Chemistry Experiments

Technische Änderungen vorbehalten
1211002 11.2013 LD
CONTACT CHEMISTRY EXPERIMENTS
GERMANY: UK: USA:

LD DIDACTIC GmbH Feedback Instruments Limited Feedback Incorporated
CHEMISTRY EXPERIMENTS FOR DEMONSTRATION

Leyboldstr. 1 5 & 6 Warren Court 437 Dimmocks Mill Road
D‐50354 Hürth Park Road, Crowborough Suite 27
Tel.: +49 2233 604 0 East Sussex Hillsborough
Fax: +49 2233 604 222 TN6 2QX NC 27278
Email: info@ld‐didactic.de Tel.: +44 (0)1892 653322 Tel.: +1 (919) 644 6466
www.ld‐didactic.com Fax: +44 (0)1892 663719 Fax: +1 (919) 644 6470
Email: sales@feedback-instruments.com Email: sales@feedback-instruments.com
www.feedback-instruments.com www.feedback-instruments.com
CHEMISTRY
FOR DEMONSTRATION IN SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES
WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM
BRANDS OF THE LD DIDACTIC GROUP

CHEMISTRY
WITH LEYBOLD
LEYBOLD products bring classroom instructions to life and help teachers prepare
and present course content. This catalogue provides an overview of the broad
range of equipment for teaching chemistry.
More than 100 experiments designed for demonstrations and hands-on experi-
mentation are highlighted. We present each experiment with the complete list
of equipment it requires. The instructions which explain how to carry out the
experiments are available on our website.
At LEYBOLD you will find a comprehensive system of chemistry experiments for
students. We offer student-based solutions for secondary school levels.
2
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
EXPERIMENTAL CHEMISTRY WITH LEYBOLD 04
STUDENTS’ EXPERIMENTS 06
CASSY - THE SYSTEM 12
STAND SYSTEMS 14
CHEMISTRY PANEL SYSTEM (CPS) 16
SYSTEM “FUEL CELL” 18
SYSTEM “ELECTROCHEMISTRY” 20
COMPACT SPECTROMETER 22
HOW TO USE THIS CATALOGUE 24
DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS AT A GLANCE 26
DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 29
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 57
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 71
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 95
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 121
BIOCHEMISTRY 131
APPENDIX
THE DOCUMENT CENTER - ELECTRONIC LIBRARY 138
INDEX 140
3
EXPERIMENTAL
CHEMISTRY WITH LEYBOLD
It takes experiments to bring a chemistry class to life. Ideally, they should

alternate between ones carried out by the students themselves and ones
presented by the teacher.
This catalogue presents our full range of demonstration experiments. For detailed
information about our experiment systems for students, please refer to our website.
We will of course also be glad to advise you in person.
500
EXPERIMENTS FOR
Videos about
new product features
and experiments are
SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS
posted regularly on
the LD DIDACTIC
YouTube Channel.
4
MORE THAN 100
DEMONSTRATION
EXPERIMENTS FOR
SCHOOLS AND
UNIVERSITIES
For classroom instruction in schools and universities

Including handout sheets indicating how to conduct
the experiment
Grouped according to different levels of knowledge

- 100 experiments in science kits for secondary
school students
- 400 experiments in natural science experiments
for high school and preparatory school students
General topics, e.g. inorganic and organic chemistry
Special topics, e.g. chemistry of detergents and
foodstuffs
5
STUDENT EXPERIMENTS
CHEMISTRY
HIGHER EDUCATION UP TO UNIVERSITY
LEVEL WITH ADVANCED SCIENCE KITS
400
EXPERIMENTS
SCHÜLERARBEITSBLATT
Kurze und einfach formulierte Versuchs-
With about 400 experiments, both basic beschreibungen, die innerhalb einer Schul-
stunde durch das Experiment führen.
and advanced aspects of chemistry are
handled in the areas of inorganic
chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical
chemistry, physical chemistry, chemical
processes, chemistry of detergents and
foodstuffs.
6
SECONDARY SCHOOL
WITH BASIC SCIENCE KITS
QUICK AND EASY SET-UP AND

TEARDOWN
EXPERIMENT LITERATURE ADAPTED

TO STUDENTS AS PDF OR MASTER
COPY IN THE DOCUMENT CENTER
FEW DEVICES, MANY EXPERIMENTS
100
ZEITSPARENDE UND EXPERIMENTS
SCHÜLERGERECHTE AUFBEWAHRUNG
With about 100 experiments basic
aspects of chemistry are handled in
FURTHER INFORMATION CAN BE FOUND the areas of inorganic chemistry,
ON WWW.LD-DIDACTIC.COM organic chemistry, analytical chemistry
and physical chemistry.
CK 1.3.2.1
Basic Science Kit Chemistry Oxygen - isolation, detection

Inorganic Chemistry and properties
Students’ Work Sheet
Object of the experiment

To produce oxygen from hydrogen peroxide and identify it. To investigate several properties of oxygen.
Setup
204 602 Science Kit Chemie - Basics 309 150 58

Apparatus
3 Bossheads
2 Stand bases
2 Stand rods, 45 cm long, Ø 10 mm
1 Wooden splint
3 Test tubes
1 Plastic tank, approx. 2 l
1 Erlenmeyer flask, 250 ml
1 Dropper funnel, 75 ml
1 Gas delivery tube, hook-shaped
1 Angled tube, 50/50 mm
3 Universal clamps
2 Stand rods, 45 cm long, Ø 10 mm
1 Measuring cylinder, 50 ml
1 Spatula, double ended
1 Test tube rack
1 Rubber tubing
STM Chemistry 12-02-01
1 Rubber stopper with 2 holes

1 Pair of protective goggles
Chemicals
hydrogen[0] peroxide, 5%
Manganese(IV) oxide
© by LD DIDACTIC GmbH · Leyboldstraße 1 · D-50354 Hürth · www.ld-didactic.com 1 1 Graduated cylinder ..................................... 665 753 11 1 Graduated pipette 10 ml ............................. 665 997 5 1 Wire gau
Tel: +49-2233-604-0 · Fax: +49-2233-604-222 · E-Mail: info@ld-didactic.de · Technische Änderungen vorbehalten 2 1 Round-bottom flask, 100 ml ........................ 664 300 12 1 Angled tube 90°, 250/50 mm ...................... 665 231 6 1 Stand rin
3 1 Erlenmeyer flask, 250 ml ............................ 664 243 13 1 Test tube 180 x 20 mm Ø ........................... 664 048 7 1 Crucible t
1 4 2 Beakers, 100 ml.......................................... 602 022 14 4 Droppers ............................................ from 665 953 8 2 Bosshead
5 1 Pestle, ........................................................ 667 091 1 Spatula with spoon end, double ended ...... 666 962
6 1 Pipetting ball ............................................... 666 003 1 Scissors...................................................... 667 017
7 1 Mortar ......................................................... 667 092 1 Laboratory knife ....................... from 667 018 ET10
8 4 Dropper teats for pipettes ...................from 665 954 1 Spatula with spoon end .............................. 666 966
1 Silicone stopper .......................................... 667 286 1 Safety Goggle ............................................ 610 010
1 Rubber stopper , 25 x 31 x 30 mm, solid .... 667 260 15 1 Thermometer ................................................ 382 33
6 Rubber stoppers, 14 x 18 x 20 mm, solid ... 667 253 16 1 Funnel ........................................................ 665 009
1 Rubber stopper, 1 hole 7 mm Ø ................ 667 256 17 5 Watch glass dishes 60 mm Ø..................... 664 153
9 1 Universal indicator paper ........................ MA90201
9 1 Boiling Stones,100 pieces ................ from 661 091
9 1 Pneumatic tank ......................................... 664 1941
10 1 Round filter ................................................. 661 035
7
WITH
ADVANCED SCIENCE 400

KITS CHEMISTRY
EXPERIMENTS
FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

STUDENTS‘ EXPERIMENTS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Topics Experiments
Preliminary tests
Tests for carbon 3
OVERVIEW OF THE TOPICS Test for other elements 2
Hydrocarbons
Properties of hydrocarbons 5
Production of hydrocarbons from crude oil 8
Processing of crude oil fractions 5
Alcohols, aldehydes and ketones
INORGANIC
Production of alcohols 7
Properties and use of alcohols 6
Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones 3
CHEMISTRY Carboxylic acids and esters

Preparation of carboxylic acids
Properties and use of carboxylic acids
5
8
Production and properties of esters 5
Topics Experiments
57
Basic experiments/
separation experiments
Properties of substances 3 Number of experiments
Separation of substances 10
Water
Water as a solvent 6
Water conditioning 5
Air, gases and their properties

Air and combustion
Preparation, test and use of different gases
3
1
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Acids and bases Topics Experiments
Production, test and effects of acids 4
Bases - preparation and properties 5 Preliminary tests
Flame colouration and blowpipe test 2
Salts Borax bead and oxidation melt 2
Salt formation 4
Properties and use of salts 3 Test for anions and cations 11
Metals and non-metals Chromatography

Properties and use of metals and 13 Column, paper and thin-layer chromatography 9
non-metalls
Number of experiments 57 Number of experiments 24

