Contents

Learning Outcomesviii

Unit-1 1
Introduction to Cookery

Unit-2 4
Methods of Cooking

Unit-3 11
Vegetable and Fruit Cookery

Unit-4 28
Soups

Unit-5 34
Salads

Unit-6 39
Sandwiches

vii
UNIT 1
 introduction to cookery

Objectives

1. To explain the effects of heat on components of food.

2. To state the objectives of cooking food.

1.1 Components of Food

The purpose of cooking food is to break it down from its complex form to simple form so that
it can be consumed by the human body. To break down the components of food mainly the
protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals the effects of heat has to be understood.

Proteins: Protein plays the role of growth

and repair, hence good source of protein
is required. Sources of protein are meat,
eggs, wheat, pulses, fish, milk and milk
products. When heat is applied on protein
it coagulates, from opaque the protein
become white in colour. Excessive heat can
make the protein rubbery and chewy. We
can notice this while eating chicken or meat
that is overcooked.

Carbohydrates: This gives energy. Sources of Carbohydrates are Rice, Wheat, Potatoes,
Plantain, tapioca etc. There are two types of heat - moist and dry. When moist heat is applied
the starch in the food absorbs moisture and swells. After sometime it bursts to form a gel.
This process is called gelatinization. We have to handle the rice carefully since it continues
to absorb moisture and might become a gel sticky by nature. When dry heat is applied on
carbohydrates it tends to become slightly brown. When a slice of bread is toasted we notice
a brownish reaction this is due to caramelisation of starch.

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Fats: This provides heat and energy.
Sources of fat are meat, eggs, milk, nuts
etc. These are made of triglycerides
which are a combination of free fatty
acids and glycerol. On application of
heat fat breaks into free fatty acids and
glycerol. If they are cooked further the
glycerol converts into acerolin which is
not good for the digestive system. For
example when oil is used for deep frying
if exposed to a high temperature or
reused frequently the product deep fried
will not only give off flavour but also makes it difficult to digest.

Vitamins and Minerals: They protect the body’s immunity systems. Sources are found in
vegetables, fruits and legumes. Some vitamins are lost when introduced to water or heat but
largely vitamins and twenty different minerals remain unchanged with heat. (Vitamin A & B
are fat soluble (not water soluble) and are not destroyed by cooking, water soluble vitamins
(vitamin C and B) are easily destroyed or lost into the cooking water. Vitamin C vanishes
easily.

1.2 Objectives of Cooking Food are

1. To make the food more palatable.

2. To help in the digestion process since the food components are broken down by
the effects of heat.
3. It kills the bacteria and keeps the food sterile.
4. It improves the eye appeal of the food.
5. When different ingredients are used in the preparation it enhances the nutrition
value of the dish.

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6. Different methods of cooking changes the texture of the food which brings flavour and
aroma.
7. Cooked food can be stored for a longer time.

Summary
Understanding the components of food and how they break down when heat is applied
helps to achieve the objective of cooking food. Applying appropriate method enhance
the taste and texture of food served e.g fish is rich in protein is added towards the end
to prevent overcooking. Thus the knowledge of food composition is essential to improve
the value, quality and shelf life of the product.

Review Questions

I. Answer the following in 4 or 5 lines :

1. List any five objectives of cooking.
2. Explain the effect of heat on carbohydrates.
3. What happens to protein when it is overcooked?
4. State the role of fat and list its sources.
5. Describe the importance of vitamins and minerals.

II. Answer the following in detail :

1. Elaborate the role of protein, fat, carbohydrates in food.
2. Why is cooking food essential? Elaborate.

Practical

1. Make a pictorial chart on the components of food.

2. Make presentation on ingredients rich in protein, fat, carbohydrates in three
groups.

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UNIT 2
 methods of cooking

Objectives
1. To identify the principles of heat transfer.
2. To describe the moist cooking method.
3. To explain the dry methods of cooking.
4. To explain the methods of cooking using medium of fat.

2.1 Heat Transfer

All methods of cooking requires any one or more of the following principles:

Radiation : Heat passes through directly on the object that has to be cooked e.g. Grilling.
Radiant Heat Source
in oven when broiling

Cooking with
Radiation

Conduction : This is the process of using metals like pans and utensils for transferring the
heat to object e.g. using stainless steel vessels.

Heat Source

Cooking by Conduction

Convection : This process is the movement of the heated particles of gases or liquids. On
heating the particles expand becomes less dense and rise, the cooler particles take their
place e.g. Oven.

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 By Liquid Currents By Air Currents
Cooking by Convection

Induction : This process is to cook with the help of electromagnetic waves e.g. Induction stove.

Cookware
Induction magnet attracting
excites the molecules

Magnetic Friction
generates heat
directly to pan High Frequency
Magnetic Field

2.2 Cooking Methods

Cooking Methods are Divided into Three Categories:
1. Moist Heat Methods
2. Dry Heat Methods
3. Medium of Fat
1. Moist Heat Methods : In this method the heat is conducted to the food product by
water or by steam.
2. Dry Heat Methods : In this method the heat is conducted without moisture either by
using any of the following:
• Hot Air: e.g. Oven
• Hot Metal: Grill, Salamander
• Radiation: Microwave
3. Medium of Fat : In this method the heat is conducted with the help of fat.
• Shallow Frying
• Deep frying

Moist Methods of Heat Cooking

1. Boiling : When the liquid is bubbling rapidly and
when the water boil at 100⁰c (212⁰f) at sea level it
is known as boiling. Example : boiling of vegetables.
2. Simmering : When the liquid is bubbling gently
with a temperature of about 85⁰c to 96⁰c it is known
as simmering. e.g. making of stock.
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3. Poaching : When the liquid is usually in a small quantity and the temperature is about
71oc to 82oc (160of to 180of) and the liquid is not actually bubbling it is called poaching
e.g. poaching of fish, egg.

4. Stewing : This is a process in which the food particles are surrounded by liquid and it is
cooked in slow heat for a long time. It is usually served along with the liquid which was
used for stewing e.g. stew.

