now routine practice in different countries governed by UN standards.
In the nations’ average monetary terms and in each economic sector, how much
one sector buys from each of the other sectors for unit produced is compiled. It
gives an overview of the transaction; indeed, national economy and the number of
sectors and the defnition vary from country to country. At the national level, sev-
eral countries produce input and output (IO) tables for various sectors. The United
States and Japan produce IO tables with a resolution of about 500 sectors. The
calculation is based on the data for industrial sectors and will thus provide results
for the “average product” for the sector. The computational structure of input and
output table (IOT) is functionally the same as LCA because data are used as an
approximation for specifc products or product group from the sector. The preci-
sion of these approximations depends on whether the study products or product
group is typically of other product in this sector. The purpose of more general
sustainability assessment and the environmental assessment are typically consid-
ered in LCA, but sectoral authentic environmental data are not readily available
in most of the countries. In many countries the data have been collected but the
environmental information system is in a fuid state.
5.5 CAPACITY BUILDING

The term capacity building is used with respect to a wide range of strategies
and processes to create awareness of and train stakeholders to practice LCA and
generate data for incentivization. When executed, these strategies end processes
will contribute to a better understanding of the beneft of the quality for life cycle
data, how to use these data, and how to start up, run, maintain, document, and
review life cycle databases. The development of technical expertise is considered
essential, especially in developing and emerging economies. Capacity building is
meant to address researchers, policy makers, and industry to create a critical mass
of experts in all parts of society. These increased capabilities result in a broader
use of LCA and thus infuence market development and the cost-beneft ratio of
life cycle data management. The global life cycle assessment database guidance
process, as mentioned in the introduction, is designed to provide global guidance
on the establishment and maintenance of LCA databases as the basis of for future
improvement in interlinking databases worldwide, facilitation of additional data
generation including for certain applications such as carbon and water footprint
creation, and to enhance overall data accessibility. The process also increase the
credibility of existing LCA data through the provision of such guidance, espe-
cially as it relates to usability for various purposes.
In developing countries and emerging economies, because resources are lack-
ing, international and intergovernmental organization are called upon to support
the national effort hand-in-hand with essential local partners such as national
life cycle networks, centers of excellence, national cleaner production centers,
and industry associations. Following UN principles, sectoral and gender balance
should be pursued, and they should be considered when designing the training
activities. Global coordination among LCI data developers and database managers
need to be identifed together with capacity building and data mining as priorities
in a move towards a world with interlinked databases and overall accessibility to
data. There is a need for a global coordination among LCI data set developers and
database managers to ensure that these guidance principles are applied. There
are vast amounts of relevant raw data and even developed LCI data sets available
that are currently not easily assessable by LCA studies. LCA database managers
and LCA practitioners should do data mining by working with actors who are
routinely collecting data about the inputs and outputs of the unit processes and
related life cycle information. Several important pathways for access to local data
and national data sets should be considered.
5.6 FUTURE OUTLOOK

Future scenarios for knowledge management involve three important and inde-
pendent trends that can potentially infuence LCA and its handling of data and
databases.
• Government, industry associations, and other database providers will

take strong action to improve cooperation.
• Many new stakeholders will join the LCA community as they need more
life cycle inventory data, which creates a new dynamic.
• An important revolution in the way internet communities now generate
and manage data is occurring in the cloud.
Current trends in information technology will shape users’ expectations regard-

ing data, software functionality, and interoperability. These trends will also alter
the scope of what can be done with LCI data in basic ways. While the LCA com-
munity should not be too distracted by these technological trends, to completely
ignore them is a mistake.
Three scenarios are envisioned as plausible future ways in which LCI data
might be collected, managed, assessed, and used. The scenarios serve as the basis
of discussion about what each might imply for LCI data along the dimensions of
utility, accessibility, and composability. New knowledge management technolo-
gies, combined with societal trends in the way that knowledge is being created
and managed, are likely to change our ideas about what constitutes LCA data,
and these changes likely will pose signifcant challenges to LCA database provid-
ers. The provider will be expected to create LCA knowledge management frame-
works in which data are more distributed, more mobile, more democratic, and
more standardized, and yet providers will also be expected to make sure the data
continue to be interoperable between applications and platforms.
5.7 INTEGRATION
A careful examination of existing guidance from dozens of regional and national-
level references are brought to focus for analysis process. However, topics are not
to stand alone in how they infuence the primary objective of the document. One
element of this integration encompasses all the aspects of the current practices. A
systematic treatment of data from the earliest stages of data sourcing and collection
through inclusion of reviewed data sets into databases, maintaining a clear view
of the requirement of those databases is incredibly important to provide the best
support of database users and strongly recommended by the guidance principles.
Data sourcing and data collection are the starting points of any of the unit processes
and aggregated process data sets or any of the LCA databases. The importance of
data sourcing and data collection is often underestimated, and the ISO standard on
product LCA does not address it suffciently. Hence, UNEP/SETAC published the
Shonan Guidance Principles document to explain the principle of raw data collec-
tion for LCA, which is understood as data that has not yet been put into relation to
LCI process data sets. Starting at this early point of helps ensure the resulting LCA
data set will have the desired quality and extent of documentation. Data collection
is defned as the process of gathering data for specifc purposes. Data collection has
the aim to deliver data needed for one or several specifc unit process data sets both
the input and output fows and metadata that describes the process. A broad range
of data collection methods exist, ranging from direct on-location primary measure-
ments to various secondary estimation techniques. Some aspects of good practices
of data collection procedure are given as well. The identifcation of good practice,
wherever it is possible to do so, helps the consistency and interchangeability of
data sets that the guidance document strives to provide. However, in some areas,
there may not be a single good practice, or experts may not have been able to reach
consensus. Data collection is intricately linked to unit process development. Life
cycle inventory unit process development procedures of specifc data and supple-
ment information for data documentation are required, and the ensuing data col-
lection effort tries to provide this information. In parallel with the collection of the
raw data, there needs to be proper documentation, which is able to later derive the
required documentation at the next steps of unit process and aggregated data. Data
collection is also linked to validation and quality assurance. The validation process
starts from the data as they are used in the process model. Results of the validation
process may lead to the conclusion that further data are needed or that the data
used are insuffcient. Validation at the data set level serves to ensure that the model
represents the actual process.
Using ISO standards as a starting point, the guidance documents make a key
distinction between a “unit process data set” and an “aggregated process data set.”
The Shonan Guidance Principles provide recommendations at a global level regard-
ing the process of converting raw data into a unit process data set, including the
phases of goal and scope defnition as applicable to the intended purpose of the data
set development, data set generation, validation verifcation, and documentation. In
principle, the creation of a unit process data set should be guided by the intended
application specifed in the goal and scope phase of the data development activity. It
is recommended to keep the content of the unit process data set fexible so that it can
be used in different application contexts. In particular, the multifunctional data set
might be provided in its unallocated form, which allows the end user to apply either
allocation or system expansion as is appropriate for the decision context.
There are good reasons to provide data sets on the unit process level. First, unit
process data provides maximum transparency, allowing the user of the database
to understand which unit process are used in the life of given reference fow and
how these unit processes are linked. Second, you need process data to make the
database fexible and adaptable in the sense that unit processes in a specifc LCI
life cycle inventory can better refect the situation to be assessed. Third, unit pro-
cess data can improve the interpretation of the life cycle studies because of the
high resolution of the unit. Process-based assessment allows a user to identify the
key unit processes to perform sensitivity analysis by varying methodological and
other assumptions, as well as parameters, inputs, and outputs.
The credibility of an LCA database very much depends on the quality of the
raw data used and the unit process data sets developed from those data. The cre-
ation of unit process data sets, as well as the modeling of aggregated process data
sets, requires technical, scientifc, engineering, and economic knowledge, as well
as familiarity with LCA methodology. It is recommended that the independent
verifcation conducted on unit process data sets provides a stand-alone data set
in an LCI database, and those unit process data sets are used to generate aggre-
gated process data sets along with the product system and the model used. There
are several reasons to aggregate data sets. First, when answering questions typi-
cally addressed by LCA, it is often more convenient to work with the aggregated
process data sets (cradle-to-gate, cradle-to-grave) in a number of LCA software
systems and in simplifed tools because their use can reduce calculation time and
memory requirement. Furthermore, from the user perspective, it can be benefcial
to work with aggregated or even LCI system-level data sets if the user does not
have the technical or engineering ability to model a complex process chain, such
as a steel plant or refnery. Finally, the aggregation of data sets may be required
for confdentiality reasons. Confdentiality may be ensured by different levels of
aggregation by establishing an industry average, by aggregating some selected
unit process and data sets along the supply chain, or by aggregating unit process
data sets with selected input being followed from the cradle. For these cases,
an aggregated, reviewed data set with comprehensive documentation can be an
appropriate choice. Data sets from databases can be used in different modeling
approaches like attributional, consequential, and decisional. Consistency is key
to allow these changes to be made by users. Different approaches exist to model
product system. These approaches can be the basis for generating aggregated
cradle-to-gate and cradle-to-grave process data sets. The modeling approaches
are different, and one approach cannot be recommended as the general best
approach. It is advisable that user make the decision about the modeling approach
by looking at the explicit decision context of their LCA study. It is recommended
that the aggregate process data sets be modeled as consistently as necessary and
that any inconsistency be documented when relevant. The data set provider must
be clear about the modeling approach used when creating aggregated process data
sets. Next to consistency and drawing on good documentation, the accuracy of the
data sets that will be combined into the life cycle model deserves special atten-
tion. The technological, geographic, and temporal representativeness determine
whether the modeled life cycle is suffciently descriptive of the system it is meant
to represent. Data sets of suffcient representativeness are recommended.
6 Application of Life
Cycle Assessment
6.1 LIFE CYCLE THINKING: POLICY MAKERS

Government develops environmental policy while negotiating with all stakehold-
ers and NGOs for volunteer agreements with industry, keeps considering the life
cycle thinking. Measuring potential life cycle impact of decisions can help gov-
ernment programs and prioritize these programs based on life cycle information.
Policies should be more consistent among consumers, producers, material suppli-
ers, retailers, and waste managers. Subsidies purchase product and service which
are environmental preferable and reduce the impact. Government operation has
an environment and support regional and global market for preferable products
and services, which promotes pricing of the products and service to accurately
refect the cost of environmental degradation and impact at the life cycle stages.
Such price signals can send messages to consumers and provide incentives for
businesses to continuously improve the environmental and social performance of
products or services across their life cycles—for instance, introduction of take-
back systems to establish a recycling based CE. Thinking in terms of life cycles,
businesses recognize that each choice sets the stage for not only how the product
will look and function but also how it will impact the environment and the com-
munity as it is manufactured, reuses and recycles. Each product characteristic
is determined when the product is designed and will impact the environment
differently.
With the life cycle information, companies can calculate the full life cycle cost
of the goods they purchase. This includes the point of purchase price as well as the
cost of transporting, storing installing, cleaning, operating, repairing, and eventu-
ally discarding those goods, which is also known as the total cost of owning that
product. So, a product design with better environmental, social, and economic
performance across its life cycle may have benefted that the company can com-
municate to its customers. Some business elective use product declarations are
having benefcial level to market and more environmental and social attributes to
their customers. There are international standards for these business-to-business
communications, also called environmental product declarations. Each declara-
tion must be based on a life cycle study and tell the business customer about
the life cycle and more environmental impacts of the components of the product
being purchased. Life cycle thinking that infuences a product design, strategic
planning, and procurement and sales helps businesses promote their image and
the value of their brands. Businesses can avoid criticism and participate in issue-
based conferences to update oneself. Finding a new way of marketing and sales
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-6 63
department is to communicate and interact with customers. Some 50 percent of

business say they are interested in learning about sustainability. This means a
company can promote its product and services by talking about its social and
environmental attributes. By sharing life cycle information with suppliers, cus-
tomers, and waste handlers to identify risk and opportunity for the improvement,
the risk might relate to the environment for one’s health safety and fnance, while
opportunity could include growing market share, brand image, effective use of
materials, and innovation. Together businesses can fnd new ways to improve out-
put while optimizing their use of time, money, labor, and materials to improve
environmental impact throughout product or service life cycles.
Industry and market interest in environmental information on products that is
credible, unbiased, verifable, and covers the entire life cycle is growing rapidly.
The information should cover the product life cycle from acquiring raw materials
to recycling those materials when the product is no longer in use. Through envi-
ronmental product declarations (EPDs) meant to provide this type of information
in business-to-business communication, business can promote green procurement
in private and public sectors companies. Global manufacturers' use of EPDs to
communicate their products' environmental performance with advanced technol-
ogy for utility helps industry and customers.
LCT can be put into practice in many ways involving a number of different
tools and company reports on environmental and social issues, which helps indi-
vidual citizens bring LCT into purchasing decisions. Governments can take up
a life cycle approach to policymaking by evolving a wide range of stakeholders
such as product panel life cycle modeling, and new policy approach, in private
sector company’s engineers, and designers apply life cycle thinking when design-
ing product and service via studies based on life cycle assessment.
Experts from the industry, government, and R&D organizations agree that
making a life cycle approach part of the way an organization or person designs
products, develops services, makes policies, and decides what to consume and
what not to consume will help to halt and possibly reverse some of the impact
reduction on the communities and the environments. It certainly helps to solve
some environmental problems, but it can also help us fnd sustainable ways
to tackle some of them effectively. The life cycle approach is a holistic way to
promote fruitful and economic development while respecting the natural envi-
ronment and its resources. The government and prominent global multinational
corporations currently use LCT, and future planning demonstrates that the eco-
nomic, environmental, and social benefts are tangible.
6.2 ATTRIBUTIONAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