8
CHEMISTRY OF SOAPS
AND DETERGENTS
Topics Experiments
Production of soaps
CHEMISTRY OF FOODSTUFFS
Components of soaps 2
Production and processing of soaps 4
Topics Experiments
The washing and cleaning effects of soaps
Properties of soaps 7
Factors influencing the washing process 3 Fats
Fat extraction and properties of fats 10
Disadvantages and limits to the Foodstuffs containing fats 4
use of soaps Analysis of fats 8
Reactions when adding salts and acids 2 Associated materials of fats 4
Influence of water hardness 3
Other disadvantages 2 Carbohydrates
Properties and identification 3
Modern washing powders Polysaccharides and monosaccharides 11
Modern tensides 2 Starch and cellulose 9
Composition of modern washing powders 8 Pectin 3
Types of sugar and honey 4
Washing agents and environment The process of baking 2
Environmental load due to tensides and additives 5
Proteins
Number of experiments 38 Preparation and properties of proteins
Types of proteins
Additives and associated agents

4
6
Minerals and vitamins 13

Spices and substances similar to spices 7
Stimulants
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY Alcohol
Caffeine and theobromine
6
13
Topics Experiments Changes in foodstuffs

Aging of fats 2
Enzymatic reactions 4
Electrochemical reactions 14
Additives
Particle motion and energy Food preservatives 6
Particle motion 4 Sweeteners and food colourings 7
Chemical reactions and energy 6 Other additives 4
Water
Number of experiments 24 Properties and contents
Analysis of foodstuffs
Chromatography 24
6
Enzymatic test pocedures 3
CHEMICAL PROCESSES Number of experiments 163

Topics Experiments
Inorganic key chemicals 4

Building materials
Lime 4
Cement, concrete and gypsum 6
Glass and ceramics

Glasses 6
Loam and clay 2
Metals - ores
Preparation of metals 3
Alloys 2
Chemistry of black and white photography

Basics of black and white photography 4
Production of photographic materials 4
Identification and recycling of silver salts 2
Fertilizers 4
Number of experiments 41
9
SECONDARY EDUCTION WITH
BASIC SCIENCE
KITS CHEMISTRY
STUDENTS‘ EXPERIMENTS FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
100
EXPERIMENTS
OVERVIEW OF THE TOPICS
INORGANIC ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY
Topics Experiments Topics Experiments
Basic experiments/separation Preliminary tests
experiments Tests for carbon 3
Properties of substances 3
Substance mixtures 2 Hydrocarbons
Properties of hydrocarbons 2
Water Production of hydrocarbons from crude oil 5
Water as a solvent 5 Processing of crude oil fractions 2
Analysis, synthesis and detection of water 2
Alcohols, aldehydes and ketones
Air, gases and their properties Production of alcohols 3
Air and combustion 2 Test for alcohol 3
Preparation, test and use of different gases 4 Preparation and properties of alcohols 5
Acids and bases Carboxylic acids and esters

Preparation of carboxylic acids 3
Production, test and effects of acids and bases 3
Bases - preparation and properties 4 Properties and use of carboxylic acids 3
Production and properties of esters 2
Salts
Salt formation 5
Properties and use of salts 3
Metals and non-metals

Properties and use of metals 8
Properties and use of non-metalls 4
Number of Experiments 53 Number of Experiments 31

10
Displayed experiment:
Simple destillation
ANALYTICAL PHYSICAL
CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY
Topics Experiments Topics Experiments
Preliminary tests Electrochemical reactions
Flame colouration 2 Electrolytic cells 3
Borax bead 1
Particle motion and energy
Chromatography Particle motion 2
Paper and thin-layer chromatography 2 Chemical reactions and energy 2
Titration 5
Number of Experiments 10 Number of Experiments 7

11
CASSY - THE SYSTEM
COMPUTER-ASSISTED
EXPERIMENTING
modular and flexible
for all levels of education and all requirements –
from secondary school to university
Sensors for chemistry measure-

ments are, amongst others:
Immersion photometer,
pH electrode, temperature probe,
current and voltage sensor, drop
counter and conductivity sensor.
BASIC UNITS SENSO

USABLE WITH OR FOR ALL
WITHOUT COMPUTER MEASURING
TASKS
12
BENEFITS
AT A GLANCE
many measurements are possible due
to our extensive range of sensors
for demonstration and students’ experiments
easy and intuitive operation
CASSY Lab 2:
Measuring and analysing
software suitable for all
devices and sensors.
ORS TEACHWARE
DATA ACQUISITION,
G ANALYSING AND
EXPERIMENT LITERATURE
13
STAND SYSTEMS
FOR EVERY CLASSROOM SITUATION
BENEFITS AT A GLANCE
Optimal work safety through stable,
torsion-resistant construction
Easy to set up thanks to pre-set assembly axes
Can be adapted to fit the special requirements
of each classroom situation
14
THREE VARIANTS
The base rail makes it easy to create large set-ups for
demonstrations. The stability of the system comes from
a solid T-profile made of anodised aluminium, which
1.
enables safe set-ups even with heavy components.
Three different base rails are available for different
sized set-ups (110 mm, 550 mm and 950 mm).
Even large set-ups can be assembled on a
single base rail.
Completely assembled systems can be moved,
for example, from a preparation area into the
classroom or stored in a cabinet.
SET-UP WITH BASE RAILS The base rails can also be used as an optical
test bench.
FOR DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS

ON A SINGLE RAIL
The experiment tray is suitable for experiments

using liquids.
The experiment tray acts as a containment basin
2.
in case of chemical spills or glass breaks.
The integrated rails save time when setting up
experiments on the experiment tray.
Fitting universal clamps onto the angular
mounting rail makes it possible to install
vertical stands.
The stable, torsion-free construction also
makes it possible to move completely
assembled systems.
SET-UP ON EXPERIMENT TRAY WITH
INTEGRATED RAILS
FOR EXPERIMENTS WITH LIQUIDS
This stand system has been specially designed for use

in experiments carried out by students themselves.
3.
The stand bases used are very lightweight.
Thanks to double strut construction, the assembled
stand system is almost completely torsion-free, which
makes it possible to move apparatus before they
have been completely set up.
The stand can be disassembled to save space
during storage.
The stand is made of solid materials
(ABS plastic and stainless steel).
SET-UP ON STAND BASES MADE OF PLASTIC The stand materials are used in chemistry,
biology and physics experiments.
FOR EXPERIMENTS
CARRIED OUT BY STUDENTS
15
1.2 DEMONSTRATIONSVERSUCHE CHEMIE
CHEMISTRY PANEL SYSTEM

MODULAR AND CLEARLY ARRANGED
DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS
Clearly arranged mounting systems for experiments with plain background

and no disruptive stand materials
Easy set-up in just seconds
Predefined distances eliminate the need for painstaking glassware adjustments
Extremely rapid assembly or modification of the experiment set-ups –
even during class
Reduced preparation time
GL screw connectors ensure secure, leak-tight connections between the
individual modules – no more fused ground glass joints
Glassware is mounted securely to the experimentation boards –
this reduces the risk of breakage
Safe and convenient storage in the cabinet with groove profiles
FAST AND SAFE SET-UP

BASED ON MODULES
FAST AND EASY
SET-UP
Installing the
1. Install the experiment panels in the profile rails
of the CPS frame.
experimentation panels
in the CPS frame.
16
1.2 DEMONSTRATIONSVERSUCHE CHEMIE
NEW
MAGNETIC
HOLDER
The new magnetic holders make it possible to assemble experiment

set-ups on an individual basis.
ASSEMBLY AND MODIFICATION OF THE

CPS FRAMES
EQUIPMENT IN JUST SECONDS WITH THE Accommodate any number of
NEW MAGNETIC HOLDERS experimentation panels
Fit inside every fume cupboard:

FAST INSTALLATION AND REMOVAL OF 50 cm wide for smaller experiments
GLASSWARE USING FLEXIBLE CLAMPS 97 cm wide for larger experiments
AND MAGNETIC HOLDERS
2. Push a GL connector cap (silicone seals

are included) onto a glass component
(e.g. three-way stopcock) and screw it
onto the glass connector.
3.
Slide the second experiment panel up to the first
panel and screw the glass component with the
attached GL connector cap (e.g. a gas syringe)
onto the glass connector. The glassware fits
together perfectly because the dimensions are
standardised. This ensures secure, leak-tight
connections between the glassware of the two
experimentation panels.
17
TEACHING
FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
THROUGH DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS
CPS fuel cell stack (666 4812).

