Arjun Dev − World History

A. Industrial Revolution
1. Introduction
a. After middle ages, feudalism as an economic system was declining, furthered by
Renaissance and Enlightenment. Growth in trade led to rise of cities and towns
which further led to production of manufactured goods.
b. Increase in demand for goods which were previously considered luxurious (such as
cotton clothes), with a rise in standard of living. All these factors stimulated production
of manufactured goods, as traditional methods were inadequate to meet growing
demands.
c. From mid−18th century onwards, began a series of changes which
revolutionized techniques and organization of production. Resulted in a new
type of economy − industrial economy.
2. Capitalism & colonization
a. New system of society which was emerging in Europe from 15th century. Under which instruments
and means by which goods are produced are owned by private individuals and production is carried
out for making profits. Workers do not own anything but work for a wage. Owners of wealth are
capitalists invest it to make a profit.
Feudalism Capitalism
Economic life under feudalism was static as Economy life under capitalism was
goods were produced for local consumption and fast moving with the aim of
b.
there was no incentive to produce more by producing more and more goods for
employing better means of producing goods for bigger markets so that more profits
a bigger market. could be made.
c. Discovery of new lands and establishment of colonies resulted in
unprecedented expansion of trade and accumulation of wealth by merchants.
Colonization was accompanied by the plunder of the wealth of the people who
were colonized.
i. Treasures of the Inca and Aztec were plundered by the Spaniards.
ii. Mines of conquered areas were exploited for natural resources such as gold and
silver (South America and Africa)
iii. Slave labor in plantations in Americas and East Asia.
iv. Karl Marx said − treasures captured outside Europe by undisguised looting,
enslavement, and murder, floated back to the mother country and were
turned into capital.
3. Industrial Revolution
a. Desire to produce more goods at low cost to make higher profits led to Industrial
Revolution and further growth of capitalism. Industrial revolution began around 1750
when machines started to take over some of the work done by people and animals in
productions of goods and commodities and was beginning of machine age.
b. After 1750, new inventions came much faster than ever before that brought rapid
changes in people's lives. Industrial revolution changed men's way of living and
thinking all over the world.
c. Guild system had given way to domestic or putting out system before factories −
In putting−out, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who
complete the work in off−site facilities, either in their own homes or in workshops
with multiple craftsmen.
4. Factory system
a. In place of simple tools and the use of animal and manual power, new machines and
steam power came to be increasingly used. Many new cities sprang up and artisans
and dispossessed peasants went there to work.
b. Everything required for production was provided by the capitalists for the workers who
 were brought together under one roof. Everything belonged to the owner of the
factory, including the finished product, and workers worked for wages.
5. Why Industrial Revolution in England?
a. Vast profits − through overseas trade, including slave trade, profits necessary for capital.
b. Emerged as unrivalled power in trade rivalries abroad hence could ensure regular
supply of raw materials
c. No shortage of labor − after disappearance of serfdom and enclosure movement,
holdings were consolidated and large army of landless unemployed people was
created.
d. Stable govt − no longer under the domination of feudal classes and commercial
class acquired more political power
e. Natural resources − England had plenty of natural resources such as iron and
coal, essential for industries.
f. Transportation − England had large shipping industry and had no problems
of transportation
No other country enjoyed all these advantages at this period. Some suffered from a lack of
capital or natural resources and some from an unfavorable political system. Many of them,
such as Italy and Germany, were not even united and suffered from many economic
restrictions.
6. Textile Industry
a. In the 1700s, English East India Company was sending cotton from India to England.
Soon, calico cloth made in Calicut and Dacca muslin and Kashmir shawls were in great
demand. Soon businessmen began to import cotton and make it into cloth in England.
When the workers using old−fashioned spinning−wheels and handlooms could not
keep up with the increasing demand, a series of inventions came along to make faster
spinning and weaving possible.
b. In 1764, Hargreaves invented Spinning jenny which speeded up spinning. Arkwright
adapted this machine for running with water. Crompton, sometime later, combined the
advantages of the machines invented by Hargreaves and Arkwright. These three
inventions alone made it possible for England to produce thread that was finer and
cheaper than any that could be produced by others or with older techniques. In 1785,
Cartwright invented a power loom. This machine could be run by horses or bullocks
and later, when factories were set up along rivers and canals, water power was used to
operate it.
Steam engine by James Watt in 1769 revolutionized production as men or animals
couldn't compete with power of steam engine.
c. Blast furnace − with steam power, there was a demand for more machinery.
Development of blast furnace and later method of turning low grade iron into steel
enabled industries to produce steel cheaply. Now they could make better and more
machines.
7. Transport and communications revolution
a. Railways − In 1814, George Stephenson developed steam engine to haul coal from
mines to ports by railways.
i. In 1830, the first railway train began to carry passengers and freight from
Liverpool to Manchester.
ii. These events were followed by a great wave of railroad construction in England
and the United States. In 1853 under Lord Dalhousie, the first railroad was laid
in India.
b. Roads − Need to transport raw materials and manufactured products led to the
improvement of roads and the digging of canals— in England and other
countries. McAdams devised the method of making pakka or ‘macadamized’
roads.
c. Canal − building these spread to Europe and America and was a big help in
providing cheaper transportation, especially after steam boats came into use.
d. Posts − improved transportation helped in carrying messages, people and goods.
Penny post − began to operate in England in early 19th century. Business concerns
took advantage of the penny−post in their buying and selling transactions far and near.
8. Agricultural revolution
a. Farm mechanization − changes in farm methods to produce more food, cash crops and
 raw materials for industries. New farm machinery such as steel plough and harrow for
breaking ground, mechanical drill for seeding and horse−drawn cultivator.
b. Crop rotation − intensive manuring and practice of crop rotation to maintain soil
fertility (a departure from middle ages when 3rd year land was left fallow).
c. Land consolidation −big land−holders took over the common meadow in a village also
leaving the small land−owners and tenants with no pasture. But the big land−owners
controlled Parliament in those days and got laws passed that enabled them to do
these things. This and enclosure movement meant peasants were forced off land.
9. Beginning of Pax Britannica
a. In a little more than 50 years after the use of machines began, England had become the
world’s leading industrial nation.
i. In first half of 19th century, textile exports to India jumped from 50,000 kg to well
over 2.5 million kg.
ii. Amount of coal mined rose from 15 to 64 million tons and became an
important export.
iii. Production of pig iron increased from 690,000 tons to over 3 million— enough
to supply all the machinery and hardware needed at home, besides sending vast
quantities to other countries.
b. Tariffs − As England was 1st country where industries developed, gained complete
control over world markets. Even with machines, countries couldn't compete with
scale of English industries. Levy of tariffs to protect new industries became a wide
spread practice (colonies couldn't do that hence local economy was destroyed)
10. Elsewhere in world
a. Germany − by 1865, occupied second place as a producer of steel, but with England far
ahead in the lead. After a late start, Germany’s industrial development took an amazing
leap after 1870 when the German states were finally welded into one nation. Soon
Germany was to become England’s rival.
b. United States had introduced machines and started factories before 1800— after
gaining independence from England. By 1860, had well established textile, steel,
and shoe industries. The American industries grew very rapidly after 1870.
c. Japan was the first country in Asia to industrialize. Traditionally, Japan produced mainly
such articles as silk, porcelain and toys. By the end of the 19th century, Japanese
production included steel, machinery, metal goods and chemicals— and in quantities
large enough for export.
11. Race for raw materials
a. Search for markets and sources of raw materials resulted in international rivalries.
First England later, other Western countries began to look for new sources of raw
materials and markets for their manufactures.
b. Towards the end of the 19th century Japan was industrialized and joined the race.
In this race, almost the entire non-industrialized world was carved up into colonies—
spheres of influence or territories— for economic and political domination by
industrialized countries.
c. Thus arose imperialism, under which strong nations subordinated the economies of the
countries under their domination to their own interests. They forced them to buy and
sell on their own terms.
12. Urbanization and industrial revolution
a. Earlier, most population lived in villages and was connected to land. All economic
needs of people were met within the village itself. Cities were center of craft and
political control.
b. With industries, new cities and towns that grew were important more as centers
of industry than as political and administrative centers.
c. Large part of the population now started living in cities where thousands of people
worked in industrial establishments. This population was not connected with land. Now
in some industrialized countries, less than 20% of the population is connected with
land.
d. Crowding of people into cities has always produced problems of housing, health, and
sanitation. The quickening pace of industrialization in England created deplorable living
conditions, concentration in smoky industrial towns, and city slums grew worse.
 e. Social bonds were dissolved and man became freer to develop capabilities, for better or
worse.
f. Industrial Revolution created an international consciousness among peoples because
the developments in one place began to influence the developments in other places.
13. Industrial Capitalism
a. Resulted in concentration of economic power in few hands who came to control the
lives of not only a large number of workers whom they employed but also, directly
or indirectly, the economic life of the entire society.
b. Resulted in shocking social inequalities and created a wide gulf between capitalists and
the rest of the population.
c. Workers had to accept whatever wage was offered to them because usually there were
more people than jobs. Women and children were hired in mines because they could be
hired for less wages.
14. Condition of workers
a. Housing − provided for workers were no better. Whole areas of the industrial
cities where workers lived were crowded slums. Accidents, disease and epidemics
were common.
b. No social security - workers could be dismissed at the pleasure of employer, fired during
slack period.
15. Labor laws & trade union
a. Humanitarian reformers and some land-owners who were jealous of big
businessmen combined with English workers to get the first laws to improve
conditions of work
b. In 1802, first Factory Act passed, limiting hours of children's work to 12/day. In 1819,
forbade employment of children under 9.
c. By 1824, workers succeeded in getting laws against unions repealed leading to
remarkable growth in unions. In 1830s and 40s movement to get right of vote
to workers known as Chartist Movement was launched.
d. The many benefits that workers and all salaried people enjoy in most industrialized
countries today are due directly or indirectly to the efforts to correct the terrible
conditions that the Industrial Revolution brought about.
16. Laissez−faire and capitalism
a. When Industrial Revolution was gaining strength in England— and in other countries—
the growing belief was that governments should not interfere with business and
industry. Laissez−faire or ‘leave us alone’, was then a kind of religion among
capitalists.
b. According to the laissez faire idea, the businessman should be free to look after his own
interests. Only the unwritten law of supply and demand should determine the size of his
profits. The same unwritten law would determine the fate of the worker, whether he
had a job, what would be his working conditions and salary. Adam Smith voiced this
idea in 1776 in a book called The Wealth of Nations, and it had many supporters, too.
17. Socialism
a. Greatest challenge to laissez faire, and to capitalism itself, has come from the idea
of socialism, which grew in the beginning as a reaction against the evils of
capitalism.
b. However, they came to believe that, for basic improvement in their life, socialism or a
complete re-ordering of society was essential.
c. Industrialization and capitalism brought benefits as well as hardships and evils to man
— unemployment, smoky, crowded cities, unhealthy living and working conditions,
rivalry and conflict between nations.
d. As working men got the right to vote and elect their representatives in government, they
forced the passage of laws that eliminated many of the early evils that industrialization
had brought about. Ideas of socialism also arose which, while recognizing the
importance of machines and making them even better, aimed at solving the problems
created by capitalism, by building a new social order.

B. World in 18th century & American Revolution

1. Feudalism to nation−states
a. Under feudalism, societies were divided into classes some of which were privileged
while the others were exploited. A man’s entire life was determined at the time of
his
 birth, depending on the class into which he was born. 2 main classes were feudal lords
and serfs. Kings claimed divine rights, that their power was derived from God.
b. Boundaries of states also were irrational. There were all kinds of states—empires,
feudal estates, city-states. Territories within a state were not necessarily contiguous.
Territories inhabited by homogenous people were divided into number of states −
under local ruler, Church or an Empire.
c. Middle class played a great role in bringing about Renaissance and acquired economic
power through trade and commerce. However, they were now obstructed in their
growth by outdated political system based on privilege.
d. With Industrial revolution, strength of this class and a new class, that of industrial
workers, grew. Both were opposed to autocratic political systems. Serfdom had declined
in some countries but in most other countries of Europe, it was still the dominant
feature of the social system. There were many revolts of the serfs but they were
suppressed. 1st successful revolution which overthrew the autocratic monarchy took
place in England in the 17th century.
e. Also rise of national consciousness and movements to unite different territories, if were
divided as different states or ruled by imperial powers.
2. Renaissance had inaugurated an era of questioning established beliefs and was a cultural
movement. Great progress was made in various sciences, which also undermined the existing
beliefs. New ideas were characterized by rationalism and were increasingly concerned with
secular affairs.
a. Because of the growing emphasis on reason, the period of the 18th century in
European history is called the Age of Enlightenment.
b. Beliefs that allowed people to be categorized into higher or lower groups on the basis
of birth and hold of Church in sphere of ideas were undermined.
c. New ideas were ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. Thus arose ideas of freedom,
democracy and equality, which became the rallying slogans of peoples everywhere.
d. Simultaneously, also arose ideas of nationalism which brought a sense of unity and
oneness to the people forming a nation and the desire to organize themselves into
independent states with their distinctive national identities.
3. Revolution − is a drastic or radical change. It can be sudden overthrow of
established authority or system by force or gradual change through peaceful means.
a. Revolution involves fundamental change in entire political system, nature of govt and
aims of govt, and class that holds power.
b. Revolutions have played an essential role in the development of human societies.
Without them, one kind of system, however unsuitable for the times it might be, would
continue for ever and there would be no progress.
4. American Revolution − the English colonies
a. While some Englishmen were battling at home for improvements in Parliament and
reforms in religion, others were adventuring across the Atlantic to establish
colonies and trade in the Americas.
b. In 16th century, European countries began to make settlements there. In North America,
colonies were established by France, Holland and Spain as well as by England. In 18th
century, England drove France out of the eastern part of the continent and Canada.
c. By mid−18th century there were 13 English colonies in North America along the Atlantic
Coast. Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom, traders, and profiteers
had settled there with bulk of the population consisted of independent farmers. Infant
industries had developed in such products as wool, flax, and leather.
d. In north there were fishing and ship-building and in the south, large plantations like
feudal manors had grown up where tobacco and cotton were grown with slave labor
brought from Africa.
e. Each colony had a local assembly elected by qualified voters. These assemblies
enacted laws concerning local matters, and levied taxes. However, they were under the
rule of the mother country.
5. Causes of revolution
a. Colonial policy of England in economic matters was the primary cause of resentment in
the American colonies. England’s policies did not encourage the American colonies to
 develop an economy of their own.
b. Trade − English Parliament had forbidden them to use non-British ships in their
trade. Tobacco, cotton, sugar could only be exported to England. Heavy duties on
import of goods from other places. Colonies also forbidden to start iron or textile
industries.
c. Land − English also angered the colonists by issuing a proclamation to prevent them
from moving west into new lands. English aristocrats had bought lands in America
and got rents from the farmers. They wanted to keep the colonists as renters.
d. Taxes − As a result of continuous wars in Europe, govt was burdened with debt. In
1765, the English Parliament passed the Stamp Act which imposed stamp taxes on all
business transactions in the American colonies. Aroused violent resentment among all
sections of the colonists and led them to boycott English goods. There were uprisings in
many towns and tax−collectors were killed.
e. Colonists claimed that, since English Parliament had no representatives from the
colonies, it had no right to levy taxes on them. The revenue from these taxes was
used not in the interests of the colonies but of English.
f. Ideas − American revolutionaries were inspired by the ideas of the English
philosophers of the 17th century. These philosophers— Locke, Harrington, Milton—
believed that men had certain fundamental rights which no government had the right
to infringe. Jefferson and Paine (in Common Sense) were other vocal leaders for the
cause of independence.
6. Events leading up to war
a. Leaders called a meeting at Massachusetts and proclaimed "No taxation without
representation". Threatened to stop import of British goods, which led to repeal of
Stamp Act. However new taxes on consumer goods were imposed, such as glass,
tea, paint, paper. Once again Americans protested and cut down imports from
Britain to half. English withdrew the taxes − except on tea - as its symbolic power
posturing.
b. Tax on tea led to trouble. In 1773, several colonies refused to unload the tea coming
in English ships. The governor ordered a ship to be unloaded, group of citizens dressed
as American Indians dumped the crates into sea. Incident is known as Boston Tea
Party. English government then closed the port of Boston to all trade and precipitated
the uprising of the colonies.
c. Representatives of the 13 American colonies met as a group in what is called the First
Continental-Congress at Philadelphia in 1774. This Congress appealed to the English
King to remove restrictions on industries and trade and not to impose any taxes
without their consent. King declared their action a mutiny and ordered troops to be
sent to suppress it. The colonies then planned for military defense with local troops
or militia.
d. Declaration On 4 July 1776, the Second Continental Congress asserted ‘that all men are
created equal", Congress adopted the Declaration of that "they are endowed by their
Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these rights are life, liberty and
the pursuit of happiness". Till this time the colonists had been fighting for their rights as
Englishmen. After the Declaration in 1776, they fought for their right to be an
independent nation.
7. War of Independence
a. George Washington was in command of American forces. First battles took in and
around Boston. Initial victory of American colonial militia against trained British army
gave Americans confidence.
b. French government also decided to help the colonies with troops, supplies and funds
— to embarrass the English, France's old enemy. Other enemies of English—Spain and
Holland—were soon fighting the English elsewhere
c. Some leaders in Parliament were also against war with colonists and there troubles
brewing at home in Ireland. War ended in 1781 when the English commander,
Cornwallis, later to become governor−general in India, surrendered. In 1783, Treaty of
Paris was signed and the English recognized the independence of its 13 former
colonies.
8. American Constitution
a. When the war of independence started, each of the 13 colonies was a separate state
with its own army, boundaries, customs duties and finances. But they co-operated
 against a common enemy. A constitutional convention was called in Philadelphia to
frame a new constitution, which came into effect in 1789.
b. American constitution established a republican form of government at a time when
states in other parts of the world were governed by monarchies.
c. Jefferson and followers campaigned for Bill of Rights to be added to Constitution,
which was done by 10 amendments. It was the first written republican constitution
ever framed in history, which is still in operation.
9. Significance −
a. Words of the Declaration of Independence regarding the equality of all men and the
‘inalienable rights’ of man electrified the atmosphere in America and outside. Lafayette,
French general who fought for Americans, was soon to become a hero of the French
Revolution. Thomas Paine also participated in the French Revolution.
b. Inspired many revolutionaries in Europe later in the 19th century. It encouraged Spanish
and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America to rebel and gain their
independence.
c. Main achievement of the American Revolution was the establishment of a republic. This
republic was, however, not truly democratic. The right to vote was limited. Negroes—
most of them still slaves—American Indians, and women had no vote.
10. Growth of a nation − USA added Florida (Spain), Louisiana (France) and won territories from
Mexico and expanded till Pacific coast. Increased settlement in west brought slave owning
Southern states (Jefferson Davis and Robert E. Lee) and industrial capitalists Northern states
(Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses Grant) in conflict. Led to Civil War bw 1861−1865 and defeat of
southern states and abolition of slavery.
a. Causes
i. Southern leaders said that the Republican policy of blocking the expansion of
slavery into the West made them second−class citizens, and they also said it
challenged their autonomy
ii. Sectionalism resulted from the different economies, social structure, customs
and political values of the North and South
iii. Slave owners preferred low−cost manual labor with no mechanization.
Northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while
southern planters demanded free trade
iv. Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity
of Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying
to incite a slave rebellion in 1859
v. Election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 was the final trigger for secession, feared
that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course
toward extinction.
b. Reconstruction Era (1863−1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of
restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights
to freed black slaves throughout the country.