In defning the scope of attributional LCA, the goal must be clearly understood and
defned. Before a goal defnition and attributional LCA is set, the decision and stake-
holder situation in which the performer of attributional LCA resides must be clearly
understood. The goal and scope defnition phase in life cycle assessment when
applied to attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) methodology is important
Application of Life Cycle Assessment 65
because attributional LCA methodology is used by many different stakeholders. To

respect the nature of the different stakeholders, it is important to understand their
roles in relation to the life cycle approach before interpreting aspects of the goal and
scope. LCAs are done in time frames ranging from several days to several years.
Therefore the following aspects are important and must be addressed unambigu-
ously according to ISO 14040-2006 and ISO 14044-2006. One of the main aims of
ISO is to reduce misinterpretation and miscommunication and to increase probabil-
ity of detecting faws in the assessment, results, and interpretation and to iteratively
remove these. Therefore, special attention and rule sets are applied to results, which
are intended to be used in comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the
public. So, it shall be unambiguously stated if and how the results relate to the com-
parisons to alternative systems and if this is intended to be made public.
Handbook of International Life Cycle Data System (ILCD) has been published.
The life cycle data network as well as the Product Environmental Footprint
(PEF) initiative are core activities that have infuenced the LCA landscape over
the last few years. Today most LCA stakeholders, producers, and consumers of
LCA information can be sorted across groups such as industry and the private
sector; academia and education; and NGOs. The various interests and needs
developed semiquantitative estimates of the magnitude of LCA work performed
and published. Academia has cognitive interests, models development, is inter-
ested in basic science, and is calling for transparency of public data. The classi-
cal LCA approach was without crucial decision aspects. Industry has a solution.
Engineering credibility of the results for use in product optimization and decision
support is in the foreground. The approach is to be integrated into daily operation
with transparent workfows defned. Since most of the performed LCA work is
not publicly shared, most results contain sensitive information and intellectual
property that could give competitive advantage to somebody, but it is on demand
or selectively shared; it is not easy to determine the absolute number of performed
LCAs. However, the chance that the vast majority of all LCAs ever undertaken
are “attributional” is highly probable. Once the different stakeholder positions,
needs, and responsibilities are understood, the goal of the work is clearly defned;
then the scope of the work and focus need to be defned and described, that is,
the technology or system under study; and then the standard needs to be applied,
and the attributional methodology option applied. The word attribution is used to
describe and explain the causes of behavior and events. In the case of LCA, attri-
butional methodology describes and explains the causations of processes and pro-
cess chains. The beauty of attributional LCA coping with probable future effects
is that it is based on a defned range of suitable technical and market parameters
in certain defned and documented cases. Hence, attributional LCA methodology
can be both retrospectively and prospectively applied.
6.3 CONSEQUENTIAL LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT

When LCA frst originated as an environmental management tool, it was used
to assess single products. As the methodology developed throughout the 1990s
developers recognized the need to provide a sense of importance and infuence

of the possible consequence of future development and technology or changes to
supply chain. It was also seen as being useful in supporting large scale decision
for the organization. The rise of this alternative perspective on LCA application
was inspired by many research institutes. LCA practitioners began to realize that
the direction of the current development of LCA modeling was not always open to
identifying all consequences. The notion behind this realization was that certain
decisions could result in impacts outside the defned system, and as such, should be
factored into decision-making processes. This approach is to identify study bound-
aries to encompass consequences of an action or decision known as consequen-
tial LCA (CLCA) modeling. This term differentiates the approach from the more
accountancy-oriented approach, which became known as ALCA modeling. To
incorporate consequences, CLCA modeling includes additional economic data like
marginal production cost, electricity of supply and demand, and so forth. Therefore,
it is more conceptually rich. As for all modeling, the results are extremely sensitive
to the assumptions that are made. Keeping track of all exemptions is crucial for
transparency and should be clearly identifed in the fnal assessment report.
Many attempts have been made to describe when several types of LCA
are appropriate. As with consequential LCA and attributional LCA, similar
distinctions have been made between others using different terms to denote types
of LCA, such as “descriptive” versus “change-oriented” and “marginal” versus
“market oriented.” Briefy, ALCA focuses on describing the environmentally
relevant impacts of the activity that contributes to a specifc property of a product
or process, while consequential assessment describes how environmentally
relevant impacts will, or could, change in response to the studied action or
decision. The difference between attributional and consequential LCA are the
result of the choices made in the goal and scope defnition phase of the general
LCA process.
It is argued that consequential LCA should be used for decision-making, but
not when the difference between consequential and attributional LCA result is
small, and not when uncertainty in the consequential modeling outweigh the
insights gained from it. When no decision is at hand, attributional LCA should
be used because it is more universally applied method and because modeling
consequences of decision is pointless when no decision is it end at hand. Similar
arguments have been presented by other authors. Although commonly found in
practice, neither attributional nor consequential LCA are specifed in ISO stan-
dards. More importantly, there is no standardized guidance on selecting an attribu-
tional or a consequential LCA approach to properly support goal of the study. This
aspect of the goal is not well addressed at the methodological or practical level,
despite its relevance. Even though the correct formulation of a question is central in
every evaluation, its importance continues to be neglected. There is a lack of depth
to this important aspect as the origin of this dispute between consequential LCA
and other types of LCA and, consequently, the lack of clarity about the context in
which CLCA could be applied. In response to the gap, method developers have
provided various guidance documents to users on how to approach CLCA.
Consequential LCA modeling has been adopted by some LCA practitioner

and academia for the analysis of product system, answering questions on what
could be the result of production or consumption decisions. It is valid in assessing
the environmental consequences of the individual decision or rules. Attributional
LCA, a more static, technical descriptive analysis, is valid for identifying connec-
tion between system and potential environmental impacts. Both ALCA and CLCA
have utility for use in decision-making, as well as limitations. The main difference
consists in how boundaries are defned, which stems from a clear unambiguous
defnition of the goal of the study. How to better link questions and models is an
important feld of research, not only for CLCA, but for all LCA approaches. As a
guideline for individual LCA studies, it is important to emphasize how the ques-
tion is framed, clear identifcation of the problem to be addressed, what the derived
questions are, what the technological options are, what the scale of the expected
changes is, what the timeframe of the questions is, if all things being equal assump-
tions will hold, whether the system being analyzed is replacing another system at
a small scale, and whether the technology used in the new system is expected to
extend to many more application on a larger scale. Model choices are extremely
sensitive to assumptions and so forth, with the risk that inadequate assumptions
or other errors signifcantly affect the fnal LCA results. To reduce this risk, it is
important to ensure that the various consequences can be explained using cred-
ible arguments. The distinction between attributional and consequential LCA is
one example of how choices in the goal and scope defnition of an LCA infuence
methodological and data choices for LCI and LCIA phases.
6.4 INTEGRATION AND HARMONIZATION

LCA focuses on the environmental impact of a product or service. When choosing
among various alternates the fnal decision is made by combining the result of LCA
with other aspects, including cost and social implications, economic performance,
and technical feasibility. These aspects are evaluated with other supplementary
analysis tools such as LCC and SLCA, which link these environmental impacts to
the system function that facilitates the entire life cycle of a product or service from
cradle to grave. It is essential to account for the entirety of the product’s life cycle
activities to avoid suggesting local environmental improvements that effectively
export pollution to other parts of the life cycle. These life cycle activities take
place upstream from the business in question as well as downstream including, for
example, the type of material that needs to be extracted, the electricity required
during the use days, or the disposal required in the waste management.
LCA provides information that can be used by the government, businesses, and
other decision makers. LCA is an iterative tool that helps to integrate with dis-
tinct aspects of life cycle assessment like LCC, SLCA, and OLCA. Even ELCA
helps to trace the footprint of both carbon and water. In general action and policy
are directly infuenced by overarching concepts and procedural environmental
methods. Such procedural tools include equal leveling, which levels have set up
product as service within specifc functional category friendly and environmental
audit which assess the environmental performance of an individual business and

provide follow up suggestion an environmental impact assessment. Specifcally,
LCSA is a deeper integration among the various aspects, namely, environmental,
social, and economic, regarding their mutual relationship and reciprocal effect.
An overall assessment that is the direct application of LCA with some ELCA,
plus SLCA and LCC fails to provide a result that is more than the sum of its parts.
To integrate different aspects of LCSA and in order to fll the gap between mod-
eling and reality that reduces the uncertainty inherent to the modeling activity,
a multi-method approach is widely regarded as being needed. From the begin-
ning of LCSA application the interesting transdisciplinary nature of the subject
was recognized as requiring an integration of methods and models of environ-
ment, economic, and social issues and their impacts. Given is the issue of selection,
sharing, and availability of these models and a proper matching between models,
integrating to address all the parameters of sustainability of a product. In a process
within the framework of growing CE, LCSA should also be able to adapt to include
tools able to model engulfng industrial symbiosis, circular material fow analysis,
and resource scarcity. Many analytical approaches have been recently explored as
opportunities to improve the traditional LCSA.
6.5 INDUSTRIAL UNIT

The application of LCA in industry or enterprises can be classifed into fve main
purposes:
1. Decision support in product and process development.

2. Marketing point of view.
3. Development and selection of indicators used in monitoring environ-
mental performance of a product’s plans.
4. Selection of supplier our subcontractors.
5. Static planning.
LCA application within industry may well serve more than one purpose, and often
the same LCA can be used for different purposes within the company. Product
development is often combined with marketing efforts, so LCA can be used to
study an industry both internally and externally. Furthermore, as experience with
using LCA grows in an enterprise, one application can trigger another insight.
Gains from LCA studies of products and performance can lead to decisions about
selection of suppliers and strategic goal setting. LCA is often used during product
development and for identifying environmental hot spots of a product and process
either within organizations or in a supply chain.
6.6 SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISES

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) can use LCA for the same rea-
sons large companies use LCA. SMEs have lagged large companies in their
implementation of LCA. The major reason is thought to be the cost of an LCA

study, the need of changes in workplace routines, perceived complexity of the
LCA methodology, and shortage of qualifed personnel to carry out an LCA.
Few SMEs revealed that a downside of LCA is that it becomes comprehen-
sive and too complex to be easily understood, leaving an impression in some
companies of LCA as a black box. Exclusive collaboration with the experi-
enced LCA practitioner expert was found to resolve this problem in some of the
cases. Similarly, according to a comprehensive literature review, it is reported
that major barriers for implementation of sustainability management tools such
as LCA by SMEs include the following: lack of awareness of sustainability
issues, absence of perceived benefts, lack of knowledge and expertise on sus-
tainability issues, lack of trained manpower and fnancial resources, insuff-
cient external drivers and incentives, and complexity of tool and its adaptation
and interpretation. While the use of LCA by SMEs was considered marginal,
it consistently become increasingly common in developed economy, service
provided by LCA practitioners. This may be due to the increased legislative
focus on environmental performance and potential market benefts from having
an environmentally friendly profle.
6.7 CORPORATE LEVEL

The user will see in the product document that monitored environmental per-
formance at the corporate level is today often limited to a few selected impact
categories, typically footprint indicators like carbon and water. This situation may
change in the future together with the development of guidelines of the organiza-
tional environmental footprint of at the corporate level. Industries are using LCA
for setting strategic objectives. Currently, global market for multinational corpo-
rations is organizing all stakeholders to implement all relevant green initiatives
to have a competitive edge in response to consumer sensibilities regarding global
environmental concerns.
If green and sustainable development is a big challenge to the industry, it is also
an opportunity for the corporate world as they have a smart and young innovative
workforce with fnancial strength and can take radical shifts in their approach.
Most corporate offces are developing their own long green path towards carbon
neutrality.
6.8 CONSUMER PERSPECTIVE

LCA results can also serve as a decision support for individuals, be it in the capac-
ity of a citizen or a consumer. In many cases these decisions lead to the private
consumption of goods and services. Consumers are knowingly or unknowingly
exposed onto LCA results or conclusions drawn from LCA results through con-
sumer information from the producers’ packaging and media reporting of aca-
demic fndings. They hold some power through their infuence in the market
of products. Consumer decisions that may be supported by an LCA can range
from choosing the product with the lowest environmental impact from a group of
related products. The green space is favorable for consumer involvement, largely
because environmental impacts, like climate change, are visible globally, and the
market is turning green, as consumers are aware of the common advantages of
environmental-friendly products.
7 Climate Change and
7.1 ON THE HORIZON

The interaction between industry and the natural environment is well known on the
climate change and other environmental impacts. Most of the industrial manufact-
uring have been identifed and agreed very widely to reduce emissions of various
pollutants. It is increased pressure on various policy makers of governments and
industrial houses. Climate change is on the horizon, and everybody feels its heat
in several ways. GHG emissions fuel climate change and the mechanism has
been proven scientifcally. The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international
treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 parties (countries) at COP 21 in
Paris, on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its goal
is to limit global warming to well below 2°C, preferably to 1.5°C, compared to
preindustrial levels. To achieve this long-term temperature goal, countries aim to
reach global peaking of GHG emissions as soon as possible to achieve a climate
neutral world by mid-century. The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilat-
eral climate change process because, for the frst time, a binding agreement brings
all nations into a common cause to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate
change and adapt to its effects.
Now this is more comprehensive than ever before: a global climate deal agree-
ing to a long-term goal of limiting increasing the global average temperature to
well below 2°C, which means that countries need to scale up their efforts and
actions to reduce the emissions. It will bring great challenges for industries of dif-
ferent sectors as those consider producing GHG. The existence of environmental
regulations has been a considerable infuence on some of the companies. The
demand for renewal ecological resources and the service it provides is now equiv-
alent to that of more than 1.5 times of Earth’s resources. In the cement and con-
struction industries, LCA is very useful to fnd out various paths to reduce GHG
emissions, which ultimately would improve the climate condition. Therefore, the
renewable energy fuels have become so important for replacement of non-renewal
fuels, since it takes millions of years from dead plants to transform into coal and
using them as one of the major sources of energy is not sustainable in the long run.
The building and construction industries are responsible for 39 percent of carbon
emissions globally. Eleven percent from construction materials is also known as
embodied carbon. The cement industry is also responsible for producing GHG
emissions to the tune of 6 percent of total GHG produced in the world. In view of
the life cycle study in both cement and construction industry, it will be helpful to
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-7 71
understand how to use alternate raw materials and fuels to reduce CO2 to mitigate
climate change.
7.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MECHANISM

