CHAPTER - 1 - INTRODUCTION TO DATA STRUCTURES

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Data structure is the way of organizing and storing data in a computer system so that it
can be used efficiently.

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DATA STRUCTURES

The following points highlight the need of data structures in computer science:

1. It depicts the logical representation of data in computer memory.

2. It represents the logical relationship between the various data elements.
3. It helps in efficient manipulation of stored data elements.
4. It allows the programs to process the data in an efficient manner.

1.3 APPLICATIONS OF DATA STRUCTURES

Some of the applications of data structures are:

1. Compiler design
2. Operating system
3. Database management system
4. Statistical analysis package
5. Numerical analysis
6. Graphics
7. Artificial intelligence
8. Simulation

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DATA STRUCTURES

Data structures are primarily divided into two classes:

 Primitive
 Non-primitive

1.4.1 Primitive Data Structures

Primitive data structures include all the fundamental data structures that can be directly
manipulated by machine level instructions.

Some of the common primitive data structures include:

 Integer
 Character
 Real
 Boolean, etc.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 5

1.4.2 Non-primitive Data Structures

Non-primitive data structures refer to all those data structures that are derived from
one or more primitive data structures. The objective of creating non-primitive data structures
is to form sets of homogeneous or heterogeneous data elements.

Non-primitive data structures are further categorized into two types:

 Linear
 Non-linear

1.4.3 Linear Data Structures

In linear data structures, all the data elements are arranged in a linear or sequential
fashion. Examples of linear data structures include:

 Arrays
 Stacks
 Queues
 Linked lists, etc.

1.4.4 Non-linear Data Structures

In non-linear data structures, there is no definite order or sequence in which data

elements are arranged. For instance, a non-linear data structure could arrange data elements
in a hierarchical fashion. Examples of non-linear data structures are:

 Trees
 Graphs

Data Structures

Primitive Non-primitive Data

Data Structures Structures

Linear Non-linear
Integer Real Character Boolean Data Structures Data Structures

Arrays Trees

Linked List Graphs

Stacks

Queues

Fig. 1.1 Classification of Data Structures

6 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is data structure? How is it classified?

2. What are the various characteristics of a data structure?
3. What are primitive data structures?
4. What are non-primitive data structures?
5. What is a linear data structure?
6. What is anon-linear data structure?
7. List out the characteristics of data structure?
8. List out the areas in which data structures are applied.
9. What are the major data structures used in the following areas:
RDBMS, Network data model and Hierarchical data model.
10. Write any two data structures used in Operating System?

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 7

8 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College
 CHAPTER - 2 - LIST ADT

2.1 ABSTRACT DATA TYPE (ADT)

An abstract data type (ADT) is a set of objects together with a set of operations. Abstract
data types are mathematical abstractions. Objects such as lists, sets, and graphs, along with
their operations, can be viewed as abstract data types.

2.2 LIST ADT

List is an ordered set of elements. For any list except the empty list, we say that A i+1
follows (or succeeds) Ai (i<N) and that Ai-1 precedes Ai (i>1). The first element of the list is A1,
and the last element is AN.

Some popular operations are printList, makeEmpty, find, insert, remove, findKth, next,
previous.

Fig. 2.1. A linked list

2.3 OPERATIONS OF THE LIST ADT

 printList – contents of the list is displayed

 makeEmpty – makes the list empty
 find – returns the position of the first occurrence of an item
 insert – insert some element from some position in the list
 remove – remove some element from some position in the list
 findKth – returns the element in some position (specified as an argument)
 next – return the position of the successor
 previous – return the position of the predecessor

2.4 DIFFERENT WAYS TO IMPLEMENT LIST

Lists are implemented using:

 Array
 Linked list

2.5 ARRAYS

An array implementation allows print_list and find to be carried out in linear time, which
is as good as can be expected, and the find_kth operation takes constant time. However,
insertion and deletion are expensive. For example, inserting at position 0 (which amounts to
making a new first element) requires first pushing the entire array down one spot to make
room, whereas deleting the first element requires shifting all the elements in the list up one, so
the worst case of these operations is O(n). On average, half the list needs to be moved for either
operation, so linear time is still required. Merely building a list by n successive inserts would
require quadratic time.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 9

 Because the running time for insertions and deletions is so slow and the list size must
be known in advance, simple arrays are generally not used to implement lists.

2.6 LINKED LIST

The linked list consists of a series of structures, which are not necessarily adjacent in
memory. Each structure contains the element and a pointer to a structure containing its
successor. We call this the next pointer. The last cell's next pointer points to NULL.

Data Next
Element Pointer
Node

2.7 ADVANTAGES OF LINKED LISTS

Some of the key advantages of linked lists are:

1. Linked lists facilitate dynamic memory management by allowing elements to be

added or deleted at any time during program execution.
2. The use of linked lists ensures efficient utilization of memory space as only that much
amount of memory space is reserved as is required for storing the list elements.
3. It is easy to insert or delete elements in a linked list, unlike arrays, which require
shuffling of other elements with each insert and delete operation.

2.8 DISADVANTAGES OF LINKED LISTS

Apart from the advantages, linked lists also possess certain limitations, which are:

1. A linked list element requires more memory space in comparison to an array

element because it has to also store the address of the next element in the list.
2. Accessing an element is a little more difficult in linked lists than arrays because
unlike arrays, there is no index identifier associated with each list element. Thus, to
access a linked list element, it is mandatory to traverse all the preceding elements.

2.9 TYPES OF LINKED LIST

Depending on the manner in which its nodes are interconnected with each other, linked
lists are categorized into the following types:

 Singly linked list

 Doubly linked list
 Circular linked list

10 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is an Abstract Data Type (ADT)? (or) Define Abstract Data Type (ADT). (or) Define
ADT and give an example. (or) What do you mean by abstract data type? (or) What is an
abstract data type? Give any two examples. (or) Give an example for abstract data type. (or)
Define abstract data type. List out few.
2. What is advantage of an ADT?
3. Define a 'list'; Mention any two operations that are performed on a list. (or) Define List
Abstract Data Type with example.
4. List out the operations of the list ADT. (or) Which operations are supported by the list ADT?
5. What are the different ways to implement list?
6. What are the advantages of linked list over arrays?
7. What are the disadvantages of linked list?
8. List the various types of linked lists.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 11

12 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College
 CHAPTER - 3 - ARRAY BASED IMPLEMENTATION OF LIST

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Array is a collection of specific number of data stored in consecutive memory locations.

Fig. 3.1. Array example

3.2 OPERATIONS ON ARRAY

 Insert
 Delete
 Traversal
 Sorting
 Searching

3.3 INSERTION

Insertion is the task of adding an element into an existing array. If an element is to be

inserted at the end of the array, then it can be simply achieved by storing the new element one
position to the right of the last element. Alternatively, if an element is required to be inserted
at the middle, then this will require all the subsequent elements to be moved one place to the
right.

Example

Fig. 3.2. Array insertion

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Algorithm to Insert an Element in an Array

Insert(a[], p, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set i = n.
Step 3 : Repeat Steps 4 to 5 while i >= p.
Step 4 : Set a[i+1] = a[i].
Step 5 : Set i = i – 1.
Step 6 : Set a[p] = e.
Step 7 : Set n = n + 1.
Step 8 : Stop.