5. Blanching : This is the method in which the items are partially cooked in water. This
enables the food particles to be half cooked e.g. blanching of potatoes for French fries.

6. Steaming : In this method the food is exposed directly to steam. Cooking an item by
lightly covering the pan or by wrapping it in foil so that the food gets cooked in its own
moisture e.g. Jacket potatoes, steamed fish.

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 Steamers can be used for cooking rice, dal that holds the steam under pressure, the
temperature varying from 106o to 121oc (227of to 250of). This method is widely used
as it minimises the dissolving away of nutrients.
7. Braising : This is a combination of two methods stewing and pot roasting. The food
particles is browned in fat and then placed in small amount of liquid and the liquid is
served along with the meat e.g. Irish stew.

Dry Method of Cooking

1. Roasting : When the food is surrounded by dry hot air usually in the oven or over open
fire it is known as roasting. The meat is usually cooked uncovered.

2. Baking : This term usually applies to breads, pastries, vegetables and fish when dry
heat is applied.

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3. Barbeque : In this method dry heat is created by burning hard wood or hot coal. The
flavour of the coal is imparted to the meat that is used.

4. Broiling : In this method the food is cooked over dry heat e.g. Broiling of spices for
Indian masalas, broiling of chicken etc.

5. Grilling : This is done on an open grooved griddle over heat source which may be from
charcoal, an electric element or a gas heated element e.g. grilled chicken.

6. Griddling : This is done on a solid cooking surface called griddle with or without fat to
prevent sticking. The temperature is approximately 175oc (350of) e.g. steaks.

Medium of Fat

1. Sauté : This French word means to “jump”. Tossing the meat or vegetables in less oil to
get a slight browning effect is sautéing.

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2. Deep Frying : The food is usually submerged in hot oil. This method absorbs less fat,
looses less moisture and gives a crispy attractive colour. The food particles are coated
with batter or crumb to prevent the fierce heat of oil. Appropriate temperature for fry
is 175oc to 190oc (350of to 375of). Oil used for frying should be protected from high
temperature, oxygen by covering the oil, moisture, salt and food particles. The oil should
be replaced by 15 to 20% to extend frying shelf life.

3. Shallow Frying : Using less amount of fat for frying the food particles is known as
shallow frying. This method, however, absorbs more fat then deep frying e.g. shallow
fried fish, parathas.

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 Summary
The methods of cooking enables cooking of food particles in many ways is to get different
colour, texture and taste. According to the requirement of the customers the cooking
method can be adapted e.g. the older people could prefer the moist method for easy
digestion and the younger generation could opt for dry methods of cooking. Cooking
with combination of both with the help of Combi Ovens has widened the horizon of
cooking.

Review Questions

I. Answer the following in 4 or 5 lines:

1. Difference between steaming and stewing.
2. Explain the term braising.
3. What do you mean by the term broiling?
4. List the principles required for cooking food.
5. Describe the method "deep frying".
II. Answer the following in detail:
1. Elaborate the dry methods of cooking.
2. Explain the cooking methods using medium of fat.
3. Write about the moist methods of cooking.

Practical

1. Make a pictorial chart on the different method of cooking.

2. Visit any fast food company or institutional catering.

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UNIT 3
 VEGETABLE & FRUIT COOKERY

Objectives

1. Classification of vegetables and fruits.

2. Quality criteria for checking freshness of vegetables and fruits.
3. Uses of vegetables and fruits.
4. Nutritional contribution of vegetables and fruits in diet.
5. Identification of various cuts of vegetables and fruits.
6. Effect of heat on colour, texture and flavour of vegetables.
7. Ways to preserve nutrients while processing of vegetables and fruits.

Introduction

Vegetable and fruits are part of a plants that are consumed by humans as food as part of a
meal. They are an inseparable part of meal and are important source of nutrients and fibre.

3.1 Classification of Vegetables

The following classification of vegetables is based on the part of plant being used as
vegetable:

Type Description Common Quality Uses

Example Criteria
Bulbs They grow just Onion Firm, dry papery Onion is the most
below the surface outer skin. No green used flavouring
of the ground shoots or soft spots. vegetable in the
and produce a world. Onions can
fleshy, leafy shoot be eaten raw or
above the ground. cooked. They can
Bulbs may contain be used in so many
layers or clustered dishes : soups,
segments. vegetable and dal
tempering, gravies,
pizzas, pies, pasta,
salads etc.

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 Type Description Common Quality Uses
Example Criteria

Garlic White, firm, dry Raw garlic gives

skin. No green a strong pungent
shoots. Break cloves flavour while on
just before use as cooking it gives
they tend to dry up a mellow flavour.
once broken. It can be used in
salads, soups, dals,
vegetables, gravies,
meats and even in
curd.

Spring Bright unblemished They are milder

Onions hollow green ends than onions, making
and firm small bulb. them more suitable
for eating raw in
salads.

Leeks Small or medium Traditionally they

size bulbs as large are served with a
ones are woody. white or cheese
Unblemished fresh sauce. The white
greens. may be sliced and
used in salads. Pairs
well with ham or
bacon and meats.

Roots They grow below Carrot Firm, well-formed Can be eaten raw
the ground as long and have a good or cooked and are
or round shaped orange red colour. found in savoury as
taproot and have Smaller carrots tend well as sweet dishes
green leafy shoots to be sweeter and such as carrot
above the ground. tenderer. Thick big cake, carrot halwa.
ones tend to have a They are used in
hard woody centre. vegetable dishes,
Should be firm. salads, sandwiches,
meat roasts etc.

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 Type Description Common Quality Uses
Example Criteria
Radish Smooth and firm Radishes are
white colour. Should mostly eaten raw
be crisp and not in salads and may
drying and turning also be cooked in
easily when held. vegetables and
used for stuffing for
paranthas etc.
Turnip Choose small to Turnips give a
medium firm roots slightly peppery
with smooth skins. taste. It can be
eaten raw as salad
or cooked as a
vegetable.