In principle, the energy reaching the Earth’s atmosphere from solar radiation
and leaving it again via refection and infrared radiation is in balance, creating a
stable temperature regime in our atmosphere. The sunlight reaching the Earth’s
atmosphere, one fraction less than 28 percent, is directly refected into space
by air molecules, clouds, and the surface of the Earth, particularly ocean and
icy regions such as the Arctic and Antarctic. This effect is called “albedo.” The
remainder is absorbed in the atmosphere by greenhouse gases GHG (21 percent)
and the Earth’s surface (50 percent). The latter heats up the planetary surface and
is released back into the atmosphere as infrared radiation (black body radiation)
with a longer wavelength than the absorbed radiation. This infrared radiation is
partially absorbed by GHGs and therefore kept in the atmosphere instead of being
released into space, explaining why the temperature of the atmosphere increases
with its content of GHGs. LCA studies provide intensity of the impact of GWP
and fnd out alternative methods for the reduction of GWP especially in the
cement and construction industries.
The IPCC 2014 defnes climate change as “a change in the state of climate
that can be identifed using statistical test by changes in the mean and/or the
variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically
decades add longer.” The IPCC observed an acceleration of the rise in planetary
surface temperature in the last fve to six decades, with the highest rates at the
very northern latitudes of the Arctic. Ocean temperatures are also on the rise
down to a depth of at least 3000 meters and have so far absorbed most of the heat
trapped in the atmosphere.
7.3 REDUCTION MEASURE OF GHG

Heat waves' variation of hydrological system affects both quantity and quality
of water resources. It has negative impact of climate change on crop yields. Due
to its impacts, there are possibilities of shifting of geographic ranges, seasonal
activities, migration patterns, and species interaction including biodiversity by
many territorial freshwater and marine species-changes in the infectious disease
vectors. Mitigating global climate change requires not only government action
but also cooperation from industries as well as consumers. The fndings of a few
studies suggested that more attention needs to be given to the social and psycho-
logical motivation as to why individuals encounter barriers to climate change
mitigation in their personal commitment, even when professing anxiety over
the future of climatic conditions. The climate change mitigation mechanisms
and their impact on sustainable development are key factors for consideration.
Climate change mitigation architects have different impact categories for dif-
ferent groups of countries. Therefore, sustainability assessment is performed by
Climate Change and Life Cycle Assessment 73
different group of countries. It is essential for all developing and emerging econ-
omy countries because a delicate balance is required for development projects and
taking mitigating measures for climate change. It is a very challenging situation
for developing countries, hence fnancial aid from developed nation becomes piv-
otal. COP26 at Glasgow has suggested solution to deal with climate change glob-
ally. But COP26 did produce new “building blocks” to advance implementation of
the Paris Agreement through actions that can get the world on a more sustainable,
low-carbon pathway forward.
The cost of GHG emission mitigation has become more complex recently
over the existence of economic and environmental double dividends that have
been added. The existence of negative cost potential industrialized countries may
reduce their cost by meeting carbon constraints if they penalize fuel not only
based on their carbon intensity but also on the basis of their import and export.
It has been summarized by selective studies of the potential and cost of carbon
emission mitigation strategy in the post plan economy. The long-term mission and
their mitigation in a household of high economic and energy demand growth sce-
nario in which technological change unfolds in alternate path-dependent direc-
tions of the climate change mitigation assessment for developing country with a
special emphasis on economic studies. It was observed that the GHG emission
from developing countries certainly will increase in the future due to economic
development needs.
There is a however a large and cheap potential for emission reduction con-
nected to effciency improvement in industrial production in general energy eff-
ciency improvement in the countries. The implementation of GHG mitigation
strategy is entirely related to the general national economic development policies.
The macroeconomic impact of implementing climate change mitigation strate-
gies should be assessed. But it is observed that the project implementation and
economic welfare improvement in some cases can be achieved simultaneously, on
a logical basis for macroeconomic assessment and the establishment of baseline
scenarios. Specifc planning contexts of developing countries need research and
fnancial assistance to identify the best price difference in approach in bottom-up
CO2 emission reduction costing for the energy sector for developing countries.
7.4 CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Carbon sequestration is an important technology for the maintenance of optimum
CO2 levels in the atmosphere. It is an important factor for mitigation of climate
change. Carbon sequestration has been a sensitive analysis for its cost and the
relative importance of sequestration technology is the long-term carbon manage-
ment framework and suggested that carbon recovery with geological sequestration
could be included among the available carbon abatement. The carbon transport
and storage cost exemption have been explored, particularly the issue of how to
ensure adequate long-term monitoring and maintenance of the carbon sequestra-
tion sites. The bonding mechanism the symmetry of sequestration/sequestration
process at a micro level end of its consequences at a macro level taking explicitly
into account the temporarily of sequestration. It showed that with this exemption
must be permanent although it has received relatively little attention of ocean and
geographical locations for sequestration. It is a potential method of combating
climate change in component in comparison to energy reduction measure. The
development of carbon free energy technologies sequestration of carbon dioxide
in geologic or sparing oil well/sinks are having enormous potential. But there are
concern about the possible maintenance cost.
7.5 CARBON CAPTURE THROUGH ALGAE

Increasing concentration of greenhouse gas is a matter of great environmen-
tal concern. Many attempts have been made to recover carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere using physical and chemical treatments. In a biological approach,
microalgae appear more photosynthetically effcient than terrestrial plants and are
effcient carbon dioxide fxers. Once it was known that microalgae have a potential
to consume more carbon dioxide than the atmospheric level, microalgae started
being used as biological scrubbers to mitigate thermal power and cement plant
stacks gases. Microalgae are of great interest because of their rapid growth rate
and tolerance to varying environmental conditions like kiln exit gas. The carbon
fxed by the microalgae is incorporated into energy rich biomass, which is widely
used as an excellent source of lipids, cofring fuel, and as animal feed. Kiln stack
gas contains 12 to 20 percent carbon dioxide and contains some of the combus-
tible products such as NOx and SOx, which can be effectively used as nutrients by
microalgae and thus a high purity of carbon dioxide is not required for the growth
of microalgae. Therefore, direct injection of fue gas into carbon dioxide sequestra-
tion systems can reduce the cost of separation of carbon dioxide from the fue gas.
Several species of algae have been tested for carbon dioxide sequestration.
The cement manufacturing sector is under close environmental scrutiny these
days because of large volumes of carbon dioxide emitted from kiln stacks. Currently
there are no emission limits on carbon dioxide emission in cement plants due to
calcination and combustion in pyro processing. This method has its limitation for
the reduction of CO2 emissions in view of high carbon dioxide level from cement
sector. There is no other way than to capture and storage (CCS) is the only possible
option for tangible carbon dioxide abatement. Cement sector looks forward for
CCS measures for potential carbon dioxide mitigation. Till date no concrete solu-
tion of CO2 capture from kill in stack is economical feasible through several CCS
studies. Besides technical aspects, the economic framework will be decisive for
application of carbon capture in the cement plant. In fact, post-combustion capture,
an end-of-pipe measure that would not require any basic modifcation in the pyro
processing of clinker production, has some advantages.
7.6 OZONE FORMATION

The halogen compounds in the stratosphere mostly originate from very stable
industrial halocarbon gases used as solvent or refrigerant the dechlorinated CFC or
Freon, the brominated halons. Groups of anthropogenic ozone depleting substances

(ODS) are bromochloromethanes (BCM), CFC, carbon tetrachloride, hydrobromo-
fuorocarbon (HBFCs), hydrochlorofuorocarbons (HCFCs), tetrachloromethane,
1,1,1-trichloroethane, methyl bromide, methyl chloride, and halons. The main uses
of ODS during the last century were fre extinguishing systems (halon), plastic
foams, propellant gas in spray cans, fumigation and pesticides (methyl bromide),
metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), refrigeration and air conditioning, and solvent
decreasing. Natural ozone depleting substance are CH4, N2O, H2O, and haloge-
nated substances with suffcient stability and/or release rates to allow them to reach
the stratosphere. All ozone-depleting substances have two common characteristics:
chemically, they are very stable in lower atmospheres and also capable of releas-
ing chloride and bromide under UV radiation. The phasing out of production and
use of substances of concern has been successfully enforced under the Montreal
protocol, which was signed in 1987 and led to the phasing out of consumption and
production of ODS by 1996 in developed countries and by 2010 in developing
countries. If it is continuously respected, this effort should lead to the cessation of
the appearance of the ozone hole around 2070. The delay exists because we are still
emitting decreasing amounts of relevant substances, mostly during the end-of-the
life treatment of old refrigeration and air conditioning systems and they are very
persistent and may take decades to reach the pole. When signifcant emissions are
dominating, impacts of ODS are absorbed in LCIs or LCA results. Nowadays, the
data originate from references before the phase out and hence it is rarity due to
absolute data unless the end-of-life treatment of old refrigeration and air condition-
ing system are an important component of the LCA studies.
The impact category appears under different categories in LCIA methods. One
of them is photochemical ozone formation under several different names but in
essence they all address the impact from ozone and other reactive oxygen com-
pounds formed as a secondary contaminant in the tropospheric by the oxidation
of primary contaminants like volatile organic compounds are carbon monoxide
in the presence of nitrogen oxides under the infuence of light. NOx is a joint
name for nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. The photochemical formation
of ozone and other reactive oxygen compounds in the troposphere from emissions
of VOC and NOx follows a complex reaction that depends on the nature of specifc
organic compounds emitted. Reduction of NOx from thermal power stations, steel
plants, cement plants, and other chemical industries is required.
Ozone Version 43 is a highly reactive and unstable molecule consisting of three
oxygen atoms and forms a bluish gas at normal ambient temperature. This molecule
is present in lower atmospheric layer tropospheric ozone sequence of photochemical
ozone formation an enlarged concentration about 8 PPMV also in higher altitude
between 15 and 40 kilometers above the ground stratospheric ozone. Tropospheric
ground level ozone a pollutant does too many harmful effects there on human ani-
mal plants and materials. Hence, how well is a component of stratospheric atmo-
sphere layer it is vital to life on planet earth due to its capacity to absorb energy
rich UV radiation thus preventing destructive amounts of it from reaching life on
planet surface. Status very causal depletion refers to the declining concentration
of stratospheric 1970s which are observed in various ways is the ozone depletion
area are ozone hole an ambiguous term often used in public clear referring to an
area of critically lower stratospheric ozone. ozone holes have been observed over
the Antarctic since early 1980. A general decline of several percentage points per
decade in ozone concentration has been observed. Autumn concentration is consid-
ered as critically low when the value of integrated ozone column falls below 220
drop some units in normal value being about 300 Dobson units.
7.7 EUTROPHICATION
Nutrients occur naturally in the environment, where they are a fundamental pre-
condition for the existence of life. The species composition and productivity of
different ecosystems refect the availability of nutrients, and natural differences
in the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus are thus one of the reasons for the
existing multiplicity of species and of different types of ecosystems. These are
dynamic and if they are affected by changes in the availability of nutrients they
simply adapt to a new balance with their surroundings. Originally, eutrophication
of aquatic environments, such as rivers or lakes, described its eutrophic character,
meaning poor conditions and low oxygen levels for supporting life. Eutrophication
describes the enrichment of the aquatic environment with nutrients that increases
salts leading to an increased biomass production of planktonic algae, gelatinous
zooplankton, and higher aquatic plants, which results in the degradation of water
quality.
7.8 ECOTOXICITY
Ecotoxicity is not the only parameter that determines the potential impact effect
of a chemical in the environment, as it must quickly enter a potential target organ-
ism. For example, a substance may be very toxic but never reaches any organism
due to its short lifetime in the environment due to rapid degradation or because
it is not suffciently mobile to be transported to its target organism and ends up
bound to soil or buried in sediment, in which case it contributes little to the eco-
toxic impacts. On the other hand, another substance may not be very toxic, but
if it is emitted in large quantities over prolonged periods of time or has a strong
environmental persistence, it may still cause an ecotoxic impact. Chemical emis-
sions into the environment will affect terrestrial, freshwater, marine, and aerial
fying and gliding animals’ ecosystems depending on the environmental condi-
tion of the place and time of emission and the characteristics of the substance
emitted. They can affect the natural organism in many ways, causing increased
mortality, reduce mobility, reduced growth or reproduction rate, mutation, behav-
ioral changes, changes in biomass or photosynthesis, activity, and so forth. The
ecosystem is typically considered a midpoint indicator in LCA, as no distinction
between the severity of observed effects is made. The method for toxic impact
assessment of chemicals in the framework of LCA must be able to cover the very
large number of potentially toxic substances in the inventory in terms of available

characterization factors.
7.9 HUMAN TOXICITY

The human toxicity impact category has several things in common with other
forms of toxicity impact, like main emissions and sources, modeling principles,
model structure—even some of the models used in the characterization are iden-
tical between the human toxicity and ecotoxicity impact categories. Notably
the fate model (transfer of chemicals from environment into the food and water
ingested by humans) used is the same in LCIA method using mechanistic charac-
terizes in modeling, which is most existing methods. Therefore, only those parts
that are specifc for human toxicity and different from ecotoxicity are required
to understand the main underlying principle. Human toxicity in LCA is based
on the same driving factors as in ecotoxicity: emitted quantity determined in the
LCI, mobility, persistence, exposure pattern. Human toxicity is considered by
the four characterization factors. The respective mechanisms and parameters are
certainly different and specifc for human toxicity, notably for exposure and mod-
eling, where there are many factors, such as dietary habits, that infuence human
exposure patterns. Chemical exposure of humans can result from emission into
the environment that will occur during production, use, or end-of-life treatment,
thus affecting workers and consumers.
7.10 ABIOTIC RESOURCES