Routine to Insert an Element in an Array

void Insert(int a[], int p, int e)

{
int i;
for(i = n; i >= p; i--)
a[i + 1] = a[i];
a[p] = e;
n = n + 1;
}

3.4 DELETION

Deletion is the task of removing an element from the array. The deletion of element from
the end is quite simple and can be achieved by mere updation of index identifier. However, to
remove an element from the middle, one must move all the elements present to the right of the
point of deletion, one position to the left.

Example

Fig. 3.3. Array deletion

14 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Algorithm to Delete an Element from an Array

Delete(a[], p)
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set i = p.
Step 3 : Repeat Steps 4 to 5 while i < n.
Step 4 : Set a[i] = a[i+1].
Step 5 : Set i = i + 1.
Step 6 : Set n = n - 1.
Step 7 : Stop.

Routine to Delete an Element from an Array

void Delete(int a[], int p)

{
int i;
for(i = p; i < n; i++)
a[i] = a[i + 1];
n = n - 1;
}

3.5 TRAVERSAL

While working with arrays, it is often required to access the array elements; that is,
reading values from the array. This is achieved with the help of array traversal. It involves
visiting the array elements and storing or retrieving values from it.

Some of the typical situations where array traversal may be required are:

 Printing array elements

 Searching an element in the array
 Sorting an array

Algorithm to Traverse an Array

Traverse(a[])
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set i = 0.
Step 3 : Repeat Steps 4 to 5 while i < n.
Step 4 : Access a[i].
Step 5 : Set i = i + 1.
Step 6 : Stop.

Routine to Traverse an Array

void Traverse(int a[])

{
int i;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d\t", a[i]);
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 15

3.6 SEARCHING

Searching is the process of traversing an array to find out if a specific element is present
in the array or not. If the search is successful, the index location of the element is returned.

Example

Fig. 3.4. Array Searching

Algorithm to Search an element in an Array

Search(a[], e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set i = 0.
Step 3 : Repeat Steps 4 to 6 while i < n.
Step 4 : if e = a[i] goto Step 5 else goto Step 6.
Step 5 : Set flag = 1 and goto Step 7.
Step 6 : Set i = i + 1.
Step 7 : if flag = 1 goto Step 8 else goto Step 9.
Step 8 : Print i and goto step 10.
Step 9 : Print i.
Step 10: Print “Unsuccesful.”.
Step 11: Stop.

Routine to Search an element in an Array

void Search(int a[], int e)

{
int i, flag = 0;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
if(e == a[i])
{
flag = 1;
break;
}
}
if(flag == 1)
printf("Successful. Element %d is at location %d",e,i);
else
printf("Unsuccessful.");
}

16 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

3.7 SORTING

The sorting operation arranges the elements of an array in a specific order or sequence.
Sorting involves comparing the array elements with each other and shuffling them until all the
elements are sorted.

Example

Fig. 3.5. Array Sorting

Algorithm to Sort the elements in an Array

Sort(a[])

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set i = 0.
Step 3 : Repeat Steps 4 to 11 while i < n-1.
Step 4 : Set j = i+1.
Step 5 : Repeat Steps 6 to 10 while j < n.
Step 6 : if a[i] > a[j] goto Step 7 else goto Step 10.
Step 7 : Set t = a[i].
Step 8 : Set a[i] = a[j].
Step 9 : Set a[j] = t.
Step 10: Set j = j + 1.
Step 11: Set i = i + 1.
Step 12: Stop.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 17

Routine to Sort the elements in an Array

void Sort(int a[])

{
int i, j, t;
for(i = 0; i < n-1; i++)
{
for(j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
{
if(a[i] > a[j])
{
t = a[i];
a[i] = a[j];
a[j] = t;
}
}
}
}

3.8 PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>

int n = 0;

void Insert(int a[], int p, int e);

void Delete(int a[], int p);
void Search(int a[], int e);
void Traverse(int a[]);
void Sort(int a[]);

int main()
{
int a[5], ch, e, p;
printf("1.Insert \n2.Delete \n3.Search");
printf("\n4.Traverse \n5.Sort \n6.Exit\n");
do
{
printf("\nEnter your choice : ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
printf("Enter the position : ");
scanf("%d", &p);
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
Insert(a, p, e);
break;

18 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 case 2:
printf("Enter the position : ");
scanf("%d", &p);
Delete(a, p);
break;
case 3:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
Search(a, e);
break;
case 4:
printf("The elements are : ");
Traverse(a);
break;
case 5:
Sort(a);
break;
}
} while(ch <= 5);
return 0;
}

void Insert(int a[], int p, int e)

{
int i;
for(i = n; i >= p; i--)
a[i + 1] = a[i];
a[p] = e;
n = n + 1;
}

void Delete(int a[], int p)

{
int i;
for(i = p; i < n; i++)
a[i] = a[i + 1];
n = n - 1;
}

void Search(int a[], int e)

{
int i, flag = 0;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
{
if(e == a[i])
{
flag = 1;
break;
}
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 19

 if(flag == 1)
printf("Successful. Element %d is at location %d", e, i);
else
printf("Unsuccessful.");
}

void Traverse(int a[])

{
int i;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d\t", a[i]);
}

void Sort(int a[])

{
int i, j, t;
for(i = 0; i < n-1; i++)
{
for(j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
{
if(a[i] > a[j])
{
t = a[i];
a[i] = a[j];
a[j] = t;
}
}
}
}

OUTPUT

1.Insert
2.Delete
3.Search
4.Traverse
5.Sort
6.Exit

Enter your choice : 1

Enter the position : 0
Enter the element : 10

Enter your choice : 4

The elements are : 10
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the position : 0
Enter the element : 20

20 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Enter your choice : 4
The elements are : 20 10

Enter your choice : 1

Enter the position : 1
Enter the element : 25

Enter your choice : 4

The elements are : 20 25 10
Enter your choice : 2
Enter the position : 1

Enter your choice : 4

The elements are : 20 10
Enter your choice : 3
Enter the element : 10
Successful. Element 10 is at location 1

Enter your choice : 3

Enter the element : 25
Unsuccessful.
Enter your choice : 5

Enter your choice : 4

The elements are : 10 20
Enter your choice : 6

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 21

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is an array?
2. What are the two basic operations on arrays?
3. What are the limitations of list implemented by array?

22 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 4 - LINKED LIST IMPLEMENTATION - SINGLY LINKED LISTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

A singly linked list is a linked list in which each node contains only one link field pointing
to the next node in the list.

Fig. 4.1 Singly Linked List

Fig. 4.2 Singly Linked List with Header

4.2 TYPE DECLARATIONS FOR SINGLY LINKED LIST

struct node
{
int Element;
struct node *Next;
};
typedef struct node Node;

4.3 EMPTY LIST WITH HEADER

Example

Fig. 4.3 Empty List with Header

Algorithm

IsEmpty(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If ListNext = NULL goto Step 3 else goto Step 4.
Step 3 : Return 1 and Stop.
Step 4 : Return 0.
Step 5 : Stop.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 23

Routine

int IsEmpty(Node *List)

{
if(List->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

4.4 CURRENT POSITION IS LAST

Example

Position
Fig. 4.4 Current Position is the Last in a Linked List

Algorithm

IsLast(Position)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If PositionNext = NULL goto Step 3 else goto Step 4.
Step 3 : Return 1 and Stop.
Step 4 : Return 0.
Step 5 : Stop.