Beet root Roots should be The roots can be

smooth with a firm used raw, grated or
skin and deep red finely sliced into a
colour. The leaves, salad. The tender
if they are still leaves can also be
attached should be used as vegetable.
fresh and crisp.
Tubers Tubers are various Potato Pale yellow, dry Potatoes are cooked
types of modified skin, thin and differently: Mealy or
plant structures smooth, firm no floury potatoes with
that are enlarged black eyes or shoots, high starch (suitable
to store nutrients. no green surface. for mashing) and
They can be root Waxy potatoes with
or stem. low starch (suitable
for salads, soups
etc).
Ginger Choose firm, shiny- Used to flavour
skinned and smooth numerous dishes
knobs. Don’t buy such as dals,
roots with sprouts. vegetables, meats,
salads, curd, rice etc.

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 Type Description Common Quality Uses
Example Criteria

Flowers These are edible Cauliflower The leaves at the Used in preparing
flowers of certain base of the flower dry vegetable
plants. should be fresh and dishes, snacks
hard not falling off. (pakodas), filled in
Tight buds, white in paranthas and can
colour, compact- not even be made into
far apart from each sweets.
other.

Broccoli Compact bud Broccoli has many

clusters with no uses - cooked,
yellowish or large raw or lightly
open buds. blanched - the
serving possibilities
are endless. From
salads, pasta dishes,
omelettes, quiches
and soups and
simple vegetable
preparation.

Globe Should be with Serve artichokes

Artichoke a tight, compact as a hot or chilled
heavy head which vegetable either
yields slightly to alone or with a
pressure. sauce.

Fruits Fleshy fruits of Capsicum / Capsicums should They can be used

a plant eaten as Bell Peppers be well shaped raw in a salad
vegetables. and have skins or cooked in
which are firm casseroles, kebabs,
and shiny. There noodles, pizza
should not be soft topping, with meats
spots or a shrivelled or used to prepare
appearance. snacks.

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 Type Description Common Quality Uses
Example Criteria
Cucumber The best cucumbers Usually eaten raw
will have a firm as salad but may
skin, blemish free also be used to
and an even dark prepare cold soups,
green colour. sandwich filling or
canapé topping.

Brinjals Choose aubergines They can be cooked

that feel heavy as vegetable
with smooth, taut, preparation, roasted
unblemished skin and mashed to
and no holes on make a bhartha,
surface. snack (pakoda)
or baby brinjals
may be stuffed
with spices to form
stuffed vegetables.
They also go well
with lamb dishes.
Chilli Chilli peppers Chilli peppers are
should be well the key flavouring
shaped and have ingredient in a lot
skins which are of Mexican, Spanish,
firm and shiny. Indian and Asian,
No shrivelled especially Thai,
appearance. dishes. They are
also stuffed and
fried to form snacks
or cooked as Mirchi
ka Salan. It’s often
pickled.
Pumpkin & Choose firm They are cooked to
Squash pumpkins and prepare vegetable
squash that have dish, sweets, stuffed,
undamaged skin added to pulses,
and feel heavy for made into soups etc.
their size.

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 Type Description Common Quality Uses
Example Criteria

Tomato Choose smooth, firm Tomatoes are very

and plump tomatoes versatile and easily
with an even colour prepared. They
and no blemishes. can be eaten raw
in salad, put in
sandwich filling,
canapé topping,
pasta sauce, pizza
topping, soup,
vegetable dishes,
tempering, gravies
etc.

Leaf Edible leaves of a Cabbage Firm heads that are They are eaten raw
plant. heavy for their size in salads, stir fried
with even colour for noodles, can be
and crisp outer blanched and used
leaves. as a wrapping for
meat fillings. It is
also pickled.

Lettuce No sign of wilting, Tender crisp leaves

(Salad patta) crisp, smooth and are used as salad.
blemish free leaves.

Mustard Crisp greens that Mustard leaves are

leaves (Sarson are not wilted or typically cooked in
ka saag) & blemished. winters as sarson
Fenugreek ka saag along with
leaves (methi) other greens such
as spinach and
fenugreek leaves. It
may also be cooked
with meat.

16
 Type Description Common Quality Uses
Example Criteria
Spinach Choose crisp green Young leaves
(Paalak) leaves with no are eaten raw as
signs of wilting or salad. The flavour
blemishes. of spinach is
particularly good
with eggs and
is used in many
soufflé, omelette
or quiche dishes.
Spinach is great
in soups, paté and
pasta sauces. It is
also the base for
green Indian gravy.
Pods A legume that French beans Firm, even green, Used in vegetable
(Legumes) opens and contain should break when dishes, noodles etc.
seeds. These are bent at 90° angle.
the pods that are
eaten while seeds
are still tender and Peas Look for firm bright Used as a vegetable,
pods are green. green pods which soup or added in
are not too full. snacks.
Once picked the
sugars naturally
present in the peas
are converted to
starches, hence the
fresher the pea the
sweeter it will be.
Stems The edible stalks Asparagus Firm i.e. if a stem White asparagus is
of plants when is broken, it should used to make thick,
the stalk is the “crack” easily, creamy soup.
main part of the should be of good Green asparagus is
vegetable. colour and closed traditionally eaten
tips. as a side vegetable
or as an ingredient
with pasta.

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 Type Description Common Quality Uses
Example Criteria
Celery Stems should be Celery is added
firm and crisp to stocks, soups,
when snapped. salads, pies, roasts
Leaves should be etc. Lightly stir fried
fresh green and not celery with sesame
wilted. oil is a vegetable
dish in itself.
Kohlrabi It should be about Kohlrabi is served
the size of a tennis mainly as a side
ball or smaller. vegetable, steamed,
Should be thin, mashed or in a stir-
tender and have fry. It may also be
unblemished skin. baked, stuffed, or
added to casseroles
and soups.
Fungi All varieties of Button With all They are frequently
mushrooms fall mushrooms, mushrooms, the served either on
into this category. Enoki, fresher the better. their own, although
Shittake, They should have sometimes stuffed
Truffle, Oyster good colour and and in stir-fry
mushrooms avoid the ones recipes too with soy
with damaged or sauce. Mushrooms
bruised skin or are incredibly
stem. Mushrooms versatile and will
continue to grow add flavour to many
after harvesting dishes. They can be
and they respire or used with meat, in
‘sweat’ in plastic soups, sauces, on
bags. They should pizzas, in casseroles,
be stored in paper in stir-fries, in
bags. omelettes, in pies
and salads.