C. French Revolution
1. It was brewing when American War of Independence was being fought. French Revolution
was more world shaking than the American one. It became a widespread upheaval over
which no one could remain neutral.
a. Conditions in France were no worse than conditions in other parts of Europe: Autocratic
and extravagant rulers, privileged nobles and clergy, landless peasants and jobless
workers, unequal taxation − these were some of the common hardships endured by
people.
b. France was a strong and powerful state in the 18th century, and had seized
vast territories in North America, islands in the West Indies.
2. First and Second Estate a.
Privileged class Also known as Population
Clergy First estate 1.3 lakh clerics
Nobility Second estate 80 thousand families
These classes were exempted from all taxes, controlled most of the administrative posts and all the
high−ranking posts in the army. Also together owned about 40% of the total land of France. Their
incomes came primarily from their large land−holdings.
b. Minority of these also depended on pensions and gifts from the king. They considered it
beneath their dignity to trade or to be engaged in manufacture or to do any work. Life of
the nobility was everywhere characterized by extravagance and luxury. There were
some poorer sections in these two top estates. They were discontented and blamed the
richer members of their class for their misery.
3. Third Estate − rest of the people of France. Numbered about 95% of the total population
and were the unprivileged people.
a. Largest section consisted of peasants, almost 80% of total population. Most of the
peasants were free, unlike the serfs in the Middle Ages. Great majority of the
French peasants were landless or had very small holdings.
b. Plight of tenants and share croppers was worse. After rents, could only save 1/3 or 1/4
of what he produced. Certain changes in agriculture in 18th century France worsened
conditions of peasant. Could no longer take wood from forests or use uncultivated land
for grazing. Forced labor for public works by feudal lord was common practice. Taxes for
local roads, bridges and churches were inevitable. A bad harvest in such circumstances
led to starvation and unrest.
c. Middle class or bourgeoisie consisted of the educated people— writers, doctors,
judges, lawyers, teachers, civil servants— and the richer people who were merchants,
bankers, and manufacturers. This class was forerunner of the builders of the
industries which were to transform economic and social life in the 19th century.
d. Since these people had money, the state, the clergy and the nobility were indebted
to them. However, the middle class had no political rights. It had no social status, and
its members had to suffer many humiliations.
e. Condition of the city poor—workers and artisans—was inhuman in the 18th−century
France. They were looked upon as inferior creatures without any rights. No worker
could leave his job for another without the employer’s consent and a certificate of
good conduct. This group was to become the mainstay of the French Revolution.
4. Monarchy − at the head of the French state stood the king, an absolute monarch. Louis
XVI was the king of France when the revolution broke out.
a. He was a man of mediocre intelligence, obstinate and indifferent to the work of the
government. His wife, Marie Antoinette, squandered money on festivities and
interfered in state appointments in order to promote her favorites.
b. The state was always faced by financial troubles as one would expect. Keeping huge
armies and waging wars made matters worse. Finally, it brought the state to
bankruptcy.
5. Intellectual movement −
a. Discontent or even wretchedness is not enough to make a successful revolution.
Someone must help the discontented to focus on an ‘enemy’ and provide ideals to
fight for.
b. Revolutionary thinking and ideas must precede revolutionary action. France in the 18th
century had many revolutionary thinkers. Without the ideas spread by these
philosophers, the French Revolution would simply have been an outbreak of violence.
c. Rationalism − because of the ideas expressed by the French intellectuals, the 18th
century has been called the Age of Reason. Christianity had taught that man was born
to suffer. However, philosophers argued that man was born to be happy. They believed
that man can attain happiness if reason is allowed to destroy prejudice and reform
man’s institutions. They urged faith in reason. The power of reason alone, they said,
was sufficient to build a perfect society.
d. Attack on clergy − clergy were the first to feel the brunt of the French philosophers.
Scientific advances dating from the Renaissance helped in their campaign against the
clergy. Voltaire, one of the most famous French writers of the time, though not an
atheist, believed all religions absurd and contrary to reason. Voltaire, other
philosophers, atheists and materialists, gained popularity. They believed that man’s
destiny lay in this world rather than in heaven.
 e. Theory of laissez−faire had gained currency in French economists (known as
physiocrats). Taxes should be imposed only with the consent of those on whom they
were levied. These ideas were a direct denial of the privileges and feudal rights that
protected the upper classes.
f. Democracy − philosopher−writer, Montesquieu, thought about the kind of government
that is best suited to man and outlined the principles of constitutional monarchy. Jean
Jacques Rousseau who asserted the doctrine of popular sovereignty and democracy.
He said, ‘Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.’ He talked of the ‘state of
nature’ when man was free, and said that freedom was lost following the emergence of
property. What was needed, said Rousseau, was a new ‘social contract’ to guarantee
the freedom, equality and happiness which man had enjoyed in the state of nature.
6. Outbreak of revolution
a. In 1789, Louis XVI’s need for money compelled him to agree to a meeting of the
Estates General— the old feudal assembly. Louis wanted to obtain its consent for new
loans and taxes. All three Estates were represented in it but each one held a separate
meeting.
b. On 17 June 1789, members of the Third Estate, claiming to represent 95% of the nation’s
population, declared themselves the National Assembly. On 20 June, they found their
meeting−hall occupied by royal guards but, determined to meet, they moved to the
nearby royal tennis court to work out a constitution, known as Tennis Court Oath.
c. Louis then made preparations to break up the Assembly. Troops were called: rumors
spread that leading members of the Assembly would soon be arrested. This enraged
the people, who began to gather in their thousands. They were soon joined by the
guards. They surrounded the Bastille, a state prison.
d. On 14 July, they broke open the doors and freed all the prisoners. Fall of Bastille
symbolized the fall of autocracy.
7. After Fall of Bastille
a. After 14 July 1789, Louis XVI was king only in name. The National Assembly began to
enact laws. Revolt spread to other towns and cities and into countryside. National
Assembly adopted the famous Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen. It specified the
equality of all men before the law, eligibility of all citizens for all public offices, freedom
from arrest or punishment without proven cause, freedom of speech and freedom of
the press.
b. Most importantly, to the middle class, it required equitable distribution of the burdens
of taxation and rights of private property. This was quite revolutionary as every govt in
Europe was based on privilege. If these ideas were applied, the entire old order of
Europe would be destroyed
8. War and Republic of France
a. People were soon involved in a war to defend the Revolution and the nation. Many
nobles and clerics fled the country and encouraged other European autocrats to
intervene in France against the Revolution. The king and queen tried to escape from
France in disguise but they were recognized and brought back as captives and traitors.
b. Old National Assembly was replaced by a Legislative Assembly. This Assembly took over
the property of those people who had fled. It sent word to the Austrian emperor, who
was mobilizing support against France to renounce every treaty directed against the
French nation. When the emperor refused, the Legislative Assembly declared war.
c. France had destroyed feudalism and monarchy and founded new institutions based on
liberty and equality, whereas in these countries the old way of life remained. The
commander−in−chief of the Austro−Prussian forces stated that the aim was to suppress
anarchy in France and to restore the king’s authority. The French revolutionaries
replied by offering ‘fraternity and assistance’ to all people wishing to destroy the old
order in their countries.
d. Then, a radical group, the Jacobins, believing in direct democracy, came to power.
Fearing that the Revolution was in danger, this group took to strong measures to crush
forces inimical to the Revolution. In 14 months, some 17,000 people, including those
who were innocent, were tried and executed. This period was called “Reign of
Terror“.
e. Later, a new constitution was drawn up. But the army became increasingly powerful
 and this led to the rise of Napoleon, who was soon to declare himself Emperor of the
French Republic.
9. Napoleonic Wars
a. From 1792 to 1815, France was engaged in war almost continuously. It was a war
between France and other states. Some have termed it as an international civil war
because it was fought between revolutionary France and countries upholding the
old order. In this war, France was alone. Until Napoleon became emperor, almost
every enlightened person in the world sympathized with the French Revolution.
b. Between 1793 and 1796 French armies conquered almost all of western Europe. After
Napoleon became emperor, France recovered the territories she had lost and
defeated Austria in 1805, Prussia in 1806, and Russia in 1807. On the sea the French
could not score against the stronger British navy.
c. Finally, an alliance of almost all Europe defeated France at Leipzig in 1813. These
allied forces later occupied Paris, and Napoleon was defeated. His attempt at recovery
was foiled at the battle of Waterloo in June 1815. The peace settlement, which
involved all Europe, took place at the Congress of Vienna. Bourbon dynasty was
reinstalled as the ruler.
d. However, within a few years, in 1830, there was another outbreak of revolution. In
1848, the monarchy was again overthrown though it soon reappeared. Finally, in
1871, the Republic was again proclaimed (Third Republic till 1940).
e. Napoleon − ideas that underpin our modern world—meritocracy, equality before the
law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and
so on—were championed, consolidated, codified and geographically extended by
Napoleon. To them he added a rational and efficient local administration, an end to
rural banditry, the encouragement of science and the arts, the abolition of feudalism
and the greatest codification of laws since the fall of the Roman Empire.
10. Consequences of Revolution
a. Destruction of feudalism − All the laws of the old feudal regime were annulled.
Church lands and lands held in common by the community were bought by the middle
classes. The lands of nobles were confiscated. Privileged classes were abolished.
b. Napoleon code in Europe − Many elements of this Code remained in force for a
long time; some of them exist even to this day.
c. The term ‘nation’ got its modern meaning. A nation is not the territory that the people
belonging to it inhabit but the people themselves. France was not merely the
territories known as France but the ‘French people’.
d. Idea of sovereignty − a nation recognizes no law or authority above its own. People
constituting the nation are the source of all power and authority. There cannot be any
rulers above the people, only a republic in which the government derives its authority
from the people and is answerable to the people
e. Military of the sovereign − entire nation was united behind the army which consisted
of revolutionary citizens. In a war in which almost all of Europe was ranged against
France, they would have had no chance with just a mercenary army.
f. Under the Jacobin constitution, all people were given the right to vote and the right of
insurrection. Government must provide the people with work or livelihood and aim of
happiness of all was proclaimed. Though it was never really put into effect, it was the
first genuinely democratic constitution in history
11. Impact of revolution
a. Inspired revolutionary movements in almost every country of Europe and in South and
Central America.
b. Old ruling dynasty of France had been restored to power in 1815, and the autocratic
governments of Europe found themselves safe for the time being, the rulers found
it increasingly difficult to rule the people.
c. French soldiers, wherever they went, carried with them ideas of liberty and equality
shaking the old feudal order. They destroyed serfdom in areas which came under
their occupation and modernized the systems of administration
d. Political and social systems of the 18th century had received a heavy blow. They were
soon to die in most of Europe under the impact of the revolutionary movements that
 sprang up everywhere in Europe.
e. Revolutionary France had abolished slavery in her colonies. The former French colony
of Haiti became a republic. This was the first republic established by the black people,
formerly slaves, in the Americas.
f. During early 19th century, these two imperialist countries − Spain and Portugal -
were cut off from their colonies, with the result that most of the Portuguese and
Spanish colonies in Central and South America became independent.

D. Nationalism in Europe
1. Nationalism emerged as a major force in this period. However, it was neither exclusive nor
chauvinistic. Inspired by the aim of fighting against despotism everywhere.
a. South American revolutionaries O’Higgins, Simon Bolivar and San Martin fought for the
independence of many countries in South America.
b. Mazzini, one of the foremost leaders of the struggle for Italian unification and
independence, formed a number of organizations such as Young Poland, Young
Germany and Young Italy for the liberation of these countries.
c. Giuseppe Garibaldi, another great leader of the Italian revolutionaries, fought for the
freedom of the peoples of South America.
Autocratic governments also were united to suppress every revolt and movement against any
despotism.
2. Holy Alliance −
a. In 1815, rulers of Austria, Britain, Russia and Prussia formed an alliance. One of
the major declared aims of this alliance was to suppress any attempt by the people
to overthrow a ruler whom these countries considered the ‘legitimate’ ruler of the
country. France joined soon.
b. Austria, Russia and Prussia had formed another alliance which they called the Holy
Alliance. In many countries, the freedom of the press was abolished and a large
number of spies were recruited to keep watch on the activities of the revolutionaries. In
1830 revolutions broke out in a number of countries. The French monarch fled away to
England and was succeeded by Louis Philippe who promised to rule according to the
wishes of the people.
c. Although most of these revolts were suppressed, the independence of two new nations
was recognized— of Greece in 1830 and of Belgium in 1839.
3. Revolutions of 1848
a. Within a few years after the revolts of 1830 had been suppressed, the revolutionary
movements in Europe again gained momentum. In 1848, revolutions broke out in almost
every country of Europe, which dealt a mortal blow to the countries of the Holy
Alliance.
b. France − power was usurped through a coup by Louis Bonaparte, nephew of
Napoleon, in 1852 who ruled till 1870.
c. Prussia − uprisings followed in many towns and rulers had to agree to several reforms.
Austrian empire in those days was a large empire ruling over many nations of Europe.
It ruled over Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Poland, Yugoslavia and many
other areas, and had its share of uprisings. Revolts were suppressed however empire
was badly shaken.
d. The most significant aspect of the 1848 revolutions was the emergence of a new political
force in Europe. Workers were a major force in the revolutions of 1848. Their aim was
not merely the overthrow of autocracies but also the destruction of the economic
system that had grown with the Industrial Revolution— capitalism.
e. Other participants in the revolutions— the capitalists, the merchants and other people
belonging to the middle class—wanted constitutional reforms. Looked upon the
demands of the workers for social revolution with horror. When the revolutionary
movements were at their peak, they decided to compromise with the rulers.
4. Democracy in England
a. 1st successful revolution that overthrew the autocratic monarchy took place in England
in 17th century. This had resulted in the establishment of the supremacy of Parliament
in England. However, Parliament at that time was not a truly democratic institution.
 b. Right to vote was limited to a very small percentage of the population. Throughout 18th
and 19th centuries, demand for making Parliament a democratic institution grew.
Campaigns to extend the right to vote to every citizen were waged, led by radical
leaders who represented the interests of workers, and the city poor, and by those
representing the industrialists.
c. Chartist Movement was launched to get the right to vote for workers. Though the
movement declined in the 1850’s, it left its influence and through the Acts of 1867,
1882, 1918 and by 1929, all adult citizens were enfranchised.
d. Over 200 years after Parliament became supreme, that it became also a truly
representative body of the British people.
5. Unification of Germany

a.

b. In 18th century, Germany was divided into a number of states. Some of these states
were very small and did not extend beyond the limits of a city. During the
Napoleonic wars, many of these states ceased to exist. At the end of the wars there
were still 38 independent states in Germany. Among them Prussia, Wurttemberg,
Bavaria, and Saxony were fairly large.
c. Prussia was the most powerful in militarily and in extent. It was also the most
reactionary. The big landlords of Prussia known as Junkers formed the dominant section
in Prussian society. Prussia was also one of the leaders of the Holy Alliance.
d. With the growth of national consciousness, after French Revolution, people of these
states started demanding national unification of Germany, establishment of democratic
government and social and economic reforms. In 1815, German states along with
Austria were organized into a Germanic Confederation. However, each state tried to
preserve its independence and its oppressive political and social system.
e. In 1848, revolts occurred in every German state and the rulers were forced to grant
democratic constitutions. To unite Germany and to frame a constitution for the united
Germany, a constituent assembly met in Frankfurt. This Assembly proposed the
unification of Germany as a constitutional monarchy under the King of Prussia who
would become emperor of Germany.
f. He did not wish to accept the crown from the elected representatives of the people
(but from College of Electors). Repression soon followed and even the rights that
people had won in the initial stages of the revolution were taken away. Thousands of
German revolutionaries had to flee the country and live in exile.
g. With failure of the revolution of 1848 to unify Germany, it was to be unified not into a
democratic country by the efforts of revolutionaries but by the rulers into a militaristic
empire.
h. Leader of this policy was Bismarck who belonged to a Prussian aristocratic family. He
 wanted to preserve the predominance of the landed aristocrats and the army in the
united German state and to achieve the unification of Germany under the leadership of
the Prussian monarchy.
i. Bismarck followed a policy of ‘blood and iron’ which meant a policy of war. The first
aim he pursued was the elimination of Austria from the Germanic Confederation. He
aligned with Austria in war against Denmark for possession of Schleswig and
Holstein. And then against Austria in alliance with Italy. After defeating Austria, he
eliminated them from Germanic Confederation.
j. In place of the old Confederation, he united 22 states of Germany into North German
Confederation in 1866. The constitution of this Confederation made the king of Prussia
the hereditary head of the Confederation. In 1866, most mid−sized German states had
opposed Prussia, but by 1870 these states had been coerced and coaxed into mutually
protective alliances with Prussia. In the event that a European state declared war on
one of their members, they all would come to the defense of the attacked state.
k. With skillful manipulation of European politics, Bismarck created a situation in which
France would play the role of aggressor in German affairs, while Prussia would play that
of the protector of German rights and liberties. In 1870−71, southern kingdoms joined
became German empire. Alsace-Lorraine was annexed from France in 1870 in war.
l. In 1870, Louis Bonaparte, whose power had begun to collapse, declared war on Prussia
in the hope of maintaining his empire through a military victory. The war was partly
provoked by Bismarck. French armies were defeated and the French emperor was
captured. After her defeat, France finally became a republic. Germany’s unification was
completed as a result of the war which enabled Bismarck to absorb the remaining
German states into a united Germany.
m. Formal ceremony at which King William I of Prussia took the title of German Emperor
was not held on German soil. It took place at Versailles in France, in the palace of the
French kings. Germany soon underwent heavy industrialization in a very short period
and soon joined the scramble for colonies.
6. Unification of Italy

a.

b. Like Germany, Italy was also divided into a number of states. The major states in the
early 19th century Italy were Sardinia, Lombardy, Venetia, Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies (Sicily and Naples), Papal States, Tuscany, Parma and Modena.
Of these the most powerful was the kingdom of Sardinia.
c. Venetia and Lombardy were under Austrian occupation. Thus the Italian people were
faced with the task of expelling the Austrians and forcing the rulers of independent
states to unite. Risorgimento was an ideological and literary movement that helped
to
 arouse the national consciousness of the Italian people, and it led to a series of political
events that freed the Italian states from foreign domination and united them politically.
d. Struggle for Italian independence and unification was organized by the two famous
revolutionaries of Italy − Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi − and their secret
society, the Carboneri. Movement led by them is known as the ‘Young Italy’
movement. It aimed at the independence and unification of Italy and the establishment
of a republic there.
e. In 1848, as in other parts of Europe, revolutionary uprisings had broken out in Italy and
the rulers were forced to grant certain democratic reforms to the people. However, the
goal of independence and unification was still distant.
f. King of Sardinia had introduced many reforms in the political system of his kingdom
after the revolution of 1848. After this, his prime minister, Count Cavour, took the
initiative of uniting Italy under the leadership of Sardinia.
g. Cavour’s policy in some ways was similar to that followed by Bismarck in Germany.
Hoping to gain the support of Britain and France, he entered the Crimean war in
1853-56 against Russia even though Sardinia had no dispute with Russia.
However, nothing came out of this war.
h. In 1859, Cavour entered into an alliance with Louis Bonaparte and went to war with
Austria. Although France soon withdrew from the war, Austria was ousted from
Lombardy, which was taken over by Sardinia. Tuscany, Modena, Parma and the
Papal States of the north also joined Sardinia. Venetia, however, was still under
Austrian occupation.
i. The other states that remained to be united with Sardinia were the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies and Rome which was under the rule of the Pope. An uprising had broken
out in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi marched into the island of Sicily with
his revolutionary fighters and liberated it from the rule of the king within three months.
Then he marched to Naples in support of the revolt that had already broken out there.
j. Italian revolutionaries were not perhaps strong enough to push the victory of the
people in the Sicilies further with a view to establishing a united republic of Italy.
Surrendered the former kingdom to the King of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel II, who then
took the title of King of Italy in 1861.
k. Rome was still outside the kingdom of Italy. It was ruled over by the Pope with the
help of the French soldiers provided to him by Louis Bonaparte. When the war
between France and Prussia broke out in 1870, Bonaparte was forced to withdraw his
troops from Rome. Italian soldiers occupied Rome and it became capital of Italy in
1871.
7. Aftermath
a. Unification of Germany and Italy, in spite of the fact that democracy was not completely
victorious there, marked a great advance in the history of the two countries.
b. One of the aspects of the movements described so far is the gradual growth of political
democracy, that is, the ever increasing participation of increasing number of people in
the political life of a country.
c. New political and economic system that was emerging in Europe in 19th century was
also creating imperialism. Period of the triumph of democracy and in Europe was also
the period of the conquest of Asia and Africa by the imperialist powers of Europe.
The 19th century saw the beginning of the revolts against imperialism in Asia and
Africa.

