212

Journal ofFood Protection Vol. 43. No.3, Pages 212-225 Warch, 1980)
Copyright © 1980, International Association of Milk, Food. and Environmental Sanitarians

Milk Processed at Ultra-High-Temperatures - A Review 1

R.8.MEBTA2
Department ofAnimal Science and Industry. Agricultural Experiment Station. Kansas State University. Manhattan. Kansas 66506

(Received for publication June 21. 1979)

ABSTRACT Pasteurized Milk Ordinance) stipulate that a product

Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) processing today may describe either labelled "ultra-pasteurized" must have been heated to
a sterilization or a pasteurization process. This review primarily covers 137.8 C or above for at least 2 sec (102). Detailed
the sterilization process which involves heating milk at 130 to ISO C for
"pasteurization" standards for U.S. (102) and "steriliza-
1 second or more and then packaging it aseptically. The main topics
covered are: history, economics. and theoretical basis of UHT tion" standards for other countries (87) have been
processing; common UHT processes and available aseptic packaging established.
systems; microbial, nutritional, biochemical, and physical aspects of Few countries have legal definitions for UHT milk
UHT milk; and the flavor ofUHT milk. (87,102), probably because defining a sterile product is
difficult and also because the filling system which affects
the bacteriological quality of the milk cannot be
Reviews (21,41.66,90,99) and series of articles have controlled by the "defmite temperature for a definite
extensively scrutinized the topic of ultra-high-temper- time" description (21).
ature (UHT) milk. The most recent of these was an In this paper, other than some specific references, the
excellent symposium held in Birmingham, Great Britain. term' 'UHT-milk" will refer to milk that has been heated
Several articles from this symposium (11,23,28,75.76) to at least 130 C for not less than 1 sec and then
and a comprehensive monograph (40,72,87) will be aseptically packaged. In general, UHT-milk processing
referred to in this review and are highly recommended. involves temperatures of 130 to 150 C and holding times
While these publications are exhaustive in content, we of 1 sec or more (21); 2-8 sec is the generally accepted
feel that a review which consolidates and compiles holding time (41). Burton (23) recently suggested that
information on all the topics encountered in UHT-milk below 135 C, the sterilizing process was unlikely to be
literature is needed. The last such review was by Burton sufficient for a commercial process unless the holding
in 1969 (21). Burton's material has been referred to; time was made undesirably long; conversely at above
however, effort has been made to minimize duplication. 150 C, the required holding time would probably be too
It has been attempted to make this a selective but by no short to be maintained effectively.
means a complete review of UHT-milk literature. Burton (21) and Westhoff (102) summarized develop-
Wherever relevant, products and systems other than mentofmodern UHT-milk. Jonas Nielsen had pioneered
UHT-milk have been included. the first recorded UHT processing plant by 1913 and
Two basically different processes have been labelled later developed an aseptic canning system. The modern
UHT. The first, UHT-sterilization, involves heating milk trend toward UHT, however, started in the late 1940s as
to a high enough temperature for a long enough time to plants started using higher processing temperatures,
produce a commercially sterile product. The other, with correspondingly shorter holding times, to give
UHT-pasteurization, is used prinicipally in North products better bacteriological quality. This also resulted
America. Conventional pasteurization involves heating in less change in the color, flavor and nutritive value of
milk at 63 C for 30 min or 71 C for 15 sec. For the milk.
UHT-pasteurization, milk is heated to a temperature In the U.S., "fresh-tasting" long shelf-life milk was
higher than conventional pasteurization long enough to produced by sterilizing milk in bottles as early as in the
destroy pathogens (22). The resulting product is not 1940s and in cans in the 1950s (41). Because these milks
sterile, although microbiologically it usually keeps better were sterilized inside containers, their flavors were not as
than conventional pasteurized milk. The UHT-pasteuri- good as the flavor oftoday's pasteurized milk. In 1958, a
zation process was accepted officially in 1965 by the U.S. rectangular polyethylene-coated paperboard container,
Public Health Service (74). Even in the U.S.A. and with an aluminum foil laminate barrier, was introduced
Canada, there is an increasing tendency to associate the by Tetra Pak in Switzerland. After Switzerland,
terminology "UHT-milk" with UHT-sterilized milk aseptically packaged milk entered Germany, Italy,
(21.41). New U.S. Federal Standards of Identity (1978 France, United Kingdom, South Africa and other
countries including Canada. In many European coun-
'Cont. No. 78-209-Rl. Department of Animal Science and Industry.
Agricultural Experiment Station. Manhattan. Kansas 66506. tries, UHT-milk is making strong inroads into fluid milk
'Present address: Pfizer Inc .. 4215 N. Port Washington Avenue. markets, e.g. as much as an estimated 50% in Italy and
Milwaukee Wisconsin 53212. Germany in 1976 (75).

