CE8091-HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS

UNIT I PRECIPITATION AND ABSTRACTIONS

1. Define Hydrology.
Hydrology means science of water. It is the science that deals with
occurrence, distribution and movement of water is on, above and beneath the earth.

2. What is the objective of the hydrological study?

* Estimation of water resources
* Study the processes such as precipitation, runoff, evaporation,
transpiration, infiltration and their interactions.
* Study of floods, droughts and strategies to combat them
* Hydro power

3. What is the importance of hydrology?

The importance of hydrology is the assessment, development, utilization
and management of water resources of any region.

4. Enlist the various phases of a hydrological cycle?

i) Precipitation ii) Infiltration iii) Evaporation
iv)Transpiration v) Runoff

5. Define Precipitation?
Any form of moisture reaching the earth surface is called precipitation. The
usual forms of precipitation are rainfall, snow, hail, sleet, frost, dew etc.

6. Define infiltration?
It is defined as the process by which water enters the sub-surface strata of the
earth. The infiltrated water first meet the soil moisture deficiency and there after moves
vertically downwards to reach the ground water table.

7. Define evaporation?
It is the process by which water from liquid state passes into vapour state
under the action of sunrays.

8. Define transpiration?
The process by which water passes from liquid to vapour through
plant metabolism is termed as transpiration.

9. Define runoff?
It is the precipitation excess after meeting the demands of
evaporation, transpiration and infiltration

10. Enlist the various forms of precipitation?

The usual forms of precipitation are
i) Rainfall ii) Drizzle iii) Hail iv) Dew
v) Glaze vi) Snow vii) Frost
11. What are all the types of precipitation?
i) Cyclonic precipitation ii) Convective precipitation
iii) Oragraphic precipitation iv) Frontal precipitation

12. How the precipitation can be measured?

It can be measured by rain gauge. The rain gauge may be
i) Recording type rain gauge ii) Non- recording type rain gauge

13. What are all the demerits of Non- recording type rain gauge?
It does not give information regarding
 Beginning of the rain
 End of the rain
 Intensity of rainfall

14. Enlist the three types of recording type rain gauge?

* Tipping bucket * Weighing bucket * Floating bucket

15. Write short notes on rain gauge density?

It is the no. of rain gauges is to erected in an given

area Rain gauge density = No. of rain gauges / Area

16. What are all the methods available to find the average depth of precipitation
over an area?
i) Arithmetic mean method ii) Thiessen polygon method
iii) Isohyetal method

17. Define isohyet?

An isohyet is the line joining the points of equal rainfall.

18. What is the use of Double mass curve?

It is used to check the consistency of the rainfall record. In double mass curve a
graph is drawn between the cumulative value of average rainfall of base stations as the
abscissa against the corresponding cumulative value of rainfall of the station under test
as ordinate.
19. Define Hyetograph?
It is a plot of rainfall intensity against time interval. It is derived from mass curve
and is usually represented as bar chart. It is used to predict the extreme floods.

20. Write short notes on intensity-duration curves?

Short duration – High intensity
Long duration – Less intensity

21. What is the use of frequency analysis?

It is used to find the probability of occurrence of extreme rainfall. The probability
of occurrence of rainfall whose magnitude is equal to or greater than specified magnitude
is given by
T = N+1/m where T = Return period
m= Rank
N= No. of years of rainfall record
22. State Hydrologic equation?
The Hydrologic equation is simply the statement of the law of conservation
of mass and is given by

I=0+S
Where I = Infolw
O = Outflow
S = Change in storage

23. What are the basic data required for hydrological studies?
The basic hydrological data required are
i) Climatological data ii) Hydrometeorological data
iii) Precipitation records iv) Stream flow records
v) Ground water table vi) Evaporation data
vii) Crops and their pattern viii) Water quality data etc.,

24. Define air mass?

A vast and deep body of water in which temperature and humidity
characteristics are relatively homogeneous at any given elevation is called an air mass.

25. Define air front?

The surface of contact between two air masses or between an air mass and
the surrounding atmosphere is called air front.

26. Define Cyclone?

A cyclone is a more or less circular area of low pressure in which wind
blows spirally inward in counter clockwise direction in northern hemisphere and
clockwise direction in southern hemisphere.
27. Distinguish between continental air mass and maritime air mass?