E. Socialism
1. Workers gradually began to organize themselves into trade unions to protect their
common rights though for a long time there were laws against workers combining
themselves into unions.
a. The governments were also forced to pass laws against some of the worse features of
capitalism. For example, laws to protect workers from unsafe conditions of work were
passed in many countries. Some progress was also made in regulating hours of work.
b. Some workers had begun to think that machines were the cause of their misery.
In England, there was a movement against machines led the Luddites
c. In England, Chartist movement was started which aimed at winning political rights for
 workers.
2. Early socialists
a. Idea grew that capitalism itself is evil and that it needs to be replaced by a different kind
and economic system in which the means a production would be owned by the society
as a whole and not by a few individuals.
b. Many philosophers and reformers in the past had expressed their revulsion
against inequalities in society and in favour of a system in which everyone would
be equal
c. French Revolution did not usher in an era of equality in economic, social and political
life. Gap between the aims of the French Revolution and the actual conditions in
France after the revolution created serious discontent among the people. It led to an
attempt to overthrow the existing government in France with a view to building a
society based on socialist ideas.
i. Babeuf Conspiracy − organized a secret society called the Society of the Equals.
Babeuf, in a manifesto, had declared, “Nature gave everyone an equal right to
the enjoyment of all goods…in a true society, there is no room for either rich or
poor”.
ii. The society planned an uprising but the government came to know of the plan
and in 1796, a large number of leaders including Babeuf were arrested. Babeuf
was executed in 1797. Though Babeuf’s attempt at overthrowing the government
had failed, his ideas exercised an important influence on the growth of socialist
movement.
d. Utopian socialists − viewed property in relation to its usefulness to the society.
Recognized the evils of capitalism and proposed the establishment of a new and better
system of society in its place.
i. They visualized a society free from exploitation of any kind and one in which
all would contribute their best and would share the fruits of their labor.
However, the methods they advocated for the establishment of such a society
were impracticable and ineffective.
ii. Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier & Robert Owen were associated with this school
of though
e. Those who helped in spreading ideas of early socialism. Louis-Auguste Blanqui
(1805−81) who played a leading role in every uprising in Paris from the 1830’s to 1871.
He believed that through a revolutionary conspiracy, power could be captured to bring
about socialism.
3. Communist League −
a. Many groups formed to spread socialist ideas and organize workers. One of these
was the League of the Just which had members in many countries of Europe. Its
slogan was ‘All men are brothers’. Thus internationalism was one of its important
features.
b. In 1847, its name was changed to the Communist League and it declared as its aim,
“the downfall of the bourgeoisie, the rule of the proletariat, the overthrow of the old
society of middle class, based on class distinction, and the establishment of a new
society without classes and without private property.” Its journal carried the slogan,
“Proletarians of all lands, unite!” It instructed Karl Marx and Frederick Engels to draft a
manifesto.
4. Communist Manifesto first appeared in German in February 1848. Influence of this in history
of socialist movement is unparalleled. It was the work of Karl Marx and his lifelong
associate Frederick Engels.
a. Through their work in the socialist movement and through their numerous writings,
they gave a new direction to socialist ideology and movement. Their philosophy is
known as Marxism and it has influenced almost every field of knowledge. Their view of
socialism is called scientific socialism.
b. Communist Manifesto stated that the aim of workers all over the world was the
overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of socialism. “In place of the old
bourgeois society, with its classes and class differences”, it said “appears an association
in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of
all”.
5. Marxian beliefs − Marx analysed the working of capitalism in his famous work Das Kapital and
 pointed out the characteristics that would lead to its destruction.
a. Workers produce more ‘value’ than they get in the form of wages, the difference
being appropriated by the capitalists in the form of profits.
b. This constitutes the basis of conflict in capitalist society. Profits can be increased at the
cost of workers’ wages and, therefore, the interests of workers and capitalists are
irreconcilable.
c. Economic crises were inevitable under capitalism because of the discrepancy between
the purchasing power of workers and total production. These crises would be
resolved only if the private ownership of the means of production is abolished and the
profit motive eliminated from the system of production.
d. Exploiting classes would disappear and a classless society would emerge in which there
would be no difference between what was good for the individual and for society as a
whole.
e. Marx and Engels believed that this would be accomplished by the working class
which was the most revolutionary class in capitalist society. They advocated that the
emancipation of the working class would emancipate the whole human race from all
traces of social injustice.
f. 'Socialism' in the 1840s was a term without a consensus definition, meaning different
things to different people, but was typically used within a context of more power for
workers in a system based on worker ownership of the means of production.
6. After 1848
a. With the failure of the 1848 revolutions, the socialist movement seems to have
abated. However, it was soon to rise in strength again, due to the internationalist
character of various socialist groups
b. In Britain, Society of Fraternal Democrats had been formed in 1846. It had close links
with other similar organizations in Europe and with the Chartists in Britain. All these
organizations emphasized the idea that the cause of the working class in all countries
was the same.
7. First International
a. One of the most important events in the history of the socialist movement was the
formation in 1864 of the International Working Men’s Association, or the First
International. With its formation, socialism stepped on the stage of history as a
world movement.
b. The first meeting took place in London and was attended by delegates from all over
Europe. Marx drafted the inaugural address which outlined the principles and aims of
the International. Emancipation of the working classes must be won by the working
classes themselves. The central aim of the International was declared to be the total
‘abolition of all class rule’.
c. International was considered by the governments of the time as a menace and attempts
were made to exterminate it. It was persecuted and declared illegal in many countries.
d. During the short period of its existence, the International exercised a tremendous
influence on workers’ movements in Europe and North America. It played a particularly
important role in creating bonds of international solidarity by arranging aid from
workers of many countries in support of the workers’ struggle in any particular country.
e. One of the finest examples of workers’ solidarity was evidenced at the time of the
war between Prussia and France in 1870. Workers' groups across the kingdoms sent
messages of good wishes and solidarity to each other
f. It collapsed as a result of internal differences. The International was not a
homogeneous organization. It represented many different trends in the workers’
movement. Due to differences on aims and methods, it was split in 1872 and was
formally dissolved in 1876.
8. Paris Commune 1871
a. War between France and Prussia led to another important development—an uprising
by the workers of Paris and the seizure of-power by them. This is one of the most
important events in the history of socialism.
b. Within a few weeks of the war the French army had been defeated and the French
emperor Louis Bonaparte had been taken prisoner. A new government had come
into
 being and had declared France a republic.
c. This government was dominated by the propertied classes and had agreed to Bismarck’s
terms for truce including the surrender of Paris, cession of Alsace−Lorraine and the
payment of a huge war indemnity. The workers of Paris regarded the surrender by the
government as treacherous. They refused to surrender. The government withdrew from
Paris in February 1871 and asked for German help to crush Paris.
d. Workers of Paris elected a council in March 1871 assumed the title of the Paris
Commune. It was elected by universal adult franchise and represented the workers
and the lower middle classes of Paris. It proclaimed as its aim “the ending of
exploitation, stock−exchange speculation, monopolies and privileges to which the
proletariat attributes its slavery, and the fatherland its misery and ruin”. All public
offices were elected by universal suffrage with people having the right to recall.
e. Paris Commune was the result of an upsurge in which the workers had played the
dominant role, the result of the first workers’ revolution in history. But was soon
drowned in blood. French government which had established its headquarters in
Versailles attacked Paris with a huge army with help of Germans. Paris Commune was
exterminated.
9. Second International
a. In the 1870’s and 80s socialist parties were formed across Europe with some having
lakhs of members. They participated in national elections and in some countries came
to have a fairly large representation in the parliament. Similarly, the strength and
membership of the trade unions also increased and there were many strikes.
b. To unite the socialist parties in various countries into an international organization, a
Congress was held in Paris on 14 July 1889, the centenary of the French Revolution
of 1789. The result of this was Second International.
c. This was a new stage in the history of socialism. An important step taken at the Congress
was to make the 1st May every year as a day of working class solidarity. It was decided
to organize on that day a great international demonstration in such a way that all lands
and cities will simultaneously demand from the powers that be a limitation the working
day to 8 hours. On the 1st May 1890, millions of workers all over Europe and America
held strikes and massive demonstrations. Beginning of International Labor Day.
d. Period after the formation a the Second International saw a steady increase in the
strength of the socialist parties and of trade unions. They had become a major force
across Europe.
10. Second International & War
a. Most significant achievements were its campaign against militarism and war and in
asserting the principle of basic equality of all peoples and their right to freedom
and national independence.
b. Last decade of 19th century saw increased militarization − Europe was getting divided
into groups of warring blocs, the struggle for colonies being the main cause of
conflicts between them.
c. Struggle against militarism and the prevention of war became the major aims of the
Second International and of the socialist parties affiliated to it. They expressed the
conviction that capitalism was the root cause of war.
d. Also decided that the socialists should utilize the economic and political crisis created by
the war, to rouse the masses and thereby to hasten the downfall of capitalist rule.
They suffered at the hands of their governments who were preparing for war.
e. Second International also condemned colonialism and committed the socialist parties to
oppose the robbery and subjugation of colonial peoples. 1904 Congress was attended
by Dadabhai Naoroji, who pleaded the cause of India’s freedom. He was supported by
the British delegates at the Congress.
11. Limitation of Second International
a. It was a loose federation of socialist parties of many countries. While the socialist
parties in many countries had become mass parties, basic differences had arisen among
them.
b. While some sections believed in the necessity of a revolution to overthrow capitalism,
others began to believe that socialism could be achieved through gradual reforms.
The
 latter were willing to support the existing governments in certain circumstances. Some
sections in the socialist parties even favored colonialism.
c. On the question of war, while the attitude of the Second International was clear, many
socialist parties had serious differences. It was the question of the war that the Second
International suffered a fatal blow. When WW1 broke out, most of the socialist parties
extended their support to their respective governments. This had serious consequences
for the socialist movement. The Second International ceased to function and the
socialist movement in every country was split.

F. Imperialism
1. Imperialism is practice of extending power, control or rule by country over political and
economic life of areas outside its own borders. This maybe done through military or
other means, particularly through colonialism. Colonialism in practice of acquiring
colonies by conquest or other means and making them dependent on imperialist country.
a. Occupation of or direct rule over a country or people by another country is not always
an essential feature of imperialism
b. Essential feature is EXPLOITATION, with or without direct political control.
c. While most countries which came under direct imperialist rule are now politically
independent, economic exploitation has not ended. This has been termed as
neocolonialism.
2. 1st phase of the imperialist control and colonization of Asia, Africa and the Americas began in
16th century. Voyages of discovery were followed by the founding of vast colonial empires
by Portugal, Spain, Holland, England and France in the Americas.
a. Spain occupied most of South America (excluding Brazil which was occupied by
Portugal), Central America, Mexico, West Indies and parts of what is now the
United States of America.
b. England and France occupied parts of North America. Many people from
these countries of Europe went to settle in these colonies permanently
c. During this period, the European control in Africa extended only to about 20%
of continent, mainly in the coastal areas.
d. European slave traders enslaved and transported about 5000 Africans to the Americas
every month during the 17th century to overcome the shortage of manual labor in the
new world
e. In Asia, the Europeans came mainly with the purpose of trade. Trading companies
from Portugal, Holland, England, France and other countries, with the backing of their
respective monarchs, set up their trading posts and tried to establish their monopoly
of trade with the countries of Asia, and each tried to exclude the others through war
and by extending their political influence and control.
f. Portuguese who controlled the trade with Asia were ousted from that position by the
Dutch (Indonesia) and the English (India) who extended their control
g. Period bw 16th−17th century was naked plunder by colonial powers − led to growth of
capitalism and industrial revolution.
3. New phase of imperialism began in 1875 as pursuit of colonies reemerged as a result of
economic and political system that developed along with industrial revolution (as European
kingdoms were unified as nation states).
a. Forms of control and domination including direct colonial rule, spheres of influence and
various types of economic and commercial agreements
b. Powers of Spain and Portugal declined and Britain & France continued to expand.
Germany, Italy, Belgium, USA and later Japan, had joined the race.
4. Conditions that led to growth of imperialism − more powerful nations made imperialism
seem necessary and natural
a. Demands created by industrial revolution − resulted in a great increase in
the production of goods and created capitalist system of production.
i. Production of goods was far in excess of the demand at home, and low wages
meant low purchasing power of majority. European countries could find markets
for their surplus goods in Asia and Africa where the Industrial Revolution had
not taken place. Selling was made easier through political domination.
 ii. In addition to markets, European countries needed new sources of raw materials.
As industries grew, more and more raw materials were needed to feed those
industries.
iii. India and Egypt were good sources of cotton, Congo and the East Indies, of rubber
and other products needed were food grains, tea, coffee, indigo, tobacco and
sugar
iv. Abundance of raw materials in Asia and Africa, and the number of people who
could be made to work for lower wages made the two continents very attractive
to investors. From about the end of the 19th century, export of capital for
investment in other countries began to become more important than the
export of goods. However, investments were not safe without political
domination.
b. Improvement in transportation and communication − changes in transport and
communication made spread of imperialism easier. Steamships could carry goods much
faster, railroads and inland waterways were built for transport of raw materials and
finished products.
c. Extreme nationalism − from mid−19th century onwards, there was a period of intense
nationalism. Many nations developed myths of their superiority over other peoples.
Writers and speakers in England, France and Germany opened institutions to promote
the idea of imperialism, and took great pride in calling their territories empires
i. Imperialist countries took over some places in Asia and Africa because of their
military or strategic importance. England needed Port Said, Aden, Hong
Kong, Singapore and Cyprus —not to protect England but to protect her
conquered lands and trade route to India from rival nations.
d. Civilizing mission − in minds of many Europeans, imperialist expansion was very
noble. They considered it a way of bringing civilization to the backward peoples of the
world. Rudyard Kipling, asked his countrymen to shoulder what he called ‘the white
man’s burden’. Christian missionaries also played their part in promoting the idea of
imperialism.
e. Explorers and adventurers − helped in spreading imperialism. They went into
unknown or little known territories and brought back reports that often indicated
opportunities for trade and development.
5. Most important condition favoring the imperialist conquest of Asia and Africa was that the
Industrial Revolution had not come to this part of the world.
a. Production was still on a small scale and lack of industrial knowledge also put militaries
of these lands at a disadvantage
b. Govt of countries in Asia and Africa were weak after break up of empires of middle
ages. People’s loyalties were still to local princes as in feudal times, or to tribal
chieftains, who cared little for the welfare of the people.
6. Conquest of Asia
a. British in India − Decline of the Mughal empire in India gave the British and the
French, who had come to trade, an opportunity to conquer India. After the Revolt of
1857, the British government took over direct control of India. Many princely states
survived but they were free only in name.
i. Conflict between the English and French was over establishing a monopoly of
trade. After the English dominance, fortunes were made by the officers of the
Company. India was known as the brightest jewel of the British empire.
ii. Millions of pounds were drained out of India to England in the form of profits
and as payment to the British government as direct tribute and Home Charges.
iii. In 1883, all import and export duties were waived. Indian resources, both
human and material, were used to promote the interests of British imperialism
in China, Central Asia and Africa
b. China − Imperialist domination began with what are known as the Opium Wars
(1839−42 & 1856−60)
i. Before these wars, only two ports were open to foreign traders. British merchants
bought Chinese tea, silk and other goods, but there was no market for British
goods in China.
ii. Then British merchants started smuggling opium into China on a large scale. The
 illegal opium trade was profitable to the British traders but did immense physical
and moral damage to the Chinese.
iii. In 1839, when a Chinese government official seized an opium cargo and destroyed
it, Britain declared war and easily defeated the Chinese.
iv. Chinese were then forced to pay heavy damages to the British and to open five
port cities to British traders. British subjects in these ports would be tried for any
crimes in English rather than in Chinese courts (extraterritorial rights). Chinese
government was no longer free to impose tariff on foreign goods The island of
Hong Kong was turned over to Britain
v. Soon France entered into similar unequal treaties with China. On the pretext that
a French missionary had been murdered, England and France fought another
war with China. China was defeated and was forced to grant more privileges to
her conquerors.
vi. Japanese entered China to increase their influence over Korea, which was under
Chinese over lordship. After war with Japan in 1894−95, China was forced to
grant independence to Korea and cede Formosa (Taiwan) to Japanese. Also paid
$150m in war damages.
vii. France, Russia, Britain and Germany gave loans to China to help her to meet
this payment. But they divided China into spheres of influence.
Germany got Kiauchau Bay and exclusive rights in Shandong and Hwang Ho
valley. Russia took Liaotung Peninsula, along with the right to build railroads in
Manchuria.
France received Kwangchow Bay and extensive rights in three southern provinces
of China
Britain got Weihaiwei in addition to her sphere of influence in the Hong Kong.

c. Open Door Policy − United States feared that China would be completely parceled out
in exclusive spheres of influence and that its trade with China would be shut off. All
countries would have equal rights to trade anywhere in China. Britain supported the
United States thinking that this policy would discourage the annexation of China by
Japan and Russia.
i. Scramble for privileges stopped in China after an uprising against the foreign
powers known as the Boxer Rebellion (1899−1901, background: severe
drought and disruption caused by the growth of foreign spheres of influence)
But the foreign powers were victorious and levied heavy damages on China as
punishment
ii. Imperialism continued, with the cooperation of Chinese warlords (Beiyang
cliques). These military commanders were supported by the loans which they got
 from foreign powers in exchange for more privileges.
7. South East Asia − Even before the rise of the new imperialism, many of these countries were
already dominated by the Europeans.
a. Indo−China consists of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. When England was fighting
China over the opium trade, France was trying to extend her commerce in Indo-China.
In a series of planned steps which included threats of war, France became the master
of Indo-China and the separate states were grouped together under a French
Governor− General.
b. Burma − In 1880, the king of Burma gave France the right to build a railway from
Tonkin to Mandalay. British government, fearing French expansion, started a war with
Burma. The Burmese king was captured and sent to India; Burma was annexed and
became a part of Britain’s empire in India in 1886.
c. Philippines − United States occupied it in 1898 after Spanish-American War (main
issue was Cuban independence, revolt of the Cubans in the Caribbean against Spanish
rule). There was a revolt of the Filipinos against Spanish rule and the United States
occupied Cuba and the Philippines. The Filipinos revolted against the American
occupation but were suppressed and the Philippines became an American possession.
8. Central & West Asia − England and Russia were rivals in the struggle to control Central
Asia, Iran (Persia), Afghanistan and Tibet.
a. Russian empire succeeded in annexing almost all of Central Asia in the second half
of 19th century.
b. Conflict between England and Russia came to a head over Iran and Afghanistan,
however, England was more keen on defending India.
c. Russia agreed to recognize Afghanistan as being outside her influence and Britain agreed
not to annex Afghanistan as long as her ruler remained loyal to her.
d. North Iran was Russian sphere of influence, south was for British and central was kept
neutral. However, after 1917, Russia withdrew. Iran remained nominally independent
but was increasingly under the domination of foreign oil companies − Standard Oil
Company of the United States and the Anglo Persian Oil Company of England.
e. In 1907, both agreed not to interfere in Tibet.
f. Germany, during these years, was extending her influence over Turkey and the Asian
possessions of the Turkish empire. A railroad from Istanbul to Baghdad was planned.
Through this, Germany hoped to promote her economic interests in this region, and
on to Iran and India. France, England and Russia opposed this, but an agreement to
divide the region was reached between Germany, France and England. The First World
War, however, changed the situation. Oil and the concessions to control oil resources
became the major objectives of the imperialist countries in Western Asia. American oil
companies, in partnership with England and France, got oil concessions in Arabia.
9. Japan as imperialist power − started in 1890s. In 1867, after a change in government, known
as Meiji Restoration, Japan began to modernize her economy. Within a few decades, she
became one of the most industrialized countries of the world.
a. But the forces that made many of the Western countries imperialist were also active in
the case of Japan. Japan had few raw materials to support her industries. So she
looked for lands that had them and for markets to sell her manufactured goods.
b. War between China and Japan over Korea in 1894. After this, Japan’s influence in China
increased. Anglo Japanese Treaty of 1902 recognized her as a power of equal standing
with the great European powers.
c. In 1904-05 she defeated Russia. As a result of this war, the southern half of Sakhalin
was ceded to Japan. Japan also gained control of the southern part of the Liaotung
Peninsula with Port Arthur which was leased to her. In 1910, Korea became a colony
of Japan.

G. Imperialism in Africa − From the time of European explorations from mid−15th century, a new
phase began in the history of some parts of Africa.
1. Slave trade − European penetration of Africa was confined for a long time mainly to
certain coastal areas. However, even these limited contacts led to the most tragic and
disastrous consequences for the people of Africa. One of the first results of these contacts
was the
 purchase and sale of people − the slave trade.
a. Spanish rule in the Americas had resulted in the large-scale extermination of the
original inhabitants of the Americas. Portuguese had established a slave market in
Lisbon (started slave trade) and the Spaniards bought slaves from there and took
them to their colonies in the Americas to work there. African villages were raided by
slave traders and people were captured and handed over to the European traders.
b. Earlier, the Arabs had dominated the slave trade. Subsequently, some African
chiefs also took part in the slave trade by trading slaves in exchange for firearms
which the European traders sold to them.
c. Europeans themselves also raided the villages and enslaved the people, who were
then transported. When the demand for slaves in America increased, they were sent
directly from Africa by the traders.
d. Millions of Africans were uprooted from their homes. Many were killed while resisting
the raids on their villages by the traders. It is estimated that not even half of the
slaves captured reached America alive. Inhuman conditions under which they were
forced to work on the plantations cannot even be imagined today. Extreme brutalities
were inflicted on those who tried to escape. Slavery had become an integral part of
the colonial system.
e. Slavery was also a hindrance if the interior of Africa was to be opened to colonial
exploitation. Some colonial powers used the pretext of abolishing slave trade to go
to war against African chiefs and kings to expand their territorial possessions.
2. Scramble for Africa − interior of Africa was almost unknown to the Europeans up to mid -
19th century. Coastal regions were largely in the hands of the old trading nations −
Portuguese, the Dutch, the English and the French. In the north the French had conquered
Algeria. In the south the English had occupied Cape Colony to safeguard their commerce with
India. It had earlier been a Dutch colony. These settlers, known as Boers, had taken to
farming.
a. Explorers, traders and missionaries − played their respective roles in the conquest of
Africa, The explorers aroused the Europeans’ interest in Africa. The missionaries saw
the continent as a place for spreading the message of Christianity. The interests created
by explorers and missionaries were soon used by the traders.
b. Even though the European powers met with stiff resistance from the Africans and it
took them a long time to establish effective occupation of their colonies, the speed with
which the European powers conquered Africa is without a parallel.
c. "Whatever happens, we have got, the maxim gun and they have not."
d. Africa was also not divided into united nation−states but into warring factions,
who often sought European support against their rivals. As against this, the
imperialist countries participating in the scramble for Africa were united.
e. Scramble to grab the maximum of African territory in the shortest possible time was
the result of these rivalries. Many a time during the scramble wars between these
countries were imminent. But in every case, war was avoided and agreements reached
between them as to who will get which part of Africa.
 f.