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION. VOL. 43. MARCH, 1980

 UHT-PROCESSED MILK 213

ECONOMICS would be greatly reduced as the operation of UHT units

The economics of UHT-milk are dependent on is highly automated. The need for expensive refrigerated
processing costs and distribution costs. Neitzke in 1965 storage would be drastically reduced, and inexpensive
(66) compared the costs of four sterilization processes warehouses could be used,
with the costs of pasteurized milk in Germany. Home delivery would cease completely. Refrigerated
Processing costs for UHT-milk (Uperization process) display cabinets, now crowded, could be used to display
were the highest, and for pasteurized milk the lowest; items other than milk because milk would be displayed
this was mainly because disposable cartons were used to at room temperature. Milk could be delivered to the
package the Uperized milk, whereas returnable bottles supermarkets once a week or twice a month. It would be
were used for other milks. Costs for cartons of UHT-milk shipped in unrefrigerated flat-top containers by pallet
were also compared to costs for bottles of pasteurized load rather than in wood, wire or plastic cases. Distance
milk in the U.K. (78); UHT-milk was more expensive to would no longer limit shipments; UHT-milk could be
produce; however, if both processes had used cartons, shipped almost anywhere a dairy could fmd a buyer.
then presumably the processing costs for the milks would Quality control tests would change from microbial
have been nearly equal. Since its introduction in 1965, quality to other factors, such as off-flavor, milk
the price of UHT-milk in the U.K. has remained 23 to separation, and gel formation. Consumers would
270/0 above the price of regular pasteurized milk (28). purchase dozens of quarts of milk, or milk products, at
Bene (13) observed (Table 1) that in Norway, UHT-milk one time and store them in basements. Milk would be
was more expensive to process and package than refrigerated only a few hours before consumption. The
pasteurized milk. Distribution costs and other factors costs of processing and packaging the milk would
might equalize the processing costs. increase, but the distribution costs would be reduced
Currently, UHT-milk appears to be competitive to drastically.
pasteurized milk. In 1976, the average price of
THEORETICAL BASIS FOR UHT·PROCESSING
UHT -milk in Germany was 1.8 % lower than that of
pasteurized liquid milk (73). A 2% UHT-milk which was Microorganisms are destroyed by heat when the
introduced in Canada on September 17, 1975. had in 2 microbial proteins coagulate and enzymes required for
years captured 20% of the fluid milk market in the areas their metabolism are inactivated (35). Heat treatment
it served (7). The UHT-milk sells for about 1 cent necessary to kill microorganisms or their spores varies
premium per liter (6). Exports account for 20% of the with the kinds of organisms, their state, and the environ-
sales of the Canadian UHT -milk (7). According to a ment during heating. A term used to express the heat
study by the Manitoba Department of Agriculture in resistance of microorganisms is "thermal death time"
Canada, processing and distribution costs for UHT -milk (TDT) , defined as the time at a certain temperature
are between 65 and 85 % of those for pasteurized milk necessary to kill all of the organisms (or spores) under
(7). Based on these studies, it appears that marketing specified conditions. Processing times and temperatures
UHT-milk in the U.S. might be economically viable. are based on a TDT curve for whatever organism the
Many workers (41,77,78) contemplate that if UHT- process is designed to destroy (67). The TDT curve is
milk is widely accepted in the U.S., it will change the obtained by plotting the logarithm of TDT versus
entire structure of the dairy industry. Production temperature (35).
schedules would probably require only 5-day weeks In food processing operations, the equation normally
instead of 6 or 7 days. In periods of excess milk used to determine the processing time is called the F 0 or
production, instead of diverting the excess to marginal the sterilization equation (41):
products such as non-fat dry milk or cheese, UHT-milk
could be stockpiled. Processing plants would be moved F
log-O T 250
away from cities to the milk-producing areas. Labor t z
where, T === the processing temperature in degress
TABLE 1. The costs of UHT milk compared with pasteurized milk Fahrenheit (F)
in Norway. a
t === the holding time in minutes
z slope of the TDT curve or the degrees F
L'HTmilkh Pasteurized milk c required for the TDT curve to traverse one log cycle
Item (Cent.IliOOr unit) (Cents/liter unit)
Fo === the sterilization value or number of mmutes
Packaging material 4.48 2.81
Equipment 0.63 0.29 required to destroy all organisms at 250 F.
Labor 0.35 0.20 From the sterilization equation, if three values are
Energy 0.42 0.07 known, the fourth can be calculated. For convenience,
TOTAL 5.88 3.37 alignment charts (nomographs) also are available to
acondensed from Bene, 1974 (13), Based on production of one million compute one value when the other three are known (9).
liter units/year and an exchange rate of 1 Norwegian Kroner 0.1888
U.S. dollar.
In the 110-125 C range, the rate of spore destruction
bPackaged in Tetra Brik cartons. for Bacillus stearothermophilus increases about 11 times
CPackaged in Pure Pak cartons. for each lO-C rise in temperature (34). This relationship

JOURNAL OF FOOD PRO TECTION. VOL.43.MARCH. 1980

214 MEHTA

also probably holds true beyond the 110-125 C range,

Other Bacillus spores such as those of Bacillus subtilis
are more sensitive, and their rate of destruction increases CI
Z
30 times for every lO-C increase in temperature (41),
Z
Maillard browning, an important chemical reaction
during UHT-processing, occurs when proteins interact
:t
0
with reducing sugars. This results in off-flavors and 0::
!XI
discoloration. Burton (18) determined that in the range "-
of 95 to 120 C, the rate of browning increases about three ..I
3000
C
times for each lO-C rise in temperature. He plotted a Q
curve for the ratio of bactericidal (sporicidal) effect to
browning effect versus temperature, as shown in Fig. 1 -
(,,)

0::
LIoI
(22). The temperature quotient (QIO>, or the rate of t-
(,,)
increase of spore destruction for every 10-C increase in
C
temperature, is designated as 20, (average for B. !XI
subtilis 30 and B. stearothennophilus 11) and that 1000

for browning is 3. The ratio does not change much until

the temperature reaches about 135 C. Above 135 C, the
bactericidal effect increases rapidly in relation to
110 130 150
browning. At 150 C, the bactericidal effect is about
5000 times greater. Therefore, if milk is treated in the TEMPERATURE (oC)
UHT range, 135-150 C, for a few seconds, it is possible to
Figure 1. The eJfect of increasing temperature on the ratio of
obtain a product virtually free of spores and with much bactericidal effect to browning during sterilization. Ql0 for spore
less browning than milk from conventional in-can destruction 20; Qlojor browning = 3. Ratio = 1 at 100 C (22).
sterilization. The color of this product is similar to that of
HTST (high temperature-short time) milk. Recently
Woods (109) used Clostridium botulinum to make a laminar. free-falling fUm. The final product is sterile and
similar comparison between sterilization rate and rate of is reportedly similar in flavor to pasteurized milk.
chemical changes at UHT temperatures. UHT milk In processes using direct heat, there also are
sterilization is based on these basic principles. indirectly-heated stages, with plates and tubes for
preheating, regeneration and cooling. Conversely, equip-
PROCESS DESCRIPTION ment for indirect heat may sometimes include vacuum
UHT-sterilization flash vessels to remove gas and vapor (21). Recently,
complex UHT processes have been simplified by
UHT processes can be classified as either directly
minimizing the number of intermediate steps (11). A
heated or indirectly heated, according to the kind of heat
special requirement for equipment using direct heat is
exchangers used. In processes using indirect heat, milk is
that the steam be culinary and contain no toxic
heated through a heat-conducting barrier. usually
compounds (21).
stainless steel, which separates the heating agent from
UHT processes available have been summarized by
the milk. The heating surface may be either a corrugated
Burton (21), Hsu (41) and Ashton (9). These have been
plate, as in many HTST pasteurizers. or a tube with a
combined in Table 2. In addition to these, Burton (23)
relatively small diameter. Alternatively, the heat
stated that in one commercial system available now, the
exchanger may be of the scraped-surface type, in which
heating is from electric resistance (electric heaters), and
the milk flows through a large cylinder. The cylinder is
in another heat is generated by friction, by passing a thin
heated externally by steam, and the inside wall of the
fUm of milk across the face of a high-speed rotor. Milk
cylinder is scraped by continuously rotating blades. The
has also been sterilized by microwave energy, although
scraped-surface system is rarely used for milk but is
not commercially.
suitable for viscous products in which it is difficult to
induce turbulence (21). Aseptic packaging
In processes using direct heat, milk is mixed with An aseptic filling process to avoid bacterial contami-
saturated steam under pressure and heated rapidly as the nation after sterilization treatment is necessary for
steam condenses (21). Steam may be injected into the UHT -sterilized milk. Any aseptic filling installation must
milk, or the milk may be sprayed into an atmosphere of sterilize the container, fill it, and then seal it without
steam. The heated milk is injected through an orifice into contamination. Thus aseptic filling must be a single
a vacuum vessel where water added to milk as operation to carry out these functions.
condensate is removed, thereby cooling the milk. In one The existing fillers can be classified according to either
recent modification of the milk-into-steam technique, a the kind of container filled, i.e. cans, cartons or bottles,
free-failing-fUm UHT system (/5,52,103) was developed. or the differences in the basic principles used in the
Here the product falls through a steam chamber as a thin. aseptic packaging machinery. The major operational

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 43, MARCH, 1980

 UHT-PROCESSED MILK 215

aseptic packaging systems for UHT dairy products are cartons.