NEW
CHARGING
HYDROGEN QUICKLY
AND EASILY
18
NEW
WITH THE LEYBOLD

DEMONSTRATION
EXPERIMENT SET-UP
New PEM fuel cell stack made of four separate
cells which can be connected together quickly,
either in series or in parallel
Clearly arranged and visible from a distance:
ideally suited for demonstrations or project work
In combination with the electrical consumer
module: simple recording of characteristic curves
and measurement of efficiencies
Recording of characteristic curves using Sensor CASSY 2
Hydrogen from the HydroStik PRO, and CASSY Display (no computer necessary).
no gas cylinder required
HydroStik PRO, CPS 666 4795
Bubble counter, CPS 666 4794
PEM fuel cell stack, CPS 666 4812
Electrical load, CPS 666 4831
HydroFill PRO 666 4798
THE EASY WAY TO PRODUCE ALL

THE H2 YOU NEED RIGHT FROM THE WALL SOCKET –
AND SAVE SPACE AT THE SAME TIME!
The HydroFill PRO (666 4798) supplies hydrogen
by electrolysis of distilled water. The hydrogen is
stored directly in the HydroStik PRO (666 4796)
as a metal hydride and can be transported and
dispensed safely.
HydroFill PRO Video at

the LD DIDACTIC YouTube Channel.
Charging the HydroStik PRO –

as easy as a mobile phone:
1. Insert the HydroFill PRO into the charging station.
2. Charge it with hydrogen for 4 to 6 hours.
3. Use the hydrogen for experiments.
19
TEACHING
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
THROUGH DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS
The electrochemistry demo system is ideal for demonstration

experiments, because the experiments are clearly visible even
from the back of the classroom.
20
WITH THE
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
DEMONSTRATION SYSTEM
The demo system fulfils 3 functions:
It includes two separate instruments
to measure voltage and current.
It operates as a power supply for
direct and alternating current.
A small integrated motor with segmented
disc serves as a power indicator.
Its large display makes it clearly visible

even from a distance of 10 metres. The electrochemical demo system can be mounted
in a CPS frame. All experiments can then be carried
out on the experiment table, which is also mounted
With the accessory set and experiment instructions, in the frame.
up to 40 experiments can be carried out.
Topics Electrochemistry demo, CPS, equipment package 664 4071P

Conductivity of solids and liquids Electrochemistry demo system, CPS 664 4071
Electrochemical series of metals and non-metals Electrochemistry accessory set 664 401
LIT: Electrochemistry demonstration experiments 668 131
Corrosion and corrosion protection
Profile frame C50, in two rows, for CPS 666 425
Faraday’s laws Table for electrochemistry, CPS 666 472
Galvanic cells
Experiment instructions (668 131) Accessory set (664 401)
21
COMPACT SPECTROMETER
SAVES SPACE AND CAN BE USED FOR
A WIDE RANGE OF EXPERIMENTS
In combination with the fibre optic cable, the spectrometer is

particularly well-suited for analysing flame colourations.
22
FAST AND EASY-TO-INTERPRET
SPECTRAL MEASUREMENTS
Small device with USB connection
SpectraLab software: displays spectra

while taking measurements
Simultaneous measurement of all wavelengths
Cuvette holder with integrated lamp (optional)
Example experiments
Flame colouration (C1.1.3.7)
UV/VIS spectra of dyes (C3.3.1.2)
Fluorescence spectra (C3.3.1.3)
Determination of pKa values
of indicators (C4.2.2.1) The cuvette holder also makes it possible to carry out
photometric measurements on small quantities.
Variants for VIS or UV/VIS measurements
SpectraLab 467 250

Compact spectrometer, physics 467 251
Compact spectrometer, complete 467 252
Cuvette holder with light source 467 253
Fibre optic cable VIS/NIR 467 254
Compact UV spectrometer, physics 467 261
Compact UV spectrometer, complete 467 262
Cuvette holder with UV light source 467 263
Fibre optic cable, UV 467 264
Analysis of leaf pigments with the SpectraLab software.
23
HOW TO USE THIS CATALOGUE
PAGE STRUCTURE
Section
Subsection
Experiment set-up
Measurement option
With computer-assisted

experiments, the recommended
basic unit is shown
(see table on the right).
Topic
Experiment
Each experiment is
identified by a C and
a four-digit number.
Short description
of the experiment
Experiment results
Equipment list
24
MEASUREMENT OPTIONS WITH CASSY
FOR EACH EXPERIMENT, THE RECOMMENDED BASIC DEVICE
APPEARS ON THE RIGHT OF THE EXPERIMENT SET-UP
We offer the right basic device for every classroom instruction situation.
Classroom Basic unit Number Integrated Inte- Data storage Computer

situation of sensor ability to grated in the unit interface
sockets measure display
Sophisticated Sensor-CASSY 2 2 electric no no USB
demonstration (524 013) current
experiments and
voltage
Simple Pocket-CASSY 2 BT 1 none no no wireless

demonstration (524 018) (Bluetooth)
experiments or USB
(also in the
fume cupboard)
and experiments
for students
Demonstration Universal 1 tempera- yes no USB, but

experiments measuring ture* measure-
without a instrument ment
computer chemistry without
(531 836) computer
also
possible
Experiments for Mobile-CASSY 1 none yes yes USB for

students and (524 009A) reading out
experiments the data
outside of the
classroom
Experiments for Micro-CASSYs Sensor no no USB

students (528 11) and basic Voltage
(528 12) device in Current
(528 15) one Temperature
(528 18) pH value
These coloured fields indicate the main features of the corresponding basic device.
* Temperature probe also required
25
EXPERIMENTS AT A GLANCE
C1 C1.1 Material properties C1.2 Chemical reactions
and stoichiometry
C1.3 The compound water C1.4 Air and other gases
Determination of molar mass, Water decomposition, The components of air,
GENERAL States of matter, Law of conservation of mass, Water synthesis, Production of gases,
AND Structure of matter Law of definite proportions, Properties of water Reactions with gases
Law of multiple proportions
INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
Page 29 Pages 30-38 Pages 39-41 Pages 42-44 Pages 45-48
C2 C2.1 Organic compounds C2.2 Reactions in organic

chemistry
C2.3 Petrochemistry C2.4 Synthesis and
purification of organic
Composition of organic Organic compounds as fuels,
ORGANIC compounds, Oxidation reactions From crude oil to petroleum compounds
CHEMISTRY Hydrocarbons product, Synthesis of organic compounds,

Extraction,
Properties of petrochemical
products Distillation,
Column chromatography
Page 57 Pages 58-59 Page 60 Pages 61-64 Pages 65-70
C3 C3.1 Determination of
physical properties
C3.2 Chromatography C3.3 Optical analysis
methods
C3.4 Structural analysis
Gas chromatography Nuclear magnetic
ANALYTICAL Properties of gases, Spectrometry, resonance spectroscopy
(NMR spectroscopy),
CHEMISTRY Properties of liquids, Photometry,
Electron spin resonance
Properties of solids Refractometry,
spectroscopy
Polarimetry
Page 71 Pages 72-77 Pages 78-79 Pages 80-84 Page 85-86
C4 C4.1 Reaction kinetics C4.2 Chemical equilibrium C4.3 Thermochemistry C4.4 Electrochemistry
Catalysis, Law of mass action, Enthalpy of chemical reactions, Conductivity and ions,
PHYSICAL Reaction orders, Protolysis equilibrium Calorimetry Electrochemical potentials,
CHEMISTRY Influencing the rate of reaction Galvanic cells,

Electrolysis,
Galvanic processes
in engineering,
Fuel cells
Page 95 Pages 96-98 Pages 99-100 Pages 101-104 Pages 105-119
C5 C5.1 Industrial-scale
processes
C5.2 Products of the
chemical industry
C5.3 Chemistry and the
environment
C5.4 Products made
from renewable raw
CHEMICAL Production of base chemicals, Pigments and dyestuffs Waste gas purification, materials
ENGINEERING Extraction of metals from ore Global environmental problems Fuels
Page 121 Pages 122-125 Page 126 Pages 127-129 Page 130
C6 C6.1 The building blocks

of life
C6.2 Biotechnology
Biotechnological processes,
BIOCHEMISTRY Carbohydrates, Biotechnological products
Amino acids and proteins,
Fats and oils
Page 131 Pages 132-134 Pages 135-136
26
C1.5 Metals and their C1.6 Non-metals and C1.7 Acids, bases and salts
properties their properties Acid strengths and pH values,
Extraction of metals, The oxygen family Salts and ionic compounds
Corrosion
Pages 49-51 Page 52 Pages 53-56
C3.5 Quantitative analysis C3.6 Applied analytics

Potentiometric and acid-base Water analytics,
titrations, Air analytics,
Conductometric titrations, Food analytics,
Redox titrations Material analytics
Pages 87-89 Pages 90-94
C4.6 Transport processes

Osmosis
Page 120
27
FOLLOW US!
VIDEOS ON YOUTUBE
Videos about new product features and
experiments are posted regularly on the
LD DIDACTIC YouTube Channel.
WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/USER/LDDIDACTIC
28
C1 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C1.1 MATERIAL PROPERTIES 30-38

C1.1.1 DETERMINATION OF MOLAR MASS 30-31
C1.1.2 STATES OF MATTER 32
C1.1.3 STRUCTURE OF MATTER 33-38
C1.2 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND STOCHIOMETRY 39-41

C1.2.1 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS 39
C1.2.2 LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS 40
C1.2.3 LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS 41
C1.3 THE COMPOUND WATER 42-44

C1.3.1 WATER DECOMPOSITION 42
C1.3.2 WATER SYNTHESIS 43
C1.3.3 PROPERTIES OF WATER 44
C1.4 AIR AND OTHER GASES 45-48

C1.4.1 THE COMPONENTS OF AIR 45-46
C1.4.2 PRODUCTION OF GASES 47
C1.4.3 REACTIONS WITH GASES 48
C1.5 METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 49-51

C1.5.1 EXTRACTION OF METALS 49
C1.5.3 CORROSION 50-51
C1.6 NON-METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES 52

C1.6.2 THE OXYGEN FAMILY 52
C1.7 ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS 53-56

C1.7.2 ACID STRENGTHS AND pH VALUES 53-54
C1.7.3 SALTS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS 55-56
29
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.1
DETERMINATION OF
MOLAR MASS
C1.1.1.1
Determination of the relative
atomic mass of metals
Determination of the relative atomic mass of metals (C1.1.1.1)
The realisation that chemical reactions depend not on the mass

of a substance but on the number of atoms marks the transition
C1.1.1.1
from alchemy to chemistry as a science. In that way, the molar