g. In 1884−85, there was a Congress in Berlin where a group of European states met and
discussed how to carve out Africa among themselves. No African state was
represented at this Congress.
h. Treaties were signed between European powers to settle disputes over claims to
African territories between themselves. Treaties were also signed between African
rulers and chiefs, and the representatives of European governments or European
companies.
i. A look at the map of Africa after partition will show how the continent of Africa was
partitioned on paper in conference rooms in Europe (paper partition). About 30% of all
boundaries in Africa are in straight lines.
3. Belgium − In 1878, with the financial assistance of King Leopold II of Belgium, H. M. Stanley
founded the International Congo Association which made over 400 treaties with African
chiefs who didn't know they were transferring their land to the Congo Association in
exchange for cloth or other articles of no great value. Stanley acquired large tracts of land
by these methods. In 1885 some 2.3 million sq km, rich in rubber and ivory, became the
‘Congo Free State’ with Leopold as its king.
a. However, treatment of the Congolese people was so bad that even other colonial
powers were shocked. In 1908, Leopold was compelled to hand over the Congo Free
State to the Belgian government, and it became known as Belgian Congo. Gradually,
Congo’s gold, diamond, uranium, timber and copper became more important than her
rubber and ivory. More countries joined the exploitation.
4. French − Frenchman, de Brazza, was active north of the Congo river. Following the methods
of Stanley, de Brazza won the area for France, this area became what was until recently
called the French Congo with its capital town named Brazzaville.
a. More territories were added to the West African conquests after 1900 and French West
Africa came to include present Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Dahomey,
Mauritania, French Sudan, Upper Volta and Niger Territory. The French conquest
resulted in brutal exploitation of the people everywhere in Africa.
 5. Germany − After 1880, Germany also got very interested in possessions in Africa
a. First occupied an area called Togoland on the west coast; soon after, the Cameroons, a
little farther south.
b. Still farther south, the Germans established themselves in South−west Africa
(Namibia) where, to suppress local rebels, more than half of the population was
exterminated.
6. With the exception of Liberia, the whole of West Africa was divided up among the Europeans.
Liberia was settled by slaves who had been freed in America.
7. Rhodesia - English adventurer, Cecil Rhodes, came to south Africa in 1870, made a fortune
in mining diamond and gold of this region and gave his name to an African colony Rhodesia
(present Zambia and Zimbabwe).
a. British occupied Bechuanaland, Rhodesia, Swaziland and Basutoland. They plotted the
overthrow of the Boer government of Transvaal which was rich in gold. This led to
the Boer War (1899−1902) in which the Boers were defeated though they continued to
remain there.
b. Soon after this, the Union of South Africa was formed consisting of the Cape, Natal,
Transvaal and Orange River Colony. Ruled by white minority —Boers, Englishmen,
and other European countries.
8. East Africa − Except for the Portuguese possession of a part of Mozambique, East Africa
had not been occupied by any European power before 1884.
a. Using bribery and threats, Carl Peters persuaded some rulers to sign agreements
placing themselves under German protection
b. Since France and Britain also had plans in this area, an agreement was signed by which
France got Madagascar, and East Africa was divided between Germany (Tanzania)
and England (Kenya).
c. After WW1, Tanzania went to England, Rwanda−Burundi to Belgium.
9. Italy − entered the colonial race late. Italians occupied two desert areas in horn of Africa −
Somaliland and Eritrea. Abyssinia, now known as Ethiopia, was an independent state and
Italy wanted to declare it as its protectorate and invaded her. They were defeated in 1896.
Ethiopia was also never colonized, though occupied by Italians before WW2.
10. North Africa − Algeria was conquered by France in 1830. It was the most profitable of
France’s colonial possessions, providing her a vast market for French goods. Tunisia was
coveted by France, England and Italy. According to an agreement in 1878, England gave
France a free hand in Tunisia in return for British occupation of the island of Cyprus.
11. Morocco − Both France and Italy wanted to claim it as their territory.
a. They agreed, in 1900, to the French occupation of Morocco and to the
Italian occupation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica (renamed Libya)
b. In 1904, France and England signed an agreement which gave Morocco to France,
and Egypt to England.
c. Spain had been promised Tangier in return for French occupation of Morocco. So it
became necessary to appease German ambition in North Africa − by giving parts
of French Congo.
12. Egypt − was a province of the Turkish empire. A French company had gained a concession
from Ismail Pasha, Governor of Egypt, to dig a canal across the isthmus of Suez. The canal
was completed in 1869 and aroused British interest in the area.
a. Financial troubles of the Pasha led to increased joint Anglo-French control over
Egypt. When the Pasha tried to resist, he was forced to abdicate and a new governor
was appointed
b. In 1882, there was a revolt against the Anglo-French control and, in suppressing the
revolt, the British armies conquered Egypt.
c. In 1922, though she still retained her rights over the Suez and many other concessions,
Britain was forced to recognize Egypt as an independent sovereign state.

H. Americas and Pacific − By 1820s, almost all countries of the Americas had gained their
independence from Spain and Portugal. Only a few colonies ruled by European countries were left in
this part of the world. Among these were Cuba and Puerto Rico which were still under Spanish rule
and a few others under British, French, Dutch and Danish rule.
1. The United states in 19th century emerged as the biggest power in the Americas. Extended
 territories through war with Mexico and purchase of Louisiana (France), Florida (Spain) and
Alaska (Russia).
a. Within a short period after the Civil War (1861−65) which ended in the abolition of
slavery, the United States emerged as a major industrial and military power in
the world. By 1900, her naval strength was third in the world.
b. Forces that had led to the emergence of imperialism in Europe and later in Japan also
led to the emergence of the United States as a major imperialist power.
c. After the American−Spanish War, the Philippines had become a U.S. colony. USA
had also taken Puerto Rico and Guam from Spain, and Cuba (independent in name).
2. Monroe Doctrine − USA spread its control over South America and the Pacific. In
1823, Monroe made four basic points
a. USA will not interfere in the internal affairs of or the wars between European powers
b. Recognized and would not interfere with existing colonies and dependencies in the
Western Hemisphere
c. Western Hemisphere was closed to future colonization; and
d. Any attempt by a European power to oppress or control any nation in the Western
Hemisphere would be viewed as a hostile act against the United States.
e. In 1904, Britain and Germany had imposed a naval blockade of Venezuela as she had
failed to repay the loan which she had taken from them. Roosevelt forced Britain and
Germany to lift the blockade and declared that the United States alone had the right to
intervene in the affairs of her neighboring countries if they were unable to maintain
order on their own.
f. Took control of the finances of Dominican Republic which she retained for three
decades and occupied that country in 1916 for eight years.
g. In 1906, American troops were sent to Cuba and remained there for three years
to ‘protect’ Cuba from disorder.
h. In Mexico, where the United States had huge investments, Francisco Madero, a popular
leader was deposed with the support of the United States The intervention by the
United States in Mexico continued for many years.
3. Dollar Diplomacy − policy of the United States was described as the ‘Big Stick’ policy and
one of an ‘international policeman’. The extension of the USA influence through economic
investments in the region is known as the ‘Dollar diplomacy’
a. Economic and political domination of South America was facilitated by the absence of
strong governments in the countries of South America.
b. Many of these countries were ruled by corrupt military leaders with armed gangs. They
floated loans for ready cash and sold concessions to foreign companies to exploit the
natural resources of their countries.
c. They served as markets for manufactures, and sources of raw materials for
industrialized countries, particularly the United States, as well as avenues for
investment of capital from these countries
4. Panama Canal − A French company had started the construction of the canal in the Isthmus
of Panama in Colombia. Canal which would link the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans was of
great economic interest. In 1901, the United States decided to undertake the canal project
alone
a. Paid $40 million to the French company and entered into an agreement with the
government of Colombia. $10m + $250k annual rent, which was against interests
of Colombians and who refused to ratify the deal.
b. In 1903, USA financed and organized a revolt in Panama and landed her troops there.
USA recognized Panama as an independent state and new govt granted 10 mile canal
zone. Canal was opened in 1914 and was passed on to Panama in 1999.
5. Hawaii − islands of Hawaii had been important for American shipping and for trade with China.
a. USA's economic and commercial influence gradually increased in these islands and with
the settling of Americans there, particularly as sugar planters
b. USA secured the exclusive use of Pearl Harbor as a naval station. In 1893, the
American residents in the Hawaii islands revolted against the queen of Hawaii and,
asked for the annexation of the islands by the United States, which was done by 1898.

I. Effects of Imperialism
 1. Economic backwardness − industrialization of these countries was prevented. Where
industries were started, these were subordinated to the interests of the industries of
the imperialist countries or for making profits for the companies of the imperialist
countries. Naked plunder of natural resources, and exploitation through high demands of
revenues and taxes.
2. Racism − Imperialism also bred racial arrogance and discrimination. The idea of the
superiority of the white race whom God had created to govern the world, was popularized
in the imperialist countries. Japanese were called 'honorary whites'.
3. Getting possession of new markets and raw materials and establishing industries to be worked
by cheap labor created many ‘small’ wars and two world conflicts. Despite the ‘gentlemen’s
agreements’, there was a continuous effort among the western powers to re−divide the world
as between themselves but never with any consideration for the welfare of the people to
whom the territory really belonged.

J. WW1 − In the earlier wars, the civilian populations were not generally involved and the
casualties were generally confined to the warring armies.
1. The war which began in 1914 was a total war in which all the resources of the warring
states were mobilized.
a. It affected the economy of the entire world the casualties suffered by the civilian
population from bombing of the civilian areas and the famines and epidemics, caused
by the war far exceeded those suffered by the armies.
b. In its impact also, the war had no precedent. It marked a turning point in world history.
The battles of the war were fought in Europe, Asia, Africa and the Pacific. Because of the
unprecedented extent of its spread and its total nature, it is known as the First World
War.
2. Underlying causes of the war were the rivalries and conflicts among the imperialist countries.
In short - alliances, imperialism, militarism, nationalism and finally the assassination.
a. Wars were generally avoided at that time because the possibilities of further conquest
were still there. By end of 19th century, however, the situation had changed. Further
conquests could take place only by dispossessing some imperialist country of its
colonies.
b. Germany entered the scramble for colonies late. After the unification of Germany had
been achieved, it made tremendous economic progress. By 1914, it had left Britain and
France far behind in the production of iron and steel and in many manufactures. It had
entered the shipping trade in a big way and was expanding its Navy at a great pace,
much to the discomfort of Britain and France.
c. Japan which had also become an imperialist power had ambitions in the Far East
and was on way to fulfilling them. She defeated Russia in 1904/05 after having signed
an agreement with Britain and was able to extend her influence in the Far East.
d. Rise of any other country was considered a danger to the British empire. She also
had her vast international trade to defend against the competition from other
countries
3. Conflicts within Europe − 6 major powers in Europe at this time—Britain, Germany,
Austria− Hungary, Russia, France and Italy.
a. Almost all these countries got involved concerned the countries comprising the
Balkan peninsula in Europe − the Balkan Question
b. Balkan countries had been under the rule of Ottoman Turks. However, in 19th century,
Ottoman rule had begun to collapse. There were revolts by various nationalities for
independence.
c. Russian Tsars hoped that these areas would come under their control once the
Ottomans were ousted from there. They encouraged a movement called the Pan-Slav
movement which was based on the theory that all the Slavs of eastern Europe were
one people.
d. Major Balkan country, Serbia, led the movement for uniting the areas inhabited by the
Slavs in the Ottoman empire as well as in Austria−Hungary. Serbian nationalism was
encouraged by Russia, which alarmed other European powers.
e. Corresponding to the Pan−Slav movement, there was a Pan-German movement
which aimed at the expansion of Germany all over central Europe and in the Balkans.
Italy
 claimed certain areas which were under Austrian rule. France hoped to recover not only
Alsace Lorraine which she had lost to Germany in 1871 but also to wreak vengeance on
Germany
4. Alliances − because of these conflicts over imperialism and nationalism, European
countries began to form themselves into opposing groups.
a. Europe was gradually becoming a vast armed camp due to military build up.
Simultaneously, propaganda for war, to breed hatred against other countries, to paint
one’s own country as superior to others, and to glorify war, was started in each
country.
b. Triple Alliance − was formed in 1882 comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary and
Italy. However, Italy’s loyalty to this Alliance was uncertain as her main aim was to
gain territories in Europe from Austria−Hungary and in conquering Tripoli with French
support.
c. Triple Entente − emerged opposed to Alliance, comprising France, Russia and Britain
in 1907. In theory it was only a loose group based on mutual understanding as the
word ‘Entente’.

d.

5. Events before the war − outbreak of the war was preceded by a series of incidents
which added to the prevailing tension and ultimately led to the war.
a. Clash over Morocco − In 1904 Britain and France had entered into a secret agreement
according to which Britain was to have a free hand in Egypt, and France was to take
over Morocco. The agreement became known to Germany and aroused her
indignation. Germany promised support for full independence to Morocco (1st
Moroccan Crisis). In 1911, however was averted, and Germany was made to appease
with a part of French Congo, following Agadir crisis (2nd). This was a setback to
German weltpolitik (foreign policy from 1890s onward. Realpolitik was defensive policy
Bismarck era)
b. Balkans − In 1908 Austria annexed the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and
Herzegovina. These provinces were also coveted by Serbia which had the backing of
Russia in establishing a united Slav state in the Balkans. Russia threatened to start a
war against Austrian annexation but Germany’s open support to Austria compelled
Russia to retreat. The incident, however, not only embittered feelings in Serbia but
also created further enmity between Russia and Germany.
c. First Balkan War (1912): Serbia, Greece, Montenegro & Bulgaria launched series of
attacks on Turkey and captured most of the remaining Turkish territory of Europe.
 Serbs weren't happy with the resulting settlement, Albania was given independence
(which Serbs wanted − to have an outlet to the sea) as per a deliberate move by Austria.
d. Second Balkan War (1913): Bulgarians weren't happy with settlement either and they
blamed Serbia. Greece, Romania, Turkey rallied to support Serbia when Bulgaria
attacked; and were made to forfeit their gains from first war. Anglo−German influence
prevented escalation of war by restraining the Austrians (who wanted to attack Serbs).
Consequences − Serbia strengthened and determined to take Bosnia, Austria equally
determined to end Serbia's ambitions.
6. Finally, the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand: On 28 June 1914, heir to the
Emperor Franz Josef of Habsburg empire, Franz Ferdinand, was shot dead by Serb terrorist
Gavrilo Princip. Austrians blamed Serbian govt and sent a harsh ultimatum. Serbs accepted
most of the demands but the Austrians, with a promise of German support, used this as an
excuse to declare war on Serbia. Russia, determined to not let Serbs down again, ordered a
general mobilization of the army. Germany asked them to back down but when they didn't
comply, declared war on Russia (Aug 1) and on France (Aug 3). Germany entered Belgium
to invade France, Britain enters war next day (Aug 4). Austria−Hungary declared war on
Russia (Aug 6). Italy and Japan joined in later from Allied side in hope of gaining territories
from Austria and Germany (in China) respectively.
7. First World War − most expected it to be a short war like other European wars. Germans
failed to achieve rapid defeat of France and led to trench warfare for the rest of the war
years. East front had more movement, with early Russian successes against Austrians who
had to be constantly helped out by the Germans. Germany eventually forced Russia out of
war by end of Dec 1917. France and Britain were on verge of defeat but the entry of USA in
April 1917 turned it in favour of the Allies. British naval blockade of German ports and
defeating of submarine threats was also telling on Germans. Eventually an armistice was
signed on 11 November 1918 though Germany had hardly been invaded.
Allies − Italy (May 1915), Romania (Aug 1916), USA (Apr 1917)
Central − Turkey (Nov 1914), Bulgaria (Oct 1915).
a. Western front − Schlieffen Plan didn't materialize due to strong push back by Belgium
and Battle of Marne proved decisive −
i. Hope of short war dashed, Germany has full scale war on 2 fronts, trench warfare
from coast to Alps, bought British navy time to bring crippling blockade on
Germany
ii. 1916 − Battle of Verdun (Feb−Jun, heavy casualty and no gains by either sides)
and Battle of Somme (Jul−Nov, British trying to relieve pressure at Verdun and
succeeded in deflating German morale). Both battles are important because they
to led heavy loss of lives, criticism of army tactics, change of PM (Asquith −>
Lloyd George). 1917 − mutiny in French military, success of battle tanks (Battle of
Cambrai) which became model of Allied attack. Lloyd George & Clemenceau team
up and rally the wilting Allies.
b. Eastern front − Russians made the mistake of invading Austria and Germany at the
same time, however lost to Germany every time they clashed. Russians had the largest
standing army but not enough arms and ammunition. Turkey cut their supply route via
Black Sea.
i. 1915 − British and French tried to help (Gallipoli campaign) unsuccessfully.
Bulgaria entered the war and overran Serbia with German help. Italy declared
war from Allied side in hope of gaining territory. 1916 - Germany took
Romania and their oil and wheat supply.
ii. 1917 − Russian withdrawal due to heavy losses, lack of arms and supplies,
problems of transport and communication and utterly incompetent leadership
causing 2 revolutions. Bolsheviks come into power and willing to make
peace. Entire German force shifts to western front. British captures Baghdad
and Jerusalem, gaining control of vast oil supplies.
c. War at Sea − Allied used navy for Central power blockades to starve them out, keep
their trade routes open & transport troops and supplies. No direct confrontation of
Dreadnoughts other than Battle of Jutland (1916) with indecisive results but Germans
embarking on 'unrestricted' submarine warfare.
 i. This eventually brought USA into war as it was hampering their trade interests
and lives of Americans, along with the discovery that German was persuading
Mexico to attack USA (Zimmermann Telegram) and gain territories + Russian
withdrawal from the Allied side.
German U−boats sank British passenger liner as it was carrying vast quantities of
weapons, in which some Americans died, forcing American protests which meant
German submarine blockade wasn’t as effective.
8. German armistice −
a. Britain, France and USA launched a military offensive in July 1918 and Germany and her
allies began to collapse. Bulgaria withdrew from the war in September, and Turkey
surrendered in October.
b. Germany went for final offensive before American troops arrive and domestic
discontent with war leads to revolution. They almost pulled it off but French managed
to hold off and launched a counter offensive which forced the Germans to withdraw
their entire line (disease + low morale).
c. Political discontent had been rising in Austria−Hungary and Germany. The emperor of
Austria−Hungary surrendered on 3 November. In Germany revolution broke out.
Germany became a republic and the German emperor Kaiser William II fled to
Holland. New German government signed an armistice on 11 November 1918 hoping to
get less severe terms based on Wilson's 14 Points. The war was over.
d. Main countries involved in war had war aims which they were determined to achieve,
which were competing in nature and would mean that an accepted negotiable solution
will be impossible to reach.
9. Why Central powers lost?
Failure of Schlieffen Plan, naval blockade by Allies, failure of German submarine campaign
(also got USA involved), entry of USA and its resources, competent leadership of Lloyd George
and Clemenceau vs Central powers, continuous strain of heavy losses on Germans, and
weakness of German allies.
10. In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson had proposed a peace program, known as Fourteen
Points. These included the conduct of negotiations between states openly, freedom of
navigation, reduction of armaments, independence of Belgium, restoration of Alsace Lorraine
to France, creation of independent states in Europe, formation of an international organization
to guarantee the independence of all states, etc. Some of these points were accepted when
the peace treaties were signed at the end of the war

11. Peace treaties − Though the number of countries represented at the conference was 27, the
terms of the peace treaties were really decided by three countries — Britain, France and
USA.
a. The three persons who played the determining role in framing the terms of the treaties
were Woodrow Wilson (USA), Lloyd George, (Britain), and George Clemenceau (France).
The defeated countries were not represented at the conference. Russia was also
excluded. Terms of the treaty were thus not the result of negotiations but were imposed
on the defeated by the victors.
12. Treaty of Versailles − main treaty was signed with Germany on 28 June 1919. Republican
 government of Germany was compelled to sign this treaty under the threat of invasion.
a. Treaty declared Germany and her allies guilty of aggression. Alsace−Lorraine was
returned to France. Perhaps the most humiliating portion of the treaty for the
defeated Germany was Article 231, commonly known as the "War Guilt Clause," which
forced Germany to accept complete responsibility for initiating World War I.
b. The coal mines in the German area called Saar were ceded to France for 15 years
while that area was to be governed by the League of Nations.
c. Germany also ceded parts of her pre-war territory to Denmark, Belgium, Poland and
Czechoslovakia. The area of the Rhine valley was to be demilitarized.
d. Also contained provisions for disarming Germany. The strength of her army was to be
limited to 100,000 and she was required not to have any air force and submarines.
e. Dispossessed of all her colonies which were taken over by the victors.
13. Treaty of Saint-Germain−en−Laye & Trianon − Austria−Hungary was broken up and Austria
was required to recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and
Poland. Had to cede territories to them and to Italy. Many changes were made in the
Balkans where new states were created and transfers of territories from one state to another
took place.
14. Treaty of Sevres− treaty with Turkey stipulated the complete dismemberment of the
Ottoman empire. Britain was given Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Syria and Lebanon
went to France as what were called ‘mandates’. Most of the remaining Turkish territories
were to be given to Greece and Italy, and Turkey was to be reduced to a very small state.
a. However, there was a revolution in Turkey under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal.
The Sultan was deposed and Turkey was proclaimed a republic in 1922. Turkey
regained control of Asia Minor and the city of Constantinople and the Allies were
forced to abandon the earlier treaty.
15. League of Nations − An important part of the peace treaties was the Covenant of the League
of Nations. Wilson’s Fourteen Points included the creation of an international organization for
the preservation of peace and to guarantee the independence of all states. The League of
Nations was created.
a. It was intended as a world organization of all independent states. It aimed at the
preservation of peace and security and peaceful settlement of international conflicts,
and bound its members ‘not to resort to war’
b. One of its important provisions was with regard to sanctions. According to this
provision, economic and military action would be taken against any country which
committed aggression.
c. It also bound its members to improve labor and social conditions in their countries. For
this the International Labor Organization was set up which is now one of the specialized
agencies of the United Nations.
16. Hopes of having a truly world organization devoted to the preservation of peace and
independence of nations were, however, not realized with the formation of the League.
a. Two major countries − Germany and the Soviet Union — were not allowed to
become its members for many years, while India, which was not independent, was
made a member.
b. USA which had played an important part in the setting up of the League ultimately
decided not to join it. League was never an effective organization. In the 1930s when
many countries resorted to aggression, the League was either ignored or defied.
Allies had entered into many secret agreements for dividing the spoils of war. Soviet
government, to bring out the imperialist nature of the war, made these treaties public. During
the war, the Allies had been claiming that the war was being fought for freedom and
democracy. President Wilson had said that the war was being fought “to make the world safe
for democracy”. The publication of secret treaties by the Soviet government exposed these
claims (Sykes−Picot agreement). However, in spite of this, the distribution of the colonies of
the defeated countries among the victors took place.