Natural resources constitute the material foundation of our society and economies
and, paraphrasing the defnition of sustainability by United Nations Commissions
on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission), they are as such
fundamental for our abilities to fulfll our needs as well as us for future generations
to fulfll their own needs. We must ensure that future resource availability is pos-
sible compared to the current generation’s situation. We must consider the future
availability of all resources that we know and dispose of today. The defnition of
natural resources has an anthropocentric starting point. What humans need from
nature to sustain their livelihood and activity is a resource. For context of LCA, the
natural resources are those elements that are extracted from earth for use. They
comprise both abiotic resources such as fossil fuels and mineral ores and biotic
resources such as wood and fsh. They have a functional value in society. Although
water and land are also resources, their use causes direct impact on the environ-
ment. In this respect they differ from the other resources, and they are therefore
treated as an individual impact category and described as separate impacts.
Currently, the resource use impact category covers mostly fossil fuel minerals
and metals. In terms of future availability of a resource the issue is not current
extraction and use of resources per se but depletion or dissipation of the resources.
Like the use of land, the use of resources can be viewed from an occupation per-
spective and transformation perspective. While a resource is used in a way for
one purpose, it is not available for other purpose, and there is thus a competitive
situation. When resources are used in a way that caters to their easy reuse at the
end of the product life, they are still occupied and not immediately available to
others for use, but they are in principle available to future use for other purposes.
7.11 AFFORESTATION
One strategy for mitigating the increase in the atmospheric carbon dioxide is
to expand the size of terrestrial carbon sinks, particularly forests expansion, by
planting of trees for afforestation projects. The framework of the convention on
climate change includes many provisions for forest and land use as carbon seques-
tration projects. This activity in the signatories overall GHG mitigation plans even
the impartial analysis have in assessing the carbon offset beneft of the project.
The potential for developing synergies between climate change mitigation and
adaptation has become a recent focus of both climate research and policies. There
are also increasing calls for research to defne the optimal mix of mitigation and
adaptation. The diagrammatic representation of climate change adaptation and
mitigation is important in conceptualizing the problem. In identifying importance
feedbacks and communicating between disciplines with a more refned distance
in between adaptation and mitigation. It is found that emphasis on issue-based
solution plays more on mitigation strategy then adaptation and responsibilities
are suggested for dealing with climate change. Most of the analysis has focused
on the case, where the actions available to society are just mitigation of emission.
7.12 LAND USE

Land use refers to anthropogenic activity in each soil area. Examples of land use
are agriculture and forestry production, urban settlement, and mineral extraction.
The land use type in a specifc area can be identifed by physical covers of its
surface, for example, any crop grown in the open feld. In some case like orchids
under greenhouse, artifcial surface with infrastructure is expression of human
settlement and open pits are sign of one of all extraction. There is a direct link
between land use and land cover, which is used to analyze land use dynamics and
landscape change patterns.
Characterization of land use in LCA has been extensively debated over the last
few decades but is far from being settled, because the frst operational methods
have only been available since 2010. Until then, land use was only an inventory
fow counted in units of surface occupied and time of occupation (m2 and years)
and surface transformed (m2), without any associated impact. The main reason
for this development is that land-use-related impacts rely on spatial and tempo-
ral conditions where the evaluated activity takes place, whereas traditional LCA
is site generic. During the last few years, the release of geographical informa-
tion system (GIS) software and data sets have brought new opportunities in LCA
to model land-use impacts and, more generally, any other spatially dependent
impact category.
7.13 WATER USE

Water is a renewable resource, which thanks to the water cycle does not disappear.
It is a resource different from any other for two main reasons: because it is essen-
tial for human and ecosystem life and because its functions are directly linked
to geographic and seasonal availability since transporting it is often diffcult and
costly. There is suffcient water on our planet to meet the current needs of ecosys-
tems and humans. About 119,000 km3 of water are received every year on land
in different forms of precipitation, out of which 62 percent is sent back directly
to the atmosphere via evaporation and plant transpiration. Out of the remaining
38 percent, human use uses only about 3 percent, out of which 2.1 percent is used
for agriculture, 0.6 percent for industrial use, and 0.3 percent for domestic uses.
However, despite these small fractions, there are still important issues asso-
ciated with the water availability. Many important rivers are running dry from
overuse, including industries and human beings affecting local aquatic and ter-
restrial ecosystems. Humans have consumed ground water so heavily in some
regions and sometimes leading to exchange of water rights is an issue between
two areas. It is a problem by stating there is a water scarcity in many places but
the crisis is not about having too little water to satisfy our needs it is a crisis off
managing water so badly that billions of people and the environment suffer badly
in addition to the current mismanagement of water which is strongly linked to
the competing demand for human use and ecosystem. Human demand is only
increasing, namely due to growing population and changing diets with increas-
ing meat consumption; water availability is also changing due to climate change
aggravating droughts and fooding. Hence, there are further increases in the gap
between the demand and availability in many of highly populated regions around
the world. The problem associated with the water is dependent on where and
when quality water is available. It is required to be considered when we assess the
potential impact of human freshwater use on the environment including human
health in life cycle assessment studies.
8 Life Cycle Interpretation
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Interpretation is the most important phase of LCA, where the result of the other
phases is considered together and analyzed in the light of uncertainty of applied
data and the assumptions that have been made and documented throughout the
study. The outcome of the interpretation should be conclusion or recommenda-
tion. The intention of the goal defnition and the restriction that this imposed on
the study are to be considered. But the scope of defnition and appropriateness of
functional unit and system boundaries are to be considered. The interpretation
should present the conclusion of LCA in an understandable way and help the
user of this study appraise their robustness and potential weakness in the light of
identifed study limitations. Central elements of the interpretation phase such as
sensitivity analysis and uncertainty analysis are also applied throughout the LCA
process together with impact assessment tools as a part of iterative loops, which
are used in the boundary and collection of inventory and impact assessment data.
However, detailed analysis of these elements is required to proceed through the
various steps. The signifcant issue and key process is essential until the most
important elementary fow from the other phases of the LCA identifed. These
issues are evaluated with regard to the infuence on overall results of the LCA
and the completeness and consistency, and the results of the evolution are used
in the formulation of conclusion and recommendation from the study. In cases
where the study involves comparison of two or more systems there are additional
considerations to be included in the interpretation.
8.2 IDENTIFICATION OF ISSUES

The purpose of the frst element of life cycle interpretation is to analyze the
result of earlier phases of the LCA to determine the most environmentally criti-
cal issues. Mostly those issues are having potential to impact on the results of
the LCA. The signifcant issues can be methodological choices and assumptions
and inventory data for important life cycle processes, and/or characterization,
normalization, and weighting factors used in the impact assessment. The practi-
tioner is encouraged to prepare a list of such choices during the practical execution
of the LCA, the defnition of goal and scope, the modeling of the product system
and the impact assessment, to help with their identifcation. The sensitivity analy-
sis can be performed as a contribution analysis where the contribution from each
process or stage to total results of an impact category is qualifed and expressed.
It can also be done, where the processes or stages are ranked according to their
relative share in the total impact. The identifcation of signifcant issues draws
on the sensitivity analysis activity in the evolution element of the interpretation
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-8 81
phase. In combination with information about the potential key assumption and
uncertainty ranges for potential key number inventory analysis and impact assess-
ment at the same time the evolution element takes the identifed signifcant issues
as an important input. The two elements are thus performed in the iteration in
most of the cases on the life cycle impacts.
8.3 EVALUATION
The evolution element establishes the basis for the conclusion and recommendation
that can be formulated in the fnal element of the interpretation. It is performed in an
iterative interaction with the identifcation of key issues to determine the reliability
and stability of the result from the fdelity action element. Like the identifcation of
key issues, the evolution covers the result from the earlier phases of LCA and the
inventory analysis and the impact assessment in accordance with the goal and scope
of the study with focus on signifcant issues identifed among the methodological
choices and data. The outcome of evaluation is crucial to determine the state of the
conclusion and recommendation from the study and it must therefore be presented in
a way that gives the project team leader and user of the study a clear understanding
of the outcome. The evaluation involves a completeness check, sensitivity analysis in
combination with the uncertainty analysis, and a consistency check.
8.4 SENSITIVITY CHECK

The sensitivity check has the purpose of identifying the key processes and most
important elementary fows as those elements that contribute most to the overall
impacts from the product system. Sensitivity analysis can be performed and pre-
sented as a contribution analysis to see which activities contribute to which environ-
mental impact scores by how much and through which elementary fow analysis to
see which activities contribute most to which impact or fows for a detail sensitivity
analysis and how it is performed. In support of the iterative approach applied in
LCA, sensitivity analysis is also used as a steering activity in the iteration loops that
are performed throughout the LCA in support of boundary setting for a product
system, inventory data collection, and impact assessment. The fndings from these
earlier sensitivity analyses are brought into the sensitivity check of the interpreta-
tion phase. In the interpretation phase, sensitivity analysis is used together with
the information about the uncertainty of signifcant issues among inventory data,
impact assessment data, and methodological assumptions and choices to assess the
reliability of the results, conclusion, and recommendation.
The infuence of data uncertainty of key issues can be checked by allowing the
data to vary within the limits given by the uncertainty estimates while modeling
the product system and checking the results. If the information about the stochastic
uncertainties, of the individual elementary fow and characterization factor allows
it, is also possible to calculate the uncertainty of the result in terms of inventory and
environmental impacts. Methodical systematic uncertainty can be checked by ana-
lyzing different choices, applied allocation principle as a scenario, and reporting the
Life Cycle Interpretation 83
infuence on the results. Methodological choices that may be relevant to include in a

sensitivity analysis include handling and multifunctional processes, system expan-
sion assumption or allocation rules, cutoff criteria boundary setting and system
defnition, and judgments and assumption concerning data in the inventory and for
the impact assessment selection of impact category, calculation of category indica-
tor results characterization and normalization and weighting of the impacts scores.
The combination of sensitivity analysis and the uncertainty analysis helps identify
focus points for improved inventory data collection or impact assessment.
8.5 CONSISTENCY CHECK

The consistency check is performed to investigate whether the assumptions, method,
and data that have been applied in the study are consistent with the goal and
scope. If there is difference in the quality of inventory data along a product life
cycle and between different product systems consistent with the signifcance
of the processes. The data represent based on the goal and scope of the study.
Inventory data quality concerns both the time-related, geographical, and tech-
nological representativeness of the data, the appropriateness of the chosen unit
process to represent the process of the product system, and the uncertainty of the
data. In case of comparisons between different product systems the consistency
check also investigates whether allocation rules and system boundary setting as
well as impact assessment have been consistently applied to all compared product
systems. When inconsistencies are identifed, their infuence on the results of the
study is evaluated and considered in order to draw conclusions from the result.
8.6 INTERPRETATION
In studies that involve a comparison of a product system the interpretation must
consider several additional points to ensure fair and relevant conclusions from the
study. Signifcant issues must be determined for each of the systems, and special
attention should be given to the issues that differ between the system and that have
the potential to change the balance of the comparison. The completeness check
must have specifc focus on differences in the completeness of the treatment of
some of the signifcant issues between the product systems. If there are differ-
ences that could infuence the comparison results, these should be eliminated if
possible and otherwise be kept in mind in the formulation of conclusions. If an
uncertainty analysis is performed to investigate whether the difference between
two systems is statistically signifcant, the analysis should be performed on the
difference between the system, one system minus the other, which should be
checked for statistically signifcant differences from zero considering potential
covariation between processes of two systems, processes which are the same.
When an LCA is intended to be used in a comparative assertion that is to be
disclosed to the public, the ISO 14044 standard requires that the evaluation ele-
ment include interpretative statements based on detailed sensitivity analysis. It
is emphasized in the standard that the inability of a statistical analysis to fnd
signifcant difference between different studied alternatives does not automati-

cally lead to the conclusion that such differences do not exist, only that the study
is not able to show them signifcant way. A consistency check must be performed
of the treatment of the key assumptions and methodological choices in the differ-
ent systems to avoid a bias and ensure a fair comparison.
8.7 CRITICAL REVIEW