Cat.-Nr. Name
mass can be used to carry out reactions with the right quantity
664 097 Stoichiometric reaction vessel 1 of material.
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 1 In experiment C1.1.1.1, the molar mass of some base metals will
665 936 Immersion tube manometer, after Schiele 1 be determined. In order to do so, those metals - magnesium, for
664 352 Topping-up reservoir, 250 ml 1 example - will be reacted with acids.
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1 Mg + 2 H+ → Mg2+ + H2
382 21 Stirring thermometer, -30...+110 °C 1
Different metals of the same weight produce different quantities
667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 1
of hydrogen. When using the same quantity of material, the same
666 968 Spoon-ended spatula, stainless steel, 180 mm 1
quantities of hydrogen are produced. This way, the relative molar
667 027 Tweezers, blunt, 130 mm 1
mass of the respective metals can be determined.
667 605 Safety screen 1
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1
665 753 Measuring cylinder, 50 ml, with plastic base 1
666 4659 Adhesive magnetic board, 500 mm 2
666 4662 Spring clips, magnetic, size 3, 11...14 mm 1
666 4665 Spring clips, magnetic, size 7a, 30...32 mm 3
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1
667 7988 Analytical balance ABS 80-4, 83:0.0001 g 1
674 6810 Hydrochloric acid, 10 %, 1 l 1
673 1000 Magnesium, ribbon, 25 g 1
661 081 Aluminium, foil, 1 roll 1
671 2000 Calcium, granules, 25 g 1
30 www.ld-didactic.com
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.1
DETERMINATION OF
MOLAR MASS
C1.1.1.2
Determination of the
molar mass of gases
Determination of the molar mass of gases (C1.1.1.2)
At constant pressure and constant temperature, any gas occupies

the same volume regardless of the type of atom or the com-
C1.1.1.2
position. So if we know the volume, pressure and temperature,

Cat.-Nr. Name
we can then determine the molar mass of gases. The measure-
379 07 Sphere with 2 stop-cocks, glass 1 ment is conducted in experiment C1.1.1.2 with a glass sphere for
OHS PU123 Electronic precision balance SPU123 1 weighing gases.
667 072 Support ring for 250-ml round flask, cork 1
375 58 Hand vacuum pump 1
665 913 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 1-way stopcock 1
667 197 Silicone tubing, 4 mm diam., 1 m 1
604 510 Hose connector, 4…15 mm 2
667 186 Vacuum rubber tubing, 8 mm diam. 1
604 491 Vacuum tubes, 6 mm diam. 1
660 998 Minican pressurised gas canister, oxygen 1
661 000 Minican pressurised gas canister, nitrogen 1
660 980 Fine regulating valve for minican gas canisters 2
661 082 Stopcock grease, 60 g 1
31
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.2
STATES OF MATTER
C1.1.2.1
Melting ice, boiling water
Melting ice, boiling water (C1.1.2.1)
There are three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Solid mate-
rials have a stabile outer shape and a definite volume. Liquids have
C1.1.2.1
a definite volume but no longer have a solid shape. Gaseous mate-

Cat.-Nr. Name
rials have neither a shape nor a volume: they fill up any available
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 space.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 At constant pressure, materials transition from one state of matter
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* to the next at a characteristic temperature. Those temperatures
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* are known and listed as the melting point and boiling point.
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 Experiment C1.1.2.1 examines the behaviour of water at different
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 temperatures. To that end, ice (solid water) is slowly heated until
664 105 Beaker, DURAN, 600 ml, squat 1 it melts and then evaporates. At the boiling point and the melting
666 8471 Magnetic stirrer with hotplate 1 point, the temperature does not change until the substance has
666 523 Stand rod, 450 x 12 mm diam., M10 thread 1
transitioned completely to the other state. The boiling point and
melting point are easy to determine in this way.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1
301 09 Bosshead S 1
additionally required:
ice
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8
* additionally recommended
Melting and boling curve of water
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.3
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
C1.1.3.1
Brownian motion of
smoke particles
Brownian motion of smoke particles (C1.1.3.1)
Matter is everything that takes up space and has mass. We

distinguish between pure substances and mixtures. Mixtures can
C1.1.3.1
be homogeneous or heterogeneous. Pure substances are elements

Cat.-Nr. Name
and are made up entirely of the same type of atom. Each atom
662 078 Monocular students‘ microscope M 805 1 consists of a core, the nucleus, and a shell, the electron shell.
372 51 Smoke chamber 1 The speed and direction of a particle floating in a gas changes
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 continuously. J. Perrin provided the explanation for this
450 511 Bulbs, 6 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 molecular motion, which was discovered by R. Brown: it is
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 caused by the impacts of the gas molecules on the particle.
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 The smaller the particle, the livelier the motion. It com-
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1
prises a translational motion and a similarly changing rotation.
In experiment C1.1.3.1, a microscope is used to observe the
motion of smoke particles in air.
Schematic diagram of Brownian motion of molecules
33
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.3
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
C1.1.3.2
Estimation of the size
of oil molecules
Estimation of the size of oil molecules (C1.1.3.2)
One of the important questions in atomic physics is the question

of the size of the atom. The study of the size of molecules pro-
C1.1.3.2
vides experimentally easier access on a manageable magnitude.

Cat.-Nr. Name
Experiment C1.1.3.2 uses simple means to estimate the size of
664 179 Crystallisation dish, 230 mm diam., 3500 ml 1 molecules from the size of a patch of oil floating on the surface
665 844 Burette, amber glass, 10 ml 1 of water.
664 110 Beaker, DURAN, 50 ml, tall 1
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1
301 09 Bosshead S 1
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 1
672 1240 Glycerinetrioleate, 100 ml 1
674 2220 Petroleum ether, 40...70 °C, 1 l 1
670 6920 Lycopodium spores, 25 g 1
Determining the area A of the oil spot
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.3
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
C1.1.3.4
Analysis of Rutherford scattering
Analysis of Rutherford scattering (C1.1.3.4)
The fact that an atom is „mostly empty“ was confirmed by

Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden in a momentous experiment.
C1.1.3.4
They let a parallel bundle of a-particles fall on a very thin sheet

Cat.-Nr. Name
of gold foil. In so doing they found that the vast majority of
559 82OZ Am-241 preparation, 330 kBq 1 a-particles pass through the gold foil almost without any deflec-
559 56 Rutherford scattering chamber 1 tion at all and only very few are deflected to any large degree.
559 52 Aluminium foil in frame 1 They concluded from this that atoms comprise a nearly massless,
559 931 Discriminator preamplifier 1 extended shell and a massive core concentrated practically at a
562 791 Plug-in power supply 12 V AC 1
point.
575 471 Counter S 1 Experiment C1.1.3.4, carries out an observation with an
378 73 Rotary-vane vacuum pump S 1.5 1
Am-241-preparation in a vacuum chamber. Depending on
the scatter angle J the scatter rate N(J) of the a-particles is
378 005 T-piece, DN 16 KF 1
measured with a Geiger-Müller tube.
378 040ET2 Centring rings (adapters), DN 10/16 KF, set of 2 1
378 045ET2 Centring rings, DN 16 KF, set of 2 1
378 050 Clamping ring, DN 10/16 KF 2
378 771 Air inlet valve, DN 10 KF 1
378 031 Hose nozzle, DN 16 KF 1
501 01 BNC cable, 0.25 m 1
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 1
1
Scattering rate N as a function of the scattering angle delta
35
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.3
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
C1.1.3.5
Determination of the elementary
electric charge according to
Millikan and proof of charge
quantisation
Determination of the elementary electric charge according to Millikan and proof of charge quantisation (C1.1.3.5)
With his famous oil-drop method, R. A. Millikan succeeded in

demonstrating the quantum nature of minute amounts of elec-
C1.1.3.5
tricity in 1910. He caused charged oil droplets to be suspended in

Cat.-Nr. Name
the vertical electric field of a plate capacitor and, on the basis of
559 412 Millikan apparatus 1 the radius r and the electric field E, determined the charge q of a
559 421 Millikan supply unit 1 suspended droplet:
313 033 Electronic stop-clock P 1 4π 3 ρ ⋅ g
q= ⋅r ⋅
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 3 3 E
ρ: density of oil
g: gravitanional acceleration
n
He discovered that q only occurs as a whole multiple of an elec-

tron charge e.
In experiment C1.1.3.5, the electric field
U
E=
d
d : plate spacing
is calculated from the voltage U on the plate condenser at which
the oil droplet is observed floating straight. To determine the radius,
the constant sinking velocity v1 of the droplet is then measured
with the electric field switched off. From the equilibrium between
the force of gravity and Stokes’ drag, it follows that
4π 3
⋅ r ⋅ ρ ⋅ g = 6π ⋅ r ⋅ η ⋅ v1
3
The histogram reveals the qantum nature of the change η: viscosity
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.3
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
C1.1.3.6
Franck-Hertz experiment
Franck-Hertz experiment (C1.1.3.6)
In 1914, J. Franck and G. Hertz reported observing discontinu-

ous energy emission when electrons passed through mercury
C1.1.3.6
vapor, and the resulting emission of the ultraviolet spectral line