3.2 Classification of Fruits

Fruit is the structure of plant that contains its seeds. Botanically many vegetables fall into the
category of ‘fruits’ such as capsicum, tomato etc. However, as per culinary classification, we
consider the final use of the ingredient. Hence, the fleshy fruits that have a slightly acidic or

18
sweet taste that are not used as vegetables are culinary fruits.

A fruit botanically has following parts : The seeds inside, and layer surrounding it called
Pericarp. Pericarp is further divided into endocarp (inner layer), Mesocarp (middle layer)
and Exocarp (outer layer). Depending on this structure, fruits can be classified as:
Fruits

Simple Aggregate Multiple

e.g. Strawberry e.g. Pineapple

u Berries e.g. Grapes

u Hesperidium e.g. Orange
u Pepos e.g. Melon
u Drupes or stones e.g. Peach
u Pome e.g. Apple

Simple Fruits : One fruit develops from one flower.

u Berries : Mesocarp and endocarp form the pulp in which seeds are scattered. The
soft epicarp forms the skin. E.g. Grapes, kiwi, passion fruit, etc.

u Hesperidium : It is a fruit with tough aromatic exocarp. All fruits belonging to

citrus family fall into this group. E.g. Orange, Lemon, Grapefruit etc.

u Pepo : These are fruits where outer pericarp is stiffened. E.g. Melons.

u Drupes : Thin epicarp, fleshy mesocarp and stone like hard endocarp. E.g. Cherry,
Apricot, Plum and Peach.

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 u Pome : A Pome is a fleshy fruit with thin skin, not formed from the ovary but from
another part or parts of the flower. The seeds are contained in chamber in the
center of fruit. E.g. apple.

u Aggregate Fruits : Many fruits develop from a single flower. E.g Strawberry,
Blackberry.

u Multiple Fruits : A single fruit is obtained by an aggregate of many flowers. E.g.

pineapple, mulberry.

Uses

u Fruits can be eaten on their own as a good source of nutrition.

u They can be made into fruit salads with varied dressings such as cream, honey,
mayonnaise etc.
u Some fruits can be used for pickling e.g. Raw mango.
u Fruits are used to prepare jams, jellies, marmalade (the ‘preserves’) and chutneys.
u Fruits are blended with milk and other ingredients to make a vast variety of shakes,
smoothes and chilled drinks.

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u Fruits are widely used in flavouring and topping bakery products such as cakes, pastries,
tarts etc.
u Fruits are also pureed to prepare sauces called ‘Coulis’.

Quality Criteria for Selection of Fruits

u The fruits skin should not have blemishes or soft brown spots.
u There should not be any small holes on any side of the surface.
u A shiny appearance and fresh aroma especially from citrus fruits.
u When pressed a little, they should be firm and must hold their shape.
u Check the stem of the fruit if there. A green stem with firm fruit is fresh in early stages
of ripening. A brown and Shrivelled stem usually means the fruit has been picked from
tree for a long time.
u The fruit should feel heavy for its size.
u For a ripe watermelon, tap the melon with your flat hand. If the sound is deep and thick
it’s probably a ripe and sweet fruit.

Nutritional Contribution of Fruits and Vegetables in Diet

u Vegetables and fruits, are low in calories and fats but contain good amounts of vitamins
and minerals. All the Green-Yellow-Orange vegetables are rich sources of calcium,
magnesium, potassium, iron, beta-carotene, vitamin B-complex, vitamin-C, vitamin-A,
and vitamin K.
u Vegetables and fruits are a source of many antioxidants. These health benefitting ‘phyto-
chemical’ compounds help protect the human body from stress, diseases, and cancers,
and also help the body develop the capacity to fight against these by boosting immunity.
They are classified as ‘protective food group’ in nutrition.
u Additionally, vegetables and fruits also have soluble and insoluble dietary fiber known
as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) such as cellulose, mucilage, hemi-cellulose, gums,
pectin...etc. These substances help to maintain the digestive system of the body and
offer protection from conditions like chronic constipation, hemorrhoids, colon cancer,
irritable bowel syndrome, and rectal fissures.

3.3 Cuts of Vegetables and Fruits

There are a variety of ways in which fruits and vegetables can be cut. Cuts vary as per the
final use of the ingredient. They are important as unless and until they are put in a blender
and minced or strained and removed, the cuts are visible to the eyes of diner. Hence, it is
important that cutting be uniform and enhances the eye appeal of the dish prepared.

food production 21
Some of the cuts are:
Sr. No. Name Use Picture
1. Slice Cutting across a vegetable.

2. Wedge A round vegetable is peeled and cut

lengthwise in equal size pieces.

3. Slit Vegetable is slit and may be kept intact on one

side to insert filling. Eg. Stuffed bittergourd,
brinjals, ladyfinger etc.

4. Chunks Whole vegetables are peeled and left in

chunks of similar size for preparing vegetable
dishes.

5. Chop Cutting the vegetable in small even size

pieces.

6. Baton Vegetables can be cut in batons such as

potatoes in French fries.

7. Dices Vegetables are cut in dices of various

sizes. This method leaves side edges of the
vegetables unused. These should be used
elsewhere such as in making soups or stocks.

8. Julienne Thin strips of vegetables often used with

noodles.

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Sr. No. Name Use Picture
9. Scoop The vegetables or fruits can be scooped in
roundels using an equipment called Parisian
scoop.

10. Turned The vegetables are made into barrel shape

Vegetables using a curved edge knife. These vegetables
are called turned vegetables.

11. Fancy Shapes The vegetables and fruits can be cut into
fancy shapes using a knife or even a shape
cutter to enhance eye appeal of a dish.