Around the globe, numerous LCA studies have been published and many of them
based on the highest standards of quality and robustness, but there are also an alarm-
ing number of studies that contain either important mistakes or plain manipulation to
obtain an intended result that would support a specifc, predefned claim. These mis-
takes and manipulations may be stable and diffcult to detect but can also be imme-
diately identifable to the trained eye, and a number of studies based on surprisingly
blunt and evident manipulation have been published over the years. In particular,
some alias studies have become classic and illustrative examples in LCA teaching of
how not to do LCA comparative environmental claims in general and they also nicely
illustrate the purpose and need for critical review of published LCA studies.
Critical review of any LCA study is useful in all cases where quality, robust-
ness, and trust in results are required. Whether or not a review is required depends
on the goal defnition that is intended application and decision contexts, the reason
for carrying out the study, and the intended audience. ISO 14044-2006 recom-
mends the use of critical reviews in general and make them mandatory for LCA
studies where results are intended to be used to support a comparative assertion
intended to be disclosed to the public. These mandatory critical reviews must be
performed by a panel of interested parties, including at least three invited experts.
A comparative assertion is defned by ISO 14040-2006 as an environmental claim
regarding the superiority or equivalence of one product versus a competing prod-
uct that performs the same function. However, this defnition may not be broad
enough. In the European context the product environmental footprint (PEF) is an
example of an LCA that will typically be subject to such review requirements.
Even though a comparative assertion is not explicitly stated in the report, an envi-
ronmental product declaration (EPD) and PEF aim to give data and information
to be used in comparisons and they could therefore be regarded as a basis for the
comparative assertions. In fact, a critical review by at least one independent and
qualifed external reviewer is mandatory in the PEF methodology.
The conclusion should be drawn in an iterative way. Based on the identifcation
of signifcant issues and the evaluation of these for completeness, sensitivity, and
consistency, preliminary conclusions can be drawn. It is then checked whether these
preliminary conclusions are in accordance with the requirement of the scope defni-
tion of this study, in particular, data quality requirements, predefned assumptions
and values, and limitations in methodology. If the conclusions are aligned with the
requirements, they can be reported as conclusions, otherwise they must be reformu-
lated and checked again. Recommendations based on the conclusion of the study
should be logical and reasonable consequence of the conclusions.
9 Case Studies of
Different Countries
9.1 USA
The high demand for cement base material to support building and infrastructure
systems is of growing concern as the production of cement leads to signifcant GHG
emissions and notable resource consumption. Effciency of cement usage has been
studied to mitigate GHG burdens, by increasing durability of cement. The implica-
tion of using cement for a longer in-use residence time was quantitatively explored.
In the United States, a study was conducted on dynamic material fow analysis mod-
els to quantify the new stock of cement from 1900 to 2015. With this model the
implication of increasing or decreasing mean longevity in new cement products
are required. The potential implication of extending the longevity of cement is in
use. Before removal of setting the cement and cement base material demand was
explored in this US. LCA study several key fndings from this work included a
50 percent increase in cement durability could have led to 14 percent reduction
in material resource demand and also GHG emission from concrete production in
USA. It is equivalent to 0.28 to 0.83 Gt of aggregates, IE+06 to 2,3E+06 TJ of
energy and 0.4 to 0.7 Gt of CO2-eq emissions. Improving durability and longevity
of cement could be a critical means of mitigating environmental impacts.
9.2 UK
In UK, an integrated LCA modeling approach study was carried out for value
assessment focusing on resource recovery from waste. The method tracks and
forecasts a range of values across environmental, social, economic, and technical
domains by attaching these two-material fow does build upon integrating unidi-
mensional model such as material fow analysis and LCA. The usual classifcation
of metrics into these separate domains is useful for interpreting the outputs of
multidimensional assessments, but unnecessary for modeling.
UK concrete and cement industry has studied the aggregate impact that may fow
and increase use of low carbon fuels. This model may investigate tipping points in this
case the upstream condition under which total GHG emissions rise due to impacts
downstream of electricity production. The case also highlights the contentious nature
of allocation decision, and they need to examine sociopolitical imperatives the weather
this framing of the case study leads to investigate how potential knew international
trade links may induce further offshoring of environmental and social impacts.
Finally, the study indicates that these systematic multidimensional changes may
be understood as being driven by changes in the technical value of resource fows
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-9 85
more broadly the result highlights the advantage of approaching such analysis with
an intention to make high-level interferences of complex system including impor-
tant interaction between background and distributional effects and so forth, rather
than taking market centric approach and devoting disproportionate attention to
optimizing in come durable sets of outputs using limited one strains in this study.
It is only beginning to prove that these issues require a comprehensive treat-
ment of such effect this approach aims to address a number of shortcomings
simpler than the approach of sustainability assessment in general. It is equally
demandingly in terms of data input requirements also of important is omission
of any treatment of uncertainty of which robust analysis complemented by sen-
sitivity analysis is necessary for any comprehensive sustainability analysis. The
modeling challenges include questions regarding how to value fx capital long
lasting plan infrastructure our account of discrete parents disruptive technical
transitions there are also issues relating to a wider framework within which the
model is intended to explain how to select appropriate metrics for the evaluation
assessment and usually how to integrate the results across the various domains in
such a way that outcome can be optimized by a set of criteria that remains totally
transparent clearly there are many diffcult conceptual and technical challenges
to overcome and these are an ongoing focus. but the challenge of adapting such
transparent and provocative approach into a political decision having these dis-
plays such a cost beneft analysis that picked out is single objective number even
greater. As the construction industry begins to shift towards more sustainable
business models and government legislation becomes more stringent for indus-
try in terms of sustainable practices, it is imperative that those educated with
working experience and environment profcient can enter industry with this skill
knowledge and awareness of not only their chosen profession but also how they
can apply sustainability into everyday working to align with the ever-changing
business strategy.
9.3 SPAIN
A life cycle assessment of the Spanish cement industry is seeking to fnd out hot
spots depending on the impact categories after analysis, as it was due to fossil
fuel combustion, use of electricity, and mining in quarry. CO2 generated from
processed limestone’s calcination has impact on climate change. It is also remark-
able that alternative fuel combustion is still low and material pretreatment and
transportation are minimal. Going beyond the hot spot recognition, this study has
explored the Spanish cement sector in 2010 studied for the future. Consequently a
variety of scenarios were developed in order to implement BAT and other techni-
cal solutions that would promote reduction in emissions waste and energy con-
sumption. Most signifcant improvements are referred to the energy requirement
both the clinkerization in kiln and power consumption to face these challenges. It
is needed to improve the redesign the kiln feed and, on the other hand, both raw
material and fossil fuel substitution scenario are the best option to achieve less
impact. The second hot spot identifed for changing the primary material enter in
Case Studies of Different Countries 87
the cement mill with clinker by secondary blending materials previously consid-
ered waste like fy ash, blast furnace slag, and silica sand. It leads to 10 to 13 per-
cent reduction in each impact category furthermore using alternate fuel instead
of fossil as shown in its advantage decreasing 37 and 33 percentage in acidifca-
tion and photo chemical ozone formation, respectively, but increasing 10 percent
Fresh water eutrophication. Finally in an ideal scenario where all technologi-
cal options are implemented, reduction would reach from 21 percent in climate
change to 49 percent in acidifcation. On this sectorial approach to the Spanish
cement industry, it is possible to conclude that to face the problem derived from
the fossil fuel combustion a fuel shift is needed. Material substitution is another
satisfactory solution for the industry in terms of impact, but it requires a change
in the demand and further investigation.
9.4 BRAZIL
An LCA study was carried out in Brazil, as a large environmental impact is gen-
erated by their cement industry throughout the life cycle of the product. Its results
showed that during life cycle of Portland cement, the industrial process impacts
the environment where the greener gas affect which is caused by the combustion
of fossil fuel and due to calcination was highlighted. There is air containment by
heavy metals due to mining activity and small caused by emission of particulate
matter the current production in present model is an example of situation that in
near future could culminate with end of natural resource and a complete change
world environment. This situation can be avoided by replacing fossil fuel by use
of agricultural wastes and its residues can decrease use of cement in concrete for
the reduction of CO2 emissions. The World Economic model of mass production
and goods consumption is growing by inclusion of the BRICs (Brazil, Russia,
India, and China) but also Thailand, South Africa, Turkey, and other consumers
in the global market. The search for technological development and economic
growing are providing the generation of less durable goods and a market that
strives to meet this demand without restriction. This causes mainly the extinction
of natural resources and environmental degradation such situation that requires
modifcation in relationship between the industrial society and the nature before
the occurrence of irreversible damages sustainable development constitutes a pro-
posal that seeks to change the production system supplying the needs of society
and ensuring preservation of natural resources.
LCA is one of the main methods used to evaluate impacts caused by industrial
products. Cement process production can generate local environmental impacts
such as noise, reduced air quality, and changes in local ecosystems due to extrac-
tion of raw material such as clay, limestone, and others. Regionally it can cause
acid rain due to emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, among others.
Already the burning of fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural gas, have caused cli-
mate change worldwide. According to the International Energy Agency, cement
production generates a global average CO2 emission of 0.81 kg.kg-1 of cement
produced. On average about 1 tonne of concrete is produced each year for all
human beings around the world. It is estimated that 5 percent of global CO2 emis-
sions come from the manufacture of cement. Besides the generation of CO2 in the
process of manufacturing of cement are produced million tons of waste particular
matter from the cement kiln each year that contribute to pollution and respira-
tory health risk. The calcination process of obtaining CaO from CaCO3 generates
CO2 and contributes to about half the CO2 emitted, while the rest comes from the
energy consumption during the production process.
The characteristics of technological process and physiochemical and toxico-
logical properties of raw materials inputs used in cement manufacturing are vital
for clinker and cement. The cement plant causes a risk to the health of workers,
public health, and the environment. It is associated with the exposure of particulate
matter that permeates the entire chain of production and emission of pollutants
that occur continuously that even small concentrations contribute to the chronic
risk. It can be seeing that all stages of cement manufacturing generate impact to
the environment. It is also noted that so much of the energy used in the process
focuses on the step of reduction measures.
9.5 SWITZERLAND
The Swiss cement industry produces 4 million tonnes of cement per year. The
manufacturing of cement is very energy intensive. The energy requirement lies
between 4200 and 5000 MJ/t, whereas about 3500 MJ/t is the thermal energy
used in the elevated temperature clinker burning process. Energy carriers have
traditionally been fossil fuels such as a coal and heavy fuel oil. Increasingly dis-
tinct kinds of waste oil, dried sewage sledge, plastic waste, or waste solvent are
used as alternate fuels in the cement industry. In 2010–2012 the share of alternate
fuel amounted to 52.8 percent of total thermal energy consumption. This frac-
tion is supposed to increase even more in the future. Swiss cement industry has
studied the development of various alternate fuel consumption in the cement kiln.
Slowly it has increased over the years where solvent is welcome as an alternate
fuel for the cement industry in Switzerland. It is comparably pure, easy to man-
age, and it usually has a high energy content. A share of 13.6 percent of the total
alternate fuel is used till 2018.
The results from the case studies showed that solvent incineration in clinker
kilns has a net environmental beneft, at least if the heating value and therefore
the amount of substituted fossil fuel is suffciently high, and the pollutant content
is small. One such model of solvent incineration in special solvent incineration
plant has already been set up.
9.6 INDONESIA
The environmental impact study was carried out using life cycle assessment
cement industry in Indonesia. In 2010, the rapid development in Indonesia caused
some demand on the cement industry to produce more cement for domestic needs.
Cement is made by means of mining of limestone and fuel for production process
that involves pyro processing and grinding process in its activity to be able to
produce cement. These activities produce emission of CO2, NOx, SOx and par-
ticulate matter. These emission have an impact on global warming and decreasing
ambient air quality, which has an impact on human health and the environment.
This Indonesian study identifes the impact of main process based on the cradle
to great approach starting from the process of exploitation of raw materials to the
production process that produces cement as the main product the impact identi-
fcation was done by using LCA method with the help of the software SimaPro
8.5.2. The LCIA category includes global warming potential for 100 years, acidi-
fcation, and carcinogens. The method used was TRACI, a midpoint approach.
Results after normalization show that the highest impacts generated were global
warming from the kiln process, acidifcation from the kiln process, and carcino-
gens from the raw mill process.
The impact that arose from each process had a different magnitude depending
on the material input, fuel, energy used, emission released and the production pro-
cess that occurred. Several types of impact that arose needed to be analyzed more
deeply to interpret the data on the SimaPro application with existing data of exploi-
tation and production of cement. The purpose of this interpretation was to fnd out
hot spots with the greatest impact from a series of processes of cement exploitation
and production. Impact hot spots are the biggest impact points in a process. Because
the process between one unit and another is different, there will be differences in
the value of the impact produced in each cement production process.
The impact value is infuenced by input data at the LCI stage. Input data are in
the form of type of raw material used, type of fuel, type of energy, and emission
produced along with the quantity. The value in the normalization stage is used as
a reference to fnd out the greatest impact because at the characterization stage
each impact has a different unit, so that the impact cannot be compared between
one another. In the normalization stage, equalization of all types of impacts is
carried out. The value obtained from the normalization stage is the result of the
value in the characterization stage divided by the normalization factor. The hot
spot point of impact of global warming was found to be the kiln. It is infuenced
using fuel in the form of coal as well as several alternate fuels. The kiln unit
produces the largest GHG emissions of all the units. The cement production was
analyzed using LCA methods on a normal category impact, global warming,
acidifcation, and carcinogens. The environmental impact is correlated with its
input and output from each process in the cement production.
9.7 CZECH REPUBLIC