Cat.-Nr. Name
(l = 254 nm) of mercury. A few months later, Niels Bohr recog-
555 870 Ne Franck-Hertz tube 1 nised that their experiment supported his model of the atom. The
555 871 Holder with socket and screen 1 de-excitation of neon atoms can occur indirectly via intermediate
555 872 Connecting cable for Ne Franck-Hertz tube 1 states, with the emission of photons. In this process, the photons
555 880 Franck-Hertz supply unit 1 have a wavelength in the visible range between red and green. The
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1
emitted light can thus be observed with the naked eye. Between
the grids G1 and G2 reddish luminous layers, clearly separated from
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
one another, can be observed, and their number increases with
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 2
increasing voltage. These are zones of high excitation density, in
1 which the excited atoms emit spectral light.
Luminous layers between control electrode and acceleration grid
37
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
C1.1.3
STRUCTURE OF MATTER
C1.1.3.7
Recording emission spectra
of a flame test
Recording emission spectra of a flame test (C1.1.3.7)
Spectral lines occur when electrons transition from higher to

lower energy levels in the shell of excited atoms. The wavelength
C1.1.3.7
of the light emitted during the transition is determined by that

Cat.-Nr. Name
energy differential:
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1 E2 − E1
ν=
460 251 Fibre holder 1 h
h: Planck's constant
300 11 Saddle base 1
666 731 Gas igniter, mechanical 1 Because the energies E1 and E 2 can only take on discrete values,
604 5681 Powder spatula, steel, 150 mm 1 only photons with discrete frequencies are emitted or absorbed.
667 089 Spotting tile 1 Taken all together, the frequencies which occur are referred to as
656 017 Teclu burner, universal 1
the spectrum of the atom. The arrangement of the spectral lines
is characteristic for the element concerned.
607 020 Safety gas hose with clamp, 0.5 m 1
673 0840 Magnesia rods, 25 pieces 1
Experiment C1.1.3.7 investigates flame colourations of metal
salts. A compact spectrometer with a USB link to the computer
661 088 Salts for flame tests, set of 9 1
makes it easy to record such transient events and to analyse the
674 6950 Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
emission lines which are produced. Unlike in classical observation
with the eye, lines in the IR range can also be identified, e.g. for
potassium.
Emission spectra of different metal salts
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND STOCHIOMETRY
C1.2.1
LAW OF CONSERVATION
OF MASS
C1.2.1.1
Conservation of mass in the
reaction of marble with acid
Conservation of mass in the reaction of marble with acid (C1.2.1.1)
The law of conservation of mass was formulated in 1789 by

Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier: For a chemical reaction in a closed
C1.2.1.1
system, the sum of the masses of the starting materials is equal

Cat.-Nr. Name
to the sum of the masses of the products.
OHT A302 Portable balance traveler™ TA302 1 Experiment C1.2.1.1 demonstrates that in a chemical reaction the
664 238 Erlenmeyer flask, DURAN, 250 ml, wide neck 1 total mass of the substances involved in the reaction remains
664 043 Test tubes, Fiolax, 16 x 160 mm, set of 10 1 unchanged. In the experiment, hydrochloric acid is pipetted into
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1 a test tube. Pieces of marble are introduced into a balloon. The
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 reaction is started by tipping the pieces of marble into the acid.
667 0344 Tweezer, blunt, 145 mm 1 Although bubbles form, it can be observed that no mass is lost.
667 243 Rubber balloons, set of 10 1
674 6900 Hydrochloric acid, 1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
673 2500 Marble, pcs., 250 g 1
39
C1.2.2
LAW OF DEFINITE
PROPORTIONS
C1.2.2.1
Synthesis of magnesium oxide
Synthesis of magnesium oxide (C1.2.2.1)
The law of definite proportions is one of the laws of proportion

and a fundamental principle in chemistry. It is the basis for the
C1.2.2.1
concept of the mol, and stoichiometry would also be unthinkable

Cat.-Nr. Name
without this law. Two substances always react with one another
666 9881 Combustion boat, glazed 3 in equal (= constant) proportions, which means that there are
664 077 Reaction tube, quartz, 300 x 20 mm dia. 1 fixed combination relationships. Developed in part through long-
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 1 some analyses carried out by Berzelius at the beginning of the
665 913 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 1-way stopcock 1 19th century, this law made it possible to write reaction equations
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 1
for the first time.
666 715 Cartridge 1 In experiment C1.2.2.1, the law of definite proportions is con-
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1
firmed by the synthesis of magnesium oxide. Magnesium reacts
with oxygen in a luminous reaction to magnesium oxide.
666 731 Gas igniter, mechanical 1
667 7988 Analytical balance ABS 80-4, 83:0.0001 g 1 2 Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
The starting material magnesium and the product magnesium
oxide can be weighed. In addition, the quantity of oxygen con-
sumed is determined by measuring the volume. The results can
be used to determine the mass ratio of oxygen to magnesium.
Repeated tests can then show that it remains constant.
604 481 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 4 mm diam., DIN 12865 1
C1.2.3
LAW OF MULTIPLE
PROPORTIONS
C1.2.3.1
Analysis of copper(I) oxide
and copper(II) oxide
Analysis of copper(I) oxide and copper(II) oxide (C1.2.3.1_a)

C1.2.3.1 (b)
C1.2.3.1 (b)
C1.2.3.1 (a)
C1.2.3.1 (a)
Cat.-Nr. Name Cat.-Nr. Name
666 428 Panel frame C100, two-level, for CPS 1 666 724 Wide-flame attachment 2 2
666 4660 Adhesive magnetic board, 300 mm 4 300 76 Laboratory stand II 2 2
666 4659 Adhesive magnetic board, 500 mm 1 665 212ET10 Glass stirring rod, 200 mm x 8 mm diam., set of 10 1 1
666 4662 Spring clips, magnetic, size 3, 11...14 mm 3 664 925 Vacuum dessicator 1 1
666 4664 Spring clips, magnetic, size 6a, 27...29 mm 1 667 7988 Analytical balance ABS 80-4, 83:0.0001 g 1 1
666 4795 HydroStik PRO, CPS 1 666 8036 Drying Oven UNB 30 l 1 1
666 4798 HydroFill PRO 1 1 672 9300 Copper(I)-oxide, 25 g 1 1
664 077 Reaction tube, quartz, 300 x 20 mm dia. 1 1 672 9500 Copper(II)-oxide, powder, 50 g 1 1
664 086 U-Tube, 160 mm, 2 side taps, 2 SB 19 1 1 672 7781 Silica gel with indicator, 500 g 1 1
667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 1 672 1000 Glass wool, 10 g 1 1
664 800 Gas scrubber bottle, lower section, 200 ml 1 1 671 8400 Iron wool, 50 g 1 1
664 806 Glass tube insert with filter, ST 29/32 1 1 666 602 Base rail, 55 cm 1
667 255 Rubber stopper, solid, 16...21 mm diam. 2 2 666 615 Universal bosshead 8
667 286 Silicone stopper, one 7-mm hole, 16...21 mm diam. 2 2 666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 3
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1 1 666 609ET2 Stand tubes, 450 mm, 10 mm diam. , set of 2 2
667 197 Silicone tubing, 4 mm diam., 1 m 1 1 666 4796 HydroStik PRO 1
604 520 Connector with nipple 1 666 4797 Regulating valve 1
665 238 Glass nozzle, 90° angle 1 1 604 510 Hose connector, 4…15 mm 1
666 988 Combustion boat, not glazed, 80 x 12 mm 2 2
The law of multiple proportions states that the ratio of the masses
667 035 Crucible tongs, 200 mm 1 1
of two elements which combine to form different chemical com-
667 016 Scissors, 200 mm, pointed 1 1
pounds is always a whole number.
667 034 Tweezers, blunt, 200 mm 1 1
Experiment C1.2.3.1 determines the mass ratios of copper and oxy-
604 5671 Steel double microspatula, 130 mm 1 1
gen in copper(I) oxide and copper(II) oxide. In these compounds,
666 968 Spoon-ended spatula, stainless steel, 180 mm 1 1
the elements copper and oxygen are combined with one another in
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 2 2 different mass ratios. Those different ratios can be determined by
666 715 Cartridge 2 2 quantitative reduction with hydrogen.
41
THE COMPOUND WATER
C1.3.1
WATER DECOMPOSITION
C1.3.1.1
Electrolytic water decomposition
according to Hoffmann
Electrolytic water decomposition according to Hoffmann (C1.3.1.1)
Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen, which are bound to one

another in the ratio of 2:1. So the formula is H2O. This formula
C1.3.1.1
can be derived from decomposition of water by electrolysis.