Routine to Check whether the Current Position is Last

int IsLast(Node *Position)

{
if(Position->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

4.5 FIND

4.5.1 Find

Example

Find(List, 30)

Position

24 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Algorithm

Find(List, x)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set Position = ListNext.
Step 3 : Repeat the Step 4 until Position != NULL and PositionElement != x.
Step 4 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 5 : Return Position.
Step 6 : Stop.

Routine

Node *Find(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != NULL && Position->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}

4.5.2 FindPrevious

To avoid the problems associated with deletions, we need to write a routine

FindPrevious, which will return the position of the predecessor of the cell we wish to delete. If
we use a header, then if we wish to delete the first element in the list, FindPrevious will return
the position of the header.

Example

FindPrevious(List, 30)

Position X

Algorithm

FindPrevious(List, x)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set Position = List.
Step 3 : Repeat the Step 4 until PositionNext != NULL and PositionNextElement
!= x.
Step 4 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 5 : Return Position.
Step 6 : Stop.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 25

Routine

Node *FindPrevious(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL && Position->Next->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}

4.5.3 FindNext

Example

FindNext(List, 20)

X, Position PositionNext

Algorithm

FindNext(List, x)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set Position = Find(List, x).
Step 3 : Return PositionNext.
Step 4 : Stop.

Routine

Node *FindNext(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, x);
return Position->Next;
}

4.6 TRAVERSE THE LIST

Example

26 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Algorithm

Traverse(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = TRUE goto Step 3 else goto Step 8.
Step 3 : Set Position = List.
Step 4 : Repeat the Steps 5-6 until PositionNext != NULL.
Step 5 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Display PositionElement.
Step 7 : Goto Step 9.
Step 8 : Display “List is empty”.
Step 9 : Stop.

Routine

void Traverse(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
{
Position = Position->Next;
printf("%d\t", Position->Element);
}
printf("\n");
}
else
printf("List is empty...!");
}

4.7 INSERT

The insert command requires obtaining a new cell from the system by using an malloc
call and then executing two pointer maneuvers.

We will pass an element to be inserted along with the list L and a position P. Our
particular insertion routine will insert an element after the position implied by P. This decision
is arbitrary and meant to show that there are no set rules for what insertion does. It is quite
possible to insert the new element into position P (which means before the element currently
in position p), but doing this requires knowledge of the element before position P. This could
be obtained by a call to Find.

Insertion

 Insert an element at the beginning

 Insert an element at the end
 Insert an element in the middle

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 27

4.7.1 Insert an Element at the Beginning

Example

The general idea is shown in Figure. The dashed line represents the old pointer.

InsertBeg(List, 5)

NewNode

Algorithm

InsertBeg(List, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 4 : If List = NULL, then goto Step 5 else goto Step 6.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = NULL and goto Step 7.
Step 6 : Set NewNodeNext = ListNext.
Step 7 : Set ListNext = NewNode.
Step 8: Stop.

Routine

void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
NewNode->Element = e;
if(IsEmpty(List))
NewNode->Next = NULL;
else
NewNode->Next = List->Next;
List->Next = NewNode;
}

4.7.2 Insert an Element at the End

Example

28 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 InsertLast(List, 45)

Position NewNode

Algorithm

InsertLast(List, e)
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 4 : Set NewNodeNext = NULL.
Step 5 : If List = NULL, then goto Step 6 else goto Step 7.
Step 6 : Set ListNext = NewNode and goto Step 11.
Step 7 : Set Position = List.
Step 8 : Repeat the Step 9 until PositionNext != NULL.
Step 9 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 10: Set PositionNext = NewNode.
Step 11: Stop.

Routine

void InsertLast(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = NULL;
if(IsEmpty(List))
List->Next = NewNode;
else
{
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
}
}

4.7.3 Insert an Element in the Middle

Example

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 29

 InsertMid(List, 20, 25)

NewNode

Position

Algorithm

InsertMid(List, p, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : Set Position = Find(List, p).
Step 4 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set PositionNext = NewNode.
Step 7 : Stop.

Routine

void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, p);
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
}

4.8 DELETE

The delete command can be executed in one pointer change. Our routine will delete
some element X in list L. We need to decide what to do if x occurs more than once or not at all.
Our routine deletes the first occurrence of x and does nothing if x is not in the list. To do this,
we find p, which is the cell prior to the one containing x, via a call to FindPrevious.

4.8.1 Delete an Element from the Beginning

Example

30 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 DeleteBeg(List)

TempNode

Algorithm

DeleteBeg(List, e)
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 7.
Step 3 : Set TempNode = ListNext.
Step 4 : Set ListNext = TempNodeNext.
Step 5 : Display the TempNodeElement.
Step 6 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 8.
Step 7 : Display “List is Empty”.
Step 8: Stop.

Routine

void DeleteBeg(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *TempNode;
TempNode = List->Next;
List->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

4.8.2 Delete an Element from the End

Example

DeleteEnd(List)

Position TempNode

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 31

Algorithm

DeleteEnd(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 10.
Step 3 : Set Position = List.
Step 4 : Repeat the Step 5 until PositionNext != NULL.
Step 5 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set TempNode = PositionNext.
Step 7 : Set PositionNext = NULL.
Step 8 : Display TempNodeElement.
Step 9 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 11.
Step 10: Display “List is Empty”.
Step 11: Stop.

Routine

void DeleteEnd(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NULL;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

4.8.3 Delete an Element from the Middle

Example

DeleteMid(List, 30)
TempNode

Position
32 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College
Algorithm

DeleteMid(List, e)
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 9.
Step 3 : Set Position = FindPrevious(List, e).
Step 4 : If !Islast(Position) = True, then goto Step 5 else goto Step 10.
Step 5 : Set TempNode = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set PositionNext = TempNodeNext.
Step 7 : Display the TempNodeElement.
Step 8 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 10.
Step 9 : Display “List is Empty”.
Step 10: Stop.