Sl. No Continental air mass Maritime air mass

1 Originated from land Originated from water bodies such as

oceans, lakes, rivers etc
2 Usually dry Almost moist
3 Fluctuations in temperature Uniform temperature

4 Unstable Stable

28. Enlist the factors affecting evaporation?

i) Temperature ii) Wind
iii) Atmospheric pressure iv) Soluble salts
29.Enumerate the methods used to estimate the amount of evaporation from a
water surface?
i) Evaporimeters ii) Analytical methods iii) Empirical formulae
30.Write short notes on evaporimeters?
It is a device used to measure evaporation. These are water containing
chambers which are exposed to atmosphere and the loss of water by evaporation is
measured at regular intervals.
31. Enlist the types of evaporimeters?
i) Class A evaporation pan ii) ISI standard pan
iii) Colarodo sunken pan iv) US geological survey floating pan

32. Define pan coefficient?

Pan coefficient = Lake evaporation / Pan Evaporation

33. State the Daltons law of evaporation?

It states that the rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the
saturation vapour pressures to the actual vapour pressure of air.

34. Name the analytical methods of determining the lake evaporation?

* Water budget method * Energy balance method

35. How will you reduce the evaporation from a water surface?
i)Reduction of surface ii) Mechanical covers iii) Chemical films

36. What are all the factors affecting transpiration?

i) Atmospheric pressure ii) Wind iii) Sunshine
iv) Temperature v) Characteristics of plants

37. Enlist the instruments used to measure transpiration?

* Lysimeter * Field plots

38. Define infiltration capacity?

The maximum rate at which the ground can absorb water is called
infiltration capacity.

39. Enumerate the factors affecting infiltration capacity?

i) Compaction ii) Surface cover iii) Temperature
iv) Characteristics of soil v) Nature of water

40. Define infiltrometer and mention its types?

Infiltrometres are the devices used to measure infiltration. There are two kinds of
infiltrometers
a. Flooding type infiltrometer ii) Rainfall simulator

41. Write short notes on Horton’s equation?

Horton developed the mathematical expression defining the infiltration
capacity was given by

42. Define o index?

It is the average rainfall above which rainfall volume equals the runoff volume.\
43. Write short notes on water losses?
The hydrologic equation states that

Rainfall – Losses = Runoff

44. Define effective rainfall?
Effective Rainfall = Rainfall – Interception Loss

45. Define Interception?

The precipitation intercepted by foliage and buildings and returned to
atmosphere without reaching the earth surface is called Interception.

46. Define Transpiration ratio?

Transpiration ratio = Weight of water transpired / Weight of dry matter

produced The average value of transpiration ratio being 700

47. Define evapotranspiration?

The combined effect evaporation and transpiration is called evapotranspiration
or consumptive use.
48. Write short notes on water balance method?
According to Horton’s water balance equation

E = I- Q – S where E = Evaporation
I = Inflow
O = Out flow and
S = Change in storage

49. Define W- Index?

It is the refinement of o index in that it excludes the surface storage and
retensions.
W = P – Q – S / tf where W = Average rate of infiltration
P = Total storm rainfall
Q = Total storm runoff
S = Volume of depression storage
Tf = Total time during which rainfall intensity is
greater than W
 UNIT II RUNOFF
1. Define runoff?
The portion of the precipitation which appears in the surface either perennial
or intermittent in nature is called runoff. The unit of runoff is cumecs.

2. Enlist the components of runoff?

i) Channel precipitation ii) Direct runoff iii) Overland flow
iv) Base flow v) Inter flow

3. Write short notes on drainage density?

Drainage density = Length of the channel / Area of the basin

4. Define hydrograph?
It is a graph drawn between discharges against time. It consists of direct
runoff and base flow.

5. Define unit hydrograph?

It is defined as the hydrograph if direct runoff resulting from an isolated
rainfall of unit duration occurring uniformly over the basin and produces unit runoff.

6. What are the methods to determine the unit hydrograph?

Unit hydrograph developed by the following two methods
i) Method of Super position ii) S-curve technique

7. Write short notes on method of super position?

If a D-h unit hydrograph is available and it is easy to develop hydrographs
ofnD-h where n is an integer. It is easily accomplished by superimposing n-unit
hydrograph with each separated from the previous on D-h.
8. Define S-curve technique?
It is a curve obtained from the summation of infinite series of D-h unit
hydrograph spaced by D-h apart. A smooth curve is obtained resulting to S shape curve
called S-curve hydrograph.