Cat.-Nr. Name
In experiment C1.3.1.1, water is analyzed by electrolysis in the
664 350 Water electrolysis unit 1 Hoffmann voltameter. The transformation of electrical energy
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 into chemical energy is demonstrated at the same time. First the
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 gases generated - hydrogen and oxygen - can be determined
531 836 Universal measuring instrument, Chemistry 1 qualitatively. Quantitative assessment of the quantities of gas
524 0621 UIP sensor S 1 generated can then be used to derive the chemical formula for
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 the compound water.
602 953 Measuring cylinder, Boro 3.3, 100 ml, glass base 1
2 H2O(l)
2 H2 ↑ + O2 ↑

674 7920 Sulfuric acid, diluted, approx. 2 N, 500 ml 1
THE COMPOUND WATER
C1.3.2
WATER SYNTHESIS
C1.3.2.1
Qualitative water synthesis
Qualitative water synthesis (C1.3.2.1_a)

C1.3.2.1 (b)
C1.3.2.1 (b)
C1.3.2.1 (a)
C1.3.2.1 (a)
375 56 Water jet pump 1 1 666 4662 Spring clips, magnetic, size 3, 11...14 mm 1
602 024 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 800 ml, squat 1 1 666 4664 Spring clips, magnetic, size 6a, 27...29 mm 1
665 001 Funnel for gas collection 1 1 667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 1
664 800 Gas scrubber bottle, lower section, 200 ml 1 1 666 4795 HydroStik PRO, CPS 1
664 805 Glass tube insert, ST 29/32 1 666 4798 HydroFill PRO 1
665 237 Glass nozzle, straight 1 1 667 197 Silicone tubing, 4 mm diam., 1 m 1
664 093 U-tube, 160 x 22 mm, 2 side taps 1 1
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 2 Water is available in large quantities on Earth, but it can also be
608 051 Stand tube, 750 mm, diam. 10 mm 2 synthesised in the laboratory. The synthesis of water is a comple-
301 09 Bosshead S 4 mentary experiment to the electrolytic decomposition of water.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 4 In experiment C1.3.2.1, hydrogen is burned. The resulting hydrogen
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 1 oxide is collected in a U-tube. White copper(II)-sulfate or water
667 257 Rubber stopper, solid, 19...24 mm diam. 2 2 detection test paper is used to prove that it is water.
660 997 Minican pressurised gas canister, hydrogen 1

2 H2 + O2 2 H2O

The experiment can be set up with standard stand rots (variant a)
or in a CPS frame (variant b).
672 9700 Copper(II)-sulfate, anhydrous, 50 g 1 1
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 1 1
671 8400 Iron wool, 50 g 1 1
664 809 Gas scrubber bottle insert, for test tubes 1
43
THE COMPOUND WATER
C1.3.3
PROPERTIES OF WATER
C1.3.3.1
Thermal anomaly of water
Thermal anomaly of water (C1.3.3.1)
Water is necessary for life. This is because of the special proper-

ties of water as compared with other substances. Water is one of
C1.3.3.1
the few compounds which exists in nature in all three states of

Cat.-Nr. Name
matter: solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour).
667 505 Anomaly of water apparatus 1 Water has a density anomaly: up to a temperature of 4 °C,
666 8451 Magnetic stirrer 1 water has a negative coefficient of expansion , i.e. it shrinks when
664 195 Glass tanks 1 warmed. After passing through zero at 4 °C, the coefficient of
665 009 Funnel, PP, 75 mm diam. 1 expansion becomes positive. So the density of water reaches a
307 66 Tubing (rubber) 1 maximum at 4 °C.
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 In experiment C1.3.3.1, the density maximum of water is proven
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 by measuring its expansion in a vessel with a riser. Starting from
301 09 Bosshead S 1 room temperature, the complete setup is cooled down in an ice
water bath to about 1 °C under constant stirring, or after cooling
in a freezer, it is warmed slowly by the ambient temperature. The
531 836 Universal measuring instrument, Chemistry 1
level h, in a riser with a cross-sectional area A is measured as
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1
a function of the water temperature J. Because the change in
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1
volume relative to the total volume V0 is small, the result
obtained for density is
 A 
ρ ( ϑ) = ρ ( 0 °C ) ⋅  1 − ⋅ h ( ϑ)  .
 V0 
Relative density of water as a function of the temperature
AIR AND OTHER GASES
C1.4.1
THE COMPONENTS OF AIR
C1.4.1.1
Determination of the oxygen
content of air
Determination of the oxygen content of air (C1.4.1.1)
Air is a mixture of different gases. It essentially comprises nitro-

gen (78 %), oxygen (21 %), noble gases (1 %) and carbon dioxide
C1.4.1.1
(0.04 %). It also contains trace quantities of other gases. The

Cat.-Nr. Name
component which is vital to us, oxygen, also participates in im-
664 0771 Reaction tube, quartz, GL 18 1 portant reactions, e.g. in combustion and corrosion.
664 079 Copper wire gauze, roll, 80 x 7.5 mm Ø 1 Experiment C1.4.1.1 determines the oxygen content of air. The
665 912 Gas syringe, 100 ml 1 determination of the oxygen content uses the fact that certain
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 1 substances can react quantitatively with oxygen to form oxides.
665 936 Immersion tube manometer, after Schiele 1 For this purpose, the oxygen of a defined volume of air is reacted
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 1 with copper and removed from the gas space as copper oxide.
666 724 Wide-flame attachment 1 2 Cu + O2 → 2 CuO
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 From the resulting reduction in volume, the oxygen content of
666 4660 Adhesive magnetic board, 300 mm 6 the original air can be easily calculated in per cent by volume. The
666 4665 Spring clips, magnetic, size 7a, 30...32 mm 5 gas remaining in the apparatus can be studied further: One can
666 428 Panel frame C100, two-level, for CPS 1 find out that it does not sustain combustion.
45
AIR AND OTHER GASES
C1.4.1
THE COMPONENTS OF AIR
C1.4.1.2
Determination of the density of air
Determination of the density of air (C1.4.1.2)
In experiment C1.4.1.2, a sphere of known volume with two

stopcocks is used to determine the density of air. The mass of
C1.4.1.2
the enclosed air is determined from the measured difference

Cat.-Nr. Name
between the total weight of the sphere filled with air and the
379 07 Sphere with 2 stop-cocks, glass 1 empty weight of the evacuated sphere.
667 072 Support ring for 250-ml round flask, cork 1
315 05 Single-pan suspension balance 311 1
375 58 Hand vacuum pump 1
AIR AND OTHER GASES
C1.4.2
PRODUCTION OF GASES
C1.4.2.1
Production of gases with
a Kipp’s apparatus
C1.4.2.2
Production of gases with a
dropping funnel
Production of gases with a Kipp’s apparatus (C1.4.2.1)
By reacting different chemicals, in most cases a liquid and a solid

material, many different gases can be generated. The gases gene-
C1.4.2.2
C1.4.2.1
rated can then be used and studied in other experiments.

Cat.-Nr. Name
To purify the gases generated, wash bottles with H2SO4 as a
665 647 Maey gas generator 1 1 desiccator, for example, can be added downstream. Appropriate
666 6221 Experimental tray 1 1 reagents can also be used to demonstrate assay reactions.
666 623 Angle strip 1 1 Experiment C1.4.2.1 uses the gas generator according to Maey,
301 01 Leybold multiclamp 3 3 the principle of which corresponds to that of the Kipp’s appara-
301 27 Stand rod, 50 cm, 10 mm diam. 3 3 tus for the production of hydrogen: zinc granules are added to a
301 09 Bosshead S 4 4 setup with frits. Diluted hydrochloric acid is added to the flask,
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 4 4 which passes through the frits to reach the zinc. Hydrogen is
604 501 PVC tube, 7 mm diam., 1 m 1 1 generated there.
664 800 Gas scrubber bottle, lower section, 200 ml 2 2 Zn + 2 H+ → Zn2+ + H2
664 805 Glass tube insert, ST 29/32 2 2 Other gases which can be generated in a similar way include: CO2,
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 1 1 H2S and NO.
675 4800 Zinc, granulated, 100 g 1 In experiment C1.4.2.2, a dropping funnel is used and the
674 6920 Hydrochloric acid, approx. 2 mol/l, 500ml 1 solid is introduced into the flask. The reaction is controlled here
665 649 Dropper funnel, 75 ml, 2 NS 29/32 1 by adding drops of a liquid and the gas can be drawn off via the
673 2200 Manganese(IV)-oxide, 100 g 1 stopcock on the side. In the production of oxygen, for example,
675 3500 Hydrogen peroxide, 30 %, 250 ml 1 hydrogen peroxide is dripped onto the catalyst manganese dio-
xide and decomposes into water and oxygen.
MnO
2 H2O2  → 2 H2O + O2
This variant can be used to produce several other gases,

including: O2, NH3, Cl2, HCl, SO2, NO2, CO, C2H2 and CH4.
47
AIR AND OTHER GASES
C1.4.3
REACTIONS WITH GASES
C1.4.3.1
Hydrogen as a reducing agent
Hydrogen as a reducing agent (C1.4.3.1)
Gases, too, can participate in chemical reactions. In most cases

they are added in surplus and their properties enable comple-
C1.4.3.1
te penetration of the reaction space. Reactions with gases are

Cat.-Nr. Name
easy to follow because the volume at constant pressure allows a
664 0772 Reaction tube, quartz, 16 cm 1 simple determination of the quantity of material.
667 286 Silicone stopper, one 7-mm hole, 16...21 mm diam. 2 In experiment C1.4.3.1, copper oxide is reduced with hydrogen to
666 988 Combustion boat, not glazed, 80 x 12 mm 1 form elementary copper. Hydrogen is a good reducing agent. Its
665 201 Glass tubes, 80 mm x 8mm diam., set of 10 1 ability to react applies not only to free oxygen but also to oxygen
665 238 Glass nozzle, 90° angle 1 compounds. The metal is formed in this way when transforming a
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 1 metal oxide (as in this experiment) with hydrogen.
666 724 Wide-flame attachment 1
666 602 Base rail, 55 cm 1
666 605 Stand tube, 50 mm, 13 mm diam. 2
666 615 Universal bosshead 3
301 09 Bosshead S 3
602 421 Gas-washing bottle, complete, with ST, with filter, 250 ml 1
604 5672 Double microspatula, steel, 150 mm 1
666 4796 HydroStik PRO 1
666 4797 Regulating valve 1
666 4798 HydroFill PRO 1
672 9500 Copper(II)-oxide, powder, 50 g 1
671 8400 Iron wool, 50 g 1
674 7860 Sulfuric acid, 95-98 %, 500 ml 1
METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
C1.5.1
EXTRACTION OF METALS
C1.5.1.1
Extraction of copper from
copper oxide
Extraction of copper from copper oxide (C1.5.1.1)
Most of the ores found in nature are oxides and sulphides: e.g.
magnetite (lodestone, Fe3O4), haematite (red iron oxide, Fe2O3),
C1.5.1.1
cassiterite (SnO2), tenorite (CuO), cuprite (Cu2O), pyrite (fool’s