Routine

void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = FindPrevious(List, e);
if(!IsLast(Position))
{
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

4.9. PROGRAM

/* Implementation of singly linked list - SLL.C */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct node
{
int Element;
struct node *Next;
};
typedef struct node Node;

int IsEmpty(Node *List);

int IsLast(Node *Position);

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 33

Node *Find(Node *List, int x);
Node *FindPrevious(Node *List, int x);
Node *FindNext(Node *List, int x);
void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e);
void InsertLast(Node *List, int e);
void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e);
void DeleteBeg(Node *List);
void DeleteEnd(Node *List);
void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e);
void Traverse(Node *List);

int main()
{
Node *List = malloc(sizeof(Node));
List->Next = NULL;
Node *Position;
int ch, e, p;
printf("1.Insert Beg \n2.Insert Middle \n3.Insert End");
printf("\n4.Delete Beg \n5.Delete Middle \n6.Delete End");
printf("\n7.Find \n8.Traverse \n9.Exit\n");
do
{
printf("Enter your choice : ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertBeg(List, e);
break;
case 2:
printf("Enter the position element : ");
scanf("%d", &p);
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertMid(List, p, e);
break;
case 3:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertLast(List, e);
break;
case 4:
DeleteBeg(List);
break;
case 5:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
DeleteMid(List, e);
break;

34 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 case 6:
DeleteEnd(List);
break;
case 7:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
Position = Find(List, e);
if(Position != NULL)
printf("Element found...!\n");
else
printf("Element not found...!\n");
break;
case 8:
Traverse(List);
break;
}
} while(ch <= 8);

return 0;
}

int IsEmpty(Node *List)

{
if(List->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
int IsLast(Node *Position)
{
if(Position->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
Node *Find(Node *List, int x)
{
Node *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != NULL && Position->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}
Node *FindPrevious(Node *List, int x)
{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL && Position->Next->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 35

Node *FindNext(Node *List, int x)
{
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, x);
return Position->Next;
}

void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
NewNode->Element = e;

if(IsEmpty(List))
NewNode->Next = NULL;
else
NewNode->Next = List->Next;
List->Next = NewNode;
}

void InsertLast(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = NULL;

if(IsEmpty(List))
List->Next = NewNode;
else
{
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
}
}

void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, p);
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
}

36 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

void DeleteBeg(Node *List)
{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *TempNode;
TempNode = List->Next;
List->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

void DeleteEnd(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NULL;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = FindPrevious(List, e);
if(!IsLast(Position))
{
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 37

void Traverse(Node *List)
{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
{
Position = Position->Next;
printf("%d\t", Position->Element);
}
printf("\n");
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

OUTPUT

1.Insert Beg
2.Insert Middle
3.Insert End
4.Delete Beg
5.Delete Middle
6.Delete End
7.Find
8.Traverse
9.Exit
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 40
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 30
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 20
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 10
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 30 40
Enter your choice : 7
Enter the element : 30
Element found...!
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 5
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 30 40
Enter your choice : 3
Enter the element : 45
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 2
Enter the position element : 20

38 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Enter the element : 25
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 25 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 4
The deleted item is 5
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 6
The deleted item is 45
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 30 40
Enter your choice : 5
Enter the element : 30
The deleted item is 30
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 40
Enter your choice : 9

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 39

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a singly linked list?

2. Should arrays or linked list be used for the following types of applications? Justify your
answer.
(a) Many search operations in sorted list.
(b) Many search operations in unsorted list.

40 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 5 - CIRCULAR LINKED LISTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A popular convention is to have the last cell keep a pointer back to the first. This can be
done with or without a header (if the header is present, the last cell points to it), and can also
be done with doubly linked lists (the first cell's previous pointer points to the last cell). This
clearly affects some of the tests, but the structure is popular in some applications.

In circular linked list the pointer of the last node points to the first node. Circular linked
list can be implemented as singly linked list and doubly linked list with or without headers.

5.2 IMPLEMENTATION

A singly linked circular list is a linked list in which the last node of the list points to the
first node.

Fig. 5.1 Singly Linked Circular List

Fig. 5.2. Singly Linked Circular List with Header

5.3 TYPE DECLARATIONS FOR LINKED LIST

struct node
{
int Element;
struct node *Next;
};
typedef struct node Node;

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 41

5.4. EMPTY SINGLY LINKED CIRCULAR LIST WITH HEADER

Example

Fig. 5.3 Empty Singly Linked Circular List with Header

Algorithm

IsEmpty(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If ListNext = LIST goto Step 3 else goto Step 4.
Step 3 : Return 1 and Stop.
Step 4 : Return 0.
Step 5 : Stop.

Routine

int IsEmpty(Node *List)

{
if(List->Next == List)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

5.5 CURRENT POSITION IS LAST

Example

Position
Fig. 5.4 Current Position is the Last in a Singly Linked Circular List

Algorithm

IsLast(Position, List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If PositionNext = List goto Step 3 else goto Step 4.
Step 3 : Return 1 and Stop.
42 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College
 Step 4 : Return 0.
Step 5 : Stop.

Routine to Check whether the Current Position is Last

int IsLast(Node *Position, Node *List)

{
if(Position->Next == List)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

5.6 FIND

5.6.1 Find

Example

Find(List, 30)
Position

Algorithm

Find(List, x)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set Position = ListNext.
Step 3 : Repeat the Step 4 until Position != List and PositionElement != x.
Step 4 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 5 : Return Position.
Step 6 : Stop.

Routine

Node *Find(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != List && Position->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 43

5.6.2 FindPrevious

To avoid the problems associated with deletions, we need to write a routine

FindPrevious, which will return the position of the predecessor of the cell we wish to delete. If
we use a header, then if we wish to delete the first element in the list, FindPrevious will return
the position of the header.

Example

FindPrevious(List, 30)
Position X

Algorithm

FindPrevious(List, x)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set Position = List.
Step 3 : Repeat the Step 4 until PositionNext != List and
PositionNextElement!=x.
Step 4 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 5 : Return Position.
Step 6 : Stop.

Routine

Node *FindPrevious(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != List && Position->Next->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}

44 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

5.6.3 FindNext

Example

FindNext(List, 20)
X, Position PositionNext

Algorithm

FindNext(List, x)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set Position = Find(List, x).
Step 3 : Return PositionNext.
Step 4 : Stop.

Routine

Node *FindNext(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, x);
return Position->Next;
}

5.7 TRAVERSE THE LIST

Example

Algorithm

Traverse(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = TRUE goto Step 3 else goto Step 8.
Step 3 : Set Position = List.
Step 4 : Repeat the Steps 5-6 until PositionNext != List.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 45

 Step 5 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Display PositionElement.
Step 7 : Goto Step 9.
Step 8 : Display “List is empty”.
Step 9 : Stop.

Routine

void Traverse(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != List)
{
Position = Position->Next;
printf("%d\t", Position->Element);
}
printf("\n");
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

5.8 INSERT

The insert command requires obtaining a new cell from the system by using an malloc
call and then executing two pointer maneuvers.

We will pass an element to be inserted along with the list L and a position P. Our
particular insertion routine will insert an element after the position implied by P. This decision
is arbitrary and meant to show that there are no set rules for what insertion does. It is quite
possible to insert the new element into position P (which means before the element currently
in position p), but doing this requires knowledge of the element before position P. This could
be obtained by a call to Find.

Insertion

 Insert an element at the beginning

 Insert an element at the end
 Insert an element in the middle

5.8.1 Insert an Element at the Beginning

Example

The general idea is shown in Figure. The dashed line represents the old pointer.

46 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 InsertBeg(List, 5)

NewNode

Algorithm

InsertBeg(List, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 4 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = ListNext.
Step 6 : Set ListNext = NewNode.
Step 7: Stop.

Routine

void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = List->Next;
List->Next = NewNode;
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 47

5.8.2 Insert an Element at the End

Example

InsertLast(List, 45)
Position NewNode

Algorithm

InsertLast(List, e)
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 4 : If List = NULL, then goto Step 5 else goto Step 7.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = List.
Step 6 : Set ListNext = NewNode and goto Step 12.
Step 7 : Set Position = List.
Step 8 : Repeat the Step 9 until PositionNext != List.
Step 9 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 10: Set PositionNext = NewNode.
Step 11: Set NewNodeNext = List.
Step 12: Stop.