9. Define Synthetic unit hydrograph?

Unit hydrographs derived from empirical equations are called synthetic unit
hydrograph. The following three parameters are used for development of synthetic unit
hydrograph.
i) Base width ii) Peak discharge iii) Lag time
10. Define instantaneous unit hydrograph?
If the duration of effective rainfall approaches zero, the unit hydrograph may
be called as instantaneous unit hydrograph.

11. What are all the applications of unit hydrograph?

i) Once unit hydrograph is developed for a basin and it can be used
toobtain direct runoff hydrograph for any storm event on the basin.
ii) If the unit hydrograph is applied to max. probable precipitation on the
basin, then the max. probable precipitation is obtained.
12.What are all the advantages of instantaneous unit hydrograph over direct unit
hydrograph?
iii) The advantage of IUH over DUH is that it eliminates the
problemof unit duration and the restriction of uniform distribution of rainfall in
time.
iv) The use of IUH is better suited for the needs of theoretical investigations on
therainfall-runoff relationship.
13. Define stream density?
The stream density of a basin is expressed as the no.of streams per sq.km.

14. Define drainage density?

It is expressed as the total length of all stream channels per unit area of the basin.

15. Define concentration time?

The time required for the falling rain at the most distant point in a
drainage area to reach stream outlet is called concentration time.

16. Define overland flow?

When a storm occurs, a portion of rainfall infiltrates in to the ground and some
portion may evaporate. The rest flows as a thin sheet of water over the land surface
which is termed as overland flow.

17. Define Direct runoff?

Direct runoff is used to include the overland flow and interflow.

18. Define isochrones?

The line joining the points of equal travel time of rainfall is
called isochrones. It is helpful in deriving hydrographs.

19. State Virgin flow?

It is a stream flow which is unaffected by the artificial diversions, storage or
other works of man in or on the stream channels.

20. Define surface runoff?

It is the part of runoff which travels over the ground surface through channel
to reach the basin outlet.

21. Define subsurface runoff?

It is the runoff due to the part of the precipitation which infiltrates the surface
soil and moves laterally downward towards the streams.

22. Define base flow?

It is composed of ground water runoff and delayed sub-surface runoff.

23. Define effective precipitation?

The part of the precipitation that contributes entirely to the direct runoff may be
called effective precipitation or effective rainfall.
 UNIT III FLOOD AND DROUGHT
1. Define design flood?
It is a flood discharge adopted for the design of structure after
careful consideration of economic and hydrologic factors.

2. Define MPF?
It is defined as the flood that may be expected from the most severe
combination of critical meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably
possible in the region. This is very large flood and it is very rarely used in design
except for reservoir spillways.

3. Define flood?
Any flow which is relatively high and which overtops natural or artificial banka
in any reach of the river is called flood. Floods are produced when the capacity of the
river channel is inadequate to carry off the abnormal quantity of water arising from
heavy rainfall.

4. State any two formulae to calculate flood discharge?

i) Dickens formula, Q = CA
ii) Ryves formual, Q = CA
where Q = Max.flood discharge
A = Catchment area
C = Dickens constant varies from 6 to
30 C = Ryves constant
5. Define attenuation?
Owing to the storage effect the peak flow of the outflow hydrograph will
be smaller than that of outflow hydrograph. This reduction in peak value is called
attenuation.

6. Define lag value?

The peak of the outflow occurs after the peak of the inflow. The time
difference between the two peaks is termed as lag?

7. Define flood routing?

It is the procedure where by shape of the flood hydrograph at a particular
location on the stream is determined from the known or assumed flood hydrograph at
some other location.

8. Enlist the types of flood routing?

i) Channel routing ii) Reservoir routing

9. What are all the methods available to determine the flood peak?
* Physical indications of past flood * Empirical formulae and curves
* Concentration method * Overland flow hydrograph
* Rational method * Unit hydrograph method
*Frequency analysis
10.Define return period?
It represents the average no. of years within which a given event will be equaled
or exceeded.
 11. Define prism storage and wedge storage?
Prism storage is proportional to the outflow where as wedge storage is
the difference between inflow and outflow.

12. Define standard project flood?

This is the estimate of the flood likely to occur from the most severe
combination of the hydrological and meteorological conditions

13.Write short notes on flood control measure?

* By confining the flow between high banks by constructing levees, dykes
or flood walls.
* By channel improvement by cutting, straightening or deepening and
Following River training works.
* By diversion of a portion of a flood through bypasses or flood ways
* By providing a temporary storage of the flood peaks by constructing
upstream reservoirs and retarding basins.