K. Russian Revolution
1. Conditions prior − By the early years of 20th century, political movements based on the ideas
of socialism had emerged in a number of countries in Europe. With WW1, socialist
movement in most countries of Europe suffered a setback. Second International faced a split
on the
 question of attitude to the War and ceased to function.
a. Russia was still living in ‘the old world’ under the autocratic rule of the Tsars. Serfdom
had been abolished in 1861, but it did not improve the condition of peasants. They still
had miserably small holdings of land with no capital to develop even these. For the
small holdings they acquired, they had to pay heavy redemption dues for decades.
Land hunger of the peasants was a major social factor in the Russian society.
b. Industrialization began very late in Russia, in the second half of the 19th century. Then it
developed at a fairly fast rate, but more than half of the capital for investment came
from foreign countries. Foreign investors were interested in quick profits and showed
no concern for the conditions of workers. Russian capitalists, with insufficient capital,
competed with foreign investors by reducing workers’ wages
c. Words of Marx that workers have ‘nothing to lose but their chains’ rang literally true to
them
d. Russian state under the Czars was completely unsuited to the needs of modern times.
Tsar Nicholas II still believed in the divine right of kings. Preservation of absolutism was
regarded by him as a sacred duty. Only people who supported the Czar were the
nobility and the upper layers of the clergy
e. Russian Tsars had built a vast empire by conquest of diverse nationalities in Europe and
Asia. In these conquered areas, they imposed the use of the Russian language and tried
to belittle the cultures of the people of these areas. Russia’s imperialist expansion
brought her into conflicts with other imperialist powers.
2. Growth of revolutionary movements
a. There were many peasant rebellions in Russia before the 19th century but they were
suppressed. Many Russian thinkers had been influenced by developments in Western
Europe and wanted to see similar changes in Russia. Their efforts had helped to bring
about the abolition of serfdom. This, however, turned out to be a hollow victory. In the
last quarter of 19th century, there was a movement known as ‘going to the people’
when intellectuals started preaching their ideas to the peasants.
b. When the workers’ organizations were set up after industrialization began, they were
dominated by ideas of socialism. In 1883, the Russian Social Democratic Party was
formed by Georgi Plekhanov, a follower of Marx. This party along with many other
socialist groups was united into the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party in 1898.
However, the party was soon split over questions of organization and policy.
c. One group which was in a minority (hence known as the Mensheviks) favored a party
of the type that existed in countries like France and Germany and participated in
elections to the parliaments of their countries.
d. The majority, known as the Bolsheviks, were convinced that in a country where no
democratic rights existed and where there was no parliament, a party organized
on parliamentary lines would not be effective. They favored a party of those who
would abide by the discipline of the party and work for revolution.
e. Leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin. He is regarded as one of the greatest
leaders of the socialist movement after Marx and Engels. He devoted himself to the
task of organizing the Bolshevik Party as an instrument for bringing about
revolution. Russian socialists, including Plekhanov and Lenin, had played an
important part in the Second International.
3. 1905 revolution − Revolutionary movement in Russia had been growing when the
1905 Revolution broke out.
a. In 1904, a war had broken out between Russia and Japan which ended in Russian
defeat. This had further strengthened the revolutionary movement in Russia. In January
1905, a mass of peaceful workers with their wives and children was fired at in St.
Petersburg while on its way to the Winter Palace to present a petition to the Tsar. More
than a thousand of them were killed and thousands of others were wounded. This day
is known as "Bloody Sunday". The news of the killings provoked unprecedented
disturbances throughout Russia. Even sections of the army and the navy revolted.
b. A new form of organization developed in this revolution which proved decisive in the
upheaval of 1917. This was the ‘Soviet’, or the council of workers’ representatives.
Beginning as committees to conduct strikes, they became the instruments of political
 power. Soviets of peasants were also formed.
c. Tsar yielded and announced his manifesto granting freedom of speech, press and
association, and conferred the power to make laws upon an elected body called
the ‘Duma’. Tsar’s manifesto contained principles which would have made Russia a
constitutional monarchy like England. However, the Czar soon relapsed into his old
ways. No longer could one hope for gradual reform.
4. Causes of 1917 revolution −
a. Hoping to satisfy his imperial ambitions by annexing Constantinople and the Straits of
the Dardanelles, the Tsar took Russia into the First World War. This proved fatal and
brought about the final breakdown of the Russian autocracy. The Czarist state was
incapable of carrying on a modern war.
b. The decadence of the royal family made matters worse, Nicholas II was completely
dominated by his wife, Alexandra Feodorovna. She, in turn, was deeply influenced by
a mystic named Rasputin who virtually ran the government.
c. Corruption in the state resulted in great suffering among the people. Government was
completely unmindful of the conditions of soldiers on the front. By 1917, 600,000
soldiers had been killed in war. There was widespread discontent throughout the
empire as well as in the army. The condition was ripe for a revolution.
d. In setting forth the fundamental law for a successful revolution, Lenin had included two
conditions − the people should fully understand that revolution is necessary and be
ready to sacrifice their lives for it AND the existing government should be in a state of
crisis to make it possible for it to be overthrown rapidly. That tune had certainly
arrived in Russia in 1917.
5. February Revolution 1917 − Minor incidents usually set off revolutions. In the case of the
Russian Revolution it was a demonstration by working-class women trying to purchase
bread. A general strike of workers followed, in which soldiers and others soon joined. On 12
March 1917 the capital city of St. Petersburg fell into the hands of the revolutionaries.
Soon the revolutionaries took Moscow, the Tsar gave up his throne and the first Provisional
Government was formed on 15 March.
6. The most important demands of the people were fourfold: peace, land to the tiller, control
of industry by workers, and equal status for the non-Russian nationalities. The Provisional
Government under the leadership of Alexander Kerensky did not implement any of these
demands and lost the support of the people. Lenin, who was in exile in Switzerland at the
time of the February Revolution, returned to Russia in April. Under his leadership, the
Bolshevik Party put forward clear policies
a. to end the war
b. transfer land to the peasants and advanced the slogan ‘All Power to the Soviets’.
c. Lenin had described the Russian empire as a ‘prison of nations’ and had declared that
no genuine democracy could be established unless all non-Russian peoples were
given equal rights. He had proclaimed the right of all peoples, including those under
the Russian empire, to self-determination.
Unpopularity of the Kerensky government led to its collapse on 7 November 1917, when a
group of sailors occupied the Winter Palace, the seat of the Kerensky government.
Leon Trotsky who had played an important role in the 1905 Revolution returned to Russia in
May 1917. As head of the Petrograd Soviet, he was one of the most outstanding leaders of the
November uprising. An All Russian Congress of Soviets met on the same day and assumed full
political power. This event which took place on 7 November is known as the October
Revolution
7. Congress of Soviets on the next day issued a proclamation to all peoples and belligerent
states to open negotiations for a just peace without annexation and indemnities.
a. Russia withdrew from the war, though formal peace was signed with Germany later,
after ceding the territories that Germany demanded as a price for peace.
b. Following the decree on land, the estates of the landlords, the Church and the
Tsar were confiscated and transferred to peasants’ societies to be allotted to
peasant families to be cultivated without hired labor.
c. Control of industries was transferred to shop committees of workers. By the middle of
1918, banks and insurance companies, large industries, mines, water transport and
 railways were nationalized, foreign debts were repudiated and foreign investments
were confiscated.
d. A Declaration of the Rights of Peoples was issued conferring the right of
self− determination upon all nationalities.
e. A new government, called the Council of People’s Commissars, headed by Lenin was
formed. These first acts of the new government were hailed as the beginning of the
era of socialism.
8. October Revolution had been almost completely peaceful. However, soon the new state was
involved in a civil war. The officers of the army of the fallen Tsar organized an armed rebellion
against the Soviet state. Troops of foreign powers — England, France, Japan, United States
and other —joined them as new govt has refused to honor debts of Russian Empire. War
raged till 1920. By this time the ‘Red Army’ of the new state was in control of almost all the
lands of the old Tsarist empire. Red Army was badly equipped and composed mainly of
workers and peasants. However, it won over better equipped and better trained forces
9. Consequences −
a. Overthrow of autocracy and the destruction of the aristocracy and the power of
the church were the first achievements of the Russian Revolution.
b. Empire was transformed into a new state called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(U.S.S.R), for short Soviet Union.
c. Policies of the new state were to be directed to the realization of the old socialist ideal,
‘from each according to his capacity, to each according to his work’.
d. Private property in the means of production was abolished and the motive of private
profit eliminated from the system of production. Economic planning by the state was
adopted to build a technologically advanced economy at a fast rate and to eliminate
glaring inequalities in society
e. Right to work became a constitutional right and it became the duty of the state to
provide employment to every individual. Education of the entire people was given a
high priority.
f. Equality of all the nationalities in the U S S.R. was recognized in the constitution framed
in 1924 and later in 1936. The constitution gave the republics formed by the
nationalities autonomy to develop their languages and cultures.
In its impact on the world, the Russian Revolution had few parallels in history. The ideas of
socialism which the socialist movement had been advocating and which the Russian
Revolution espoused were intended for universal application. It was the first successful
revolution in history which proclaimed the building of a socialist society as its objective.
10. Comintern (1919-43) − Communist International (also known as the Third International or
Comintern) was formed for promoting revolutions on an international scale. Leftwing sections
in many socialist parties now formed themselves into communist parties and they affiliated
themselves to the Comintern.
a. Communist parties were also formed in other countries, often with the active
involvement and support of the Comintern. Thus the international communist
movement arose under one organization which decided on policies to be followed by
all communist parties
b. With the formation of the Comintern, the socialist movement was divided into two
sections — socialist and communist. There were many differences between them on
the methods of bringing about socialism and about the concept of socialism itself.
c. Despite these differences, socialism became one of the most widely held ideologies
within a few decades after its emergence. The spread of the influence of socialist ideas
and movements was in no small measure due to the success of the Russian Revolution.
d. Growing popularity of socialism and many achievements made by the Soviet Union led
to a redefinition of democracy. Most people who did not believe in socialism also began
to recognize that for democracy to be real, political rights without social and economic
rights were not enough. Economic and social affairs could not be left to the capitalists.
Popularity of socialism also helped to mitigate discriminations based on race, colour and
sex.
Many problems which were considered national began to be looked upon as concerns of the
world as a whole. Universality and internationalism which were fundamental principles of
 socialist ideology from the beginning were totally opposed to imperialism. Russian Revolution
served to hasten the end of imperialism.
a. New Soviet state came to be looked upon as a friend of the peoples of the colonies
struggling for national independence. Russia after the Revolution was the first country
in Europe to openly support the cause of independence of all nations from foreign rule.

L. Between WW1 and WW2

1. Europe bw wars − Germany was proclaimed a republic, which didn't satisfy some
revolutionaries. Two socialist leaders, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, were assassinated.
Inspired by the Russian Revolution, there were revolutions in many other countries of Europe
such as Hungary, Finland, and Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania which had earlier
been parts of the Russian empire. But all these revolutions were short lived. Political situation
in almost every country in Europe was complicated. This period saw the growth of socialist
and communist par ties in almost every country of Europe. However, within a few years in
many countries of Europe, the socialist movements were defeated and dictatorial
governments came to power.
2. Fascism in Italy − number of political movements which arose in Europe after the WW1 are
generally given the name ‘fascist’ . Common features of these movements were their hostility
to democracy and socialism, and the aim of establishing dictatorships.
a. They succeeded, in many countries of Europe, such as, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal,
Germany, Spain.
b. Fascism movement started in Italy under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. Mussolini
had organized armed gangs against socialists and communists in 1919. Italy had joined
WW1 with the aim of gaining colonies. However, the peace treaties had failed to satisfy
its ambitions.
c. Italian government at the time was dominated by capitalists and landlords who began
to support anti-democratic movements which promised to save them from the danger
of socialism as well as to satisfy their colonial aspirations.
d. Movement started by Mussolini was one such movement. His armed gangs were used
by landlords and industrialists to organize violence against socialists and communists.
A systematic campaign of terrorism and murder was launched but the government
showed little interest in curbing it.
e. In 1921, elections were held in Italy. Socialists and communists won 138 seats and
Mussolini's party could get only 38. However he marched on Rome in 1922 and
seized power - without firing a shot.
f. Victory of fascism in Italy was neither the result of a victory in elections nor of a popular
uprising. The government of Italy was handed over to the fascists because the ruling
classes of Italy considered democracy and socialism as threats to their power.
g. Takeover of the government by fascists was followed by a reign of terror. Socialist and
communist movement was suppressed. In 1926 all political parties except Mussolini’s
party were banned. Fascists believed that there could be no harmony between two or
more nations. They glorified war which, according to them, "ennobled people". Openly
advocated a policy of expansion and said that nations which do not expand cannot
survive for long.
3. Nazism in Germany − Germany had sought to satisfy her imperial ambitions through WW1 but
suffered defeat. Outbreak of revolution in Germany towards the end of the WW1 led to the
collapse of the German monarchy. However, even though Germany became a republic, the
forces behind the monarchy the industrialists, the big landowners and the officers of the
army remained quite powerful. Govt was not able to destroy their power. These forces
began to turn to the anti-democratic forces represented by Nazism to extend their power
and to check the power of the socialist movement.
a. Adolf Hitler too tried to capture power through a march on Berlin, but was captured
and jailed. Beer Hall Putsch of Munich in Nov 1923 − gave Hitler recognition worldwide,
time to write in jail where he wrote Mein Kampf and moved him to change tactics of
Nazi party to capture power through legitimate means. In Mein Kampf, he expressed
some of the most monstrous ideas of the Nazi movement.
b. He glorified the use of force and brutality, and the rule by a great leader and ridiculed
 internationalism, peace and democracy. He preached extreme hatred against the
German Jews who were blamed not only for the defeat of Germany in WW1 but for all
the ills of Germany. He glorified violent nationalism and extolled war.
c. These ideas of the Nazis found favor with the army, the industrialists, the big
landowners and the anti republican politicians. They began to look upon Hitler as
the savior of Germany.
d. Nazis capitalized on the sense of humiliation which many Germans felt at their defeat
in the war and the unjust provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. They also exploited the
misery of the people which had worsened due to the reparations which Germany was
made to pay to the Allied powers. In 1929 occurred the most serious economic crisis
which affected all the capitalist countries of the world.
e. As a result of this crisis, 8 million workers, about half of the working population of
Germany, were rendered unemployed. It was during this period that the Nazi Party,
which was no more than a conspiratorial group in the beginning, began to spread its
influence. Social Democratic Party and the Communist Party were powerful parties with
huge following, however, failed to unite against the Nazis.
f. In the elections held in Germany before Hitler came to power, Nazi Party had polled less
votes than the Socialist and Communist vote put together. It had won only 196 seats
out of a total of about 650. Hitler’s coming to power was the result of political intrigues.
g. In spite of his poor showing in the elections, Hitler was appointed the Chancellor of
Germany by the President of Germany in Jan 1933. Soon after coming to power, Hitler
ordered fresh elections and let loose a reign of terror. Assassination of anti−Nazi
leaders was organized on a large scale. In Feb 1933, the Reichstag building was set on
fire by the Nazis. Communist Party Germany was blamed for the fire and was
suppressed. In spite of the terror organized by the Nazis, the Nazi Party could not win a
majority of seats in Parliament. However, Hitler assumed dictatorial powers (Enabling
Act) and, in 1934, became the President.
h. Trade unions were suppressed and thousands of socialists, communists and anti-Nazi
political leaders were exterminated. The Nazis started huge bonfires into which the
works of some of the best writers of Germany and other countries were thrown.
Besides socialists and communists, Jews were made victims of an organized campaign
of humiliation and violence
4. USA − One of the most important features of the period after WW1 was the decline in the
supremacy of Europe in the world and the growing importance of the United States of
America. Emerged as the richest and the most powerful country in the world at the end of
the war. This was clear from the important role that she played during the framing of the
peace treaties.
a. Had made tremendous industrial progress and was beginning to make heavy
investments in Europe. However, in spite of this progress, the USA was frequently
beset with serious economic problems.
5. Great Depression − lasted from 1929 to 1939, and was the worst economic downturn in
the history of the industrialized world.
a. It began after the stock market crash of 29 October 1929 (Black Tuesday), which sent
Wall Street into a panic and wiped out millions of investors and 9000 banks. Since
banks were uninsured, people lost all their life savings. Half the banks that survived
weren't willing to extend loans leading to downturn in investment.
b. Roaring 20s − Throughout the 1920s, the U.S. economy expanded rapidly, and the
nation’s total wealth more than doubled between 1920 and 1929. New York Stock
Exchange was scene of reckless speculation, where everyone from millionaire
tycoons to cooks and janitors poured their savings into stocks. As a result, the stock
market underwent rapid expansion, reaching its peak in August 1929.
c. By then, production had already declined and unemployment had risen, leaving stock
prices much higher than their actual value. Additionally, wages at that time were low,
consumer debt was increasing, the agricultural sector of the economy was
struggling due to drought and falling food prices, and banks had an excess of large
loans that could not be liquidated.
d. American economy entered a mild recession during the summer of 1929, as consumer
 spending slowed and unsold goods began to pile up, which in turn slowed factory
production. Nonetheless, stock prices continued to rise, and by the fall of that year had
reached stratospheric levels that could not be justified by expected future earnings.
e. As consumer confidence vanished in the wake of the stock market crash, the
downturn in spending and investment led factories and other businesses to slow
down production and begin firing their workers. For those who were lucky enough to
remain employed, wages fell and buying power decreased.
f. Many Americans forced to buy on credit fell into debt, and the number of
foreclosures and repossessions climbed steadily. The global adherence to the gold
standard, which joined countries around the world in a fixed currency exchange,
helped spread economic woes from USA to throughout the world, especially Europe.
g. Meanwhile, the country’s industrial production had dropped by half. Bread lines, soup
kitchens and rising numbers of homeless people became more and more common in
America’s towns and cities. In previous depressions, farmers were usually safe from the
severe effects of a depression because they could at least feed themselves.
Unfortunately, during the Great Depression, the Great Plains were hit hard with both
a drought and horrendous dust storms, creating what became known as the Dust
Bowl. When the dust storms damaged the crops, not only could the small farmer not
feed himself and his family, he could not pay back his debt taken for cropping. Banks
would then foreclose on the small farms and the farmer's family would be both
homeless and unemployed.
h. U.S. economy broke down and entered the Great Depression during the presidency of
Herbert Hoover. Although President Hoover repeatedly spoke of optimism, the
people blamed him for the Great Depression. As soon as Roosevelt took office, he
closed all the banks and only let them reopen once they were stabilized. Next,
Roosevelt began to establish programs that became known as the New Deal. Major
turn−around for the
U.S. economy occurred after the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the entrance of the
United States into World War II. Once the U.S. was involved in the war, both people
and industry became essential to the war effort. Weapons, artillery, ships, and airplanes
were needed quickly. Men were trained to become soldiers and the women were kept
on the home front to keep the factories going.
6. Emergence of Soviet Union − period after WW1 saw emergence of the Soviet Union as a
major power and she began to play a crucial role in world affairs. Military intervention by
Britain, France, USA and Japan in Russia in support of the counterrevolutionary forces has
already been mentioned. By 1920 the counterrevolutionary forces had been defeated and the
foreign armies driven out.
a. The period of civil war was of acute economic distress for people. In 1921, the New
Economic Policy was introduced. Under this policy, the peasants were allowed to sell
their produce in the open markets, payment of wages in cash was reintroduced and
production of goods and their sale in some industries under private control was
permitted. A few years later, in 1929, the USSR started its vigorous program of
economic reconstruction and industrialization when it adopted the first of a series of its
Five Year Plans.
b. Within a few years, the Soviet Union emerged as a major industrial power. The
extraordinary economic progress that the Soviet Union achieved was against heavy
odds. Though the foreign intervention had been ended, many countries of Europe, and
the United States followed a policy of economic boycott with the aim of destroying the
revolution.
c. However, the Soviet Union not only survived but continued to grow economically at a
fast rate. Only country which remained unaffected by the economic crisis of 1929-33.
On the contrary, its industrial development went on as before while millions of
people in West were unemployed and thousands of factories had come to a standstill.
d. Soviets adopted the policy of promoting collective farms. In these farms, individual
ownership of farms by peasants was ended and the peasants worked on these
‘collective farms’ collectively. The government pursued the policy of collectivization
vigorously and by 1937 almost all cultivable land was brought under collective farms.
Initially, the peasants were free to decide whether they wanted to join the collective
 farms or not. Later, they were forced to join. The rich peasants who opposed
collectivization were severely dealt with. The process of collectivization of agriculture
was accompanied by many atrocities. According to some estimates, millions of people
perished in this period.
7. Stalin − After the death of Lenin in 1924 many serious differences arose within the ruling
Communist Party the only political party which existed — over policies to be followed.
There was also serious struggle for power between different groups and individual leaders. In
this struggle, Stalin emerged victorious.
a. In 1927, Trotsky who had played an important role in the revolution and had organized
the Red Army was expelled from the Communist Party. In 1929, he was sent into
exile.
b. In the 1930s, almost all the leaders who had played an important role in the revolution
and in the following years were eliminated. False charges were brought against them,
and after fake trials they were executed. Political democracy and freedom of speech
and press were destroyed. The expression of differences even within the party was not
tolerated.
c. Stalin, who had been the General Secretary of the Communist Party, assumed
dictatorial powers which he exercised till his death in 1953. These developments had
an adverse effect on the building of socialism in the USSR and introduced features which
were contrary to the humanistic ideals of Marxism and of the revolution. The
development of art and literature also suffered because of restrictions on freedom.
8. Soviet Union was not recognized by most European powers and USA for a long time.
However, with its growing strength she could not be ignored and gradually one country after
another recognized her. Britain established diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in
1933. In 1934 she also became a member of the League of Nations.
a. However, in spite of the ending of the isolation of the Soviet Union, the hostility
towards the Soviet Union continued. The Soviet Union followed a policy of support to
the movements for independence. The help given to China is notable in this context.
When the fascist countries started their acts of aggression, the Soviet government
pressed for action against them.
b. However, the Western countries did not agree to the Soviet proposals. They continued
to regard the Soviet Union as a danger to them and hoped that fascist countries
would destroy her. Their hostility to the Soviet Union led to the appeasement of
fascist powers and paved the way for the Second World War.
9. Turkey − The nationalist movement in Turkey was organized to prevent the domination of
the country by the Allied powers and the annexation of parts of Turkey by Greece and Italy.
The Sultan of Turkey agreed to the terms dictated by the Allied powers.
a. However, even before the treaty was signed by the Sultan, a national government had
been established under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal with its headquarters at
Ankara. This government signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet government in
1921 under which Turkey received Soviet political support and arms for the nationalist
cause.
b. Following the treaty with the Sultan, Turkey had been invaded by Greece. The Turks
under Kemal’s leadership were able to repel the invasion and the Allies were forced
to repudiate the earlier treaty. The Allied troops were withdrawn from Turkish
territory and the areas which were to be annexed by European countries remained in
Turkey. Thus Turkey was able to win her complete independence.
c. The success of the Turks in winning the complete independence of their country
was followed by a program to modernize Turkey and to end the influence of
backward looking feudal elements. Turkey was proclaimed a republic.
10. China − In 1911, there was a revolution in China which resulted in the establishment of a
republic. However, power passed into the hands of corrupt warlords (Beiyang army factions).
a. National movement in China aimed at the overthrow of foreign domination and the
unification of China by ending the rule of the warlords. The founder of the national
movement in China was Dr. Sun Yat Sen. He had played an important role in the 1911
Xinhai revolution which overthrew the Qing dynasty and in 1917 had set up a
government at Canton in south China. The party formed by him called Kuomintang
led the national struggle in China for a number of years.
 b. New government in Russia had renounced all the unequal treaties which the Russian
emperors had imposed on China and had promised full support to the Chinese
national struggle. In 1921 the Communist Party of China was formed. In 1924, the
Kuomintang and the Communist Party decided to work together and the Soviet
government gave various kinds of aid, such as the training of a revolutionary army.
c. A number of Soviet political and military advisers worked with the Chinese liberation
movement. After the death of Sun Yat Sen in 1925, the unity between the Kuomintang
and the Communist Party was broken and a period of civil war began.
d. In the 1930s when the Japanese attacked China with the aim of subjugating the entire
country, the two parties agreed to work together to resist the Japanese invasion.
Communist Party played a leading role in the war of resistance against the Japanese
invasion. It was able to establish its supremacy in the country and within a few years
after the end of the WW2 was victorious in the civil war.
11. Africa − Though the struggles for national independence in Africa gained momentum
after WW2, the 1920s and the 1930s were a period when the first political associations
were formed.
a. An important role in the growth of national consciousness in Africa was played by a
series of Pan-African Congresses. Pan African movement asserted the identity
and unity of the African people, and independence of Africa.
b. National movement in South Africa had emerged earlier than in other parts of Africa. In
1912 the African National Congress had been formed which became the leading
organization of the South African people.
c. Ethiopia fought heroically against the Italian invasion 1935-36 and their resistance
served as a source of inspiration to the people of Africa.
12. Beginning of aggression − In the 1930s the fascist powers began their wars of conquest
which ultimately led to the WW2. Major fascist countries were Italy and Germany who got an
ally in the militarist regime which came to power in Japan.
a. These three countries started series of aggressions in Europe, Asia and Africa. All of
them claimed to have been fighting against communism and were united in 1937
under the Anti-Comintern Pact.
b. When the acts of aggression began, the aggrieved countries, the Soviet Union and
many leaders in different countries demanded collective action to defeat the
aggressions. In 1935, the Communist International advocated the formation of Popular
Fronts consisting of Communists, Socialists and other antifascists to counter the
danger of fascism and war.
c. Hitler had come to power in Germany because the Communist and Social Democratic
Parties of Germany had failed to unite against the Nazis. Comintern’s advocacy of
uniting all antifascist forces was followed by the formation of Popular Fronts in many
countries. In France, the Popular Front succeeded in preventing a fascist takeover.
d. Covenant of the League of Nations contained a provision for economic and military
sanctions and collective action against aggression. However, the Western governments,
instead of resisting the aggressions, followed a policy of appeasement of the aggressive
powers.
e. Since the success of the Russian Revolution, the Western countries had been haunted
by the danger of communism and they hoped that fascist countries would rid them
of this danger.
13. Japanese invasion of China − One of the first major acts of aggression after the First World
War was the Japanese invasion of China in 1931. Minor incident involving a railway line
owned by the Japanese in Manchuria was made the pretext for the invasion.
a. China, a member of the League of Nations, appealed to the League for sanctions
against Japan to stop the aggression. However, Britain and France, the leading
countries in the League, were completely indifferent to the appeal and acquiesced in
the aggression.
b. Japan occupied Manchuria, installed a puppet government there and proceeded to
conquer more areas. In 1933, Japan quit the League of Nations. Western countries
thought that the Japanese could be used to weaken China as well as the Soviet
Union.
14. German re−militarization
 a. Germany had been admitted to the League of Nations some time after its formation but
soon after Hitler came to power, he quit the League and undertook a massive program
of militarization.
b. According to the Treaty of Versailles, severe restrictions had been imposed on the
military strength of Germany. The beginning of German remilitarization in violation of
the Treaty created a sense of insecurity in many countries, particularly France. It was
in this situation that the Soviet Union became a member of the League in 1934. As
Germany remilitarized Rhineland and other areas, alarming the French, nothing was
done to stop this.
15. Spanish Civil War − In 1931 Spain had become a republic. In 1936 a Popular Front comprising
the Socialist, Communist and other democratic and antifascist parties came to power. A
section of the army under the leadership of General Francisco Franco with the armed
support of Italy and Germany revolted against the government.
a. Italy and Germany started intervening openly in the Civil War that followed. They sent
forces, tanks and warships in support of the rebels. The German aircrafts conducted air
raids on Spanish towns and villages.
b. Government of the Spanish Republic appealed for help against the fascists. Only the
Soviet Union came to the help of the Republican forces. Britain and France advocated a
policy of nonintervention and refused to give any aid to the government of Spain.
They remained indifferent to the German and Italian intervention in the war.
16. Munich Pact − While the Spanish Civil War was still going on, Hitler’s troops marched
into Austria in March 1938 and occupied it.
a. Even though this was a violation of the peace treaties signed after WW1, Western
powers did not protest against it. Final act of appeasement of fascism by the
Western powers was the Munich Pact.
b. Germany coveted Czechoslovakia which was very important because of its industries.
Area also had strategic importance for the expansion of Germany in the east towards
the Soviet Union. Hitler claimed a part of Czechoslovakia called Sudetenland which
had substantial German population. This area formed about one fifth of the area of
Czechoslovakia and had one of the largest munition factories in the world.
c. Instead of meeting the threat posed by Germany, the leaders of Britain and France met
Hitler and Mussolini at Munich in Germany in Sep 1938 and agreed to Germany's
terms without the consent of Czechoslovakia. Soon after, the Sudetenland was
occupied by German troops. A few months later in March 1939 entire Czechoslovakia
was occupied by Germany.
17. Non−Aggression Pact − Soviet Union had been pleading for an alliance of western powers
with them. However, the Western policies of appeasement had convinced the Soviet Union
that their main interest was to divert the German expansion towards the Soviet Union. Stalin
proceeded to sign Non-Aggression Pact with Germany in Aug 1939, which guaranteed that
the two countries would not attack each other.
a. By signing this pact, Germany had protected itself from having to fight a two−front war
in the soon−to−begin World War II. In return, as part of a secret addendum, the Soviet
Union was to be awarded land, including parts of Poland and the Baltic States. The
pact was broken when Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union less than two years
later in June 1941.