Cat.-Nr. Name
gold, FeS2) and sphalerite (ZnS). Reduction can be used to extract
667 092 Mortar, porcelain, 70 mm Ø 1 metals from oxide ores and from the metal oxides formed during
608 360 Pestle, 52 mm long 1 the metallurgical process known as “roasting”.
666 502 Bunsen burner stand, 450 mm high 1 In experiment C1.5.1.1, charcoal is the reducing agent to reduce
301 09 Bosshead S 1 tenorite (CuO) to elementary copper. When heated, the mixture
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 of tenorite and pulverised charcoal produces red copper and
667 050 Test tube rack, plastic, for 9 tubes, 18 mm diam. 1 carbon dioxide. A saturated calcium hydroxide solution is used to
664 043 Test tubes, Fiolax, 16 x 160 mm, set of 10 1
verify the presence of the carbon dioxide.
667 254 Rubber stopper, one 7-mm hole, 17...23 mm diam. 1
667 253 Rubber stopper, solid, 14...18 mm diam. 1
665 231 Angled tube, 90°, 250/50 mm 1
666 962 Double-ended spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1
666 729 Safety gas hose, 1 m 1
672 9500 Copper(II)-oxide, powder, 50 g 1
672 2490 Charcoal, small pieces, 500 g 1
672 1010 Glass wool, 100 g 1
671 2900 Calcium hydroxide, 50 g 1
49
C1.5.3
CORROSION
C1.5.3.1
Conditions for iron corrosion
Conditions for iron corrosion (C1.5.3.1)
The term “corrosion” refers to the slow oxidation of metal surfaces

under the influence of the surrounding medium. Corrosion (rust)
C1.5.3.1
destroys large quantities of iron and steel. Corrosion protection

Cat.-Nr. Name
(rust protection) is an extremely important topic in the metal in-
665 936 Immersion tube manometer, after Schiele 1 dustry.
667 054 Test tube rack, for 12 tubes, 32 mm diam. 1 Experiment C1.5.3.1 examines the conditions under which ferrous
664 045 Test tubes, Fiolax, 30 x 200 mm, set of 10 1 metals corrode. Wads of iron wool are subjected to different con-
665 232 Angled tube, 90°, 50/50 mm 1 ditions. In one test tube, boiled water is poured over the iron wool,
667 261 Rubber stopper, one 7-mm hole, 25-31 mm diam. 1 in the second test tube the iron wool is left dry, and the third test
667 180 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 7 mm diam., DIN 12865 1 tube is rinsed with tap water so that droplets remain in the tube.
This test tube is connected to an immersion tube manometer filled
with coloured water. The changes in the iron wool and the changes
301 28ET2 Stand rod, 45 cm, 10 mm diam., set of 2 1
in the immersion tube manometer are observed. It can be seen
301 09 Bosshead S 2
that under the simultaneous action of water and oxygen on iron,
corrosion forms and a measurable negative pressure builds up in
664 183 Petri dishes 1 the apparatus.
667 0344 Tweezer, blunt, 145 mm 1
4 Fe + 2 H2O + 3 O2 → 4 FeO(OH)
664 130 Beaker, Boro3.3, 250 ml, squat 1
666 962 Double-ended spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1
671 8400 Iron wool, 50 g 1
670 8200 Petroleum ether, 90...110 °C, 250 ml 1
309 42 Colouring, red, 10 g 1
C1.5.3
CORROSION
C1.5.3.2
Experiments with the
corrosion set
C1.5.3.3
Electrochemical corrosion
protection
Experiments with the corrosion set (C1.5.3.2)
Experiment C1.5.3.2 demonstrates that every type of corrosion

has its origin in chemical and electrochemical processes. Diffe-
C1.5.3.2
C1.5.3.3
rent metals generate an electric voltage when they are immersed

Cat.-Nr. Name
in an electrically conductive medium at the same time, such as
664 356 Corrosion set 1 diluted sulfuric acid. The further apart the metals are in the elec-
531 94 AV meter 1 trochemical series the higher that voltage.
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 In experiment C1.5.3.3, the cathodic protection anode technique
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1 is used to prevent electrochemical corrosion. The method is based
664 391ET4 Grindstones, set of 4 1 on the fact that the speed of electrochemical corrosion processes
674 7920 Sulfuric acid, diluted, approx. 2 N, 500 ml 1 depends on the electrode potential. If that electrode potential
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1
is shifted externally, the corrosion can be inhibited or greatly
restricted. In the experiment, a zinc electrode is used as a cathodic
301 339 Stand bases, pair 1
protection anode. The metal to be protected is conductively
664 401 Electrochemistry accessories set 1
connected to a less noble metal; a corrosion element is formed
667 7967 Compact Balance EMB200-2 1
in which the less noble metal (the cathodic protection anode)
665 009 Funnel, PP, 75 mm diam. 1 dissolves while the nobler metal remains protected.
602 022 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 100 ml, squat 1
673 5700 Sodium chloride, 250 g 1
672 6100 Potassium ferrocyanide (III), 50 g 1
674 2410 Phenolphthaleine, 50 g 1
51
NON-METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
C1.6.2
THE OXYGEN FAMILY
C1.6.2.1
Change of modification of sulfur
Change of modification of sulfur (C1.6.2.1)
The oxygen family is the 6th main group in the periodic table.
Its elements are also known as “chalcogens”, i.e. ore generators.
C1.6.2.1
They include the non-metals oxygen and sulfur, the metalloids

Cat.-Nr. Name
selenium and tellurium, and the metal polonium.
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 The elements of this group must acquire two electrons in order
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 to achieve noble gas configuration. Alternatively, they can form
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* two covalent bonds.
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* Experiment C1.6.2.1 takes a closer look at sulfur. Sulfur has
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 the ability to form chains and rings, and that makes it the ele-
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 2 ment with the most modifications. Those modification changes
666 202 Heating block with 2 holes 1 are studied by differential thermal analysis. For this purpose,
666 203 Set of 20 glass tubes 1 a sample of sulfur is heated and its temperature is measured.
666 8471 Magnetic stirrer with hotplate 1
During the modification changes, the temperature of the sam-
ple no longer increases as compared with a control substance.
There is no measurable temperature increase until the modifica-
301 09 Bosshead S 2
tion change is complete.
666 960 Powder spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1
667 092 Mortar, porcelain, 70 mm Ø 1
608 360 Pestle, 52 mm long 1
674 7610 Sulfur, sublimed, 500 g 1
670 2900 Aluminium oxide, 250 g 1
1
Observing the change of modification of sulfur
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
C1.7.2
ACID STRENGTHS AND
pH VALUES
C1.7.2.1
Determination of acidity
(pKa value) by titration
Determination of acidity (pKa value) by titration (C1.7.2.1)
The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is expressed by the pH value.

C1.7.2.1
It is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion

Cat.-Nr. Name concentration. pH values below 7 are acidic, and pH values above
7 are basic. The pH plays a decisive role in the course of many
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1
chemical and biochemical processes, where it normally ranges
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1*
between 4 and 9.
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1*
In experiment C1.7.2.1, the acidity (pKa value) of acetic acid is
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
determined. Between an acid HA and its base A- the following
524 0672 pH adapter S 1
equilibrium reaction takes place in an aqueous solution :
667 4172 pH sensor with plastic shaft, BNC 1

HA + +H2O +
H3O +A

-
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1
665 845 Burette, clear glass, 25 ml 1 According to the law of mass action, the equilibrium position is
666 559 Burette clamp for 1 burette, roller clamp 1 described by the equilibrium constant Ka:
665 816 Burette filling funnel, plastic, 25 mm diam. 1 [H3O+ ] ⋅ [A - ] [H O+ ] ⋅ [A - ]
K= ; K a = K ⋅ [H2O ] = 3
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 [HA] ⋅ [H2O] [HA]
By analogy to the pH value, the pKa value is given as the negative
base 10 logarithm of the numerical value of Ka
301 09 Bosshead S 1 [H3O+ ]×[A - ]
pK a = -lg
[HA]
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1 The lower the value of pKa, the higher the acidity. The pKa value is
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 numerically equal to the pH value of a solution when the protona-
664 130 Beaker, Boro3.3, 250 ml, squat 1 ted and non-protonated forms are present in equal concentration.
661 243 Wash bottle, PE, 500 ml 1
673 8421 Soda lye, 1 mol/l, 1 l 1
671 9560 Acetic acid, 0.1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
673 8410 Soda lye, 0.1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
674 4640 Buffer solution pH 4.00, 250 ml 1
1
53
C1.7.2
ACID STRENGTHS AND
pH VALUES
C1.7.2.2
Analysis of triprotic phosphoric
acid by titration
Analysis of triprotic phosphoric acid by titration (C1.7.2.2)
The acidity or alkalinity of a solution is expressed by the pH value.