14. Write short notes on flood forecast?

The flood forecasts are issued on the basis of the analysis of weather charts
and indicate the likelihood of heavy rainfall over the specified areas with the next 24
to 48 hours. All India forecasts are prepared every day at Poona.

15. Write short notes on flood warning system?

The food warning system basically consists of working out the flood hydrograph at
a given point sufficiently in advance, given the flood hydrograph of some gauge or gauges
sufficiently upstream, taking into consideration. The flood warning system is prepared by
i) Forecasting crest height and time ii) Flood routing techniques
With a properly developed system of scientific flood forecasting and warning,human toll and
destruction to movable properties could be greatly mitigated.
16. Define Frequency of Flood.
Frequency or Probability of flood, P, denotes the likelihood of flood being equalled or
exceeded. A flood is said to have a 50% frequency when the flood has 50 chances out of 100
chances of being equalled or exceeded. This frequency or probability is denoted by P
17. Define Recurrence interval of flood·

Recurrence interval or Return period, T, is defined as the number of years in which a flood
can be expected once or a flood of given magnitude will be equaled or exceeded only once.
Probability P and return period of flood of Tr are related as P=1/Tr.
18. Define Standard Project Flood
The flood that would result from a severe combination of meteorological and hydrological
factors that are reasonably applicable to the region. Extremely rare combinations of factors are
excluded.
 19. Write short notes on flood control measures?
 By confining the flow between high banks by constructing levees, dykes or flood walls.
 By channel improvement- by cutting, straightening or deepening and following River
training works.
 By diversion of a portion of a flood through bypasses or flood ways
 By providing a temporary storage of the flood peaks by construct upstream reservoirs
and retarding basins.
20. Define attenuation and lag.
Owing to the storage effect, the peak of the outflow hydrograph will be smaller than that of
the inflow hydrograph. This reduction in the peak value is called attenuation. The peak of the
outflow occurs after the pea.1< of the inflow, the time difference between the two peaks is known
as lag.
 UNIT IV RESERVOIRS

1. Differentiate b/w single and multipurpose reservoir.

A single purpose reservoir is for a single purpose. e.g conservation or flood control.
They are constructed to store water during the period of high flow for use during periods
of drought when the demand is more due to depletion of natural water storage.
A multipurpose reservoir is a man-made lake which is managed for multiple
purposes like water supply, flood control, soil erosion, environmental, management,
hydroelectric power generation, navigation, recreation and Irrigation.
2. What are the different types of single purpose reservoirs?

Depending upon the arrangement for releasing stored water, single purpose

flood control reservoir may be further sub-classified as

(i) Retarding reservoir

(ii) Detention reservoirs.

3. Differentiate b/w Levees and Flood walls.

The main purpose of artificial levees is to prevent flooding of the adjoining

countryside and to slow natural course changes in a waterway to provide reliable shipping

lanes for maritime commerce over time; they also confine the flow of the river, resulting in

higher and faster water flow. Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not

strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders.

A flood wall (or floodwall) is a primarily vertical artificial barrier designed to

temporarily contain the waters of a river or other waterway which may rise to unusual

levels during seasonal or extreme weather events. Flood walls are mainly used on

locations where space is scarce, such as cities or where building levees or dikes (dykes)

would interfere with other interests, such as existing buildings, historical architecture or

commercial use of embankments.

4. What are the preferable combinations for a multipurpose reservoir?

The preferred combinations are:

 (i) Irrigation and power
(ii) Irrigation, power and navigation

(iii) Irrigation, power and water supply

(iv) Recreation, fisheries and wild life

(v) Flood control and water supply

(vi) Power and water supply

(vii) Flood control, irrigation, power and water supply

5. List out the various zones of storage in a reservoir.

Reservoir storage is divided into four zones, or pools. These include, from top to

bottom, the flood-control zone, conservation zone, buffer zone and inactive zone.

The conservation and buffer pools, together, constitute the reservoir's active storage.

WEAP will ensure that the flood-control zone is always kept vacant, i.e., the volume

of water in the reservoir cannot exceed the top of the conservation pool.