Routine

void InsertLast(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
NewNode->Element = e;
if(IsEmpty(List))
{
NewNode->Next = List;
List->Next = NewNode;
}

48 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 else
{
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != List)
Position = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
NewNode->Next = List;
}
}

5.8.3 Insert an Element in the Middle

Example

InsertMid(List, 20, 25)

Position NewNode

Algorithm

InsertMid(List, p, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : Set Position = Find(List, p).
Step 4 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set PositionNext = NewNode.
Step 7 : Stop.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 49

Routine

void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, p);
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
}

5.9 DELETE

The delete command can be executed in one pointer change. Our routine will delete
some element X in list L. We need to decide what to do if x occurs more than once or not at all.
Our routine deletes the first occurrence of x and does nothing if x is not in the list. To do this,
we find p, which is the cell prior to the one containing x, via a call to FindPrevious.

5.9.1 Delete an Element from the Beginning

Example

DeleteBeg(List)
TempNode

Algorithm

DeleteBeg(List, e)
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 7.
Step 3 : Set TempNode = ListNext.
Step 4 : Set ListNext = TempNodeNext.
Step 5 : Display the TempNodeElement.
Step 6 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 8.
Step 7 : Display “List is Empty”.
Step 8: Stop.

50 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Routine

void DeleteBeg(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *TempNode;
TempNode = List->Next;
List->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

5.9.2 Delete an Element from the End

Example

DeleteEnd(List)

Position TempNode

Algorithm

DeleteEnd(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 10.
Step 3 : Set Position = List.
Step 4 : Repeat the Step 5 until PositionNext != List.
Step 5 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set TempNode = PositionNext.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 51

 Step 7 : Set PositionNext = List.
Step 8 : Display TempNodeElement.
Step 9 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 11.
Step 10: Display “List is Empty”.
Step 11: Stop.

Routine

void DeleteEnd(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next->Next != List)
Position = Position->Next;
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = List;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

5.9.3 Delete an Element from the Middle

Example

DeleteMid(List, 30)
Position TempNode

52 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Algorithm

DeleteMid(List, e)
Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 9.
Step 3 : Set Position = FindPrevious(List, e).
Step 4 : If !Islast(Position, List) = True, then goto Step 5 else goto Step 10.
Step 5 : Set TempNode = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set PositionNext = TempNodeNext.
Step 7 : Display the TempNodeElement.
Step 8 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 10.
Step 9 : Display “List is Empty”.
Step 10: Stop.

Routine

void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = FindPrevious(List, e);
if(!IsLast(Position, List))
{
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

5.10 PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct node
{
int Element;
struct node *Next;
};
typedef struct node Node;

int IsEmpty(Node *List);

int IsLast(Node *Position, Node *List);
Node *Find(Node *List, int x);
Node *FindPrevious(Node *List, int x);

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 53

Node *FindNext(Node *List, int x);
void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e);
void InsertLast(Node *List, int e);
void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e);
void DeleteBeg(Node *List);
void DeleteEnd(Node *List);
void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e);
void Traverse(Node *List);

int main()
{
Node *List = malloc(sizeof(Node));
List->Next = List;
Node *Position;
int ch, e, p;
printf("1.Insert Beg \n2.Insert Middle \n3.Insert End");
printf("\n4.Delete Beg \n5.Delete Middle \n6.Delete End");
printf("\n7.Find \n8.Traverse \n9.Exit\n");
do
{
printf("Enter your choice : ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertBeg(List, e);
break;
case 2:
printf("Enter the position element : ");
scanf("%d", &p);
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertMid(List, p, e);
break;
case 3:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertLast(List, e);
break;
case 4:
DeleteBeg(List);
break;
case 5:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
DeleteMid(List, e);
break;
case 6:
DeleteEnd(List);

54 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 break;
case 7:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
Position = Find(List, e);
if(Position != List)
printf("Element found...!\n");
else
printf("Element not found...!\n");
break;
case 8:
Traverse(List);
break;
}
} while(ch <= 8);

return 0;
}

int IsEmpty(Node *List)

{
if(List->Next == List)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

int IsLast(Node *Position, Node *List)

{
if(Position->Next == List)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

Node *Find(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != List && Position->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}

Node *FindPrevious(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != List && Position->Next->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 55

}

Node *FindNext(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, x);
return Position->Next;
}

void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = List->Next;
List->Next = NewNode;
}

void InsertLast(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
NewNode->Element = e;
if(IsEmpty(List))
{
NewNode->Next = List;
List->Next = NewNode;
}
else
{
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != List)
Position = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
NewNode->Next = List;
}
}

void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, p);
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
}

void DeleteBeg(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{

56 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 Node *TempNode;
TempNode = List->Next;
List->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

void DeleteEnd(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next->Next != List)
Position = Position->Next;
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = List;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = FindPrevious(List, e);
if(!IsLast(Position, List))
{
TempNode = Position->Next;
Position->Next = TempNode->Next;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 57

void Traverse(Node *List)
{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != List)
{
Position = Position->Next;
printf("%d\t", Position->Element);
}
printf("\n");
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

OUTPUT

1.Insert Beg
2.Insert Middle
3.Insert End
4.Delete Beg
5.Delete Middle
6.Delete End
7.Find
8.Traverse
9.Exit
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 40
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 30
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 20
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 10
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 30 40
Enter your choice : 7
Enter the element : 30
Element found...!
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 5
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 30 40
Enter your choice : 3
Enter the element : 45
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 2
Enter the position element : 20

58 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Enter the element : 25
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 25 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 4
The deleted item is 5
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 6
The deleted item is 45
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 30 40
Enter your choice : 5
Enter the element : 30
The deleted item is 30
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 40
Enter your choice : 9

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 59

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is circular linked list?

2. What is a singly linked circular list?

60 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 6 - DOUBLY LINKED LIST IMPLEMENTATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Sometimes it is convenient to traverse lists backwards. The standard implementation

does not help here, but the solution is simple. Merely add an extra field to the data structure,
containing a pointer to the previous cell. The cost of this is an extra link, which adds to the space
requirement and also doubles the cost of insertions and deletions because there are more
pointers to fix. On the other hand, it simplifies deletion, because you no longer have to refer to
a key by using a pointer to the previous cell; this information is now at hand. Figure shows a
doubly linked list.

Fig. 6.1 A Doubly Linked List

A doubly linked list is a linked list in which each node has three fields namely data field,
next link (Next) and previous link (Prev). Next points to the successor node in the list whereas
Prev points to the predecessor node.

Previous Data
Next Pointer
Pointer Element

Node

Fig. 6.2 Doubly Linked List

Fig. 6.3 Doubly Linked List with Header

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 61

6.2 TYPE DECLARATIONS FOR DOUBLY LINKED LIST

struct node
{
struct node *Prev;
int Element;
struct node *Next;

};
typedef struct node Node;

6.3 EMPTY LIST WITH HEADER

Example

Fig. 6.4 Empty Doubly Linked List with Header

Algorithm

IsEmpty(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If ListNext = NULL goto Step 3 else goto Step 4.
Step 3 : Return 1 and Stop.
Step 4 : Return 0 and Stop.
Step 5 : Stop.