M. Second World War

1. In spite of the fact that Western countries had agreed to all the aggressions of Japan, Italy
and Germany from the invasion of Manchuria to the annexation of Czechoslovakia, the
fascist countries’ ambitions had not been satisfied. These countries were planning another
re−division of the world and thus had to come into conflict with the established imperialist
powers. Western policy of diverting the aggression of the fascist countries towards the Soviet
Union had failed with the signing of the Soviet German Non−Aggression Pact.
2. Danzig, which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany, had been made a free city
independent of German control. Hitler had demanded the return of Danzig to Germany but
Britain had refused to accept this demand. On 1 September 1939 German armies marched
into Poland. On 3 September Britain and France declared war on Germany. Thus the
invasion
 of Poland marked the beginning of the Second World War
3. German armies completed the conquest of Poland in less than three weeks as no aid
reached Poland. In spite of the declaration of war, however, there was little actual fighting
for many months. Therefore, the war during this period from September 1939 to April 1940
when Germany invaded Norway and Denmark is known as the ‘phoney war’.
a. Soviet Union attacked eastern Poland. In 1940, the Baltic States of Latvia, Estonia and
Lithuania which had become independent after WW1 were also occupied by the Soviet
Union. They, along with Moldavia, became republics of USSR. In November 1939, the
Soviet Union also went to war against Finland.
4. Germany launched her invasion of Norway and Denmark on 9 April 1940 and within three
weeks completed the conquest of these two countries. In Norway, the German invaders were
helped by Quisling, leader of Norway’s fascist party, who set up a puppet government in
Norway under German occupation. The very name ‘Quisling’ has come to mean a traitor who
collaborates with the invaders of his country. In early May began the invasion of Belgium
and Holland which was completed before the end of May.
a. Soon the German armies marched into France and by 14 June 1940, the capital city of
Paris had fallen into German hands almost without a fight. In the meantime, Italy
also had joined the war on the side of her ally, Germany.
b. On 22 June 1940, the French government surrendered and signed a truce with Germany
according to which about half of France was occupied by Germany. The remaining part
remained under the French government which was required to disband the French
army and provide for the maintenance of the German army in France.
c. French government which had surrendered to Germany ruled from Vichy. With the
defeat of France, Germany became the supreme power over the continent of Europe.
The war conducted by Germany with great speed and force is known as blitzkrieg
5. Britain − Britain was the only major power left in Europe after the fall of France.
Germany thought that Britain would surrender soon as she was without any allies in
Europe.
a. German air force began bombing raids on Britain in August 1940 with the aim of
terrorizing her into surrender. The battle that ensued is known as the Battle of Britain.
b. Royal Air Force of Britain played a heroic role in its defense against air raids and
conducted air raids on German territories in retaliation.
c. Under leadership of Churchill, Britain successfully resisted the German air raids with
courage and determination.
6. Operation Barbarossa − Having conquered almost the entire Europe, except Britain,
Germany attacked the Soviet Union, despite the Non-Aggression Pact, on 22 June 1941.
Hitler had always coveted the vast territory and resources of the Soviet Union.
a. He thought that the destruction of the Soviet Union would take about eight weeks.
Hitler had grossly underestimated the strength of the Soviet Union. In the first phase
of the war with the Soviet Union, Germany achieved significant victories.
b. Vast areas of the Soviet Union were devastated, Leningrad was besieged and German
troops were marching towards Moscow. However, in spite of the initial German
successes, the German onslaught was halted. Soviet Union had built up industrial and
military strength and resisted the German invasion heroically and the German hopes
of a quick victory were thwarted.
c. Soon after the invasion, Churchill and Roosevelt declared British and American’
support, respectively, to the Soviet Union in the war against Germany and promised
aid to her.
7. Pearl Harbour − In September 1940, these three countries had signed another pact which
bound them together even more. Japan recognized the leadership of Germany and Italy in the
establishment of a new order in Europe and Japan’s leadership was recognized for
establishing a new order in Asia.
a. On 7 December 1941, the Japanese, without a declaration of war, conducted a
massive raid on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
b. American Pacific Fleet which was stationed there was devastated. The Americans lost 20
warships, and about 250 aircrafts. About 3000 persons were killed.
c. Attack on Pearl Harbor in the midst of negotiations with Americans showed that the
Japanese were determined to conquer Asia and the Pacific. With this the Second World
 War became truly global. USA declared war on Japan on 8 December 1941 and soon
after Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.
d. Following the U.S. entry into the war, many countries in the Americas joined the war
against Germany, Italy and Japan. Japanese achieved significant victories in the war
in Asia.
8. Battle of Stalingrad − In January 1942 the unity of the countries fighting against the
fascist powers was cemented.
a. Representatives of 26 nations, including Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union,
signed a declaration, known as the United Nations Declaration. Signatories to this
Declaration resolved to utilize all their resources to pursue the war until victory was
achieved and to cooperate with one another against the common enemy, and
promised not to have a separate peace treaty.
b. In Nov−Dec 1941, German advance on Moscow met with stubborn resistance and the
invasion was repulsed. Germany then launched an offensive in southern Russia. In
August 1942, the German troops reached the outskirts of Stalingrad. For over five
months, the battle raged. It involved about 2 million men, 2000 tanks and 2000
airplanes. Civilian population of Stalingrad joined the soldiers in the defense of the
city. In February 1943, about 90,000 German officers and soldiers surrendered.
9. German Afrika Korps −was the expeditionary force that was sent to North-Africa
during World War II.
a. It was first created as a holding force to buck up the Italian defense of their African
colonies. Afrika Korps fought in Africa, under various titles and commanders, from
March 1941 until its surrender in May 1943
b. Fascist alliance of Germany and Italy was ultimately driven from the land. After the
campaign, the Allies would turn their attention to Italy, where they would win another
crucial victory in the fight against militant fascism in Europe
10. Italy − Many sections in Italy had turned against Mussolini. He was arrested and a new
government was formed. This government joined the war against Germany. However,
German troops invaded northern Italy and Mussolini, who had escaped with the help of
Germans, headed a pro-German government there. Meanwhile, British and American troops
entered Italy and a long battle to throw the Germans out of Italy followed.
11. Second Front − Soviet Union was attaining significant victories against Germany and had
already entered Czechoslovakia and Romania which had been under German
occupation.
a. On 6 June 1944, more than 100,000 British and American troops landed on the coast
of Normandy in France (D Day / Operation Neptune). By September their number had
reached 2,000,000. The opening of this front played a very crucial role in the defeat of
Germany. This is known as the opening of the ‘Second Front’.
b. Since 1942 in Europe the most ferocious battles had been fought between Germany
and the Soviet Union. Soviet Union had been demanding the opening of the second
front for long, as this would compel Germany to fight on other fronts also and
would thus hasten the defeat of Germany.
12. End of War − After 6 June 1944, German armies had to face the forces of the Allies from
three directions.
a. In Italy, the British and American troops were advancing.
b. Northern and western France and the city of Paris had been freed and the Allied
troops were moving towards Belgium and Holland
c. On the eastern front, the Germans were facing a collapse. The Soviet army from
the east and other Allied troops from the west were closing on Germany.
d. In May 1945 the Soviet armies entered Berlin. Hitler had committed suicide on the
morning of the same day. On 7 May 1945 Germany unconditionally surrendered. The
end of all hostilities in Europe became effective from midnight of 9 May 1945
13. Nuclear bomb − After the defeat of Germany, the war in Asia continued for another three
months. Britain and USA had launched successful operations against Japan in the Pacific
and in the Philippines and Burma.
a. In spite of serious reverses, however, the Japanese were still holding large parts of
China.
b. On 6 August 1945, an atom bomb, the deadliest weapon developed during the war, was
 dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. This was the first time that the atom bomb
had been used. With one single bomb, the city of Hiroshima was obliterated. Another
atom bomb was dropped on the city of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945. The city was
destroyed.
c. In the meantime, the Soviet Union had declared war on Japan and had started military
operations against Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea.
d. On 14 August Japan conveyed its acceptance of the Allied demand to surrender but the
actual surrender took place on 2 September 1945. With the Japanese surrender, the
WW2 came to an end.
14. Destruction caused by the war in terms of human lives has no precedent in history. Over 50
million people perished in the Second World War.
a. Of them about 22 million were soldiers and over 28 million civilians. About 12 million
people lost their lives in concentration camps or as a result of the terror unleashed
by the fascists
b. Some countries lost a large percentage of their population. For example, Poland lost six
million people, about five million of them civilians, which was about 20% of the Polish
population. The Soviet Union in absolute terms suffered the worst — about 20 million
people which was about 10% of the population.
c. Germany lost over six million people, about 10% of her population. Besides the human
losses, the economy and material resources of many countries were badly damaged.
Many ancient cities were almost completely destroyed.
15. Atomic bomb − Many new weapons of destruction were devised and used in the WW2.
The most dreadful of these was the atom bomb.
a. Atom bomb was first devised in the USA. Scientists of many countries, including those
who had come to USA to escape the fascist tyranny in Europe, had helped in
developing it.
b. Project Manhattan − to develop the bomb was taken up when a number of scientists
including Einstein and Oppenheimer, suspecting that the Nazi Germany was
developing the atom bomb, approached the US government.
c. They had feared that if the Nazis developed the bomb, they would use it to terrorize
the world into submission. Atom bomb was first tested in July 1945. By then, Germany
had already surrendered.
d. Many of those who had helped in its development appealed to the US government
not to use it against Japan against whom the war was still continuing. They also
warned of the danger of starting a race in the production of atomic weapons if the
atom bomb was used against Japan.
e. However, the President Truman used the atom bombs against the Japanese cities of
Hiroshima (Little Boy) and Nagasaki (Fat Man). These two bombs killed over 320,000
people almost instantaneously and completely wiped out large parts of the two
cities. The effects of these bombs on the health of those who survived and on their
children continue to this day.
f. USA justified the use of the atom bomb on the ground that it brought WW2
immediately to a close and thus helped to save human lives which would have
been lost if the war had continued. Many other people, including the scientists who
had helped in making the bomb condemned its use.
16. Holocaust − Holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state-sponsored persecution
and murder of 6 million Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators. Holocaust is a word
of Greek origin meaning "sacrifice by fire."
a. The Nazis, who came to power in Germany in January 1933, believed that Germans
were "racially superior" and that the Jews, deemed "inferior," were an alien threat
to the so−called German racial community.
b. Although Jews, whom the Nazis deemed a priority danger to Germany, were the
primary victims of Nazi racism, other victims included some 200,000 Roma (Gypsies).
At least 200,000 mentally or physically disabled patients, mainly Germans, living in
institutional settings, were murdered in the so−called Euthanasia Program.
c. To concentrate and monitor the Jewish population as well as to facilitate later
deportation of the Jews, the Germans and their collaborators created ghettos, transit
 camps, and forced-labor camps for Jews during the war years. The German authorities
also established numerous forced−labor camps, both in the so−called Greater German
Reich and in German−occupied territory, for non-Jews whose labor the Germans sought
to exploit.
d. Steps to Death − Stage 1 Exclusion. Nuremberg Laws of citizenship of Sep 1935
(marriages bw Jews and Germans were forbidden, boycott of Jewish business). Stage 2
Ghettoisation, All Jews to wear yellow Star of David and surrender all their wealth and
sent to a ghetto. Stage 3 Annihilation. The Final Solution − mass killings within
minutes with scientific precision.