6. Write short notes on reservoir sedimentation.

Sediment load carried by a flow will drop out if the transport capacity of flow is

diminished. In general, the capacity of a given flow decreases with a reduction of its

velocity. As a river enters the reservoir, the cross-sectional area of flow is increased, the

average velocity is decreased and sediment load starts dropping out. The order in which

different sediment sizes settle down and the location of deposits depends on three physical

phenomena—cessation of drag force on particles rolling along the stream bed (bedload);

reduction in turbulence level which determines the capacity of flow to maintain sediment

suspension and, development of density currents.

7. What is spillway?

Spillway is a structure constructed at a dam site for disposing the surplus water from

upstream to downstream.
8. State diff types of spillways.

1. Straight drop spillway

2. Ogee spillway

3. Trough spillway

4. Side channel spillway

5. Shaft spillway

6. Syphon spillway

9. What are the design considerations while constructing a spillway?

 The magnitude of the SDF may be set by dam safety guidelines, based on the size of

the structure and the potential loss of human life or property downstream.

 The return period is set by dam safety guidelines, based on the size of the structure

and the potential loss of human life or property downstream.

 The volume of water expected during the design flood is obtained by hydrologic

calculations of the upstream watershed.

10. Define Siphon spillway.

A siphon makes use of the difference in the height between the intake and the outlet to

create a pressure difference needed to remove excess water. Siphons, however, require

priming or the removal of air in the bend for them to function, and most siphon spillways

are designed with a system that makes use of water to remove the air and automatically

prime the siphon.

11. Define Bell mouth spillway.

A bell-mouth spillway is designed like an inverted bell, where water can enter around

the entire perimeter. These uncontrolled spillways are also called morning glory, (after

the flower) or glory hole spillways. In areas where the surface of the reservoir may freeze,

this type of spillway is normally fitted with ice-breaking arrangements to prevent the

spillway from becoming ice-bound.

12. Draw a cross section of spillway.

13. What are the causes of failure of earthen dam?

1. Hydraulic failure

2. Due to seepage failure

3. Erosion

4. Structural failure

5. Sloughing

14. Define dead Storage.

It is the total storage below the invert level of the lowest discharge outlet from the reservoir. It

may be available to contain sedimentation, provided the sediment does not adversely affect the

lowest discharge.

15. Define Sedimentation zones with a neat sketch.

The space occupied by the sediment in the reservoir can be divided into separate zones
16. How do you plan a reservoir?
• Reports on projects similar to that proposed which have already been constructed in the region.
• A geographical information system (GIS) for the area of interest may be createdusing a base
survey map of the region.
• Topographical data in the form of maps and satellite pictures, which may be integrated within the
GIS.
• Geological data in the form of maps and borehole logs, along with the values of relevant
parameters.
• Seismic activity data of the region that includes recorded peak accelerations or ground motion
record.
• Meteorological and hydrological data - of available parameters like rainfall, atmospheric and
water temperatures, evaporation, humidity, wind speed, hours of sunshine, river flows, river levels,
sediment concentration in rivers, etc.
• For water supply projects, data on population and future population growth based on some
acceptable forecast method, industrial water requirement and probable future industrial
development.
• For irrigation projects, data on soils in the project area and on the crops already grown, including
water requirement for the crops.
• For hydropower projects, data on past demand and forecasts of future public and industrial
demand for power and energy; data on existing transmission systems, including transmission
voltage and capacity.
• Data on flora and fauna in the project and on the fish in the rivers and lakes, including data on
their migratory and breeding habits.
• Data on tourism and recreational use of rivers and lakes and how this may be encouraged on
completion of the proposed reservoir.
17. What is the Effect of sedimentation in planning of reservoirs?
It is important to note that storage reservoirs built across rivers and streams loose their
capacity on account of deposition of sediment. This deposition which takes place progressively in
time reduces the active capacity of the reservoir to provide the outputs of water through passage of
time. Accumulation of sediment at or near the dam may interfere with the future functioning of
water intakes and hence affects decisions regarding location and height of various outlets. It may
also result in greater inflow of into canals / water conveyance systems drawing water from the
reservoir. Problems of rise in flood levels in the head reaches and unsightly deposition of sediment
from recreation point of may also crop up in course of time
18. What are all the procedures for planning a new reservoir?
The standard procedure that needs to be carried out for planned storages requires an
assessment of the importance of the problem to classify the reservoir sedimentation problem as
insignificant, significant, or serious. Assessment of reservoir sedimentation problem, in a particular
case may be made by comparing the expected average annual volume of sediment deposition with
the gross capacity of the reservoir planned. If the ratio is more than 0.5 percent per year, the
problem is usually said to be serious and special care is required in estimating the sediment yields
from the catchment. If it is less than 0.1 percent per year, the problem of siltation may be
insignificant and changes in reservoir performance.
19. Define life of reservoir.
The term ‘life of reservoir’ as loosely used denotes the period during which whole or
a specified fraction of its total or active capacity is lost. In calculating this life, the
progressive changes in trap efficiency towards the end of the period are commonly not
considered. In some of the earlier projects, it has been assumed that all the sedimentation
would occur only in the dead storage pocket and the number of years in which the pocket
should be filled under this assumption was also sometimes termed as the life of reservoir.
20. What are all the geological explorations for reservoir sites?
(a) Water tightness of the basins
(b) Stability of the reservoir rim
(c) Availability of construction material in the reservoir area
(d) Silting
(e) Direct and indirect submergence of economic mineral wealth
(f) Seismo-techtonics
 UNIT V GROUNDWATER AND MANAGEMENT