An LCA study was taken up in the Czech Republic, where substantial progress
has been made in degrees of environmental impacts of cement production. Dust
pollution around the cement plant has been decreased due to effcient dust sepa-
rators. Further emission reduction has been studied via LCA. The environmen-
tal burden of cement production was also decreased by substitution of cement
by alternate binders. Hydraulic properties of energy by-products have been
investigated for a long time to check their potential as a partial substitute for
traditional cement binders. The study has focused on examining the infuence of
variation of concrete composition on the environmental impact’s identifcation
of the most severe procedures in this cement production analysis of meaningful-
ness of implementation of the proposed measures. The environment is a complex
system. Potential modifcation of concrete composition or production technology
may bring benefts to certain areas and on the contrary may cause environmental
harm from another perspective. Hence, analysis of similar production impacts
cannot be based on one aspect, and a broad profle of impact categories will be
assessed regarding the concrete production and its total burden.
The results presented in the study were that a partial replacement of cement
with fy ash decreases the consumption of raw materials and signifcantly reduces
the emission of harmful substances. Although not that extensively, the application
of selective noncatalytic reduction (SNCR) reduces most of the environmental
impact as well. Compared to fy ash substitution, the NOx reduction affects the
eutrophication of the environment. As previously mentioned, the NOx reduction
technology used during the combustion process negatively affects the fy ash in
terms of grain morphology and chemical composition. Based on the assessment
presented in the study, replacement of cement with fy ash seems to positively
interfere with more of the environmental impact categories than the investigated
NOx reduction process. So, the partial replacement of cement, the highly ener-
getically demanding material, with untreated fy ash could be a more effcient
approach to sustainable development. However, the SNCR method may be more
advantageous in locations where the eutrophication of water and soil is the main
environmental problem.
9.8 CHINA
China produces cement to the tune of 2.4 billion tonnes per annum, which is
more than 50 percent of world cement production. In the past decade, China
has been more conscious of cement production and its environmental impacts.
Chinese cement production has challenges and opportunities using LCA to
understand the embodied energy environmental impact and potential energy sav-
ing of manufacture products has become more widespread among researchers in
recent years. A recent LCA study of China’s and other countries’ cement industry
provides an assessment of methodology used by the researcher compared to ISO
LCA standards like ISO 14040-2006 and ISO 14044-2006. In order to evalu-
ate whether the study provides information on the intended application, target
audience, functional unit, system boundary, data sources, data quality assess-
ment, data compilation, and other elements and draw conclusion regarding the
level of attendance to ISO standard for this study review, it is found that Chinese
researchers have gained much experience during last decade but still have room
for improvement in establishing boundaries, assessing data quality, identifying
data sources, etc.
Life cycle assessment is a valuable tool for understanding total energy con-
sumption, identifying energy saving opportunities and information for decision
makers regarding policies and energy effcient investments. Recently there have
been several LCA studies conducted by Chinese scholars focusing on China’s
cement industry. LCA to evaluate this industry has played a signifcant role in
generating increased understanding of all its impacts as well as energy saving and
emission reduction opportunities.
The quality of LCA study in Chinese industry, corporations, and associa-
tions has improved by participating in assessment and collaboration with LCA
researcher of other countries. Government could support healthier research by
subsidizing pilot projects LCA is also be linked with energy audits and broader
energy management.
9.9 GERMANY
An LCA of building materials in Germany was conducted by the German
Building Materials Association. The LCA is an appropriate tool for supporting
environmentally oriented studies. With this method, a variety of impacts can be
covered taking into consideration the entire life cycle of a product. Appropriate
application of method provides quality results which are universally accepted fol-
lowing the internationally standardized procedure. Despite the standard procedure
in conducting LCA differences in respect to the industrial sector do exit hence the
goal of the building material association is to summarize standardize requirement
of healthier building components. A frst guideline for conducting inventory anal-
ysis is in the plan of the building material industry. Based on the guideline, the
requirement of an impact assessment and interpretation with LCA in the building
material industry is the essential step. The procedure emphasizes that the possibil-
ity of limitation LCA is also seen. The life cycle assessment is a suitable tool for
analyzing and assessing the impacts that are caused through production, use, and
disposal of products or product system. For specifc applications LCA does not pro-
duce clear-cut, straightforward assertions but gives diverse and complex results. It
supports the process of decision-making by rendering complex issues transparent.
The concepts of LCA are mainly concerned with basic aspects like the observation
of the whole life cycle of a product from raw material acquisition processing and
production to reuse, recycling, and disposal and the recoveries of all these impacts
associated with the life cycle of the environment such as raw material and energy
and use of land for construction of building area. Assessment of these impacts in
view of possible effects on the environment-oriented decisions the main empha-
sis in the feld of impact analysis and interpretation. The LCA is meant to assist
conducting the methodology and the critical study of existing analysis the focus
is on the building and construction industry. It follows the guidelines of conduct-
ing inventory analysis in plants and building industry many different questions can
arise in the building construction industry which can be tackled by using LCA
method different functional limits are possible depending on the goal of the study.
9.10 INDIA
LCA is used to enhance environmental management, particularly when used in
conjunction with EMSs. There are several areas where LCA can be helpful: in the
identifcation of signifcant environmental effects, in the quantifcation of those
effects, in the assessment of changes in environmental performance, and the
environmental benefts arising from changes in operating conditions, equipment,
procedures, raw materials, or alternate products specifcally for blended cement.
The cement industry is faced with many challenges that span the product/process
life cycle. On the one hand the cement industry itself is challenged by several
signifcant environmental issues like carbon dioxide and NOx emissions and
production energy requirements. On the other hand, studies indicate that certain
aspects of air pollution are due to fugitive dust, land degradation, and captive
limestone mines as well as power plants.
Limestone mining, cement manufacturing, and their CPPs are bound together
in the LCA of energy use and emissions. Many companies around the globe are
reexamining their business operations and relationships in a fundamental way.
They are exploring the concept of sustainable development, seeking to integrate
their pursuit of proftable growth with the assurance of environmental protection
and quality of life for present and future generations. Based on this new perspec-
tive, some companies are beginning to make signifcant changes in their policies,
commitments, and business strategies.
LCA attempts to provide a systematic approach to quantifying resource con-
sumption and environmental releases to air, water, and soil associated with prod-
ucts, processes, and services. It takes into consideration that all product life cycle
stages, extracting and processing raw materials, manufacturing, transportation
and distribution, use/reuse, and recycling and waste management, have environ-
mental and economic impacts. The Indian cement industry ranks second in the
world in cement production. It is currently in search of competitive advantages
for continuous improvement in terms of environmental concerns—the ecological
degradation of mined out areas of raw materials, air pollution due to both fugitive
and stack dust, and GHG emissions.
Hence, to improve the environment, one needs to reduce both thermal and
electrical consumption, which has a direct bearing on the environment. There is
an urgent need to adopt a holistic integrated approach like LCA to identify weaker
subunits or the processes to deal both in terms of energy consumption (i.e., cost)
as well as on an environmental front as with dust and GHG emissions. It is true
that growing awareness of the environmental problems and cost-effective com-
pulsion has led cement plants to adopt advanced technology in mining, crushing,
grinding, and pyro-processing technology along with environmental operational
control and process optimization measures. The LCA of the construction industry
specifcally for commercial buildings has been studied in India. The life cycle of
a building starts from the exaction and mining of raw materials and minerals,
encompasses various production stages of building material, transportation of
those materials to the building construction site, and construction of the building
structure using those materials, water, and energy. The construction phase is fol-
lowed by use and operation up to fnal disposal of demolition of waste from the
building either to recycling or to the landfll. As the life span of the primary mate-
rial used in the construction of the building (i.e., mainly concrete) is expected to
be 80 years, but depending on the use and operation phases of the building may
last up to 50 years. After the end of the use and operation phase of the building,
the structure may be demolished, and the debris is disposed of to recycling and
some of the residuals go to landflls and dumps. Thus, the life cycle of the build-
ing ends with the fnal disposal of the demolished debris of the building. Hence,
the life cycle of a building can be divided into four major phases: construction
phase, operation (use) phase, maintenance phase, and demolition phase.
9.10.1 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

The decisions made at the time of construction of the building will infuence the
environmental impact potentials associated with the life cycle of a building. The
materials consumed during the construction phase will not only have an impact
during the construction phase but also have far reaching effects on the other
phases of the building. Construction activity includes site preparation, construc-
tion of foundation, superstructure, mechanical, electrical equipment installations,
and interior fnishing. The construction phase of a commercial building involves
large quantities of building materials. This phase includes production of building
materials, burdens from energy used for power tools and lighting as well as die-
sel fuel used by equipment at the construction site and associated transportation
of the construction material from factory to the construction site. Data related
to the construction process of the commercial building and transportation dis-
tances of construction materials to the construction site were obtained from the
construction company using an LCA questionnaire and discussions held with the
contractors.
9.10.2 BUILDING OPERATION

After completion of the construction phase and occupation of the offce and build-
ing spaces by the occupants, the operation use phase of the building starts. This
phase extends up to the end of the life of the building. In the study in India, the
life cycle of the building was considered as 50 years. However, it may be possible
that the building may continue to serve its occupants even after its assumed to
be at the end of its life. The commercial building normally operates for six days
in a week for 12 hours daily. There may be some commercial building that work
for 24 hours depending on the usage and type of commercial activities carried
out in those buildings. This phase of a building’s life cycle may account for 60 to
80 percent of the impact associated with the life cycle of a building. The opera-
tion phase includes interior and exterior lighting of the building, water supply to
the occupants, and waste and wastewater management, energy requirements for
cooling, ventilation of the building, and equipment operation. For housekeeping
operation, material used for housekeeping such as phenol and soaps are used, and
their inventories are accounted for in the impact assessment. In the Indian study,
it was assumed that only electricity from thermal plants was used as grid power;
for other type of power generated for electricity from diesel set inside the
compound of the building has not been considered, as seldom DG set power was
used. The energy consumption of the building during the operation phase was
based on the data provided by the construction company and on the daily usage
pattern of the building (daily usage was considered to be about 12 hours a day, six
days a week). Actual electricity consumption records for the buildings were also
considered. One of the major assumptions of the study is that material used for
building service such as wires, power cables, AC ductwork, chillers, and electricity
boards were not considered under the scope of the study.
9.10.3 BUILDING MAINTENANCE

Construction materials have a service life and need replacement after the end of
their use/service life. The service life of a building as discussed earlier is assumed
to be 50–80 years and, of course, depends upon the structural components and
its maintenance. However, about other materials used in the construction of the
building structure, they may require a quote for replacement. Frequent mainte-
nance requirements in a building are painting, which is required after every four
to fve years, plywood, and so forth. For commercial buildings such as offce
buildings and retail malls, interior design and decoration usually changes with
the choice of the occupant. However, in the Indian study it was assumed that the
occupant remained the same for the entire life cycle of the building. Emissions
from the maintenance stage were computed based on the life span of materials,
and it was assumed that 10 percent of the building material used during the con-
struction phase was used again during the maintenance phase. For paint, it was
assumed that the painting of the building was carried out twice in ten years and
that plywood would be replaced twice within 50 years.
9.10.4 BUILDING DEMOLITION

The last phase of a building’s life involves demolition and disassembling of the
structure. The conventional demolition and decommissioning process often
results in the disposal of the majority of the materials and debris to the land-
fll and dumps. The demolition waste of economic material is recycled, such as
reinforced steel bars and aluminum items. The debris, comprising demolished
concrete, broken bricks, broken glass, and other waste material, are presently par-
tially recycled and disposed of in nearby areas. The impacts related to the demoli-
tion phase of a building are due to energy consumption and emission associated
with the demolition machinery as well as the energy required for the transporta-
tion of the demolition materials from the building site to the recycling facility.
Due to lack of an appropriate mechanism, some of the materials are not 100
percent recycled in India. For alternate paths for future building, it is suggested
Case Studies of Different Countries
FIGURE 9.1 Application of sustainability for the construction industry.
95
that a majority of the waste generated from the demolition of a building would
be utilized as a recycled sand and aggregate. The emissions avoided by use of
construction and demolished waste recycled materials due to saving of virgin
materials will result in negative impacts for all impact potentials. Sustainability
for the construction industry is pivotal role to play for improving environment at
the same time reducing impact, adopting systematic LCA application for con-
struction industry.
Figure 9.1 highlights few points and explains the sustainability of the construc-
tion industry and the relevance of its applications. Under the predesign stage there
are a number of aspects to cover like material selection, building program, proj-
ect budget, team selection, partnering, project schedule, bylaws, codes, and stan-
dards. Onsite decisions cover site analysis, site development, the layout of water
bodies and management and consumption of material and water resources, and
site material handling with different equipment. Under the design, the heading
needs to design for solar energy input, the addition of newer materials and their
specifcation improving the indoor air quality and better landscape. Under the
head of construction during construction efforts should be made serious efforts to
reduce environmental issues, be conscious of materials and their quality, improve
air quality and maximum use of daylight, minimize the waste at the site, indoor air
quality, green belt development, indoor air quality management, and resource
control and best practices adopted during construction. Under the operation and
maintenance heading, there are key factors like housekeeping, best practices,
repair, and renovation resources effciency, energy-saving, improvement in indoor
air quality maintaining maintenance schedules.
10 Future Challenges for
10.1 AWARENESS OF LIFE CYCLE THINKING

Life cycle thinking awareness among general students is becoming necessary
around the world. In fact, irrespective of faculty the basics of LCT and its relevant
related felds/tools should be taught in the colleges and universities. Educating
people for more sustainable ways to relate to our habitat involves preparing us
to adopt LCA, LCC, SLCA, and OLCA for sustainable practices for products
or services that reduce the impact on climate change and the impact of climate
change in our lives. LCT aims to increase the sustainability of a product or sys-
tem along its entire value chain by reducing environmental impacts and at the
same time increasing socioeconomic performance (UNEP 2020). LCA primar-
ily focuses on environmental impacts alone (ISO 14040/14044-2006), assessing
quantitatively the environmental impacts of products and services along their
value chains. Over the past decades, methodological developments in the direc-
tion of environmental and societal LCC, SLCA, and LCSA have also been made,
as have numerous differentiation and brandings, including carbon and water foot-
prints (ISO 14067-2018; ISO 14046-2014) and the EU’s PEF and Organization
Environmental Footprint (EC JRC 2020; Bach et al. 2018; Pant et al. 2012). In
the following, the term LCA is used in a broad sense and captures these different
concepts and methodologies.
These practices may be individual, in the choices we make about our own con-
sumption and lifestyle for example slowing down population growth, consuming
a diet with a smaller carbon footprint or using renewable energies, or consum-
ing less; or they may be collective, the result of choices one makes as citizens
when participating in the democratic process at various levels of government,
or when one infuences the behavior of corporations, for example, by adopting
caps on emissions or a carbon tax, or incentivizing the reliance on clean energies.
Government policies such as caps on emissions are essential to slowing global
warming, and they are subject to infuence and preferences by citizens, educated
to understand the scientifc consensus on climate change and with the capacity to
exercise infuence as citizens. Collective responses may also include shaping the
way in which we live and our habitats, for instance the value we assign to nature
as we design and build the homes and cities where we live and work.
In addition to personal responsibility for our individual impact on climate
change, and participation in collective processes that support systemic changes in
the norms and institutions that undergird climate change, slowing down and per-
haps over time reverting climate change requires also advancing knowledge and
DOI: 10.1201/9781003206750-10 97
inventing technologies that can help us transform our interactions with the envi-
ronment, in a way helping us reinvent our way of life, and so educating for LCA
and its related tools for sustainable development becomes necessary. Sustainability
involves equipping people with the ethical frameworks, the imagination, and the
necessary skills for such advancement of knowledge and invention. Examples of
such design and invention and changes to our way of life include developing a CE
with production of goods next to cities to reduce transportation costs, synergizing
among industries to use one industry’s waste or by-products in other industries, as
well as urbanization with populations concentrated in sustainable cities.
10.2 MITIGATION OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change mitigation policies have been implemented in fve major emitting
economies—China, the European Union, India, Japan, and the United States—
while analyzing their historical performance in terms of energy system and
greenhouse gas emissions indicators. In cases where policies aim to reduce future
emissions, their target performance levels are assessed. The review centers on the
sectors of electricity generation, passenger vehicles, freight transport, forestry,
industry, buildings, agriculture, and oil and gas production. Most focus coun-
tries have implemented successful policies for renewable energy, fuel effciency,
electrifcation of passenger vehicles, and forestry. For other sectors, information
is limited or very heterogeneous (e.g., buildings, appliances, agriculture) or there
are few comprehensive policies in place (e.g., industry). The article further pres-
ents an explorative emissions scenario developed under the assumption that all
countries will replicate both the observed trends in sector-level indicators and the
trends that policies for future emissions reductions aspire to achieve. It shows that
the global replication of sector progress would reduce GHG emissions by 2030 by
about 20 percent compared to a current policies scenario.
All countries analyzed would overachieve the emissions reduction targets in
their post-2020 climate targets. However, the resulting reduction in global emis-
sions by 2030 would still not be suffcient to keep the world on track for a global
cost-effective pathway that keeps the temperature from increasing less than 2°C.
The fndings of this study emphasize the need for transformative policies to keep
the Paris Agreement temperature limit within reach.
10.3 GLOBALIZATION
LCA will be elaborated in many directions in the next decade. Regionalized data-
bases will be developed, new impact assessment methods will be designed, and
methods for uncertainty analysis will be improved. However, more fundamen-
tally, it is believed that the next decade of the 21st century will be the decade of
life cycle sustainability analysis. In this decade LCSA will hopefully develop
offering a framework for questions at diverse levels of products, sectors, and econ-
omies and for addressing these questions to the full sustainability scope engulfng
people, planet, and prosperity and to a more complete set of mechanisms. Unlike
Future Challenges for LCA 99
LCA, LCSA is a framework of models rather than a model in itself: a transdis-