(41): (b) Aseptic Tetra Brik. The Aseptic Tetra Brik was
(a) Aseptic Tetra Pak_ The Aseptic Tetra Pak was the designed specially for aseptic packaging. The Tetra Brik
first aseptic packaging machine used to package UHT process is similar to the Tetra Pak process and consists of
milk in paper containers and was derived from the three steps: from a reel, plastic-coated paper is shaped
conventional Tetra Pak filler. Major problems in this into a tube; filling is continuous into this tube and
system are the sterilization of paper inside the containers rectangular packs are produced after the tubes are sealed
just before filling, keeping the condition aseptic during transversely below the surface of the product. Commer-
filling and making an aseptic seal after filling. cial Tetra Brik carton board is laminated (from inside
Both physical and chemical means have been used to out) with two layers polyethylene, a layer of aluminum
sterilize the paper. Physical means include heat foil, polyethylene, two layers of paper, printing ink and
treatment, ultraviolet radiation, and high frequency a layer of polyethylene (94). Some unique characteristics
electric fields. Chemical means include treatment with of the Tetra Brik are: the shape of the container is
ethylene oxide, available chlorine or hydrogen peroxide. rectangular, application of the sterilant (hydrogen
Hydrogen peroxide, combined with a subsequent high peroxide) has been simplified - the peroxide bath itself is
temperature treatment of the Tetra Pak paper, has at 80 C and instead of squeezing rollers a new device
become the main technique today. The Tetra Pak carton known as "air-knives" removes excess hydrogen peroxide
is formed from a polyethylene-coated paper strip and by means of an air-jet.
filled on the same machine. As the paper leaves the reel. (e) Aseptic Pure Pak. The aseptic Pure Pak system was
a strip of polyethylene is added to reinforce the developed by the Ex-Cell-O Corporation of Detroit. The
longitudinal seam. The strip of paper passes through a Pure-Pak system differs from other aseptic systems in
bath of dilute hydrogen peroxide; the excess is removed that it relies only on chemical sterilization of the
by squeezing to leave a thin film. After the paper has containers rather than the combination of chemical
been formed and heat-sealed into a vertical tube, it sterilization and heat; also Pure Pak operations are
passes an electric heating element totally enclosed by the carried out in a "sterile" environment rather than a
tube. The heating element raises the inside surface "sterilizing" environment. The former involves steriliz-
temperature of the paper to 200-250 C, decomposing the ing the packaging system at the beginning of a day and
hydrogen peroxide to steam and nascent oxygen; the then maintaining a positive pressure of sterile air within
nascent oxygen sterilizes the surface. A thermally the system for the rest of the day, whereas the latter
insulated supply tube conveys the milk down through the involves sterilizing the entire environment of the package
heating element into the paper tube, which is then cut within the packaging system by heat or other means
and heat-sealed transversely to give tetrahedron-shaped throughout the period of operation.

TABLE 2. Commercial

Category N arne of process Developed and/or manufactured by

INDIRECT HEATING Sterideal and Mini-Sterideal Stork of Holland

Tubular type CTAsystem CP Division. St. Regis, U.S.A.
Spiratherm and Unitherm Cherry-Burrell of U.S.A.
Roswell Roswell ofU .S.A.
Mallorizer Mallory of U.S.A.
Graves-Stambaugh Graves-Stambaugh of U.S.A.
Schmidt Schmidt
Gerbig Gerbig of Germany

Plate type Ultramatic APV of England

Dual-purpose system Alfa-Laval De- Laval Group of Sweden
Sterilpak (Sordi -Lodi) M. Sordi ofItaly
Ahlborn Ed. Ahlborn of Germany

Scraped surface Swept Surface heater CP Division. St. Regis of U.S.A.

Votator Scraped Surface heater Votator Division. Chemetron Corp., U.S.A.
Therutator heater Cherry-Burrell Corp., U.S.A.

DIRECT HEATING
Steam-into-milk Vacu·Therm Instant Sterilizer (VTIS) Alfa-LavallDe·Laval Group of Sweden
(injection) Uperization Alpura Ltd. & Sulzer Bros. of Switzerland
& APV of England
Aro·Vac system (No-Bac Aro-Vac) Cherry-Burrell Corp. of U.S.A.
Grindrod Smith, Kline and French of U.S.A.

Milk·into-steam (infusion) Laguilharre Ets. Laguilharre of France

Thermovac (Thimonnier) Brei] & Marrel of France
Palarisator Paasch & Silkeborg of Denmark
Ultra Therm Creamery Package Division, St. Regis of U.S.A.
DaSilndustries ofU. U.S.A.

JOURNAL OF FOOD PRO TECTlON, VOL. 43, MARCH, 1980

216 MEHTA

(d) Dole Aseptic Canning System. This process was A Finnish company (60) has recently developed a
patented by the James Dole Engineering Co, of Nevada, device to automatically control the quality of UHT-milk.
The original system consisted of UHT sterilization and This device operates on the basis of electrical registration
aseptic canning linked together to form a complete of changes in hydrodynamic properties (e.g. viscosity)
system for heat-sensitive foods, For UHT-milk. only the due to microbial activity. It checks each package
aseptic canning part is used with one of the UHT-milk separately and automatically rejects faulty packages
sterilizers. The packaging system consists of five major which have microorganisms in the milk. Another
sections: can sterilizer, cover sterilizer, filling chamber, potentially useful new tool is a lethality computer
closing and sealing machine and the controls. Super- developed in the U.K. (86). The instrument computes F
heated steam at 260 C is used to sterilize the cans and values continuously throughout a heat sterilization
covers. process from a temperature signal derived from a
(e) Anderson Formseal. This machine was developed thermistor probe. The displayed F value is claimed to be
by the Anderson Brothers Manufacturing Company of accurate within 3 %.
Rockford, Illinois, mainly to package coffee cream or Wajid and Kalra (100) have described the use of an
whiteners in small half-ounce plastic containers formed enzyme in increasing the shelf-life of a sterile milk. The
from heat-treated polystyrene sheets. Pressure is applied shelf-life of sterilized milk inoculated with B. suhtilis or
to shape the plastic into cups before they are filled B. stearothermophilus (l00 spores/mt) and heat-treated
with the sterilized product. The covers are treated both at 109 C for 5 min was increased from 3-7 days to 60 days
chemically and with ultra-violet light before being sealed in the presence of 100 Reading Units (R U) of nisin/ml. A
to the cups. RU is a 25 parts per billion solution of the enzyme.
(t) Dole System for glass jars and hottles. This was Mahmoud et al. (57) obtained similar results with B.
designed by the James Dole Engineering Co. and the suhtilis in pasteurized milk but found that 100-1000 RU
Glass Manufacturers Institute. of nisin/ml did not extend the shelf-life of milk
(g) GEM-NIRD Aseptic Bottling Machine. This was inoculated with Escherichia coli. Enterobacter aerogenes
designed by the National Institute for Research in or Pseudomonas fluorescens.
Dairying at Reading and the Graham-Enock Manufac- Cunliffe et al. (27) reported that pasteurization could
turing Co. Ltd., London, England. not inactivate foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus in
milk but UHT (148 C for 3 sec) could. UHT treatment of
MICROBIOLOGY dairy products has been suggested as a means of
eliminating regional or international distribution of
The shelf life of a UHT-product depends mainly on
infectious FMD virus.
two factors: the sterilizing effect of the UHT-equipment,
and the aseptic condition of the packaging. To assure NUTRITION
quality, the product should be sampled at two stages:
The nutritive value of UHT-milk can be reduced at
after the UHT heating unit and after the finished
two stages. either during UHT treatment or during
product is packaged (41).
storage. Nutritive value usually is lost because of changes
A recent Russian survey (55) determined that the three
in the chemical structures of the nutrients.
main causes of microbial contamination in UHT-milk
The effect of UHT processing conditions differs for the
plants are lowering of sterilization temperature, ineffi-
various nutrients of milk. The nutritive values of some
ciency and carelessness in sterilizing the equipment and
components such as the fat. fat-soluble vitamins.
failure to ensure asepsis during packaging. A complete
carbohydrates and minerals are essentially unaffected.
quality assurance program for UHT-milk was outlined
whereas values of other components such as the
by Roberts (76).
water-soluble vitamins and proteins are adversely
As complete sterility is approached, the number of
affected (72). Proteins, especially the whey proteins. are
microorganisms that survive is extremely small. Such a
denatured.
small number can be detected only when a huge volume
During storage, the main factors affecting nutrients
of sample is examined. To make the analysis more
are temperature, light and oxygen. The main nutritional
practical, a pre-incubation technique is usually used.
changes that occur in milk during storage are associated
This technique was developed to increase the number of
with the vitamin components. Proteins are affected but
viable bacteria, or spores, if any, by pre-incubating the
not to any appreciable extent (72).
test samples at a suitable temperature for a suitable time.
The conditions usually recommended are 32, 37, or 55 C Vitamins
for 5, 7 or 10 days. Under these conditions, if the product Burton (}1), van Eekelen and Heijne (99) and Porter
sours or coagulates, the presence of viable spores or and Thompson (72) have reviewed in detail the effects of
organisms is established. Further, bacteriological analy- high heat treatment and prolonged storage on stability of
sis of all the samples can be made much more easily after vitamins in milk. They have observed that in general,
this treatment. Complete asepsis must be provided vitamins are more stable under UHT processing
when a UHT-product is analyzed because a single conditions than under pasteurization or other "low
contaminant could confuse the entire situation. tern perature" heat treatments (}1. 72.99).