N. Post War Years

1. World has been completely transformed during the years since end of WW2. Its political map
has also changed. Influence and the dominations which a few European imperialist powers
exercised in the prewar years became things of the past. Large number of nations in Asia
and Africa emerged as independent nations. Soviet Union also emerged as a mighty power,
in spite of the terrible devastation it suffered during the war
a. Danger of a new world war which would destroy human life altogether created a new
awareness of the need for establishing lasting peace. Peoples and nations made efforts
in this direction by promoting mutual relations based on friendship and cooperation.
They also created many new institutions and agencies for the purpose.
b. However, in spite of these efforts the period after WW2 has been full of conflicts and
wars in which hundreds of thousands of people have been killed even though the
world has escaped a large-scale conflagration.
2. WW2: Immediate consequences
a. During the war, the major Allied nations had held many conferences and had issued
declarations stating the principles which would form the basis of peace. The first major
declaration had been issued by Britain and USA in 1941 which stated that they would
not seek any territory. It also supported the right of every people to have the form of
government of their choice. Early in 1942 was issued the United Nations Declaration.
This Declaration supported the one issued by Britain and USA earlier. Another
declaration stated that all the Chinese territories taken by Japan would be restored to
her. In 1943, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin, leaders of Britain, USA and the Soviet
Union, respectively, met at Tehran.
b. Yalta Conference − Early in 1945 when Germany was on the verge of defeat, the
heads of the three big nations met at Yalta in the Soviet Union.
i. Germany to be split into 4 zones and Germany to pay reparations. Govt of
national unity to be set up in Poland comprising of both communists and non-
communists
ii. Free elections in countries of eastern Europe − Declaration of Liberated Europe
iii. Russia to help against Japan upon Germany's defeat
c. United Nations − Subsequently, a conference was held at San Francisco, USA, from 25
April 1945. The conference was attended by 50 nations. On 26 June the conference
adopted the United Nations Charter under which a new world organization was set
up. This was the United Nations Organization which was based on the principle of “the
sovereign equality of all peace loving states”
d. Potsdam Conference − Bw Britain, USA and the Soviet Union was held at Potsdam
(near Berlin) from 17 July to 2 August 1945.
i. Declaration issued by this conference mentioned the main aims of the Allies with
regard to Germany which had already surrendered. Germany had been
partitioned into four zones, each under the control of Britain, France, the
United States and the Soviet Union.
ii. Objective to bring about the complete disarmament of Germany, to destroy the
Nazi Party and to prepare conditions for the creation of a democratic Germany.
iii. It was also decided to set up an international tribunal to bring to trial persons
who had committed crimes against humanity.
iv. Decisions were also taken regarding the border between Poland and Germany,
and the transfer of the northern part of East Prussia to the Soviet Union and
the
 southern part to Poland.
v. America had tested atomic bomb by then and informed Atlee and Stalin of
the same
3. Rise of communism in Europe − Communist parties and other antifascist parties in these
countries had played an important role in the struggle against German occupation of
these countries.
i. By the end of 1948, the governments of all these countries were dominated by
the Communist parties. In Albania and Yugoslavia, the struggle against German
occupation had, been led by the Communist parties of these countries.
ii. In these countries too Communist parties formed the governments. Up to WW2,
Soviet Union was the only country ruled by Communists. Now a large number of
European countries were ruled by Communist parties. Other political parties were
either not allowed to exist or had only a nominal presence.
iii. Within the Communist parties themselves, differences over policies were not
allowed and the power within, the Communist parties became concentrated in a
few hands. As in the Soviet Union, dissent even within the ruling parties was not
tolerated and many veteran communists were shot or sentenced to long periods
of imprisonment
4. Germany − The four powers —Britain, France, USA and the Soviet Union which were in
occupation of four different zones of Germany followed different policies in dealing with the
social, economic and political problems in their respective zones.
a. In the British, French and American zones, the economic development continued on
capitalist lines. The two major parties in these zone, were the Christian Democratic
Party and the Social Democratic Party. In 1948, Britain, France and the United States
decided to merge the three zones under their control which were in West Germany and
form a separate state of West Germany called the Federal Republic of Germany with
its capital at Bonn
b. In East Germany which was under Soviet occupation, the policies pursued were
different from those that had been followed in the western zones. Lands were
distributed among peasants and all the major industries were taken over from
private hands and made the property of the state. In 1946 the Communist Party and
the Social Democratic Party in the Soviet zone of Germany merged to form the Socialist
Unity Party of Germany. In October 1949, the Soviet zone became a separate state
called the German Democratic Republic.
c. Division of Germany had been a source of tension in Europe and a major factor in the
Cold War. East Berlin was the capital of East Germany while West Berlin which was
located within the GDR territory was treated as a part of West Germany. In 1961,
the GDR authorities built a wall between East and West Berlin to prevent East
Germans from going away to West Berlin.
d. Building of the wall became a further source of tension in Europe. Process of ending
communist rule in GDR and of the reunification of Germany began in 1989 when the
Berlin Wall was pulled down and political parties which were outside the control of
Socialist Unity Party were allowed to function. In early 1990 elections were held and
a new government came to power. On 3 October 1990, the division of Germany was
ended and a unified Germany again emerged.
5. Britain − In Britain, the elections were held in July 1945. Conservative Party whose leader was
Winston Churchill during the war lost and the Labour Party came to power.
a. Many important industries such as coal mines and railways were nationalized. Steps
were taken to provide social security to the people, and to build a welfare state in
Britain.
b. However, period after the Second World War saw the rapid decline of their empires as
process of decolonization had begun.
6. Eastern Europe − In 1956, three years after the death of Stalin, the Communist Party of
Soviet Union had denounced the excesses and crimes committed by Stalin.
a. From 1985, many important reforms began to be introduced in the political system
of the Soviet Union with a view to promoting political democracy. There was free
and open discussion on every issue and curbs on the freedom of thought and
expression
 were lifted. Perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) were the key pillars of
reforms sought to be introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev
b. In the meantime, there was a demand for greater autonomy by the republics which
constituted the Soviet Union. Some republics wanted to become independent. Attempts
were made to frame a new treaty which would provide greater autonomy to the
republics and at the same time preserve the Union
c. However, in August 1991, there was an attempt to stage a coup by some leaders of the
Communist Party. Though the coup collapsed, the Soviet Union began to break up.
Many republics declared their independence. On 25 December 1991, Mikhail
Gorbachev, who was the President of the Soviet Union during this period and had
initiated the reforms mentioned earlier, resigned and the Soviet Union formally ceased
to exist.
d. Though the rule of the communist parties has ended in all these republics, many of them
are faced with serious political and economic problems. 12 of them have formed a
loose federation called Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
e. Warsaw Pact 1955, the military alliance which was headed by the Soviet Union and of
which the communist ruled states of Europe were members, was dissolved in 1991.
Was established as a counterweight to NATO, but no direct confrontation between
them. Instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both
NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their
integration into the respective blocs.
f. Collapse of the Soviet Union has also been seen as marking the retreat of socialism. It
can, however, be said that the system which was built in these countries was only a
distorted version of the socialist ideal and that social justice which was fundamental to
that ideal has become a part of the consciousness of the people the world over.
7. Break up of Yugoslavia −
a. After the Allied victory in World War II, Yugoslavia was set up as a federation of six
republics, with borders drawn along ethnic and historical lines: Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia and Slovenia. In addition, two
autonomous provinces were established within Serbia: Vojvodina and Kosovo.
b. Each of the republics had its own branch of the League of Communists of
Yugoslavia party and a ruling elite, and any tensions were solved on the federal
level.
c. Yugoslav model of state organization, as well as a "middle way" between planned and
liberal economy, had been a relative success, and the country experienced a period of
strong economic growth and relative political stability up to the 1980s, under the rule of
president-for-life Josip Broz Tito. After his death in 1980, the weakened system of
federal government was left unable to cope with rising economic and political
challenges.
d. Breakup of Yugoslavia occurred as a result of a series of political upheavals and conflicts
during the early 1990s. After a period of political crisis in the 1980s, constituent
republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia split apart, but the unsolved
issues caused bitter inter−ethnic Yugoslav wars. The wars primarily affected Bosnia and
Herzegovina and neighboring parts of Croatia.
8. Cold War − antagonism between the United States and the Soviet Union and the
armed confrontation between the military blocs headed by them
a. Since the end WW1, USA had emerged as the strongest power in the world. After WW2,
her power had grown still more compared with the European powers who had
dominated the world for centuries. This was both in the spheres of economic and
military strength. After it acquired the atom bomb, the awareness of her power was
further strengthened.
b. Soviet Union had suffered more than any other country in the war. Besides the 20
million people it lost during the war, hundreds of her towns and thousands of
factories had been completely destroyed.
i. However, in spite of these losses, Soviet power and prestige had increased. This
was to some extent due to the very important role it had played in defeating
Germany.
ii. Since the revolution, she had been ostracized and boycotted and had faced the
 open hostility of the other big powers. However, after the war, a number of
countries in Europe, as has already been mentioned, were ruled by communist
parties. The Soviet Union exercised a lot of influence over the governments of
these countries. As a result of these developments, the isolation of the Soviet
Union had come to an end.
c. During the war, Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union had together fought
against the fascist countries.
i. Many declarations issued during the war had emphasized that the unity among
these countries would continue after the war also and would be the basis of a
durable peace and international brotherhood. These declarations had aroused
hopes all over the world.
ii. However, the war was hardly over when conflicts and tensions began to emerge
between Britain and the United States on the one hand and the Soviet Union on
the other.
iii. The relations between them began to deteriorate and came to be characterized
by what has been called the Cold War. Gradually, the Cold War became more
and more intense and the world was divided into two major blocs — USA and
West European countries forming one bloc and the Soviet Union and the socialist
countries of Eastern Europe forming the other.
d. Most important reason for the ‘outbreak’ of the Cold War was the Western
countries’ fear of communism.
i. With the increase in the might of the Soviet Union, the emergence of
governments ruled by communist parties in Eastern and Central Europe and the
growing strength of communist parties in many parts of the world, alarmed the
governments of the United States, Britain and other West European countries.
ii. In 1949, the victory of the Communist Party of China in the civil war which had
been raging there for about two decades added to the alarm.
iii. United States openly declared that her policy was to prevent the spread of
communism. One of the objectives of the massive economic aid that the United
States gave to West European countries was also to ‘contain’ communism. USA
began to look upon every development in the world from this standpoint,
whether it promoted or helped in checking communism. Britain and West
European countries became aligned with the United States and began to follow a
policy mainly aimed at curbing the growth of communism.
iv. This had many adverse consequences for democracy, and freedom movements in
the colonies. Freedom movements in many countries began to be considered
unsympathetically by countries which were not themselves colonial powers but
were aligned to the colonial powers.
9. The growing tension in the world was worsened by the setting up of military blocs.
a. NATO − In 1949, North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed for defense
against the Soviet Union. The members of this alliance were the United States, Canada,
Denmark, Norway, Iceland, Portugal, Britain, France, Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg.
Turkey, Greece, the Federal Republic of Germany and Spain became its members later.
A NATO army was created which established its bases in many countries of Europe.
Similar military alliances were set up by the United States and Britain in other parts of
the world.
b. SEATO − In 1954 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was setup with the
United States, Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, the Philippines and
Pakistan as members.
c. Baghdad Pact − In 1955 the Baghdad Pact was brought into being. It consisted of Britain,
Turkey, Iraq, Pakistan and Iran. USA established its military bases all over the world for
use against what she considered the danger of communist aggression. The formation of
these alliances and the establishment of military bases worsened the already tense
international situation. In some countries which were members of these alliances, these
alliances were very unpopular. For example, when there was a revolution in Iraq in
1958, that country withdrew from the Baghdad Pact which had been named after
capital of Iraq.
 i. CENTO − name of Baghdad Pact was then changed to the Central Treaty
Organization (CENTO). These alliances were generally unpopular in the countries
of Asia and Africa as all the imperialist powers of Europe were members of these
alliances and used it to suppress the movements for freedom. Most of the
countries of Asia and Africa which had won their freedom refused to join these
alliances.
d. Warsaw Pact 1955 to 1991 − Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Europe
— Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and the German
Democratic Republic formed the Warsaw Pact.
i. Under this pact, the Soviet Union stationed her troops in these countries.
However, the Soviet Union and the other members of the Warsaw Pact did not
have any military bases in other parts of the world. Soviet Union had treaties
of friendship and mutual assistance with China.
10. Arms Race − formation of the military alliances was accompanied by another
dangerous development. This was the race for deadlier weapons of destruction
a. In 1949, the Soviet Union tested its first atom bomb. A few years later nuclear weapons
which were thousands of times more destructive than the atom bombs used against
Japan, were developed. These were the thermonuclear or hydrogen bombs.
b. The testing alone of these bombs created serious hazards to life. Many movements
were launched in all parts of the world to demand a ban on the testing and
manufacture of nuclear weapons.
c. However, the arsenals of nuclear weapons in the world went on increasing. Along with
the nuclear weapons and many other kinds of weaponry, new bombers, submarines
and missiles have been developed which can carry these weapons over thousands of
kilometers.
11. Major Cold War Events
 a.

b. In the 1970s and early 1980s, some beginnings were made to end the Cold War.
Agreements were reached between the United States and the Soviet Union to
eliminate some categories of carriers of nuclear weapons and to reduce the number of
certain types of weapons installed in certain areas. The process of ending the Cold War,
however, suffered many setbacks, for example:
i. Afghanistan − In 1979, Soviet troops entered Afghanistan. This
development increased the tension between the United States and the
Soviet Union.
ii. Star Wars − United States launched a program of developing new and even
more deadly weapons STRATEGIC DEFENSE INITIATIVE, popularly known as the
Star Wars. These weapons would have meant taking the conflict into outer
space and launching attacks from there.
c. Throughout the 1980s, the Soviet Union fought an increasingly frustrating war in
Afghanistan. At the same time, the Soviet economy faced the continuously escalating
costs of the arms race. Dissent at home grew while the stagnant economy faltered
under the combined burden. Attempted reforms at home left the Soviet Union unwilling
to rebuff challenges to its control in Eastern Europe.
i. During 1989 and 1990, the Berlin Wall came down, borders opened, and
free elections ousted Communist regimes everywhere in eastern Europe.
ii. In late 1991 the Soviet Union itself dissolved into its component republics. With
stunning speed, the Iron Curtain was lifted and the Cold War came to an end.
12. Non−Alignment − Many newly independent nations of Asia and Africa as well as many
nations in other continents did not like the military blocs. They began to follow a policy of
 nonalignment with any military bloc. Their emergence played a very important role in
reducing the intensity of the Cold War and in creating an atmosphere of peace. A crucial role
in promoting nonalignment and peace was played by India after her independence.
a. Emergence of the countries of Asia and Africa as independent nations marked a new
phase in the history of the world. These countries which had been suppressed and
kept under subjugation for a long time came to their own and began to play an
important role in the world.
b. Similar developments have also taken place in Central and South America and the
Caribbean. The countries which were under European colonial rule in this part of
the world had become independent.
c. United States frequently interfered in the internal affairs of these countries, particularly
when radical governments came to power and tried to assert their political and
economic independence.
d. In 1955, an important event took place which helped to strengthen the unity of
African and Asian countries. This was the Afro Asian conference which was held at
Bandung in Indonesia. The conference was attended by 23 Asian and 6 African
countries. The leaders of three Asian nations, India, China and Indonesia played an
important role in the deliberations of this conference.
i. Conference adopted a "declaration on promotion of world peace and
cooperation", which included Nehru's five principles, and a collective pledge to
remain neutral in the Cold War.
ii. Growing importance of the Afro Asian countries was reflected in the United
Nations where on a number of issues the countries of Asia and Africa functioned
as a group.
13. Most of the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa refused to join the Cold
War. They considered the formation of military blocs as a serious danger to peace and to
their independence.
a. These countries were faced with the enormous task of social and economic
reconstruction which could be done only in a world free from war and
tension.
b. Some countries in Asia had joined the military alliances and had allowed foreign bases
to be set up on their soil. The extension of military alliances and the setting up of foreign
bases were considered by most Asian countries as a threat to their Independence and a
source of tension. Hence they opposed these alliances.
c. Non−Aligned nations of Asia and Africa, therefore, were in the forefront of the struggle
for the liquidation of colonialism. Nonalignment has primarily been a policy aiming at
the strengthening of independence, ending of colonialism and promoting world peace.
It was not merely a policy of noninvolvement with military blocs but a policy for creating
a better world.
d. First summit conference of Non−Aligned nations was held at Belgrade in Yugoslavia in
September 1961 under Josip Broz Tito. It was attended by heads of state or government
of 25 countries. Besides Yugoslavia and Cuba, other participating countries were from
Asia and Africa. Three other countries attended as observers.
e. Beginning with 25 Countries which attended the Belgrade conference in 1961, there are
today 109 countries which are following the policy of nonalignment. Two movements
of national liberation —the Palestine Liberation Organization and South West Africa
People’s Organization —were made full fledged member states of the Non−Aligned
Movement. India hosted 7th summit in Delhi under Indira Gandhi in 1983

O. Asian decolonization − countries in Africa and Asia had long and sometimes bitter struggle
against colonial rule. Generally, colonial powers were not willing to give up their hold on the
colonies and left only when they found that it was not possible to maintain their rule any more.
1. Imperialism as a whole had been weakened as a result of the war. The economies of many
imperialist countries had suffered. Forces (communist and socialist parties) within the
imperialist countries which were friendly with the peoples struggling for independence
also had grown powerful.
a. Freedom and democracy were the major aims for which the Allies had fought
against the fascist countries and these aims had been made the basis for arousing
peoples all
 over the world against fascism. The fulfilment of these aims could no longer be confined
only to Europe
b. In many colonies which fascist countries had occupied by ousting the older colonial
powers, the freedom movements had played an important role in the struggle
against fascist occupation. E.g. Japanese occupation in SE Asia.
c. Another major international factor which facilitated the end of imperialism was the
emergence of the Soviet Union and other socialist countries as a major force. These
countries were inimical to imperialism and often gave aid and support to the freedom
movements in the colonies.
d. Freedom movement in one country supported the freedom movements in other
countries. Role of countries which had achieved their independence was very crucial in
this regard. These countries supported the cause of those peoples who were still
under colonial rule at the United Nations and other international forums.
e. Besides the movements in the colonies for independence, there were also movements
in Asian and African countries to oust outdated political systems, to modernize the
social and economic systems and to assume control over the resources of one’s
country which had remained under foreign control even after freedom
2. Burma − achieved her independence from Britain a few months after India
became independent.
a. In 1944, the Antifascist People’s Freedom League (AFPFL) had been formed in
Burma. Its aim was to resist the Japanese invasion of Burma and to win
independence for Burma.
b. After the war, the British tried to restore their rule over Burma. This led to the
intensification of the movement for freedom. In the course of the struggle, many
leaders of the Burmese freedom movement were assassinated.
c. However, Britain was forced to agree to the demand for freedom and Burma
became independent on 4 January 1948.
3. Indonesia − After the defeat of Japan, Sukarno, one of the pioneers of the freedom movement
in Indonesia, proclaimed the independence of Indonesia.
a. However, soon after the British troops landed there in order to help the Dutch to
restore their rule. The government of independent Indonesia which had been formed
by Sukarno resisted the attempt to reestablish colonial rule.
b. There were demands in many countries of the world to put an end to the war which
had been started in Indonesia to restore the Dutch rule. In Asian countries, the
reaction was particularly intense. The leaders of the Indian freedom movement
demanded that Indian soldiers, who had been sent to Indonesia as a part of the British
army should be withdrawn.
c. After India became free, she convened a conference of Asian nations in support of
Indonesia’s independence. The conference met in New Delhi in January 1949 and
called for the complete independence of Indonesia.
d. Resistance of the Indonesian people and the mounting pressure of world opinion
and Asian countries compelled Holland to set the leaders of Indonesian people free.
On 2 November 1949, Holland recognized the independence of Indonesia.
4. Sri Lanka
a. mainly as a consequence of the militant freedom struggle in India that the less militant
Sri Lanka won its independence. It was initiated around the turn of the 20th century
and led mostly by the educated middle class.
b. But remained Dominion until 1972.
5. Thailand
a. Thailand was the only country in South East Asia which was not colonized by
Europeans. All of its neighbors were controlled by either the British or the French.
Burma and Malaysia being British colonies and Laos and Cambodia being French.
b. Served as buffer between French Indochina and British empire and partly due to
reforms and modernization carried by Rama IV and Rama V
c. Under the monarchy, Thai foreign policy welcomed both the British in Burma and the
French in Vietnam, which neutralized two long−standing threats to Thai security and
hegemony.
 d. Siam signed Burney Treaty agreeing to establish a uniform taxation system, to reduce
taxes on foreign trade and to abolish some of the royal monopolies. It increased in
trade, thus kingdom became wealthier and army better equipped.
6. Philippines
a. Unilaterally declared independence from Spain in 1898 under leadership of Emilio
Aguinaldo, culminating the 1896 Revolution. Unbeknownst to newly established
government and the Filipino people in general, USA had secretly arranged to
purchase the colony along with several other possessions from Spain through the
Treaty of Paris
b. By the 1920s, the peaceful efforts by the Filipino leadership to pursue independence
proved convincing. When the Democrats returned to power in 1933, they worked
with Filipino to plan a smooth transition to independence. It was scheduled for 1946
7. Malaysia
8. China − After the Japanese invasion of China, the two parties and their armies cooperated
for some time to resist the Japanese aggression.
a. However, the conflicts between the two never ceased. The Kuomintang under
Chiang Kai-Shek was a party which mainly represented the interests of capitalists
and landlords.
b. Communist Party, on the other hand, was a party of workers and peasants. In the
areas under Communist Party’s control, the estates of landlords had been expropriated
and the land distributed among the peasants. Because of the policies pursued by the
Communist Party, it gradually had won over millions of Chinese people to its side.
Communist Party had also organized a huge army called the People’s Liberation Army
(PLA).
c. After the defeat of Japan and the driving out of the Japanese forces from China, the civil
war again broke out. The government of the United Stated gave massive aid to Chiang
Kai-shek, but by 1949 his armies were completely routed. With the remnants of his
troops, Chiang Kai-shek went to Taiwan (Formosa), an island which had been occupied
by Japan after she had defeated China in 1895.
d. On 1st October 1949, the People’s Republic of China was proclaimed and the
Communist Party of China under the leadership of Mao Zedong came to power.
e. Establishment of the People’s Republic of China was a defeat for USA. Refused
to recognize the government of China for over two decades till 1971.
9. Korea − After Japan’s defeat in the Second World War, Korea was divided into two zones,
the northern zone under Soviet occupation and the southern zone under American
occupation, to bring about the surrender of Japanese troops.
a. Aim was to make Korea an independent state. However, as in the case of Germany
in Europe, two different governments in Korea were formed in 1948.
North Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) under the leadership of
Korean Communists (Kim Il−sung)
South Republic of Korea (South Korea) by a group of parties under the leadership of
Syngman Rhee.
b. Rhee was an anticommunist and wanted an alliance with Chiang Kai-shek to prevent
the spread of communism. Both the states organized their armies and there were
frequent clashes between them. In 1948, the Soviet troops withdrew from Korea
followed by the American troops who withdrew in 1949. Both the governments of
Korea favored unification of the country but there was no meeting ground between
them.
c. In June 1950 war broke out between North and South Korea. The Chinese revolution had
already taken place and USA feared further expansion of communism in this area. USA
sent troops to support South Korea in the war.
d. These troops fought as the troops of the United Nations because UNSC had passed a
resolution condemning North Korea and had asked members of the UN to aid
South Korea. The armistice was signed in 1953 Korea remained divided into two
separate states
e. Differences emerged between North Korea and the Soviet Union, central among them
Kim Il-sung's philosophy of Juche, which focused on Korean nationalism and self−
 reliance. Despite this, the country received funds, subsidies and aid from the USSR (and
the Eastern Bloc) until the dissolution of the USSR in 1991.
10. Vietnam − After the French government surrendered to Germany, many parts of
Indo−China were occupied by Japan.
a. Movement for the freedom of Indo-China from French rule had started many years
earlier. Greatest leader of the people of Vietnam was Ho Chi Minh. He had been
engaged in organizing the communist and the nationalist movements in Vietnam since
soon after the end of WW1.
b. Vietnamese people under Ho Chi Minh’s leadership resisted the Japanese occupation
and organized a people’s army called the Viet Minh. By the time the Second World
War ended, the Viet Minh controlled a large part of Vietnam. In August 1945, the
Democratic Republic of Vietnam was proclaimed with Ho Chi Minh as President.
However, the British troops as well as the troops of Chiang Kai−shek arrived in Vietnam
in the pretext of completing the surrender of Japanese troops there.
c. In October 1945, the French troops also arrived with the aim of restoring French rule.
In 1946, the French army started fighting against the Viet Minh. They also set up a
government with Bao Dal, who had headed the puppet government under Japan
earlier, as the ruler. The war between the Viet Minh and France continued for eight
years.
d. In 1954, the French forces suffered a severe blow at the hands of Viet Minh at the
fortress of Dien−Bien−Phu. The French defeat at Dien-Bien-Phu has become famous
because a people’s army without any sophisticated defeated the army of a powerful
imperialist country. The debacle at Dien−Bien−Phu compelled the French government
to start negotiations with the government of Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
e. In July 1954 an international conference was held at Geneva. It was agreed to partition
Vietnam temporarily into North and South Vietnam and to hold elections all over
Vietnam within two years to unify the country under a single government.
11. Vietnam War (1955−1975) − With the partition of Vietnam, another phase in the
freedom movement in Vietnam began.
a. The government that was established in South Vietnam, with USA support, refused to
abide by the decisions of the Geneva conference with regard to the holding of
elections and the unification of Vietnam.
b. It came to be increasingly regarded as being under the control of the United States
which was opposed to the unification of Vietnam under the leadership of the
communist party. In the early 1960s, uprisings broke out in South Vietnam against
the government there. This was a Cold War era proxy war.
c. This was followed by the massive American military intervention in Vietnam. Hundreds
of thousands of American troops were sent there with some of the most advanced
weaponry to suppress the popular uprising. The war continued for a number of years.
d. South Vietnamese people led by the National Liberation Front (Viet Cong) carried on
guerilla warfare. They had the support of North Vietnam (conventional warfare). The
American troops carried the war into North Vietnam. Incalculable damage was done
to Vietnam as a result of the heavy bombings by American forces.
e. Gulf of Tonkin incident 1964 − involved either one or two separate confrontations
involving North Vietnam and the United States in the waters of the Gulf of Tonkin.
The original American report blamed North Vietnam for both incidents, but it
eventually became evident that their claim about the incident was false, and
deliberately so. Led to passage of Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which gave US President
Authority to assist any SE Asian govt facing communist aggression.
f. Tet Offensive was one of the largest military campaigns of the war in 1968 by North
Vietnam against South Vietnam. Campaign of surprise attacks against military and
civilian command and control centers throughout South Vietnam. Tet Offensive failed in
its goal of overthrowing the South Vietnamese government, but became the turning
point in the war, as it persuaded a large segment of the U.S. population that its
government's claims of progress toward winning the war were illusory despite many
years of massive U.S. military aid to South Vietnam.
g. Opposition to the war grew in USA itself on an unprecedented scale. Thousands of
 Americans refused to be drafted in the U.S. army and many American soldiers deserted.
No other single issue had united millions of people all over the world as the war in
Vietnam. However, America continued the war even though it was clear they could not
win it.
h. Early in 1975, the war took a decisive turn. The armies of North Vietnam and of the
National Liberation Front of South Vietnam swept across the country routing the
American supported troops of the government of South Vietnam. In January 1973,
the American troops had begun to withdraw from Vietnam. During the war in
Vietnam, 58,000 of them had lost their lives. By 30 April 1975, all the American troops
had withdrawn and the capital of South Vietnam, Saigon, was liberated. North and
South Vietnam were formally united as one country in 1976.
12. Cambodia − War in Vietnam had also spread to Cambodia In 1970
a. Govt of Prince Sihanouk was overthrown and a pro−USA military led Khmer Republic
was established. The troops of the USA and South Vietnam had carried the war to
Cambodia on the ground that the Vietnamese were receiving their supplies from
bases in Cambodia.
b. By the time the United States withdrew from the war in 1975, a party which called itself
Khmer Rouge (communist party backed by North Vietnam, Viet Cong, China) had taken
control of Cambodia under the leadership of Pol Pot. The government of Pol Pot
established a regime of terror in Cambodia and started following a policy of genocide
against its own people.
c. Khmer Rouge regime was highly autocratic, xenophobic, paranoid, and repressive. The
genocide was under the guise of the Khmer Rouge enforcing its social engineering
policies. Its attempts at agricultural reform led to widespread famine, while its
insistence on absolute self−sufficiency, even in the supply of medicine, led to the death
of thousands from treatable diseases such as malaria. Part of the purification included
numerous genocides of Cambodian minorities. Estimates of people murdered by the
Khmer Rouge vary from one to three million (25% of population)
d. In 1979, Pol Pot’s government was overthrown with the help of Vietnamese troops.
However, the war in Cambodia continued as the Khmer Rouge still had some areas
under its control inside the country. In the meantime, three groups, including the
Khmer Rouge and the group led by Narodom Sihanouk, came together in opposition to
the government in Cambodia which was supported by Vietnam.