ciplinary integration framework for disciplinary models and methods, selected
and interlinked for addressing and answering a specifc life cycle sustainability
question. LCSA is a framework for looking from one viewpoint (i.e., the life cycle
viewpoint) to sustainability questions and only providing life cycle answers and
no others; risk assessment is, for example, not part of this framework.
However, risk assessment is truly relevant for certain sustainability questions
and should in those cases be added to or performed instead of LCSA tools. LCSA
shows similarities with the feld of integrated assessment. Integrated assessment
is an interdisciplinary process of combining, interpreting, and communicating
knowledge from diverse scientifc disciplines in such a way that the whole cause-
effect chain of a problem can be evaluated. Establishing a framework for LCSA
does not make present day product-oriented LCA and LCC superfuous. On the
contrary, it only relates product oriented LCA and LCC to specifc questions, for
which these specifc methods are perfectly suitable. There is still a vast amount
of research needed to achieve this, for example, in relation to the choice of attri-
butional, consequential, and scenario-based modeling of systems and related
timeframes, including aspects of unpredictability of emerging systems, complex
adaptive systems, and other contingencies. Elaborating the LCSA framework is
a major challenge for the global scientifc community together with international
governmental bodies: strong international collaboration is necessary if we do not
want to end up once more with a plethora of different approaches and methods.
10.4 INTEGRATION
The object of LCC analysis is to choose the most cost-effective approach from a
series of alternatives so the least long-term cost of ownership is achieved. LCC
analysis helps engineers justify equipment and process selection based on total
costs rather than the initial purchase price of equipment or projects. Here, syner-
gies between the environmental and economic considerations must be utilized to
move towards sustainable development. There are several defnitions of LCC in
the design phase. However, in many instances business practices have suffciently
short perspectives that limit the time, resources, or experience to consider costs
outside of the company’s gate, for example regarding usage and disposal of a
product. Based on the defnition of goal and scope, a cost model must be devel-
oped according to the system boundaries and cost issues selected. Appropriate
data must be collected or estimated (where necessary) considering the quality
required. The quality and completeness of the relevant data is of highest impor-
tance for the results and should be supported by sensitivity analyses. If quantita-
tive data on the processes and the corresponding material and energy fows from
an LCA are available, then it is very effcient to base the LCC model on the life
cycle inventory analysis since an existing product system model can be used. The
approach taken was to assess the life cycle costs based on a life cycle inventory.
The materials within the inventory were multiplied with estimated specifc prices,
including working and machine hours in the inventory.
The globalization of the economy, pressing ecological issues such as climate

change, and recent market demands are shaping and changing how we view
the role of corporations in society. Traditionally, the role of the corporation has
been understood primarily in economic terms. Companies provide products and
services and, in doing so, they create jobs and wealth. Increasingly, stakeholders
(shareholders, investors, communities, regulators, employees, customers, and non-
governmental organizations) are taking a broader perspective of corporate
responsibility that incorporates not only economic performance, but also social,
and environmental performance factors. There are four performance areas stake-
holders are evaluating to determine whether a company is moving towards more
sustainable business practices and whether a company is conducting its busi-
ness in an ethical and socially responsible manner: environmental performance,
economic performance, social performance and responsibility, and conduct and
governance.
10.5 EXERGY ASSIMILATION

In most of the chemical and metallurgical processes at the manufacturing unit,
the chemical exergy plays a vital role for purposes of resource accounting and
environmental analysis. It is suggested that exergy is one of the most suitable indi-
cators for both resource and emission accounting. There has been an increase in
the use of natural resources for millennia, be they fossil fuels or any minerals. At
the same time, enormous quantities of waste materials and effuents are released
to the atmosphere, water bodies, or to land surface, effecting the delicately bal-
anced natural cycles that make life possible on Earth. Hence use of exergy as
general environmental indicator for resource accounting would improve the situ-
ation in two ways. First, an exergy balance automatically combines both mass
and energy fows thus providing a concise representation of the process. This
accounting becomes useful to characterize the process/product. Second, the use
of exergy enables the environmentalist to take care of energy conservation and
entropy covering both laws of thermodynamics in identifying areas for potential
improvement. Chemical exergy content can be used as a tool for frst-order evalu-
ation of the environmental impact associated with waste effuents of any indus-
trial process. Scope for integration of both LCA and exergy analysis will give
inner picture of process or product in terms of evaluating not only environmental
impact but also identifying of ineffcient units or products in terms of exergy.
Though LCA is a tool of standardization and is getting established as a method
for products and functions explicitly, it gives the most detailed results but becomes
inconclusive on certain environmental parameters. So both LCA and exergy can
work in a complementary fashion. Complementing use is not completely easy and
simple but efforts should be made to facilitate the integration of both tools. One of
the major benefts of integration of these tools would be to decrease the effort put
into inventorying, simultaneously improving the quality of the data, and obtain-
ing faster development of treatment data. Integration of LCA and exergy analy-
sis includes estimation and calculations of both inputs and outputs of both raw
materials and energy by summing in one unit during LCA inventory and impact
analysis stage. It will identify ineffcient use of natural resources and other ener-
gies like thermal and electrical. Exergy is more quantitative and precise in nature.
Most critical point of exergy is that is illuminates the energy quality. However,
exergy measurements are useful for only well-known systems for which detailed
calculations can be modeled.
10.6 CIRCULAR ECONOMY

The current global interest in CE opens an opportunity to make society’s con-
sumption and production patterns more resource effcient. Assessing CE strate-
gies requires addressing the technical and scientifc challenges involved across
the life cycle of such strategies, as well as the broader implications for the sus-
tainability of both emerging and developed economies. LCA is a crucial assess-
ment methodology to inform and improve CE strategies by comparing them in
terms of sustainable performance. Even if the methodology is standardized (ISO
14040–14044-2006), further requirements must be set to ensure comparability
between LCA studies. The same strict principles must apply to compare CE strat-
egies based on LCA. It is very well suited to assess the sustainability impacts of
CE strategies. Now we already use more resources than the planet is capable of
regenerating, so we must fnd ways to utilize less energy, water, materials, and
resources in general. In the cement industry we are searching for ways to close
product life cycles, whether at the outset by using renewable energy, or at the end
by using recyclable materials. We need radical innovation to develop new tech-
nologies and business models. The CE is part of the solution. Several methods of
sustainable manufacturing in the cement industry have been evaluated recently in
open literature and progress has been made on the research front.
Techniques such as CCS, material substitution, the use of alternative fuels and
utilizing energy effcient technologies have been proposed as means of mitigat-
ing the negative environmental impact of cement production. Some frms have
not fully bought into research innovations to plant scale as they are still regarded
as pilot scale technologies to their conventional methods. Absorption of carbon
dioxide from cement kilns by algae to generate biofuel can partially replace fuel
and also reduce release of CO2 into atmosphere. There are a number of such
technology ideas available for the reduction of GHG from cement plants. Eco-
friendly low-emission cements sometimes struggle to meet performance require-
ments and satisfy funding evaluators; thus, it is still currently an arduous task to
fully commercialize these ideas. An effective CE can be planned in two ways: by
raising awareness of CE opportunities in the private sector’s engagement and by
identifying innovative ideas to work with in collaborative efforts between cement
industries and educational and R&D institutes in India. Government should be
proactive in allocating funds for such innovative research projects like carbon
capture and sequestration. Major players of the Indian cement industry have
already committed themselves to long-term roadmaps to reducing GHG emis-
sions, increasing resource conservation, and maximizing renewable energy use.
10.7 CARBON CAPTURE AND UTILIZATION

Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) is an emerging feld proposed for emis-
sions mitigation and even negative emissions. These potential benefts need to be
assessed by the holistic method of LCA that accounts for multiple environmental
impact categories over the entire life cycle of products or services. However, even
though LCA is a standardized method, current LCA practice differs widely in
methodological choices.
The resulting LCA studies show large variability which limits their value for
decision support. Applying LCA to CCU technologies leads to further specifc
methodological issues (e.g., due to the double role of CO2 as emission and feed-
stock). In this work, we therefore present a comprehensive guideline for LCA
of CCU technologies. The guideline has been development in a collaborative
process involving over 40 experts and builds upon existing LCA standards and
guidelines. The presented guidelines should improve comparability of LCA stud-
ies through clear methodological guidance and predefned assumptions on feed-
stock and utilities. Transparency is increased through interpretation and reporting
guidance. Improved comparability should help to strengthen knowledge-based
decision-making. Consequently, research funds and time can be allocated more
effciently for the development of technologies for climate change mitigation and
negative emissions.
10.8 CARBON NEUTRALITY

Carbon neutral, yes—that sounds familiar. But climate? The answer is simple:
it is not just carbon dioxide, CO2, which is driving climate change, even if it
makes up 80 percent of the climate gases (including contributions from changes
in land use) emitted by human activities. Carbon dioxide is the most abundant
greenhouse gas we are adding to the atmosphere, but it is not the only one. The
international climate change treaty, the Kyoto Protocol, limits the emissions of six
main GHGs produced by human activities. The gases are carbon dioxide (CO2),
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofuorocarbons (HFC), perfuorocar-
bons (PFC), and sulfur hexafuoride (SF6).
Carbon neutrality is particularly challenging for the cement sector as less than
40 percent of emissions come from the energy used to produce cement. More than
60 percent of emissions come from the chemical breakdown of limestone—cal-
cium carbonate (CaCO3)—into CO2; limestone is a calcium source that is used to
produce the active component of cement—the clinker—which reacts with water
at ambient temperature to produce a strong durable material. There is no practical
alternative to the use of limestone due to its abundance and widespread distribu-
tion in the earth’s crust. Therefore, total carbon neutrality can only be achieved
by recapturing this “chemical” CO2.
Technologies for carbon capture and storage are under development, although
some technical challenges need still to be surmounted. These technologies are
estimated to require large investments in terms of capital investment and in
operating cost. They are also dependent on massive quantities of renewable energy
to be effective. Heidelberg Cement intends to upgrade its facility in Slite on the
Swedish island of Gotland to become the world’s frst carbon-neutral cement
plant. Dalmia Cement (Bharat) have scaled up the ambitions, and now seek to
be carbon negative by 2040, meaning that overall operations will be taking more
CO2 out of the atmosphere than it is produced. To meet the scale of this challenge
and achieve our ambitious goal, we are exploring a number of approaches, includ-
ing switching to 100 percent green fuels, including biofuels, biogas, compressed
biogas (CBG) and biomass; green power generation; reducing our clinker factor
in incremental stages and optimizing clinker heat consumption; switching over
to solar drying for relevant raw materials; developing a new range of low-carbon
cements; CCU technology; and carbon sequestration.
10.9 SUSTAINABLE CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION