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION. VOL. 43, MARCH, 1980

 VHT-PROCESSED MILK 217

, Vitamins A, D, E and carotene are little affected by shown no change in the availability of the calcium of
hlgh heat treatments used during milk sterilization milk after indirect UHT processing (21). Pelet and
(21.72.99). Vitamin A and carotene losses up to 35% have Donath (70) used eight newborn infants to test the effect
been observed on prolonged sterilization (99). Workers of Uperization of "humanized" cow's milk. "Human-
have reported a loss of up to 6% of vitamin D (99) and ized" cow's milk is milk that has been modified to
less ~h~n 10% of vitamin E (21) during UHT processing. conform closely in composition to human milk (33).
Neghglble loss of vitamins A and E was observed in Uperization did not affect nitrogen balance and
UHT-milks stored at ambient temperature for 180 days phosphorus retention; however, calcium and potassium
(21). retention was higher in infants receiving Uperized milk
Pantothenic acid, nicotinic acid and biotin are not than in those receiving pasteurized milk (70).
affec~ed by U!fT treatments (21,72,99) and storage (21) Protein
of mtlk. Conslderable variation has been observed in the
Severe heat treatment causes considerable denatura-
losses of the other water-soluble vitamins during high
tion (up to 80%) of the serum proteins of milk, especially
heat treatments and subsequent storage. Losses reported
fJ-lactoglobulin (21), UHT-milk heated directly had
vary from none up to 100% for some of the vitamins. For
smaller amounts of serum protein denaturation than
thiamine, losses greater than 20% have been observed
indirectly heated milk. fJ-Lactoglobulin, on denaturation,
during different UHT treatments and up to 50% with
apparently complexes with casein. UHT processing
prolonged in-bottle sterilization. Riboflavin, which is
increases the size of the casein aggregates and changes
stable to heat, is susceptible to the action of light (99).
their composition (21). White and Sweetsur (104) did not
Less than 10% losses were observed in riboflavin during
observe any significant changes in the rate of
sterilization (21), but losses up to 60% were observed
heat-induced (110-140 C) aggregation of casein by
during a 3-month storage period (99). Results for vitamin
removal of serum proteins or colloidal calcium
B6 vary considerably in the literature (21,99). Van
phosphate or by prevention of K-caseinlfJ-lactoglobulin
Eekelen and Heijne (99) suggested that these variations
interaction. During storage of UHT-milk, the a- and
could be caused by differences in the original amounts of
fJ-casein electrophoretic peaks become broader and less
the vitamins in milk (the higher the initial concentrations
well-defined, with increases in non-casein and non-
of the vitamins in milk, the greater the losses), the assay
protein nitrogen (21). Increasing length of storage
technique and the storage time of the milk.
increases proportion of the casein aggregates; however,
Losses of ascorbic acid, folic acid and vitamin B12 are
these is no corresponding increase in size of aggregates
interrelated. Ascorbic acid is heat-stable but in the
(24).
presence of oxygen is converted to heat labile
An increase in sugar content has been shown within
dehydroascorbic acid. Because most of the results
the a-casein band, indicating a preliminary stage of the
published have not distinguished between the two forms
amino acid-sugar Maillard reaction (21). Isotope studies
of the vitamin, UHT heat treatment losses of 0 to 30%
(98) with lactose and milk proteins has established that
have been reported. Ascorbic acid surviving heat
when heated together in model systems at 143.5 C for
treatment may be lost in storage (21). If the amount of
10 sec, casein micelles incorporated 5 to 6 times the
oxygen dissolved in milk is limited, ascorbic acid losses
amount of lactose as a-lactalbumin and 8 to 12 times as
are minimal (21,72). Thus heat treatment plays a minor
much fJ-Iactoglobulin; the lactose appears to be
role in destroying ascorbic acid in milk; oxygen
covalently bonded to the protein fractions.
availability is the critical element. Low oxygen levels are
Lysine levels in milk are reduced by milk sterilization;
achieved by either the use of a deaerator before heating
however, methionine and tryptophan which also are
or evaporative cooling after processing (72).
heat-labile were not much affected (99). On the other
Folic acid appears to be stable on processing and
hand, Aboshama and Hansen (1) observed a 34(% loss of
storage as long as reduced ascorbic acid is present in
cysteine and cystine (as cysteic acid), and methionine in
milk. After ascorbic acid is eliminated, folic acid is lost
skim milk during UHT processing versus only 5-10%
rapidly (21.72). During in-bottle sterilization, the greater
during pasteurization. No significant changes have been
part of vitamin B 12 is lost (99); however, under UHT
observed for the other amino acids either during
conditions losses of only 30% have been recorded (21).
processing or storage of the UHT milk (99).
During storage, losses of 60% have been reported after
Two new basic amino acids have been detected by
90 days (99) and 180 days (21). The smallest losses were
Finot et at. (30) in the acid hydrolysates of scorched
found for a plant using a deaeration unit before the UHT
roller-dried milk powder. Apparently furosine and
state of processing (21).
pyridosine, which are the trivial names given to these new
Minerals amino acids by the authors, are formed from
Hansen and Melo (37) found that free calcium was E-N-(l-deoxy-D-fructosyl)-L-lysine (or fructose lysine) by
reduced significantly in milk processed at 143 C for 8 to the loss of three molecules of water. The structures of
10 sec. The free calcium could have been transformed these compounds have been determined and their
into a colloidal form or could have precipitated along possible mechanism of formation has been postulated.
with other milk constituents. Experiments with rats have The structures of these amino acids follow:

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL. 43, MARCH, 1980

218 MEHTA

~
produced proteases that survived 149 C for 10 sec. These
NH2-CH-(CH2)-NH-CH2-C Furosine authors suggest that thermal input needed to destroy
r
COOH
11\,,/
0 0
heat-resistant proteases would damage the milk severely.
However, West et al. (101) suggested an effective method
of inactivating proteases; when UHT-treated (149 C for
4.5 sec) skim milk was maintained at 55 C for 1 h, an
average of 88.5% of the heat-resistant proteases were
destroyed. Barach et al. (12) determined that bacterial
Pyridosine protease activity in buffered solutions was reduced 90%
during 10 min at 55 C. In either raw or sterile milk,
OR however, the extent of inactivation was less. e.g. 70%
during 60 min at 55 C. The rate of inactivation did not
Animal feeding studies of UHT -milk have shown that,
depend on protease concentration.
in general, the biological value, protein efficiency ratio
Kiermeier and Doruk (51) have demonstrated that
and digestibility coefficient are not affected by UHT
fJ-glucuronidase in milk is completely inactivated by
sterilization (21,72). Some studies, on the other hand, have
pasteurization (63 C for 30 min or 72 C for 15 sec) but
shown that with denaturation of serum proteins, there is
not always fully by UHT processing. The heat liability
a proportionate decrease in the growth-supporting value
(up to a maximum of 100 C) of lipase (46,84), catalase
of the milk protein for test animals. It was concluded
(46,84) and adolase, a-amylase, fJ-amylase, lysozyme and
that denaturation is not a significant factor in human
ribonuclease (84) also has been reviewed.
infant nutrition (21,72). However, a recent study (7)
Greenbank and Pallansch (36) found that heating
changes this hypothesis. In a feeding test involving 400
whole milk to 90 C for 15 sec inactivated xanthine
newborn infants in Holland, 200 children drinking
oxidase. Yet, when the same milk was condensed to 50%
UHT-milk gained an average of 7 g more weight per day
total solids and homogenized at 4,500 psi, some
than the 200 drinking pasteurized milk. In addition, the
reactivation was noted; this reactivation was not
normal weight loss immediately after birth was regained
observed in powders from milks heated 93 C.
sooner by the UHT-fed infants. The UHT-milk also
caused fewer digestive problems. Sedimentation, gelation and bum-on
Unsaturatedfatty acids The intensive heat from the heating agent during UHT
processing usually causes denaturation of the milk
The loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids, in which milk
proteins or precipitation of the salts in milk; this causes
is already poor, may be important. Heating milk at 130 C
sedimentation. The higher the sterilizing temperature,
for 20 sec causes a loss of 34% linoleic, 13% linolenic,
and 70/0 arachidonic acid (99). the more the sedimentation. Maximum sedimentation in
UHT processing at 140, 145 and 150 C occurs with a
BIOCHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL ASPECTS
4-sec holding time (21,41). In general, sedimentation in
UHT-milk is not a serious problem; in a recent study the
Enzymes average sediment of 77 trials was only 0.5 tJl/cc (41).
Phosphatase activity is always zero after milk has been Calcium balance and addition of salts affect sedimenta-
sterilized but may be reactivated after prolonged storage. tion. Adding sodium citrate or bicarbonate inhibits
The higher the storage temperature and the longer the sediment formation, but calcium promotes sedimenta-
storage time of the milk, the higher the degree of tion (41). Biryukova et al. (15) established that adding
reactivation of the enzyme. According to some workers 0.025-0.1 % sodium citrate or disodium phosphate
(41), this reactivation phenomenon may be an artifact increased the heat stability of milk against sedimentation
caused by liberation of sulfhydryl groups which also react by SO to 100%.
with the phosphatase test reagent and thus yield a Preheating helps stabilize milk exposed to high heat
positive test. Other workers (21) have established that the treatment (41) Biryukova et al. (14) tested the effect of
reactivated enzyme is identical in chemical form to the preliminary heating on the stability of milk proteins.
original enzyme and this reactivation is enhanced by free They concluded that for indirect UHT processing, the
SH groups but retarded by oxygen and lower storage milk should be preheated to 75 C for 20 sec and the
temperatures. precipitated protein centrifuged out. Ball (11) suggested
Peroxidases are almost always destroyed and proteases preheating milk in a retarder vessel at 85 C for 6 min.
are usually destroyed at UHT sterilization temperatures. This would help alleviate the problem of milk-stone
No reactivation of peroxidase has been observed under deposits on heating surfaces.
any storage condition. Some researchers (2,21) have Homogenizing at temperatures lower than normal also
suggested that proteases may be reactivated on storage. reduces sediment formation. Homogenization after
Kielwein (50) has suggested that UHT processing may processing, rather than before processing, also cuts down
not ensure complete inactivation of Pseudomonas on sediment formation (41). During storage, some of the
fluorescens proteases. Adams et al. (2) found that 70-90 % sediment apparently returns to solution and thus the
of raw milk analyzed contained psychrotrophs which total amount of sediment is reduced (21).