Routine

int IsEmpty(Node *List)

{
if(List->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

6.4 CURRENT POSITION IS LAST

Example

Position
Fig. 6.5. Current Position is the Last in a Doubly Linked List

62 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

Algorithm

IsLast(Position)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If PositionNext = NULL goto Step 3 else goto Step 4.
Step 3 : Return 1 and Stop.
Step 4 : Return 0 and Stop.
Step 5 : Stop.

Routine to Check Whether the Current Position is Last

int IsLast(Node *Position)

{
if(Position->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

6.5 FIND

Example

Find(List, 30)

Position
Algorithm

Find(List, x)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set Position = ListNext.
Step 3 : Repeat the Step 4 until Position != NULL and PositionElement != x.
Step 4 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 5 : Return Position.
Step 6 : Stop.

Routine

Node *Find(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != NULL && Position->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}
B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 63
6.6 TRAVERSE THE LIST

Example

Algorithm

Traverse(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = TRUE goto Step 3 else goto Step 8.
Step 3 : Set Position = List.
Step 4 : Repeat the Steps 5-6 until PositionNext != NULL.
Step 5 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Display PositionElement.
Step 7 : Goto Step 9.
Step 8 : Display “List is empty”.
Step 9 : Stop.

Routine

void Traverse(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
{
Position = Position->Next;
printf("%d\t", Position->Element);
}
printf("\n");
}
else
{
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}
}

6.7 INSERT

Insertion

 Insert an element at the beginning

 Insert an element at the end
 Insert an element in the middle

64 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

6.7.1 Insert an Element at the Beginning

Example

The general idea is shown in Figure. The dashed line represents the old pointer.

InsertBeg(List, 5)
NewNode

Algorithm

InsertBeg(List, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : If List = NULL, then goto Step 4 else goto Step 8.
Step 4 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = NULL.
Step 6 : Set NewNodePrev = List.
Step 7 : Set ListNext = NewNode and goto Step 13.
Step 8 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 9 : Set NewNodeNext = ListNext.
Step 10: Set NewNodeNextPrev = NewNode.
Step 11: Set NewNodePrev = List.
Step 12: Set ListNext = NewNode.
Step 13: Stop.

Routine

void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
NewNode->Element = e;
if(IsEmpty(List))
NewNode->Next = NULL;
else
{
NewNode->Next = List->Next;
NewNode->Next->Prev = NewNode;
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 65

 NewNode->Prev = List;
List->Next = NewNode;
}

6.7.2 Insert an Element at the End

Example

InsertLast(List, 45)

Position NewNode
Algorithm

InsertLast(List, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : If List = NULL, then goto Step 4 else goto Step 8.
Step 4 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = NULL.
Step 6 : Set NewNodePrev = List.
Step 7 : Set ListNext = NewNode and goto Step 15.
Step 8 : Set Position = List.
Step 9 : Repeat the Step 10 until PositionNext != NULL.
Step 10: Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 11: Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 12: Set PositionNext = NewNode.
Step 13: Set NewNodePrev = Position.
Step 14: Set NewNodeNext = NULL.
Step 15: Stop.

Routine

void InsertLast(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = NULL;
if(IsEmpty(List))
{
NewNode->Prev = List;
List->Next = NewNode;
}
66 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College
 else
{
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
NewNode->Prev = Position;
}
}

6.7.3 Insert an Element in the Middle

Example

InsertMid(List, 20, 25)

NewNode

Position

Algorithm

InsertMid(List, p, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : Set NewNode = addressof(Node).
Step 3 : Set Position = Find(List, p).
Step 4 : Set NewNodeElement = e.
Step 5 : Set NewNodeNext = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set PositionNextPrev = NewNode.
Step 7 : Set PositionNext = NewNode.
Step 8 : Set NewNodePrev = Position.
Step 9 : Stop.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 67

Routine

void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, p);
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next->Prev = NewNode;
Position->Next = NewNode;
NewNode->Prev = Position;
}

6.8 DELETE

6.8.1 Delete an Element from the Beginning

Example

DeleteBeg(List)
TempNode

Algorithm

DelBeg(List, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 9.
Step 3 : Set TempNode = ListNext.
Step 4 : Set ListNext = TempNodeNext.
Step 5 : If ListNext != NULL, then goto Step 6 else goto Step 7.
Step 6 : Set TempNodeNextPrev = List.
Step 7 : Display the TempNodeElement.
Step 8 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 10.
Step 9 : Display “List is Empty”.
Step 10: Stop.
68 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College
Routine

void DeleteBeg(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *TempNode;
TempNode = List->Next;
List->Next = TempNode->Next;
if(List->Next != NULL)
TempNode->Next->Prev = List;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

6.8.2 Delete an Element from the End

Example

DeleteEnd(List)

Position TempNode

Algorithm

DeleteEnd(List)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 10.
Step 3 : Set Position = List.
Step 4 : Repeat the Step 5 until PositionNext != NULL.
Step 5 : Set Position = PositionNext.
Step 6 : Set TempNode = Position.
Step 7 : Set PositionPrevNext = NULL.
Step 8 : Display the TempNodeElement.
Step 9 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 11.
Step 10: Display “List is Empty”.
Step 11: Stop.
B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 69
Routine

void DeleteEnd(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
TempNode = Position;
Position->Prev->Next = NULL;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

6.8.3 Delete an Element from the Middle

Example

DeleteMid(List, 30)
TempNode

Position

Algorithm

DeleteMid(List, e)

Step 1 : Start.
Step 2 : If !IsEmpty = True, then goto Step 3 else goto Step 10.
Step 3 : Set Position = Find (List, e).
Step 4 : If !Islast(Position) = True, then goto Step 5 else goto Step 11.
70 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College
 Step 5 : Set TempNode = Position.
Step 6 : Set PositionPrevNext = PositionNext.
Step 7 : Set PositionNextPrev = PositionPrev.
Step 8 : Display the TempNodeElement.
Step 9 : Delete TempNode and goto Step 11.
Step 10: Display “List is Empty”.
Step 11: Stop.