3.4 Effect of Heat on Vegetables & Fruits

a) Colour
The colour of the vegetable is dependent on the colour pigment present in the
vegetable. Various colour pigments present in vegetables & fruits are:
u Flavones : This pigment is present in white or
cream coloured vegetables e.g onions, cauliflower,
potato etc. This pigment stays white in colour in
slightly acidic medium while it turns yellow in
alkaline medium. Hence, while cooking these
vegetables, a chef can add a little lemon juice to
enable the vegetable to retain its colour.
u Chlorophyll : This pigment is present in green coloured vegetables e.g.
French beans, Spinach, Mustard leaves etc. This
pigment turns yellow in acidic medium and remains
bright green in alkaline medium. However, addition
of soda to create alkaline medium destroys the cell
structure of vegetable and makes it mushy. Hence,
they should be cooked for short periods uncovered
so as to enable volatile acids to evaporate and neutral pH is maintained.
u Carotenoids : This pigment is present in yellow, orange and some red
coloured vegetables e.g. Carrot, Corns, Sweet
Potato, Tomato, Mango, Pumpkin etc. It is relatively
stable and is not affected significantly by acidic or
alkaline medium of cooking. It is fat soluble and
leaches in cooking oils.

food production 23
 u Anthocyanin : This pigment is present as the red-
purple colour of grapes, berries, raspberries and
cranberries etc. This appears red to blue depending
on the pH value. In acidic medium it turns red and
in alkaline medium it turns blue.
u Betalains : This pigment is responsible for the
deep red color of beets. It is water soluble and
leaches out in the cooking liquid. Beets should be
cooked whole without cutting in water and little
vinegar or lemon added to create a slightly acidic
medium to retain maximum colour. It should be
cooked, peeled and then cut.
b) Texture
The structure and shape of vegetables and fruits is because of cellulose and pectin
fibres. These fibres are softened with application of heat. The more the heat is
applied, softer the fibres become and the vegetable loses its firm shape. There are
vegetables with less fibres such as spinach which loses its shape in boiling water
quickly or with more fibres such as carrots or potatoes which retain their shape
for several minutes.
The mild acidic medium which can be created by adding lemon juice or vinegar
in boiling water make the fibre firmer and increase the cooking time. Sugar too
strengthens the fibres and help the vegetable or fruit to retain its shape. On the
other hand, alkaline medium which can be created by adding baking soda makes
the vegetables soften quickly.

The above knowledge is applied by a chef while cooking vegetables and fruits. Sugar
or acidic medium can be used to cook fruits and vegetables when apart from cooking,
retaining shape is important. Alkaline medium is usually not used as the vegetables
and fruits get mushy and loose shape and appearance completely. Most vegetables
should be cooked to still retain their shape and be tender enough to eat.
c) Flavour
Flavour and nutrients are leached out in cooking liquid specially if cooked for long
time. Hence, to control flavour loss, cook for shorter durations in less liquids or
steam. Adding salt in boiling water also helps to reduction in loss of flavour in
cooking liquid.

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3.5 Tips for Preservation of Nutrients while Processing Fruits and Vegetables

There are some basic factors to be kept in mind while pre-preparation and cooking of fruits
and vegetables. All vegetables and fruits are good source of vitamins, minerals and fibre.
Two vitamins B complex and Vitamin C are water soluble. Hence they are lost while washing,
cooking in lot of water or even leaving the fruit or vegetable in water for long hours. Even
oxidation can cause loss of nutrients. Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble. These vitamins
are lost in the fat content of the cooking medium or other ingredients.

Food preparation techniques such as peeling, chopping and cooking make an impact on the
nutritional value of fruits and vegetables. As a general rule, keep cooking time, temperature,
and the amount of liquid to a minimum. How foods are cooked can have a big impact on their
nutrient content. That’s because many vitamins are sensitive to heat and air exposure
(vitamin C, the B vitamins, and folate in particular). Loss of nutrients increases as cooking
time increases and with higher temperatures.

Cooking methods that minimize the time, temperature, and

amount of water needed, help to preserve nutrients. Steaming
is a good way to cook vegetables quickly and retain valuable
nutrients. Stir frying is another way to quickly cook a variety
of vegetables.

Follow these Tips to Preserve Nutrients in Kitchen

1. Use Fresh Vegetables and Fruits which are in Season : Fresh, ripe produce in-season
will usually be highest in nutrients. Nutrients are lost with the process of freezing the
seasonal produce. Hence, as far as possible, use fresh ingredients.
2. Judicious Use of Water : Up to 50 percent of vitamin C, thiamin, vitamin B6 and folate
content in food can be lost to the water it’s cooked in. In order to retain water-soluble
nutrients, use cooking methods like steaming or stir-frying that use less water. Use less
water in steaming and boiling, and reuse cooking water in soups, sauces, making dough
or juices to capture escaped nutrients.
3. Short Cooking Durations : As a rule of thumb, the longer foods are exposed to heat, the
more nutrients are lost. To reduce cooking times, cover the pot to retain heat and avoid
evaporation; place vegetables in already boiling water, and learn to enjoy most vegetables
with a crunchier texture (not mashy or overcooked, still with little rawness left).
4. Cut in Bigger Pieces : Chopping foods into smaller pieces increases the surface area
exposed to light, heat and water – three factors that degrade nutrients. One exception is
garlic and others in the allium family (onions, leeks, shallots.) Chopping these foods and
keeping them for about 10 minutes before cooking increases their active components.
5. Correct Storage : Nutrient loss in many fruits and vegetables can be decreased with
cooler temperatures, high humidity and less air contact. Store produce in airtight
containers in the fridge.

food production 25
6. Rinse Fresh Vegetables Well Just Before Using : Even those with skins need to be
washed to remove bacteria, insects, and as much pesticide as possible. Do not soak
vegetables, as that can remove key nutrients, like vitamin C.
7. Wash Whole Fruits and Vegetables : Washing vegetables or fruits after cutting leads
to more nutrients being leached out in water. Wash whole and then cut.
Eat fruits and vegetables raw whenever possible in salads and smoothies or as whole fruits
and vegetables everyday for a balanced diet.