JOURNAL OF FOOD PRO TECTION, VOL. 43, MARCH, 1980

 UHT-PROCESSED MILK 219

Differing views have been cited, but usually indirect to instability of milk protein leading to gelation and/or
heating has been found to cause more sedimentation deposit formation. Citrate delays coagulation. An inverse
than direct heating (21,23). Perkin et al. (71), however, relationship has been observed between the degree of
claimed that in none of the experiments comparing protein decomposition and the time of onset of gelation
direct and indirect heating methods was any attempt in UHT -milk (79).
made to control the severity of the heat treatment. In Corradini (26) determined that the resistance of
their experiments, when heat treatments of the same UHT-milk to gelation on storage can be increased in
sporicidal effectiveness were given, directly-heated UHT three ways: by reducing the flow-rate of the milk through
milk gave twice as much sediment as indirectly-heated the sterilizing equipment. by adding 0.01-0.15% disodi-
milk. um phosphate and by storing the product at 10 C.
Claesson et al. (25) have suggested that deposit Varying heat treatment improves control of gelation;
formation in UHT sterilizers could be prevented by however, adding polyphosphates controls best (21).
adjusting the pH of the milk to 6.9; however, this Clotting propenies
increases the non-protein nitrogen in the UHT milk. When treated with enzymes such as rennin or pepsin,
UHT-processed milks do not clot as well and require
Gelation in UHT milk is an important problem because
twice as much time to coagulate as pasteurized milk
it signifies the final limit of storage life (21). The
(21). When Burton (21) suggested that UHT-milk did not
mechanism for gelation has not been well established but
clot "well", he probably meant that the curd obtained
is probably similar to that for clotting of milk during
was not too firm, which would probably decrease cheese
cheese-making. The main difference is that the former
yields. Perkin et al. (71) found that indirect heating
occurs naturally and the latter is induced. Also, a gel is
reduced the rate of UHT-milk clotting with rennin and
softer than a clotted curd. Sensitivity to gelation is
pepsin more than direct heating, On the other hand,
greater with UHT processing than with sterilization in a
Stone et al. (88) reported conflicting results when they
container. It also has been reported that after being
studied the effect of sterilization (113-158 C) treatment of
autoclaved in the bottle, milk does not gel for long
milk on cheese starter activity and on the quality and
periods (79). The relationship between gelation and
yield of short-set cottage cheese curd. Their curd quality
sedimentation is not clear. Andrews and Cheeseman (4)
rated good, starter activity was 8-12% faster and yield
believe that gelation is a first step towards sedimentation.
was 4-12% higher for UHT curds than for curds from
They have postulated, based on molecular weight
milk pasteurized at 62.7 C for 30 min. Stone et al. (89)
changes of casein components, that at least two processes
confirmed that the UHT processes (115 to 157 C) that
take place during storage of UHT milk. The first process
denatured up to 42% of the heat-denaturable whey
is the result of physical forces of association, such as
proteins produced curd with flavor, body and texture
hydrophobic bonding between the casein and lactose,
similar to curd made from pasteurized milk (72 C for
which leads to the formation of a gel. The second process
30 min); also the rate of acid development was faster in
is the Maillard reaction where formation of covalently-
the UHT curd. In a combination of two new processes,
bonded polymers leads to browning and sediment
formation. Schafer and Olson (82) found that UHT treatment (130 C
Researchers are still not sure whether gelation is due to for 2 sec versus 80 C for 2 sec) significantly increased
enzymatic action or chemical and physical processes (3). yields and recovery of fat and solids-not-fat in Mozarella
Some workers have considered possibilities that a cheese made by direct acidication. Woods (l09) , in a
reactivated proteolytic enzyme might cause gelation review, found that though observations and opinions
(21,79). Extensive protein breakdown of K-casein to vary, many workers find that UHT treatment supports
para-K-casein (similar to rennet action) was observed in bacterial growth better than conventional pasteurization
UHT milk that had gelled due to protease (p. techniques. The relationship between heat treatment and
fluorescens) activity (54). fJ-Casein was also broken down the growth rate of lactic streptococci can best be
rapidly while a-casein was degraded slowly. Burton (21) described by a U-shaped curve. Oxygen expUlsion,
has concluded that coagulation is caused by the slow destruction of inhibitors, partial protein hydrolysis and
action of proteolytic enzymes (eg. from psychrotrophs whey denaturation were believed to be responsible for the
such as pseudomonads), which ultimately destabilize the low heat treatment stimulation (62-71 C for 30-40 min) of
casein. Nakai et al. (65) found no evidence of proteolytic starter cultures, formation of toxic volatile sulfides was
enzymes in sterile concentrated milk after a few weeks of associated with inhibition in the middle heat treatment
storage although the samples had gelled. Samel et al. (79) ranges (71 C for 45 min. 81 C for 10-45 min or 90 C for
also found that proteolysis was not the primary cause 1-45 min) and heat-induced (autoclaving or extreme
of gelation in UHT-milk. Some researchers (21) have heating) disappearance of sulfides resulted in stimulation
suggested that both coagulation and development of a of lactics at high temperatures. Woods (l09) reported
bitter flavor might be caused by protein changes and that the process ofUHT-heating of skim milk to increase
:night be related. High heat and long holding times yields of cottage cheese has been patented.
Increase the extent of coagulation. Studies (68,79) have Freezing point
indicated that reactive sultbydryl groups may contribute It has been claimed that UHT processing raises the

JOURNALOFFOODPROTECTION, VOL.43,MARCH, 1980

220 MEHTA

freezing point of milk, leading to a false diagnosis of the changes induced by oxygen. Cooling by flashing also
adulteration by water. In one study with indirectly- is used after some indirect UHT processes; then the
heated UHT milk, it was demonstrated that the freezing amount of moisture removed is returned to the milk (40).
point remain unchanged. In other studies, it has been Hansen et al. (38) processed milk at several
shown that for Uperization and vacuum pasteurization temperatures between 107-143 C and stored the milks at
(processes where dissolved gases are removed from milk), 1.7 and 7.2 C in polyethylene bags or clear glass
the freezing point has been raised (21). containers. The milks, evaluated by a 25-member panel
Fat separation at 2, 9, 16, 23 and 30 days, were judged from acceptable
to good. The cooked flavor disappeared in 9 days and
High temperatures of processing reduce the cream line
gave way to a slightly sweet flavor. In general, the flavor
in whole milk (21). The stability of fat dispersion in
was most acceptable at 9-16 days.
UHT-milk can be increased by proper homogenization.
Ashton (9) classified the general flavor changes in
Homogenization at 211 kg/sq cm and 71-77 C with the
UHT-milk packaged in waxed paper and polythene
homogenizer located down-stream from the heater will
laminate cartons and stored at between 4 and 22 C into
greatly reduce fat separation in UHT-milk (41).
5 periods: (a) Period 1, immediately after processing.
Color Unpleasant taste and smell, hydrogen sulfide, carbon
The appearance and color of milk primarily depend on disulfide and boiled cabbage flavors. (b) Period 2, at 2-3
the size gradient of the fat globules, distribution of the days. Weaker hydrogen sulfide, cabbage and less
milk proteins and the browning reaction (40). Non-enzy- unpleasant flavor, slight residual "cooked". (c) Period 3,
matic browning of UHT-milk affects its flavor more at 5-12 days. Best flavor is at this stage, traces of initial
significantly than its color (41). UHT-milk is whiter than unpleasant flavor, creamy taste similar to pasteurized
the corresponding raw milk. Whitening is believed to be milk. (d) Period 4, at 12-18 days. Appearance of flat.
caused by denaturation and subsequent coagulation of chalky or slight residual cooked flavor. (e) Period 5, at
soluble protein components of milk, which increase the 19 days. Slight development of incipient oxidative
amount of opaque particles in the milk (21). The smaller rancidity or "cardboardy". becoming progressively more
the fat globules, the whiter the color of milk because obnoxious with age.
these fat globules help scatter light. According to Ashton (9), all the above stages progress
Hostetler (40) observed a striking difference in the faster if higher storage temperatures are used. The time
color between Uperized and autoclaved milk under necessary to pass through each stage does not depend on
ultra-violet light; Uperized and pasteurized milks show the thickness of the carton's internal polyethylene layer.
yellow fluorescence while autoclaved milk shows blue A black lining also does not affect the rate at which
fluorescence. Burton (18.19.20) demonstrated that off-flavors develop; however, an aluminum foil lining
UHT -milks reflect considerably more light in the helps increase the duration of each phase. The off-flavors
400-550 nm (violet, blue and green regions of the that Ashton associates with Period 5 (incipient oxidative
spectrum) range than do milks sterilized in bottles. rancidity, "cardboardy") are probably what some other
Texture researchers (29,96,105,106,107) call stale.
AU,S. committee on Flavor Nomenclature (85) has
A chalky texture is a frequently-mentioned short-
hypothesized that there are four kinds of heat-induced
coming of UHT processed milks, particularly those
flavors: cooked or sulfurous, heated or rich caramelized
processed by direct heating methods. This is apparently
and scorched, Milk when heated to 135 to 150 C for
an early stage of sediment formation. Homogenization
several seconds exhibits a strong sulfurous or cooked
after heat treatment alleviates this (21).
flavor; after several days of storage this flavor disappears
FLAVOR to leave a rich or heated note. Volatile sulfides are
believed to contribute to the cooked flavor and it has
The flavor of UHT -milk is only slightly different from
been suggested that nonenzymatic browning causes the
pasteurized milk (40). At higher processing tempera-
caramelized flavor but the compounds responsible for the
tures, the aromatic substances of the milk which cause
rich or heated note have not been clearly elucidated. It is
odors such as feedy or barny are removed more
possible that what many researchers refer to as "stale"
efficiently. Thus. consumers find the UHT -milk to be flat
(29.96.105,106,107) is a combination of "rich or heated"
or "purer." On the other hand, some consumers also
and "caramelized". A method of preparing reference
criticize the UHT-milk for off-flavors. such as cooked
standards for these flavors has been presented (85).
and stale.
In the direct-heating UHT processes where steam is Cookedflavor and sulfhydryls
injected into milk, or vice versa, the condensed steam has The cooked off-flavor is one of two primary flavor
to be removed. This is accomplished when the milk is criticisms of UHT milk. Cooked flavor is first noticeable
vacuum-cooled by flashing it into an expansion vessel when raw milk is heated momentarily to about 75 C or
under vacuum. Besides moisture, a major portion of the when it is exposed to lower temperatures for a prolonged
aromatic components, the sulfhydryl groups (SH) and time (42). Heat liberates volatile sulfides and sulfhydryls
oxygen also are removed. This deaeration helps retard and lowers the redox potential. The sulfides and