1. Define Transmissivity?
It is the flow capacity of an aquifer per unit width under unit hydraulic
gradient and is equal to the product of permeability times the saturated thickness of the
aquifer.
2. What are all the test available to find the yield of a well?
i) Pumping test ii) Recuperation test
3. Enlist the formations that serve as good aquifers?
* Unconsolidated gravels, sands, alluvium
* Lake sediments and glacial deposits
* Lime stones with cavities
* Granites and marbles with fissures and cracks
* slates
4. What are all the assumptions made in derivation of Dupuits equations?
* Stabilized draw down
* The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, of infinite areal extent and of
constantthickness
* Complete penetration of the well with 100% efficiency
* Flow lines are radial and horizontal and the flow is laminar
5. Write short notes on spacing of wells?
Pumping wells should be spaced far apart so that their cones of depression will
not overlap over each other resulting in the reduction of their yields and/or increased
draw downs to avoid well interference. The well should be spaced beyond their radii of
influence.
6. Define Aquifer.
An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth materials which not only stores water
but yields sufficient quantity of water.

7. Define aquitard.
It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the yield
isinsignificant compared to an aquifer.
8. Define aquiclude.
It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable. There are no
interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water.
 9. Define confined aquifer?
It is an aquifer which is confined between two impervious beds such as
aquicludes or aquifuges. Recharge of this aquifer takes place only in the area where it
isexposed to the ground surface.
10. Define unconfined aquifer?
It is an aquifer in which there exists a free water surface. Recharge of this aquifer
takes place through infiltration.
11. Define porosity?
The amount of pore space per unit volume of the aquifer is called porosity.
12. Define specific yield?
The actual volume of water that can be extracted by the force of gravity from
aunit volume of aquifer is called Specific yield.
13. State Darcy’s law?
It relating the velocity of flow in a porous medium which was given by

V = Ki where V = velocity of seepage

K = Coefficient of
permeability I = Hydraulic
gradient
14. Define hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer and state its units
The coefficient of permeability is also designated as hydraulic conductivity which
reflects the combined effects of the porous medium and the fluid properties. Units of K are
m/day or cm/s.
15. Define specific capacity.
The discharge per unit draw down is known as specific capacity of a well.

16. What are the characteristics of Perched aquifer?

When a groundwater body is separated from the main groundwater by a

relatively impermeable stratum of small areal extent and by the zone of aeration above
the main body of groundwater it is called perched groundwater.
17. Define drawdown.
If an aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and the water table initially horizontal
due to the radial flow into the well through the aquifer the water after pumping
assumes a conical shape is called cone of depression. The drop in the water table
elevation at a point from its previous state level is called drawdown.
 18. What is depression head and critical depression head in open well?
The difference in the water table elevation and the water level inside the. well
is known as depression head. Beyond certain depression head in an open well, the
depression head may cause dislodging of soil particles by the high flow velocities. Such
a depression head is called critical depression head.
19. What do you understand by pumping test?
Generally, pumping tests are carried out in boreholes where sub-surface exploration
is carried out. These tests can be done effectively up to a depth of 30 m and give the most
reliable results. The tests may be either pumping in or pumping out type. Pumping in test
can be conducted irrespective of the position of the water table in a stratum, while pumping
out test is suited for tests below water table.
20. Define storage coefficient.
The coefficient of storage S of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water released
from it or taken into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit decline or rise of
head. Under water table conditions the coefficient of storage is equal to the specific yield.