Summary
Vegetables and fruits are an important part of daily diet. Vegetables can be classified as
roots, tubers, fruits, flowers, bulbs, pods, stem, leaves and fungi depending on the part
of plant that is being used as vegetable. A good chef must be able to check the freshness
of fruits and vegetables. Fruits are classified as simple fruits where one flower yields
one fruit, aggregate where one flower yields multiple fruits and multiple where many
flowers make one fruit.

Both vegetables and fruits are very good source of calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron,
beta-carotene, vitamin B-complex, vitamin-C, vitamin-A, vitamin K and other nutrients
essential for a healthy body. They are grouped as protective foods i.e. they help in keeping
the body healthy and make our immune system stronger.

Vegetables and fruits can be cut in various ways depending on the final usage – dices,
slices, slit, wedge, baton, julienne etc. However, they should be used with care so as to
prevent nutrient loss while processing. Hence, they should be washed before cutting, cut
in bigger pieces and cooked in minimum amount of liquid till just cooked to minimize
nutrient loss. Cooking also affects the colour, flavour and texture of vegetables and fruits.
A good chef must understand these effects and apply most suitable method of cooking
them.

Review Questions

I. State true or false and correct the false statements:

1. Waxy potatoes are suitable for mashing.
2. Garlic should be kept for about ten minutes before cooking.
3. All the small flowerets of a fresh cauliflower should be away from each other.
4. It is important to wash vegetables after cutting to remove dirt.
5. A vegetable tends to retain its shape if boiled with little lemon juice.
6. Beetroot should be boiled in water with some vinegar after peeling and cutting in
slices.
7. Mulberry is an example of multiple fruit.

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 8. Anthocyanins are responsible for white colour of the vegetables.
9. Mushrooms should be stored in paper bags.
10. Eating most vegetables crunchy rather than mashy is a healthy habit.
II. Answer the following questions:
1. Describe the effect of heat on various colour pigments in vegetables & fruits.
2. Classify vegetables giving suitable examples.
3. What is it important to include vegetables and fruits in our daily diet?
4. With the help of neat diagram, explain any five different cuts of vegetables?
III. Discuss in class:
It is important to eat a healthy diet each day. Our body requires different types of
nutrients provided by our food ingredients. However, loss of nutrients occurs due to
various factors while cutting or cooking the food. Discuss the importance and ways of
preserving nutrients while processing vegetables and fruits to minimize nutrient loss.

Practical

1. Collect different samples of various types of fruits and vegetables and differentiate
between fresh and stale ones. Note the observations which help to identify the
fresher once.

food production 27
UNIT 4
 Soups

Objectives

1. Definition of soup and its importance in diet.

2. Classification of soups.
3. Recipes to prepare cream of vegetables soup, sweet corn soup and tamatar shorba.
4.1 Soups

Soups are a form of liquid food that is prepared by cooking meat, fish, poultry, vegetables etc.
They are flavoured with numerous spices such as bay leaf, cloves, pepper corns and herbs
such as coriander, thyme, basil to name a few. Soups are served at the beginning of the meal.

Soups are considered healthy food as they are easy to digest, provide nutrients and
sufficient amount of fluids to the body. A bowl full of soup usually provides a good amount of
carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals. Soups are served with breads (toast, sticks,
rolls etc).

4.2 Types of Soups

Depending on the consistency of soup, there may be thin or thick soups. Thin soups have a
consistency of water or little thicker because of the starch ingredients present in soup. On the
other hand thick soups are thickened purposely be adding starch in some form.

It is interesting to note that not all soups are served hot. There are cold soups too. These
include soups like jellied consommé, gazpacho, vichyssoise, Sarki from India and many more
that are served cold and are a refreshing treat in extreme summers.

Soups

Thin Soups Thick Soups International Soups

u Clear Soup u Cream Soups u Mulligatawny
u Broth u Purée Soups u French Onion Soup
u Bisque Soups u Minestrone
u Velouté Soups
u Chowders

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Thin Soups

a) Clear Soup : These soups are also known by the French name ‘Consommé’. These are
prepared by cooking left over bones and vegetables to prepare a thin liquid ‘stock’ and
then clearing the stock with the help of meat and eggs. They are transparent when
poured in soup bowl, light and very nutritious with a strong meaty flavour.
b) Broth : These are simple thin soups that can be prepared with meats, vegetables or both.
They are wholesome, nutritious and usually have small pieces or meat or vegetables or
both in it along with the cooking liquid.

Thick Soups

These soups are opaque and consistency is thicker. This is because usually there is an add-
on thickening in the form of a starch ingredient that is added in little quantities to thicken it.

a) Cream Soups : These soups are made of chicken, meat or any vegetable and are know
by the same name e.g. cream of chicken, cream of cauliflower, cream of peas etc. Thus
the soup takes the colour & taste of main ingredient even though there might be other
ingredients in small quantities. Milk or cream is always added.
b) Purée Soups : These soups are made of dry legumes or fresh starchy vegetables. Hence
once cooked and pureed, the starch from the main ingredient itself thickens the soup.
They may or may not contain little cream. E.g. Purée of potatoes, Purée of lentils, Purée
of pumpkin etc.
c) Bisque Soups : These are soups made with shell fish and are usually thickened with
rice.
d) Velouté Soups : These are made with meat or vegetable stock thickened with flour
cooked to a light brown colour. A mixture of egg yolk and cream is added to it. E.g.
Chicken velouté.
e) Chowders : Chowder is a seafood or vegetable stew, often served with milk or cream
and mostly eaten with saltine crackers.