Concerning the LCA outcomes, the determination of environmental performance
is complex, and different combinations of feedstocks, conversion routes, fuels,
end-use applications, and methodological assumptions may lead to a wide range
of results. Different approaches are used to deal with the indirect effects which
have an enormous infuence on fnal fgures, and the way by which they should be
estimated is still under discussion. The inclusion of these indirect effects in LCA
represents the next research challenges for LCA practitioners.
In fact, even though valuable improvements were achieved in determining
the direct GHG emissions of bioenergy, a standard methodology for the indirect
effects is still at a preliminary phase, and further research is needed. It is therefore
predictable that future LCA studies will focus on reducing the uncertainties of
these current key open issues (e.g., inclusion in the assessment of indirect land use
change [LUC] effects and their amortization over time, estimation of bioenergy
impacts on biodiversity, better determination of fertilizer induced emissions, and
others). However, standardization in GHG balance accounting (also called carbon
footprinting) of products is particularly perceived as urgent by policy makers,
and the methodological standards provided by consultants and stakeholders try
to address this need. A variety of policy objectives have motivated governments
around the world to promote bioenergy and biofuels, on condition that a certain
amount of GHG emission savings is achieved.
This means that legislation requires a standardized GHG accounting proce-
dure encompassing the inclusion of indirect emissions in the life cycle of bioen-
ergy, even if this topic is still in its scientifc infancy. To cover this gap, several
methodological standards have been proposed, as previously mentioned. In most
of the cases, these guidelines tend to simplify or overlook concepts and issues of
paramount importance, like indirect LUC effects and carbon storage in products.
In addition, methodological standards usually limit the assessment to an extremely
small number of indices and indicators. On one hand, these simplifcations can
make the overall assessment and interpretation of results easier, but on the other
hand approximation and fxed approaches may have the drawback of misleading
and inaccurate conclusions.
Therefore, the formulation of regulatory standards in the presence of scientifc
uncertainty may lead to ineffcient or counterproductive methodologies. Finding
a compromise is challenging, because a certain degree of simplicity and stan-
dardization in sustainability assessment of bioenergy systems is highly desirable
nowadays, especially at a governmental and political level, where the best strate-
gies for climate change mitigation should be put into practice as soon as possible.
An example of this quandary can be found in the current situation for the Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM), a trading framework established by the Kyoto
Protocol that allows emission-reducing projects in developing countries to earn
and sell carbon credits. Despite the high growth in transportation biofuel invest-
ment and research in recent years, not a single project on transportation biofuels
has been successfully registered under the CDM (Bird et al., 2008). One of the
most important reasons for such an astonishing result is the lack of standard meth-
odologies for assessing GHG balance from agricultural and forest land. In fact,
while the CDM focuses on the effects of individual projects, the land use issues
discussed in this chapter can hardly be attributed to a single activity but tend to
be the results of macroeconomic developments. Standardization in the inclusion
of indirect effects in LCA may also give the possibility to establish LUC policies
aiming at mitigating climate change. In fact, while deforestation and decrease of
Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) are threatens for climate change, suitable land use
policies may even lead to the opposite effect, given the large potential of GHG
mitigation provided by CO2 sequestration in terrestrial.
10.10 LCA IN HIGHER EDUCATION

In this study, expert panels were conducted based on the fve-step nominal group
technique as described in Potter et al. (2004) and Harvey and Holmes (2012) to
build stepwise consensus on the learning outcomes and achievable competen-
cies in higher education on LCA. Forum for Sustainability through Life Cycle
Innovation (FSLCI) had invited about 40 internationally recognized universi-
ties and academic institutions and announced open expert panel workshops at
the 2017 and 2019 Life Cycle Management Conferences. Three semi-structured
expert panels were conducted in Luxembourg in 2017, at the University of
Bordeaux in 2019, and due to the COVID-19 crisis online in 2020. The experts,
who participated in the panels represented the following stakeholders of higher
education in LCA:
• Université de Bordeaux and the engineering school Bordeaux INP

(France), where LCA is integrated into general and professional bach-
elor studies (natural sciences and engineering), in master’s (chemistry
and engineering), and PhD programs.
• Technical University of Denmark (DTU), which is an engineering university,
where sustainability assessment and life cycle thinking are introduced to all
students at BSc, MSc, and PhD levels (via mandatory courses), and where
LCA has been comprehensively taught at MSc level for the past 20 years.
• Technische Universität Darmstadt, where the Chair of Material Flow
Management and Resource Economy provides LCA teaching for bach-
elor (environmental and civil engineering), master (various engineering
and material sciences) and PhD programs.
• Pforzheim University’s business school (Germany), where LCA is the
core content of a master program provided by the Institute for Industrial
Ecology and major part of several PhD studies.
• Université de Sherbrooke (Canada), where the Inter- disciplinary
Research Laboratory in Life Cycle Assessment and Circular Economy
(LIRIDE) integrated the concept of sustainable development and life
cycle thinking into the bachelor, master, and PhD programs (various dis-
ciplines of engineering).
• Solent University, Southampton (UK) where LCA is taught as an integrated
topic across the engineering bachelor’s programs and several PhD studies.
• The Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), where life cycle
thinking and the application of LCA results are integrated in various
bachelor and master’s programs (engineering and life sciences) and in
depth LCA competences are taught in a specifc LCA minor for envi-
ronmental engineers (Bachelor) and in advanced LCA courses in the
master’s program on natural resource sciences.
10.11 DATA INVENTORY AND LCA SOFTWARE

It was necessary to create databases of elements and materials to create LCA
analysis and to speed up and simplify the entire process. The database must be
updated according to production development, application of new and more effec-
tive ways of mining and extraction, and many other factors. Databases should be
locally divided, due to non-uniform production process methods and conditions
in each country. For simplifying and effective LCA performing, software tools
for model processing need to be developed. It is necessary to collect all informa-
tion about used materials, their volumes, information about technical building
equipment, operational information, and so forth. In software that information is
track down and summarized. Databases then generate results. With these tools
the complete process of analysis is simplifed and more accessible. In the brief
time since the emergence of LCA, many software tools have been developed,
including the following:
1. Athena (Canada),www.athenasmi.org/our-software-data/impact-estimator
2. BEES (USA), www.nist.gov/el/economics/BEESSoftware.cfm
3. Bilan Produit ADEME (France), www.base-impacts.ademe.fr/bilan-produit
4. General Carbon Footprint (UK), www.carbonfootprint.com/
5. eToolLCD (Australia), http://etoolglobal.com
6. ECOSOFT (Austria), www.ibo.at/en/ecosoft.htm
7. GaBi (Germany), www.gabi-software.com/

8. GreenCalc+ (The Netherlands), www.greencalc.com
9. LEGEP (Germany), www.legep-software.de
10. One Click LCA (Finland),www.oneclicklca.com/green-building-software/
11. Open LCA (Germany), www.openlca.org/General
12. SimaPro (The Netherlands), www.pre-sustainability.com/
10.12 CONCLUSION
The most important application of LCA is learning and understanding funda-
mental problems caused by products and systems from cradle to grave—that is,
from raw materials to recycling and waste removal, respectively. But the mod-
ern software offers immense help in performing LCA which were not available
at decades ago, it should not however replace the collection of original primary
data through system analysis tools for selection and an explanation of impact
categories.
LCA is a central tool that incorporates various environmental parameters with
this system considering the entire life cycle from cradle to grave of the product.
The present society has undergone a paradigm shift from environment to sustain-
ability, which doesn’t only focus on environmental impacts but also preserves the
natural resources. It rather three triangle points like environment, economy, and
social values for which society needs to fnd balance, Now this sustainable dice
accepted by all stakeholders is a guiding principle for both corporate strategy
and public policy making, however the biggest challenge for most organizations
remain the real and substantial of the sustainability concept and implementing it.
The challenges before sustainability goal is the measurement of various param-
eters' performance especially for product and process. The LCA is the only tool
available which helps identifying various steps required for the environmental
social justice and economic prosperity without limiting the ability of future gen-
erations to meet their needs. This holistic, systematic, and rigorous technique
is preferred when it comes to compiling assessing information about potential
environmental impacts.
The life cycle assessment study quantifes environmental impact across the
wide range of indicators but always includes a full carbon footprint. In LCA with
carbon footprint, two systems are highly complementary. But LCA study com-
bined with the design principal of climate change opens up an opportunity for
CE. But the ultimate CE also looks at the neutralization of material but is more
high-level view which considers the idea like synergizing with two industries;
one of industries waste can be consumed in another industry as an alternate raw
material as blending material for the product. One can deal the three key issues in
sustainability by combining to form ultimate triangle between life cycle assess-
ment cradle to cradle in CE. Some companies are already putting these ideas in
good use. This is where C2C stands apart from the conventional thinking around
sustainability. While in LCA is a steady focus primarily on reducing the nega-
tive impact of a product. Sustainable performance can be maximized by bringing
together reliable data of quantitative LCA of two process or products. This con-
cept is used wider for synergizing with two industries, integrating with CE. It is
minimize the environmental impacts land move towards positive environmental
footprint. Though there are many challenges to upgrade the technology, by using
AI, Cloud, and blockchain in operational facilitator for data evaluation, inventory,
and interpretation of various impacts.
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Index
Note: Page numbers in italics indicate fgures and page numbers in bold indicate tables.
A D
abiotic resources, 77 data collection, 56
acidifcation potential, 36 data source, 28
afforestation, 78 data variability and consistency, 28
allocation procedure, 31 degradation of forest, 1
attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA), 64 details of commercial buildings, 41
awareness of life cycle thinking, 97 documentation and review, 57
B E
building ecotoxicity, 76
construction, 93 environmental mechanism, 72
demolition, 94 environmental product declaration, 84
maintenance, 94 environment data, 13
operation, 93 environment management system, 9, 11,
12, 13
C eutrophication, 76
capacity building, 58 evaluation, 82
carbon capture and utilization, 102 exergy assimilation, 100
carbon capture through algae, 74 extended boundary, 23
carbon neutrality, 102 extension, 15
carbon sequestration, 73
case studies F
Brazil, 87
China, 90 factor to consider, 16
Czech Republic, 89 framework, 21
Germany, 91 functional unit, 30
India, 92–93
Indonesia, 88 G
Spain, 86
Switzerland, 88 globalization, 98
UK, 85 global movement, 9, 10
USA, 85 goal and scope, 25, 26
chronological development of LCA, 20, 21 greenhouse gas, 35
circular economy, 2, 10, 101 GWP, 35
classifcation, 39
climate change, 9, 71 H
consequential life cycle assessment, 65
consistency check, 83 human toxicity, 77
consumer perspective, 69
continual improvement, 17 I
corporate level, 69
corporate sustainability, 3 impact assessment, 31, 40
COVID-19, 16 impact assessment of commercial buildings, 42
critical review, 84 impact categories, 32
115
116 Index
impact of blended cement, 33 P

implementation, 14
industrial activities, 1 process fow, 29
industrial unit, 68 product alternatives, 33
input and output data, 57 product environmental footprint, 84
integration and harmonization, 67, 99
international standards, 14 R
interpretation, 38, 83
inventory analysis, 26 rebooting, 15
reduction measure of GHG, 72
reduction of carbon and water footprints, 15
L reorientation, 16
re-philosophy, 2
land use, 37, 78
resource depletion, 37
LCA in higher education, 104
LCA software, 105
life cycle analysis, 4 S
life cycle and sustainability system, 51
sensitivity check, 82
life cycle assessment, 19, 24, 43
small and medium sized enterprises, 68
life cycle costing, 44
social life cycle assessment, 45
life cycle impact categories, 40
sustainability for construction industry, 95
life cycle inventories, 55
sustainable consumption and production, 103
life cycle sustainability assessment,
sustainable development, 13
49, 50
sustainable future, 16, 17
life cycle thinking, 1, 22, 24, 63
system boundaries, 30
life cycle tools, 43
limitations, 34
U
M uncertainties, 34
uncertainty analysis, 38
material balance, 28
mitigation of climate change, 98
V
N validation, 29
normalization, 37
W
O water use, 79
WCED, 3
organizational life cycle assessment, 51 worship of nature, 1
ozone formation, 74 WRI, 6

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Life Cycle Assessment

• Covers Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and future challenges, including

This book is aimed at professionals in all engineering areas and in environmental

Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 Environmental Management System .............................................. 9

Chapter 3 Life Cycle Assessment .................................................................. 19

3.12 Impact Assessment ............................................................. 31

Chapter 4 Life Cycle Tools ............................................................................ 43

Chapter 5 Guidance for Life Cycle Inventory................................................ 55

Chapter 6 Application of Life Cycle Assessment .......................................... 63

Chapter 7 Climate Change and Life Cycle Assessment ................................ 71

7.4 Carbon Sequestration ......................................................... 73

Chapter 8 Life Cycle Interpretation ............................................................... 81

Chapter 9 Case Studies of Different Countries.............................................. 85

Chapter 10 Future Challenges for Life Cycle Assessment .............................. 97

10.6 Circular Economy............................................................. 101

disciplines and industries. I am confdent that students of the environment or

Dr. Surjya Narayana Pati

LCA Life Cycle Assessment

The environment is not a new concept, in its current incarnation. It might be

1.1 LIFE CYCLE THINKING

facilitates links between economic and environmental dimensions within an

Commission on the Environment and Development (WCED, 1987), an entity of

1.2 CORPORATE SUSTAINABILITY

populations. The desired balance and holistic approaches as well as sustainable

1.3 LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS

• Setting a goal and scope of the LCA study.

• Evaluating the potential and environmental impacts—local, regional,

2.2 GLOBAL MOVEMENT

of educational institutes and the help of government, community, customer, and

FIGURE 2.1 Global trend of environmental demand for sustainability.

2.3 NECESSITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

have realized that environmental problems would be better managed in a sys-

FIGURE 2.2 Evolution of EMS over six decades.

and the availability of these specialized procedures and information to be avail-

or voluntary, have consistent impacts on the fnancial performance of these frms.

2.4 INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

• ISO 14001–1996, 2004, and 2016 EMS.

2.8 REDUCTION OF CARBON AND WATER FOOTPRINTS

2.10 FACTORS TO CONSIDER

2.11 SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

2.12 CONTINUAL IMPROVEMENT

TABLE 3.1 (Continued)

either of a product or service system, from extraction and processing of raw

FIGURE 3.2 Life cycle assessment of cement industry.

FIGURE 3.3 LCT-LCA stages and application.

3.3 GOAL AND SCOPE

namely, kilns, to consume all types of hazardous wastes, including those of

3.4 INVENTORY ANALYSIS

Note: This is a typical case for illustrative purposes.

3.5 DATA SOURCE

3.6 DATA VARIABILITY AND CONSISTENCY

3.8 PROCESS FLOW

graphical representation of the subject under study. In principle, a process fow-

3.9 FUNCTIONAL UNIT

3.10 SYSTEM BOUNDARIES