P. West Asia and Africa

1. Syria & Lebanon − After the war, the French tried to restore their authority over Syria and
Lebanon but, in the face of opposition from the people of these countries and the world
opinion, they were forced to withdraw. Both Syria and Lebanon became independent by
the end of 1946.
2. Arab League est 1945 − There was an upsurge in all the Arab countries at this time and
the 1950s saw their emergence as independent nations. Some countries which had been
nominally free asserted their independence.
a. There were also movements to overthrow the outdated political systems which existed
in some countries. All these led to conflicts and, in some cases, prolonged wars between
the Arab countries and the imperialist powers.
b. The period saw the growing power of Arab nationalism which led to efforts by the Arab
people and governments to come together to face and solve common problems. The
Arab League was formed comprising all the Arab states.
3. Israel − Palestine issue: Palestine had become a British mandate in 1919 after WW1. The
British troops again occupied the country in 1945.
a. Palestine was inhabited by Arabs and Jews. A movement called the Zionist
movement claimed that Palestine was the homeland of all the Jews, wherever
they may be living, and should be restored to them.
b. Persecution which the Jews in Europe had suffered for centuries had culminated in the
Nazi Germany’s policy of exterminating them. Millions of Jews were killed in Germany
and countries occupied by Germany. The terrible tragedy had won them the
sympathy and support of the world.
 c. British in Palestine had permitted some Jews from outside Palestine to settle there. The
Zionists had, meanwhile, been campaigning for a Jewish state there. This had
complicated the freedom movement in Palestine the majority of whose inhabitants
were Arabs. In 1947 the United Nations passed a resolution according to which
Palestine was to be divided into an Arab state and a Jewish state. However, in 1948,
the British withdrew their troops from Palestine and soon after the state of Israel was
proclaimed. This led to a war between the Arab states and Israel. The Arab states were
defeated in the war.
d. Creation of Israel became a source of tension in West Asia. Arab states refused to
recognize her as a legitimate state, Policies pursued by the government of Israel further
added to the bitterness. About 900,000 Arabs were forced to leave their homes and
lands in Palestine and were rendered homeless. They found shelter in various refugee
camps in Arab states.
i. Since World War II, the US has vied to achieve two main foreign policy objectives
in the Middle East: Control the region and its resources and prop-up its allies
(often dictators), while maintaining a degree of "stability" so that the US is able to
conduct its business unhindered.
ii. Most countries of Asia and Africa condemned the Israeli government’s treatment
of the Arabs of Palestine and for following racist policies. In 1956, Israel joined
Britain and France in invading Egypt to reopen Straits of Tiran
iii. In spite of the resolutions of the United Nations, Israel refuse to vacate Arab
territories and restore the rights of the Palestinian Arabs, many of whom live as
refugees in various Arab states. In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization
(PLO) was formed to fight for the establishment of a Palestinian state. It enjoys the
status of a member−state of the Non−Aligned Movement.
iv. Later there were other wars (Six Day War in 1967) between Israel and the Arab
states as a result of which Israel occupied large parts of the territories of other
Arab states. These territories include the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights and the
West Bank. Israeli morale and international prestige were greatly increased by the
outcome of the war and the area under Israeli control tripled.
v. Arab world had experienced humiliation in the lopsided rout of the Egyptian–
Syrian–Jordanian alliance in the Six−Day War but felt psychologically vindicated
by early successes in Yom Kippur War. The war led Israel to recognize that,
despite impressive operational and tactical achievements on the battlefield, there
was no guarantee that they would always dominate the Arab states militarily, as
they had consistently through the earlier First Arab–Israeli War, the Suez War,
and the Six- Day War. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace
process. The 1978 Camp David Accords that followed led to the return of the Sinai
to Egypt and normalized relations—the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an
Arab country. (Led to Egypt being booted out of Arab League and assassination of
Anwar Sadat)
4. Africa − After WW1, only change that took place there was the transfer of former German
colonies in Africa to victorious Allied powers. However, the period after WW1 saw a
resurgence of nationalist movements in Africa. After WW2, the disintegration of the colonial
rule in Africa began.
a. Countries of southern Africa began to gain their independence after the mid−1950s.
Within two decades, almost every country in Africa, with the exception of South Africa
and South−West Africa (Namibia), became independent.
b. Freedom movements in Africa, as in other parts of the world, were the consequence of
the growth of nationalism and the increasing resentment against the exploitation and
oppression by the colonial countries. WW2 had resulted in the general weakening of
imperialism. It had also shattered the myth of the invincibility of some major colonial
powers in Africa such as France and Belgium which had suffered defeat in Europe during
the war.
c. Collapse of colonialism in Asia within a few years after the war also had a tremendous
impact on freedom movements in Africa.
5. Egypt − After WW1, Egypt had become a British ‘mandate’. However, under the pressure
of the nationalist movement, Egypt had been declared independent in 1922, though British
 troops continued to remain there.
a. After WW2, the demand for the withdrawal of British troops gained strength. There
were serious clashes between the Egyptians and the British soldiers in which hundreds
of Egyptians were killed. Discontent was also directed against the king of Egypt who had
been installed by the British.
b. This led to a revolution in 1952 when the Egyptian army under leadership of Gamal
Abdal Naseer and Muhammad Naguib overthrew the monarchy and declared Egypt
a republic. New Egyptian government demanded the withdrawal of British troops
and they were withdrawn in June 1956.
c. The new govt of Egypt refused to be aligned with the United States and the latter
stopped the sale of arms to Egypt. Egypt, however, began to receive military and
economic aid from the Soviet Union.
d. In 1956, Egypt announced the nationalization to the Suez Canal which had been under
the control of Britain and France. Three months later, Israel, Britain and France,
according to a plan, invaded Egypt.
e. The aggression committed against Egypt led to worldwide protests. The countries of
Asia voiced their vehement condemnation of the invasion. There were massive protest
demonstrations against the British government inside Britain also.
f. Soviet Union warned the aggressor countries that unless they withdrew from Egypt, it
would send its forces to crush the aggressors. Everyone denounced Britain, France
and Israel in the United Nations. Universal condemnation of aggression led to the
withdrawal of British and French forces from Egypt. The ending of aggression
strengthened further the unity of Asian and African countries in general and of Arab
countries in particular.
g. America threatened Britain's financial system by selling pound bonds of USA govt. This
crisis signified the end of Great Britain's role as one of the world's major powers.
6. Libya − Libya had come under Italian rule in 1911.
a. During WW2, some of the most ferocious battles between German and British troops
were fought in Libya. At the end of the war, the country was occupied by Britain and
France.
b. In 1951, Libya became independent with a monarchical form of government. From
1960, became one of the largest petroleum producing countries in the world and as a
result some sections of Libyan society grew very rich while the majority of the
population remained extremely backward. The king did not permit any opposition to
his rule.
c. USA built one of its strongest air bases on Libyan territory. In 1969, a group of army
officers led by Muammar Gaddafi captured power and soon after abolished the
monarchy. He ejected both the Italian population and Western military bases from
Libya while strengthening ties to Arab nationalist governments
d. Gaddafi transformed Libya into a new socialist state called a Jamahiriya ("state of the
masses") in 1977. He officially adopted a symbolic role in governance but remained
head of both the military and the Revolutionary Committees responsible for policing
and suppressing dissent.
7. Algeria −1950s saw the emergence of a number of independent nations in North Africa.
However, the independence was preceded by years of struggle against the imperialist
countries which wanted to retain their colonial possessions. As in Indo China, the French
returned to Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria. However, in 1956 Tunisia and Morocco won
their independence.
a. Algeria had to wage the longest and the hardest battle for freedom. In 1954 the
nationalist organization called the FLN (National Liberation Front) gave a call for an
armed struggle against the French rule. Armed clashes resulted in thousands of
casualties on both sides. By 1958, the Algerian nationalists had organized a large army
of their own and proclaimed the formation of a government of the republic of Algeria.
b. War in Algeria had serious consequences inside France. It created political instability in
France. Communist Party of France along with many other French leaders had been
supporting the cause of Algerian independence. However, many sections in the French
army were under the influence of the French settlers in Algeria who were opposed to
 any negotiations with the Algeria.
c. In 1958, Charles de Gaulle became the President of France. He conceded the right of
the Algerian people to self-determination and opened negotiations with the leaders of
the FLN.
d. This policy was opposed by some sections of the French army in Algeria, who revolted
against de Gaulle and even made attempts to assassinate him. However, the revolt was
suppressed. On 1 July 1962, a referendum was held in Algeria and the people of Algeria
voted almost unanimously for independence.
8. Gold Coast/Ghana − 1st country in western Africa to gain independence was Ghana.
a. Kingdom of Ghana was powerful during 8th−12th centuries. British had conquered a
part of this region to which they gave the name Gold Coast. The most prominent leader
of the people of the Gold Coast colony was Kwame Nkrumah, who in 1949 had
organized the Convention People’s Party. A strong trade union movement had also
emerged in Gold Coast.
b. Convention People’s Party and the trade unions joined together to demand
independence from Britain. However, most of their leaders were arrested and attempts
were made to suppress the demand for freedom. After 1950, the British government
started introducing certain constitutional reforms.
c. Under pressure from the People’s Party which had won a resounding victory in elections,
the British government agreed to the independence of Gold Coast. The new
independent state which came into being on 6 March 1957 called itself Ghana
9. Guinea − next country to achieve her independence was the French colony of Guinea in
West Africa.
a. In 1958, while embroiled in the war in Algeria, France held a referendum in her
colonies which had been grouped together as French West Africa and French
Equatorial Africa. The people of Guinea voted for complete independence and Guinea
was proclaimed a republic.
b. The achievement of independence by Ghana and Guinea gave additional confidence to
the freedom movements in other parts of Africa and accelerated the pace of
achievement of independence by other nations.
10. 1960 - is generally regarded as the Africa Year. In that year, seventeen countries in Africa
gained their independence.
a. These included all the French colonies in French West Africa and Equatorial
Africa, Nigeria and Congo (formerly Belgian Congo, now called Zaire).
b. Between 1961 and 1964, a number of countries in East and Central Africa also became
independent. These were Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika, Zanzibar, Nyasaland,
Northern Rhodesia, Rwanda and Burundi.
c. Sierra Leone, Gambia, Lesotho (formerly Basutoland) and Botswana (formerly
Bechuanaland) also gained their independence.
11. Kenya − freedom movement in Kenya was led by Jomo Kenyatta, leader of the Kenya
African Union.
a. In 1952, a revolt by peasants had broken out. This is known as the Mau Mau rebellion.
It was directed against the seizure of land by the British colonial authorities.
b. To suppress the rebellion, 15,000 Kenyans were killed and about 80,000 sent to
concentration camps. Jomo Kenyatta was imprisoned in 1953 on the charge of
supporting the Mau Mau rebellion. Mau Mau movement remained internally divided,
despite attempts to unify the factions.
c. Having failed to suppress the freedom movement, Britain had to give in and
Kenya became independent in 1963.
12. Portuguese colonies − Before the end of the 1960s, almost entire Africa, with the exception
of Portuguese colonies of Angola, Mozambique and Guinea−Bissau and Cape Verde Islands,
and South Africa, South West Africa and Rhodesia, had become free.
a. Powerful freedom movements had started in the Portuguese colonies. They had
organized their liberation forces and had secured the help of many countries in
their struggle for freedom.
b. In April 1974, the Portuguese army, which had been mainly used to suppress the
freedom struggles in the colonies, overthrew the 50 year old dictatorship (of
Antonio
 Salazar) in Portugal with the support of the people.
c. The communists, socialists and other radical elements in the armed forces and the
new government of Portugal were opposed to the continuation of the Portuguese
rule in Africa. They entered into negotiations with the freedom movements in the
Portuguese colonies and by 1975 all the former Portuguese colonies in Africa became
independent. Zimbabwe (formerly Southern Rhodesia) became independent in April
1980.
13. South Africa and Apartheid
a. South Africa — Union of South Africa since 1910 and Republic of South Africa
since 1961 —has been an independent country in the sense that she was not ruled
from another country.
b. Government of South Africa was, however, among the most oppressive regimes in the
world in the twentieth century. It was under the exclusive control of the white minority
practicing the worst form of racism. Under the system of apartheid established in
South Africa, all people were classified and separated on the basis of race.
c. Each group had to live in a separate area. There were separate schools and universities,
separate theatres, separate shopping centers, separate coaches in trains for whites
and blacks and others. Teams for sports also were formed on the basis of race.
Marriage between persons belonging to different races was a criminal offence. There
were restrictions on movement from one, place to another. The best lands in the
country were under the control of the whites who had all the economic and political
power. The non−whites had no vote and no say in the governance of the country.
d. The system of apartheid was used to maintain the rule of the white minority over about
80% of the population which comprised black and colored people as well as people of
Indian origin. This system, in the name of separation of the races, denied human rights
to the majority of the population.
e. Main organization of the South African people which led the movement for ending
the rule of the white minority and establishing a nonracist democratic South Africa
was the African National Congress (ANC), set up in 1910. The movement against the
obnoxious system of apartheid was intensified in the 1950s. The government depended
on the use of terror to maintain its rule. There were incidents of massacres of peaceful
protestors such as Sharpeville. In 1960, the African National Congress was banned and
most of its leaders were arrested. From the end of the 1980s, the process of ending the
system of apartheid began. This was due to wide isolation policy followed by other
countries against South Africa. Ban on the African National Congress was lifted and its
leaders released.
f. Among them was Nelson Mandela who had been in prison for 26 years and had
became a symbol of the struggle against apartheid. Many apartheid laws were
abolished and negotiations were started between the ANC and the South African
government (FW de Klerk) for framing a new constitution which would give all South
Africans the right to vote.
g. Elections in which all South Africans for the first time were given the right to vote, was
held in April 1994. After these elections, a new non racist and democratic government
came to power in South Africa, Nelson Mandela was elected president of the country.
14. Namibia − last country in Africa to become independent was Namibia, formerly South
West Africa.
a. It was a German colony before the First World War and was handed over to South-
Africa as a ‘mandate’ after the defeat of Germany in that war. South Africa treated
South West Africa as her colony and refused to withdraw from there is spite of the
resolutions of the United Nations.
b. Freedom movement there was led by the South West Africa People’s Organization
(SWAPO) which was formed in 1960. It gained momentum when SWAPO started a war
with the help of its guerilla forces to liberate the country. It was made a member of
the Non Aligned Movement.
c. Non Aligned Movement, the African governments and the United Nations played an
important role in the success of the freedom movement in Namibia. The war in Namibia
came to an end in 1989 when South Africa agreed to a plan for the independence of
 the country.
15. Zimbabwe −
a. In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with Cecil Rhodes's British South Africa
Company (BSAC), obtained a concession for mining rights from local king of
Ndebele people. Named Southern Rhodesia in 1898 and annexed as a self-
governing British colony in 1923.
b. In 1965, Zimbabwe became autonomous and was led by a white segregationist
government after Ian Smith who made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)
from Britain.
c. This was after the British government had made majority rule a condition for the
independence of Rhodesia from Britain.
d. Zimbabwe War of Liberation or Rhodesian Bush War − civil war from 1964 to 1979.
Conflict pitted three forces against one another: Rhodesian government, led by Ian
Smith; Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union; and Joshua Nkomo's
Zimbabwe African People's Union.
e. Republic of Southern Rhodesia was replaced by Zimbabwe-Rhodesia after Abel
Muzorewa won the first majority elections. Lacking international recognition, after
about three months, the country was taken back into the hands of Britain, as per the
Lancaster House Agreement which was meant facilitate transition. The country once
again became a British colony known as Southern Rhodesia. In the April 1980 elections,
Robert Mugabe, head of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) won the
majority and became the Prime Minister