International Soups

There are many soups that are known from their region of origin. These soups are separately
classified as International soups. Some popular examples are:

u Mulligatawny (India) : The soup consists of a broth from chicken and lamb, fried
onions and spiced with curry powder. Often, vegetables, nuts, apple and rice are added.
u French Onion Soup (France) : It is a type of soup usually based on meat stock and
onions, and often served gratinated with croutons and cheese on top.
u Minestrone (Italy) : Minestrone is a thick soup made with vegetables, often with the
addition of pasta or rice. Common ingredients include beans, onions, celery, carrots,
stock, and tomatoes.

food production 29
Recipes

4.3 Cream of Vegetable Soup

Serves – 4 people

Sr. No. Ingredient Quantity

1 Onion 25 gms
2 Carrot 25 gms
3 Garlic 2 small cloves
4 Peas 25 gms
5 Cauliflower 50 gms
6 French beans 20 gms
7 Potato 50 gms
8 Mushroom 20 gms
9 Refined flour 20 gms
10 Milk 200 ml
11 Butter 20 gms
12 Salt To taste
13 Pepper corns A tea spoon
14 Bay leaf 2-3 nos
15 Parsley stem 1 no
16 Celery stem 2” piece

Method

u Wash all the vegetables.

u Peel onion, garlic and carrots.
u Chop onion, garlic, carrot, celery stem, parsley stem, cauliflower (Remove the thick
stem at base), carrots, mushrooms, potato and beans.
u Shell peas.
u Melt butter in a pot.
u Add chopped onion, garlic, bay leaf & crushed pepper corns.
u Sauté to a light colour on medium flame.
u Add all the vegetables, salt and again cook for few minutes.
u Add refined flour and cook for a minute.
u Add milk and half a litre of water and cook vegetables.

30
u Cool and Blend in a mixer.
u Strain the blended mix and keep the liquid (soup).
u Reheat. Adjust the consistency (thickness) and salt & pepper.
u Decorate with little cream.
Note: There can be many variations to this soup. You could add more vegetables like broccoli,
asparagus etc. Also, one can add herb such as a pinch of dried thyme to the soup.

4.4 Sweet Corn Soup

Serves – 4 people

Sr. No. Ingredient Quantity

1 Sweet corns 60 gms
2 Carrot 50 gms
3 French beans 50 gms
4 Onion 25 gms
5 Cabbage 25 gms
6 Ginger 10 gms
7 Garlic 2 cloves
6 Salt To Taste
7 White pepper powder To Taste
8 Corn flour 40 gms
9 Butter 10 gms
10 Soya sauce Few drops
11 Vinegar Few drops

Method

u Dissolve corn flour in 750 ml water and keep aside.

u Wash all the vegetables.
u Peel carrot, onion, ginger and garlic.
u Boil corns and partially crush them. Let some remain whole.
u Finely chop onion, carrot, french beans, ginger, garlic and cabbage.
u Melt butter in a pot. Add onion, ginger and garlic.
u Sauté on medium flame to a light colour while stirring.
u Add carrot and beans. Cook for a minute.
u Stir the mixture of corn flour and water and add in the pot.

food production 31
u Add salt & pepper powder and bring to boil.
u Simmer for four to five minutes. Add soya sauce, vinegar, corns and cabbage.
u Stir. Adjust consistency, salt and pepper.
u Serve hot.
Note: More vegetables can be added such as celery stem, cauliflower etc. One should offer
chopped green chillies kept in vinegar and soya sauce along with the soup.

4.5 Tamatar ka Shorba

Serves – 4 people

Sr. No. Ingredient Quantity

1 Tomato (ripe and red) 400 gms
2 Onion 50 gms
3 Carrot 50 gms
4 Salt To Taste
5 Black pepper corns 2-3 no.
6 Bay leaf 2 no.
7 Green coriander 20 gms
8 Sugar 25 gms
9 Green chillies 1 no.

Method

u Cut tomatoes roughly in about eight pieces.

u Cut onions and carrots in slices. Slit green chilly.
u In a pot, add tomatoes, onions, carrots, green chilly, bay leaf, salt, crushed pepper corns,
cloves and a litre of water.
u Bring to boil and simmer till all vegetables are just cooked.
u Add one inch pieces of coriander stem. Cook for few minutes.
u Cool. Blend in a mixer and strain. Keep the soup.
u Reheat. In case it is too sour, add little sugar (optional). Adjust the consistency, salt and
pepper.
u Serve hot and decorate with chopped green coriander leaves.
Note: Shorba is an Indian version of thin soup. Hence, this soup does not have any added starch
thickening. One can also sauté the onions a little in very little oil to make it more fragrant. The
soup can also be flavoured with more coriander, mint or basil.

32
 Summary
Soups are liquid foods made with vegetables or meats and flavoured with herbs and
spices. They are a healthy start to a meal as they are light, easily digestible and full
of nutrients. Soups can be classified as thick or thin soups. Apart from this there are
international soups that are identified by the place of their origin such as mulligatawny,
minestrone etc. Even though most soups are served hot, there are many popular soups
that are served cold such as Gazpacho.

Review Questions

I. Answer the following questions:

1. What is a ‘Consommé’?
2. What are various thickening agents used in soups?
3. Classify and describe thick soups with suitable examples.
II. Discuss in class:
Soups can be a wholesome meal. Discuss how soups play an important role in providing
nutrition to our body.

Practical

1. Prepare the three soups – Cream of vegetable, sweet corn and tamatar shorba
using the recipes in the chapter.

food production 33
UNIT 5
 SALADs

Objectives

1. To know about the salads.

2. To be aware of the different parts of salads.
3. To know about the types of salads.

Introduction to Salads

In the kitchen, all the types of food is prepared in which salad plays a very important role.
A salad can be defined as a combination of raw and cooked ingredients, which is served
generally cold with any dressing. Freshness and variety of ingredients is required for a nice
salad.

Definition

A salad can be defined as a cold dish prepared of various mixtures of raw or cooked vegetables
and other food items, usually seasoned with oil, vinegar, or other dressing and sometimes
accompanied by meat, fish, or other ingredients.

5.1 Classification of Salads

The salads can be widely classified as following types:

1. Vegetable salad
2. Fruit salad
3. Pasta salad
4. Protein salad

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1. Vegetable Salad : It is the salad which has the crunchy vegetables used and its used as
the appetiser in the meal. The vegetables used can be cooked or raw. Few examples of
vegetable salads are-tossed salad, coleslaw salad.

2. Fruit Salad : It is the salad which consists of fresh fruits, cut and served as a dessert and
as an appetiser too. The canned fruits can also be used in making of these types of salads
fresh fruit with honey lemon dressing.