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION, VOL 43, MARCH, 1980

 UHT·PROCESSED MILK 221

mercaptans result from the heat denaturation of only oxygen is passed through the product, oxidation of the
the serum proteins (42). f3-Lactoglobulin, the major reducing substances is accelerated. This process has been
component of the albumin fraction of the serum patented by AB Tetra Pak in Sweden (40).
proteins, can account for almost all the volatile Zadow et al. (112) tested the influence of anti-oxidants
sulfur-bearing compounds. The susceptibility of generic (10 mg of butylated hydroxy-anisole + 10 mg of toco-
variants of f3-lactoglobulin to heat denaturation are in pherol + 50 mg of Tween 80 per kg of milk), storage time
the order C > B > A (81). The volatile sulfur-bearing (I-week interval for 3 months), storage temperature (2 or
compounds probably originate from methionine, cysteine 20 C), and re-examination 2 days after opening on the
and cystine which are the only common amino acids flavor acceptance of UHT -milk (150 C for 6 sec or more)
containing sulfur. The probable mechanism of the stored aseptically in cans. Statistically, the presence of
cooked flavor involves conversion of those amino acids to antioxidants was the most important factor; three of four
hydrogen sulfide and methyl sulflde (69). Cabbagey panelists preferred milk with antioxidants, the fourth
defects in UHT -milks have been correlated with objected to the metallic taste imparted by the
hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, methanethiol. di- antioxidants.
methyl sulfide and carbon disulfide (43). Ferretti et at. (29) recently recommended a sulfhydryl
Blankenagel and Humbert (16) showed that in the blocking agent to control cooked flavor in sterile milk
82-140 C range, the primary effect of the increase in concentrates. The blocking agent used was 2-acetamido-
temperature on skim milk was denaturation of serum ethyl-2-acetamidoethane-thiolsulfonate at the rate of
proteins; f3-lactoglobulin is completely denatured at 3.8 mg/100 ml of reconstituted milk. Results indicated
130 C. They also reported that denaturation yields that if this blocking agent is added after the sterilization
sulfhydryls which cause the cooked flavor. After a week process, the milk flavor is more desirable - especially
of storage at room temperature. the volatile sulfur during the early days of storage at 4 and 21 C. As the
compounds were completely gone; but at 4.5 C, the rate storage time increased, however, the differences between
of disappearance was much slower. This observation was the control and the treated samples narrowed. and the
confirmed by Lyster (56) for UHT-pasteurized milk milks were criticized as stale, scorched or typical
stored in screw cap bottles. Burton (20), Hostetler (40) evaporated milk. Samuelsson (80) has patented use of
and Ashton (9) pointed out that UHT-milk had a 30 ppm of potassium iodate, and Food Innovation AB
hydrogen sulfide odor and a cooked flavor immediately (32) has patented use of 5-70 ppm of sodium iodate,
after processing but they disappeared within 24 h after sodium bromate, potassium iodate or potassium bromate
processing. to inhibit formation of SH groups and thus improve the
flavor of UHT milk. Badings (10) found that 30-70 mg of
Patrick and Swaisgood (68) found that the reactive
L-cystine added to every kg of milk before UHT
sulfhydryl groups in UHT-skim milk were oxidized more
sterilization reduced cooked flavor intensities and
rapidly at room temperature than at refrigeration
hydrogen sulfide concentrations.
temperature. Concentrations of reactive sulfhydryls in
UHT -milk were correlated with the undesirable "cooked" Stale
flavor, and it was speculated that these could contribute Besides cooked, the other common flavor criticism of
to instability of milk protein through disulfide inter- UHT milk is "stale." Two basic approaches have been
change reactions. used to study the stale flavor. The first involves
Hostetler (40) cited evidence to show that the decrease elucidating the mechanism, and the second involves
in concentration of sulfhydryl compounds is accelerated identifying the compounds associated with the flavor.
by exposure to light and higher storage temperatures. The stale flavor becomes noticeable after the cooked
Milkfat retards the loss of sulfhydryl compounds, and flavor starts to diminish (29.96).
whole milk loses sulfhydryl compounds more slowly than Schmidt (83) found that off-flavors developed in
does skim milk. Summer milk resists loss of sulfhydryl UHT-milk within 3-6 weeks at 20 C and 1 week at 38 C.
compounds better than winter milk. UHT-milk of reduced fat content (1.7%) showed less
It has been suggested that the differences in SH sensory change during storage. Storage of sterilized milk
stability at different heating temperatures, holding in daylight caused sensory deterioration but did not
times, and storage times are due to the enzyme affect free fatty acids and hydroxymethylfurfural
sulfhydryloxidase which oxidizes the SH groups linked to content. On the other hand, Langsrud and Hadland (53)
protein compounds (56). Sulfhydryloxidase has been found that when UHT -sterilized goat's milk was stored at
isolated from raw milk, purified and characterized by 4, 20-25, 30, 37 and 50 C, maximum increase in
researchers at North Carolina State University (44.91); non-protein nitrogen was at 50 C accompanied by a
furthermore, they have developed a method of immo- bitter flavor (within 7 days), increased 5-hydroxymethyl-
bilizing the enzyme on a laboratory scale. furfural content, reduced lysine and distinct browning.
Jordan (48) confirmed the cooked flavor of milk At all temperatures except 4 C, there was progressive
disappeared within a few days because of oxidation. In browning related to temperature, along with destabiliza-
the direct UHT process, oxidation occurs more slowly tion of fat and some sedimentation - but no gelation.
because oxygen is removed by vacuum cooling. When According to Thomas et al. (96), some investigators