Routine

void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = Find(List, e);
if(!IsLast(Position))
{
TempNode = Position;
Position->Prev->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next->Prev = Position->Prev;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

6.9 PROGRAM

/* Implementation of doubly linked list - DLL.C */

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct node
{
struct node *Prev;
int Element;
struct node *Next;

};
typedef struct node Node;

int IsEmpty(Node *List);

int IsLast(Node *Position);
Node *Find(Node *List, int x);
void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e);
void InsertLast(Node *List, int e);

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 71

void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e);
void DeleteBeg(Node *List);
void DeleteEnd(Node *List);
void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e);
void Traverse(Node *List);

int main()
{
Node *List = malloc(sizeof(Node));
List->Prev = NULL;
List->Next = NULL;
Node *Position;
int ch, e, p;
printf("1.Insert Beg \n2.Insert Middle \n3.Insert End");
printf("\n4.Delete Beg \n5.Delete Middle \n6.Delete End");
printf("\n7.Find \n8.Traverse \n9.Exit\n");
do
{
printf("Enter your choice : ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertBeg(List, e);
break;
case 2:
printf("Enter the position element : ");
scanf("%d", &p);
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertMid(List, p, e);
break;
case 3:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
InsertLast(List, e);
break;
case 4:
DeleteBeg(List);
break;
case 5:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
DeleteMid(List, e);
break;
case 6:
DeleteEnd(List);
break;

72 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 case 7:
printf("Enter the element : ");
scanf("%d", &e);
Position = Find(List, e);
if(Position != NULL)
printf("Element found...!\n");
else
printf("Element not found...!\n");
break;
case 8:
Traverse(List);
break;
}
} while(ch <= 8);

return 0;
}

int IsEmpty(Node *List)

{
if(List->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

int IsLast(Node *Position)

{
if(Position->Next == NULL)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

Node *Find(Node *List, int x)

{
Node *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != NULL && Position->Element != x)
Position = Position->Next;
return Position;
}

void InsertBeg(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
NewNode->Element = e;
if(IsEmpty(List))
NewNode->Next = NULL;

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 73

 else
{
NewNode->Next = List->Next;
NewNode->Next->Prev = NewNode;
}
NewNode->Prev = List;
List->Next = NewNode;
}

void InsertLast(Node *List, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = NULL;
if(IsEmpty(List))
{
NewNode->Prev = List;
List->Next = NewNode;
}
else
{
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
Position->Next = NewNode;
NewNode->Prev = Position;
}
}

void InsertMid(Node *List, int p, int e)

{
Node *NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Node));
Node *Position;
Position = Find(List, p);
NewNode->Element = e;
NewNode->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next->Prev = NewNode;
Position->Next = NewNode;
NewNode->Prev = Position;
}

void DeleteBeg(Node *List)

{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *TempNode;
TempNode = List->Next;
List->Next = TempNode->Next;
if(List->Next != NULL)
TempNode->Next->Prev = List;

74 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}
void DeleteEnd(Node *List)
{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = List;
while(Position->Next != NULL)
Position = Position->Next;
TempNode = Position;
Position->Prev->Next = NULL;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}
void DeleteMid(Node *List, int e)
{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Node *TempNode;
Position = Find(List, e);
if(!IsLast(Position))
{
TempNode = Position;
Position->Prev->Next = Position->Next;
Position->Next->Prev = Position->Prev;
printf("The deleted item is %d\n", TempNode->Element);
free(TempNode);
}
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}
void Traverse(Node *List)
{
if(!IsEmpty(List))
{
Node *Position;
Position = List;

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 75

 while(Position->Next != NULL)
{
Position = Position->Next;
printf("%d\t", Position->Element);
}
printf("\n");
}
else
printf("List is empty...!\n");
}

OUTPUT

1.Insert Beg
2.Insert Middle
3.Insert End
4.Delete Beg
5.Delete Middle
6.Delete End
7.Find
8.Traverse
9.Exit
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 40
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 30
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 20
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 10
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 30 40
Enter your choice : 7
Enter the element : 30
Element found...!
Enter your choice : 1
Enter the element : 5
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 30 40
Enter your choice : 3
Enter the element : 45
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 2
Enter the position element : 20
Enter the element : 25
Enter your choice : 8
5 10 20 25 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 4
The deleted item is 5
Enter your choice : 8

76 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

10 20 25 30 40 45
Enter your choice : 6
The deleted item is 45
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 30 40
Enter your choice : 5
Enter the element : 30
The deleted item is 30
Enter your choice : 8
10 20 25 40
Enter your choice : 9

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 77

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a doubly linked list?

2. What are the advantages of doubly linked list over singly linked list? (or) What is the
advantage of using doubly linked list over single linked list?
3. Differentiate doubly and circular linked list.

78 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 7 - POLYNOMIAL ADT

7.1 INTRODUCTION

We can define an abstract data type for single-variable polynomials (with nonnegative
exponents) by using a list. We could then write routines to perform addition, subtraction,
multiplication, differentiation, and other operations on these polynomials.

7.2 LINKED LIST REPRESENTATIONS OF TWO POLYNOMIALS

7.3 DECLARATION FOR LINKED LIST IMPLEMENTATION OF POLYNOMIAL ADT

struct poly
{
int coeff;
int pow;
struct poly *Next;
};
typedef struct poly Poly;

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 79

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Why is linked list used for polynomial arithmetic?

80 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 8 - POLYNOMIAL ADDITION

8.1 EXAMPLE

8.2 ROUTINE

void Addition(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Poly2, Poly *Result)

{
Poly *Position;
Poly *NewNode;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
Result->Next = NULL;
Position = Result;
while(Poly1 != NULL && Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1->pow == Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff + Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow > Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow < Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 81

 NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}

while(Poly1 != NULL || Poly2 != NULL)

{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
if(Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}
}

8.3 PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct poly
{
int coeff;
int pow;
struct poly *Next;
};
typedef struct poly Poly;
void Create(Poly *List);
void Display(Poly *List);
void Addition(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Poly2, Poly *Result);

int main()
{
Poly *Poly1 = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
Poly *Poly2 = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
Poly *Result = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
Poly1->Next = NULL;
Poly2->Next = NULL;
printf("Enter the values for first polynomial :\n");
Create(Poly1);

82 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 printf("The polynomial equation is : ");
Display(Poly1);
printf("\nEnter the values for second polynomial :\n");
Create(Poly2);
printf("The polynomial equation is : ");
Display(Poly2);
Addition(Poly1, Poly2, Result);
printf("\nThe polynomial equation addition result is : ");
Display(Result);
return 0;
}

void Create(Poly *List)

{
int choice;
Poly *Position, *NewNode;
Position = List;
do
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
printf("Enter the coefficient : ");
scanf("%d", &NewNode->coeff);
printf("Enter the power : ");
scanf("%d", &NewNode->pow);
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
printf("Enter 1 to continue : ");
scanf("%d", &choice);
} while(choice == 1);
}

void Display(Poly *List)

{
Poly *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != NULL)
{
printf("%dx^%d", Position->coeff, Position->pow);
Position = Position->Next;
if(Position != NULL && Position->coeff > 0)
{
printf("+");
}
}
}

void Addition(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Poly2, Poly *Result)

{
Poly *Position;
Poly *NewNode;

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 83

 Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
Result->Next = NULL;
Position = Result;
while(Poly1 != NULL && Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1->pow == Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff + Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow > Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow < Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}

while(Poly1 != NULL || Poly2 != NULL)

{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
if(Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}
}

84 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

OUTPUT

Enter the values for first polynomial :

Enter the coefficient : 2
Enter the power : 2
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : 6
Enter the power : 1
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : 5
Enter the power : 0
Enter 1 to continue : 0
The polynomial equation is : 2x^2+6x^1+5x^0
Enter the values for second polynomial :
Enter the coefficient : 3
Enter the power : 2
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : -2
Enter the power : 1
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : -1
Enter the power : 0
Enter 1 to continue : 0
The polynomial equation is : 3x^2-2x^1-1x^0
The polynomial equation addition result is : 5x^2+4x^1+4x^0

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 85

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Write the routine for polynomial addition.