3. Pasta Salad : It is the salad made up with boiled fancy pasta and some vegetables with
dressing into it. Fancy boiled pastas, fruits and vegetables are used in this salad.

4. Protein Salad : It is a salad made up of chicken, ham, beef , cut vegetables and fruits along
with some dressing. Its generally served as the main course. Ham and chicken salad, chef’s
salad.

food production 35
The Salad can also be classified into:

1. Simple Salads
2. Compound Salads
1. Simple Salads : Usually consists of one type of vegetable along with the dressing.
2. Compound Salads : They are more elaborated salads with more than one ingredient.
5.2 Parts of Salads

1. Base
2. Body
3. Dressing
4. Garnish

Base
Body

Garnish
Dressing

Base : The base of a salad is generally made up of leafy greens. The leafy greens help to cover
the base of the platter, which gives contrast in colour too. The base bound the salad and the
salad looks more appealing when made with the base or under liner. The lettuces used are-
red leaf, radicchio, iceberg, arugula, frisee etc.

36
Body : This is the main part of the salad . It gives the body to the salad. It will give the name to
the salad and the main taste is dependent on the body of the salad. For the body ingredients
used are chicken, fruits, vegetables etc.

Dressing : It is a kind of sauce which has to be served on the salad or with the salad. It is very
necessary part of the salad which develops the taste in the salad. We can say that without
the dressing the salad is not complete. It provides tartness, spiciness, moistness and flavour.
Some famous dressings are- vinaigrette, thousand island, mayonnaise etc.

Garnish : It is the optional part of the salad which when added enhances the value of
salad. The main purpose of adding the dressing is to add the eye appeal. It can be simple or
composite too. If the garnish is elaborated than it will dominate the salad. Few garnishes
used are cherry, mint sprigs, coriander green sprigs, lemon wedges etc.

food production 37
 Summary
The students will come to know about the different types of salads prepared in the
kitchen. They will also learn the different parts of the salad.

Review Questions

I. Assignment

1. Prepare a list of the important part of the salads and their types too and draw a
chart of it.
u Submit the chart to your teacher for assessment.
II. Assessment

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. The garnish on the salad should be .
2. The base of the salad is usually .
3. Protein salads should have as an ingredient.
B. State whether true or false:
1. The garnish in salad should be heavier than the body.
2. The dressing in salad works as taste enhancer.
3. Green salads should have chicken in it.

Practical

1. The different parts of salads and different types of salads can be discussed one
by one. The students can be asked to prepare a chart or draw different parts of
the salad on a chart paper.

38
UNIT 6
 SANDWICHES

Objectives

1. To learn about the sandwiches.

2. To understand the sandwiches.
3. To learn the parts of sandwiches.
4. To know about types of sandwiches.
5. To understand about the canapés.

Introduction

A sandwich can be defined as a type of food placed

between the slices of bread. In the case of sandwich the
breads work as a wrapper to some of food too. Many
variations of sandwiches are available worldwide.

We can say that the sandwich is a perfect balance of

temperature, texture, flavour and appearance too. So
a sandwich can be hot and cold, crunchy and chewy,
simple and correct etc.

6.1 Parts of a Sandwich

a) Bread
The various type of breads are
used in making of sandwich.
Some examples of breads
are: French bread, pita bread,
focaccia bread, panini bread,
whole wheat bread, rye bread
etc. The bread used for sandwich
making should be not more than
12 hours old. Very fresh bread will be soggy. The bread used for sandwich making
should be stored at room temperature but away from heat.
b) Spread
The spread is very important part of the sandwich. It will act as a sealing material
for the sandwich to avoid it from becoming soggy. It adds flavour to the bread and
also act as a moistening agent in sandwiches. Some of the essentials of the spreads

food production 39
 are- it should be soft, spreadable, with rich mouth feel etc. They should be stored
properly. Types of spreads are- butter, jam, marmalades, mayonnaise, chutneys
too etc.

c) Filling

The purpose of the filling is to provide- flavour, body, moisture, nutrients,

completeness in the sandwiches. Different types of fillings can be used as beef,
pork, lamb, fish, eggs, fruits, vegetables, duck, turkey etc. The filling has to be
1/3rd of the sandwich contribution. The filling will be always full of flavours and
no meat with bone can be used in the sandwich.
6.2 Types of Sandwiches

The different types of sandwiches are followings:

1. Cold Open Sandwich

2. Cold Close Sandwich
1. Cold Open Sandwich : Cold open sandwich can be made from the single slice of
bread which can be applied with the dressing and then topped with the topping or
filling on it.

40
 2. Cold Close Sandwich : Cold close sandwich can be made with two or more than
two slices of bread. It can be simple or with combinations too.

Few Examples of Closed Sandwiches are:

1. Conventional, lunch box sandwich

2. Tea sandwich
3. Buffet sandwich
4. Double decker sandwich
5. Club sandwich
6. Fancy sandwich
7. Hot sandwich

6.3 Canapes

The canapés are not sandwiches but they are the one bite size piece of the decorated bread
slice. In the canapés the base has to be crispy toast or similar item. A piece of biscuit can be
used for the base of canapés also. It is often served during cocktail hours. A canapé can have
the topping of fish, chicken, ham, fruits, vegetables also.

food production 41
The canapés are generally served on a canapé salver and eaten from a small canapé plate.

Summary
This chapter will help to learn about the sandwich, the different parts of the sandwich.
The students will be able to understand the different types of sandwich and also about
the canapés.

Review Questions

I. Assessment

1. Prepare a chart on different variety of sandwiches.

2. Submit the chart to your teacher for assessment.
II. Assessment

A. Fill in the blanks:

1. The base used for canapés is generally of .
2. The is used to sandwich any food in between.
3. The sealing material in sandwich is .
B. State whether true or false:
1. The sandwich can be consumed in one bite.
2. The canapés are small form of sandwiches.
3. Filling will decide about the sandwich type.

Practical

1. The students can be demonstrated about the different sandwich making process.
They can be asked to prepare some charts related to this.

42