JOURNALOFFOODPROTECTION. VOL. 43. MARCH, 1980

222 MEHTA

associated the stale flavor with products of the Maillard were corroborated by Mehta and Bassette (58). Increase
reaction. l-Amino-l-deoxy-2-ketohexose was identified in stale off-flavor intensity for UHT-milk stored at 22 C
as the stale principle in sterile milk concentrate (96). occurred concurrently with increases in propanal,
This is a product of the Maillard reaction and thus, pentanal and hexanal and decreases in cooked flavor and
browning and staling were related. methyl sulfide. No lipid oxidation was observed and
In a series of experiments (105.106.107), Whitney's although some relationship was observed between
research group proved that a stale-flavor component, browning and UHT heat treatment, changes during
which develops in dried whole milk upon storage, was storage were significant only during the first period (12
present in the butter oil fraction. They also established days) of storage. Mehta and Bassette (58) suggested that
ideal conditions for a steam distillation procedure by development of staling as cooked flavor disappeared
which the stale component could be distilled and trapped suggested that the mechanism for staling depends on the
in fresh butter oil or distilled water. oxidation-reduction potential. Refrigeration at 4 C
In a recent series of papers, Moller et al. (61,62.63) helped retard but not eliminate the rate of increase of the
studied chemical changes in UHT-milks during storage. aldehydes and stale off-flavor (59). Hostetler (40)
Caseins from stored UHT-milks resisted proteolysis confirmed that UHT-milk resisted formation of oxidized
better than casein from unheated milk (61). This flavors better than did pasteurized milk because of
resistance was attributed to the Maillard reaction reducing substances. These reducing substances are
between milk proteins and lactose during storage of probably sulfhydryl in nature. Keeney and Patton (49)
UHT -milk. The first stable intermediate (62) of this also associated some lactones with off-flavor in stored
reaction was identified as lactuloselysine (t:-N-deoxy- milk products. The flavor they described as non-
lactulosyl-L-Iysine) and its hydrolytic breakdown product oxidative was probably what other researchers referred to
fructoselysine (t:- N-deoxylactulosyl-L-lysine). Indirect evi- as "stale." However, Lyster (56) associated d-dodecalac-
dence for their formation was obtained when Finot et al. tone and d-dodelactone and Keeney and Patton (49)
(30) identified furosine and pyridosine in roller-dried associated d-decalactone with a coconut-like off-flavor in
milk powder. Among UHT-milks stored at different stored milk products.
temperatures for different times, browning was most Morgan et al. (64) patented a process for adding
apparent at the highest temperature for the longest time .002-0.4 % of a citrus bioflavonoid, preferably hesperidin,
(37 C for 3 years) and in this, only part of the lysine to a milk product before sterilization, They claim that
residues was accounted for as lactuloselysine and these bioflavonoids prevent stale flavors in sterilized
fructoselysine. Thus lysine had become involved further canned milk products during storage.
in sugar degradation products. Oxygen
The volatile chemical compounds identified in a Zadow (110) observed that after storage for short
number of different kinds of stored milk products have periods, UHT-milk with a high oxygen content was
been reviewed by Arnold et al. (8). The compounds preferred. After storage for prolonged periods. the flavor
identified are n-aldehydes (C 1-C 3• CS-C 10' C u , C 1J, of milk with low oxygen was found to be better. Th~
n-methyl ketones (C 3-C S' C7, C g, Cll' C n • C 1 s>, n-fatty deterioration in flavor resulted in oxidized or slightly
acids (C s, C a, C 10, C w C 14 , C1J, 2-pentanone, rancid off-flavors. The two main factors that affect
2-hexanone, 2-heptanone, d-decalactone, d-dodecalac- development of off-flavors in UHT-milk are level of
tone, furfuraldehyde, benzaldehyde, 2-methylheptanal, oxygen and temperature of storage (111).
o-aminoacetophenone acetone, pentyl acetate and Tarassuk (93) studied the effect of oxygen content in
dimethyl sulfide. In experiments with stale, sterile the head-space of cans sterilized by autoclaving at
concentrated milk, Arnold et aI., identified 2-heptanone, 85-120 C. A correlation was found among carbon dioxide
2-nonanone, 2-tridecanone, benzaldhyde, acetophenone, produced, oxygen depleted, the intensity of cooked
naphthalene, a dichlorobenzene, d-decalactone, benzo- flavor, and the degree of browning discoloration
thiazole and o-aminoacetophenone. Of these com- (measured by sensory evaluation). The data suggest that
pounds, only the dichlorobenzene and 2-heptanone were the flavor and color of sterilized milk may be improved
identified in the control milk. Control milk was stored at by lowering the available oxygen in a can before
1 C and the experimental milk at 22 C. More recently sterilization. This also suggests that if the oxygen in the
Jeon et al. (47) observed increases of acetone, milk during UHT processing is limited. milk with a
methylketones (C 3• C s• C7 , Ca. C g• C ll , Cn), n-aldehydes better flavor can be produced.
(C 3, C s• C s, C 7, C a, C~ and I-butanol in UHT (145 C for Thomas et al. (96) experimented with the effect of
3 sec)-milks stored at 3, 22 and 35 C for 5 months. oxygen content on the flavor of indirectly-heated
Although the methyl ketones were most abundant, UHT-milk during a lSO-day storage period at room
aldehydes appeared to be the significant contributors to temperature. The UHT-milk was prepared with initial
the off-flavor of stored UHT milk. Oxygen in milk oxygen contents of 8.9, 3.6 and 1.0 ppm which represent
affected concentration of only the aldehydes, whereas almost the entire range of concentration expected under
storage temperature affected concentrations of aldehydes normal processing conditions. Flavor acceptability was
and the methyl ketones. Some observations of Jeon et a1. maximum at 6 days, after which it slowly declined. The

JOURNAL OF FOOD PROTECTION. VOL. 43, MARCH, 1980

 UHT-PROCESSED MILK 223

increase in acceptability from 0 to 6 days was associated UHT-milk in AC cartons retained a desirable flavor
with the decrease in the off-flavor described as cabbagey; longer than that in PC cartons, at least partly because PC
after 6 days, the milks started acquiring a stale cartons were more permeable to gases. Wrapping either
characteristic. Up to 8-13 days, the higher the initial carton with Saran and aluminum foil was detrimental to
oxygen content, the more acceptable a milk was; flavor, probably because the wrapping not only excluded
however, after this, the acceptability did not depend on outside air from the milk but also served to exclude
initial oxygen content. Losses of sulfhydryls, ascorbic volatile compounds corning from either growth of
acid and folic acid were less with lower initial oxygen and microorganisms on the surface of the cartons or from the
vice versa, but the benefits of high oxygen content on wrapping material itself.
flavor were slight and were outweighed by the adverse
nutritional effects.
Zadow and Birtwistle (I II) derived a relationship
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