86 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 9 - POLYNOMIAL SUBTRACTION

9.1 EXAMPLE

9.2 ROUTINE

void Subtraction(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Poly2, Poly *Result)

{
Poly *Position;
Poly *NewNode;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
Result->Next = NULL;
Position = Result;
while(Poly1 != NULL && Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1->pow == Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff - Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow > Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow < Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = -(Poly2->coeff);
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 87

 NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}

while(Poly1 != NULL || Poly2 != NULL)

{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
if(Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = -(Poly2->coeff);
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}
}

9.3 PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct poly
{
int coeff;
int pow;
struct poly *Next;
};
typedef struct poly Poly;
void Create(Poly *List);
void Display(Poly *List);
void Subtraction(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Poly2, Poly *Result);

int main()
{
Poly *Poly1 = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
Poly *Poly2 = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
Poly *Result = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
Poly1->Next = NULL;
Poly2->Next = NULL;
printf("Enter the values for first polynomial :\n");
Create(Poly1);

88 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 printf("The polynomial equation is : ");
Display(Poly1);
printf("\nEnter the values for second polynomial :\n");
Create(Poly2);
printf("The polynomial equation is : ");
Display(Poly2);
Subtraction(Poly1, Poly2, Result);
printf("\nThe polynomial equation subtraction result is : ");
Display(Result);
return 0;
}

void Create(Poly *List)

{
int choice;
Poly *Position, *NewNode;
Position = List;
do
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
printf("Enter the coefficient : ");
scanf("%d", &NewNode->coeff);
printf("Enter the power : ");
scanf("%d", &NewNode->pow);
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
printf("Enter 1 to continue : ");
scanf("%d", &choice);
} while(choice == 1);
}

void Display(Poly *List)

{
Poly *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != NULL)
{
printf("%dx^%d", Position->coeff, Position->pow);
Position = Position->Next;
if(Position != NULL && Position->coeff > 0)
{
printf("+");
}
}
}

void Subtraction(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Poly2, Poly *Result)

{
Poly *Position;
Poly *NewNode;

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 89

 Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
Result->Next = NULL;
Position = Result;
while(Poly1 != NULL && Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1->pow == Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff - Poly2->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow > Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
else if(Poly1->pow < Poly2->pow)
{
NewNode->coeff = -(Poly2->coeff);
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}

NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}

while(Poly1 != NULL || Poly2 != NULL)

{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
if(Poly1 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
}
if(Poly2 != NULL)
{
NewNode->coeff = -(Poly2->coeff);
NewNode->pow = Poly2->pow;
Poly2 = Poly2->Next;
}
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}

90 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

}

OUTPUT

Enter the values for first polynomial :

Enter the coefficient : 3
Enter the power : 2
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : 4
Enter the power : 1
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : -2
Enter the power : 0
Enter 1 to continue : 0
The polynomial equation is : 3x^2+4x^1-2x^0
Enter the values for second polynomial :
Enter the coefficient : -7
Enter the power : 2
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : -10
Enter the power : 1
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : 17
Enter the power : 0
Enter 1 to continue : 0
The polynomial equation is : -7x^2-10x^1+17x^0
The polynomial equation subtraction result is : 10x^2+14x^1-19x^0

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 91

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Write the routine for polynomial subtraction.

92 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 10 - POLYNOMIAL DIFFERENTIATION

10.1 EXAMPLE

10.2 ROUTINE

void Differentiation(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Result)

{
Poly *Position;
Poly *NewNode;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Result->Next = NULL;
Position = Result;
while(Poly1 != NULL)
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff * Poly1->pow;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow - 1;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}
}

10.3 PROGRAM

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

struct poly
{
int coeff;
int pow;
struct poly *Next;
};
typedef struct poly Poly;

void Create(Poly *List);

void Display(Poly *List);
void Differentiation(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Result);
int main()
{
Poly *Poly1 = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
Poly *Result = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 93
 Poly1->Next = NULL;
printf("Enter the values for polynomial :\n");
Create(Poly1);
printf("The polynomial equation is : ");
Display(Poly1);
Differentiation(Poly1, Result);
printf("\nThe polynomial differentiation equation is : ");
Display(Result);
return 0;
}

void Create(Poly *List)

{
int choice;
Poly *Position, *NewNode;
Position = List;
do
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
printf("Enter the coefficient : ");
scanf("%d", &NewNode->coeff);
printf("Enter the power : ");
scanf("%d", &NewNode->pow);
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
printf("Enter 1 to continue : ");
scanf("%d", &choice);
} while(choice == 1);
}

void Display(Poly *List)

{
Poly *Position;
Position = List->Next;
while(Position != NULL && Position->pow >= 0)
{
printf("%dx^%d", Position->coeff, Position->pow);
Position = Position->Next;
if(Position != NULL && Position->coeff > 0)
{
printf("+");
}
}
}

94 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

void Differentiation(Poly *Poly1, Poly *Result)
{
Poly *Position;
Poly *NewNode;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
Result->Next = NULL;
Position = Result;
while(Poly1 != NULL)
{
NewNode = malloc(sizeof(Poly));
NewNode->coeff = Poly1->coeff * Poly1->pow;
NewNode->pow = Poly1->pow - 1;
Poly1 = Poly1->Next;
NewNode->Next = NULL;
Position->Next = NewNode;
Position = NewNode;
}
}

Output

Enter the values for polynomial :

Enter the coefficient : 3
Enter the power : 5
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : -2
Enter the power : 3
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : 1
Enter the power : 1
Enter 1 to continue : 1
Enter the coefficient : 5
Enter the power : 0
Enter 1 to continue : 0
The polynomial equation is : 3x^5-2x^3+1x^1+5x^0
The polynomial differentiation equation is : 15x^4-6x^2+1x^0

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 95

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Write the routine for polynomial differentiation.

96 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

 CHAPTER - 11 - MULTILISTS

11.1 INTRODUCTION

A university with 40,000 students and 2,500 courses needs to be able to generate two
types of reports. The first report lists the class registration for each class, and the second report
lists, by student, the classes that each student is registered for.

The obvious implementation might be to use a two-dimensional array. Such an array

would have 100 million entries. The average student registers for about three courses, so only
120,000 of these entries, or roughly 0.1 percent, would actually have meaningful data.

What is needed is a list for each class, which contains the students in the class. We also
need a list for each student, which contains the classes the student is registered for. Figure
shows our implementation.

Fig. 11.1 Multilist implementation for registration problem

As the figure shows, we have combined two lists into one. All lists use a header and are
circular. To list all of the students in class C3, we start at C3 and traverse its list (by going right).
The first cell belongs to student S1. Although there is no explicit information to this effect, this
can be determined by following the student's linked list until the header is reached. Once this
is done, we return to C3's list (we stored the position we were at in the course list before we
traversed the student's list) and find another cell, which can be determined to belong to S3. We
can continue and find that S4 and S5 are also in this class. In a similar manner, we can
determine, for any student, all of the classes in which the student is registered.

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 97

 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is multilist?

98 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College

B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College 99
100 B.BHUVANESWARAN | AP (SG) | CSE | Rajalakshmi Engineering College