C1.7.2.2
It is the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the hydrogen ion

Cat.-Nr. Name concentration. pH values below 7 are acidic, and pH values above
7 are basic. The pH plays a decisive role in the course of many
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 chemical and biochemical processes, where it normally ranges
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 between 4 and 9.
524 0672 pH adapter S 1 Phosphoric acid is a triprotic acid. When dissolved in water, it first
667 4172 pH sensor with plastic shaft, BNC 1 gives up one proton and dissociates to dihydrogen phosphate, i.e.
524 074 Timer S 1 it reacts like a monoprotic acid (see formula 1). The addition of
337 4681 Drop counter 1 sodium hydroxide, e.g. during titration, first leads to complete
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1 dissociation of the phosphoric acid into dihydrogen phosphate.
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 2 The second protolysis, i.e. the reaction to hydrogen phosphate
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1 (see formula 2), occurs only after a high pH value has been
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 reached, approx. pH 9. The third protolysis requires a considerab-
665 845 Burette, clear glass, 25 ml 1 ly higher pH value (see formula 3). In experiment C1.7.2.2, the
665 816 Burette filling funnel, plastic, 25 mm diam. 1 first two protolysis steps of phosphoric acid are determined in an
666 559 Burette clamp for 1 burette, roller clamp 1
automatic titration.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1: H3PO4 + H2O H2PO-4 + H3O+
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 2: H2PO-4 + H2O HPO2-
4 + H3 O
+
300 11 Saddle base 1 3: HPO2- 3-

4 + H2O PO 4 + H3 O
+

301 09 Bosshead S 2
674 3440 Phosphoric acid, 10 %, 100 ml 1
672 4460 Potassium lye, 1 N (1 mol/l), 1 l 1
674 2500 Phenolphthaleine solution, 100 ml 1*
1
Titration curve of the triprotic acid phosphoric acid
C1.7.3
SALTS AND IONIC
COMPOUNDS
C1.7.3.1
Determination of the enthalpy
of solution of salts
Determination of the enthalpy of solution of salts (C1.7.3.1)
Salts are chemical compounds made of ions. The positively charged

cation is often a metal and the negatively charged anion is often
C1.7.3.1
a non-metal, as in the case of sodium chloride (table salt). In polar

Cat.-Nr. Name
solvents such as water, salts dissolve forming hydrated ions.
386 40 Dewar flask, clear, for demonstration 1 When a salt is dissolved in water, it can heat the solution up
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 or cool it down. Accordingly, the enthalpy of solution is either
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 negative (heat generating) or positive (heat absorbing). For the
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1 dissolution of the crystal, the so-called lattice energy must be
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 applied. In hydration, on the other hand, energy is released.
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 Enthalpies of solution cannot be calculated with certainty, but
rather must be determined experimentally.
664 155 Watch glass dish, 100 mm diam. 1 Experiment C1.7.3.1 determines the enthalpy of solution of
various chloride salts. For this purpose, the salts LiCl, KCl and
NaCl are dissolved in the transparent demonstration Dewar flask.
The enthalpy of solution can then be calculated from the tem-
perature change.
301 09 Bosshead S 1
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1
673 0510 Lithium chloride, 100 g 1
672 5210 Potassium chloride, 250 g 1
The enthalpy of solution of different salts
55
C1.7.3
SALTS AND IONIC
COMPOUNDS
C1.7.3.2
Determination of the solubility
product of silver halides
Determination of the solubility product of silver halides (C1.7.3.2)
In experiment C1.7.3.2, the solubility product of silver salts is

determined. The solubility product is the product of the concentra-
C1.7.3.2
tions of cations and anions of an electrolyte in a saturated aqueous

Cat.-Nr. Name
solution at constant temperature. In a saturated salt solution, a
531 836 Universal measuring instrument, Chemistry 1 chemical equilibrium exists between the solid and the solution, i.e.
524 0621 UIP sensor S 1 just as many ions leave the ion lattice per unit time as enter it in
664 137 Beaker, Boro3.3, 100 ml, tall 5 the opposite sense. Using voltage measurements and the Nernst
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 equation, the solubility products of the low solubility salts AgCl,
667 455 Salt bridge, 90 mm x 90 mm, 20 mm diam. 1
AgBr and AgI are determined.
664 421 Plate electrodes, silver, 55 x 40 mm, set of 2 1
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1
301 09 Bosshead S 1
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1
665 954 Rubber bulbs, 10 pcs. 1
665 009 Funnel, PP, 75 mm diam. 1
674 8800 Silver nitrate solution, 0,1 mol/l, 250 ml 1
670 3600 Ammonia solution, 25 %, 250 ml 1
673 5740 Sodium chloride solution, approx. 1 M, 500 ml 1
672 4930 Potassium bromide solution, 250 ml 1
672 6620 Potassium iodide, 50 g 1
672 6800 Potassium nitrate, 100 g 1
C2 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C2.1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 58-59

C2.1.1 COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 58
C2.1.2 HYDROCARBONS 59
C2.2 REACTIONS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 60

C2.2.2 OXIDATION REACTIONS 60
C2.3 PETROCHEMISTRY 61-64

C2.3.1 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AS FUELS 61
C2.3.2 FROM CRUDE OIL TO PETROLEUM PRODUCT 62-63
C2.3.3 PROPERTIES OF PETROCHEMICAL PRODUCTS 64
C2.4 SYNTHESIS AND PURIFICATION OF 65-70

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
C2.4.1 SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 65
C2.4.2 EXTRACTION AS A PURIFICATION PROCESS 66-67
C2.4.3 DISTILLATION AS A PURIFICATION PROCESS 68-69
C2.4.4 COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY AS A PURIFICATION PROCESS 70
57
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
C2.1.1
COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
C2.1.1.1
Quantitative determination
of carbon
C2.1.1.2
Quantitative determination
of hydrogen
Quantitative determination of carbon (C2.1.1.1)

C2.1.1.2
C2.1.1.2
C2.1.1.1
C2.1.1.1
Reaction tube, quartz, 220 x 25 mm Ø, for butane 671 2410 Calcium chloride, granulated, 250 g 1 1
664 069 1 1
combustion 674 4310 1-Propanol, 250 ml 1 1
665 374 Drying tube, 1 GL 18 and 1 GL 25, 120 mm x 30 mm diam. 2 2 672 1010 Glass wool, 100 g 1 1
665 912 Gas syringe, 100 ml 1 1 667 605 Safety screen 1
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 1 1 OHS PU123 Electronic precision balance SPU123 1
665 918 Gas syringe holder 1 1
656 017 Teclu burner, universal 1 1
666 724 Wide-flame attachment 1 1
In order to determine the chemical composition of organic
compounds, a quantitative elementary analysis is conducted.
666 729 Safety gas hose, 1 m 1 1
Combustion analysis is also still used today for the determination
666 603 Base rail, 95 cm 1 1
of carbon and hydrogen.
666 609ET2 Stand tubes, 450 mm, 10 mm diam. , set of 2 2 2
In experiment C2.1.1.1, the carbon content of an organic
666 615 Universal bosshead 4 4
compound is determined quantitatively. In a combustion analysis,
301 09 Bosshead S 5 5
the substance is passed over glowing copper(II) oxide at approx.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 3 3 800 °C - 900 °C. The carbon is converted to CO2 and the hydro-
301 72 Universal clamp, 0...120 mm 1 1 gen is converted to H2O. The CO2 gas generated is collected in a
666 962 Double-ended spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1 1 gas syringe and the volume is measured.
665 994 Graduated pipette, 1 ml 1 1 In experiment C2.1.1.2, the hydrogen content of an organic
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 1 compound is determined quantitatively. Here, too, the com-
667 180 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 7 mm diam., DIN 12865 1 1 bustion analysis is carried out, whereby the carbon is converted
604 481 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 4 mm diam., DIN 12865 1 1 to CO2 and the hydrogen is converted to H2O. The water content
604 510 Hose connector, 4…15 mm 1 1 is determined from the difference in the weight of the drying
661 000 Minican pressurised gas canister, nitrogen 1 1 tube, and the share of hydrogen is determined from the water
660 989 Minican pressurised gas canister, n-Butane 1 1 content.
660 980 Fine regulating valve for minican gas canisters 1 1
667 034 Tweezers, blunt, 200 mm 1 1
672 9410 Copper oxide, wire form, 250 g 1 1
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
C2.1.2
HYDROCARBONS
C2.1.2.1
Thermal analysis of hydrocarbons
Thermal analysis of hydrocarbons (C2.1.2.1)
Hydrocarbons are compounds which contain only carbon and

hydrogen. A differentiation is made between alkanes, alkenes and
C2.1.2.1
alkynes. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Each C atom forms

Cat.-Nr. Name
four single bonds. Unsaturated hydrocarbon compounds have
666 428 Panel frame C100, two-level, for CPS 1 multiple bonds. Alkenes have at least one double bond, alkynes
666 460 Combustion chamber with incandescent wire, CPS 1 one triple bond. Hydrocarbons can occur in short or long chains.
666 4660 Adhesive magnetic board, 300 mm 2 Open chains or branches are found, and they can also comprise
666 4664 Spring clips, magnetic, size 6a, 27...29 mm 4 ring-shaped molecules.
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 2 In order to determine the number of hydrogen atoms as compared
666 4659 Adhesive magnetic board, 500 mm 1 with the number of carbon atoms, hydrocarbons can be separa-
726 21 Equipment platform, 350 mm 1
ted into their elements by thermal decomposition. With gaseous
hydrocarbons, this can be done with a filament in a combustion
chamber. There the gas is split into hydrogen and carbon black
521 55 High current power supply 1
(soot). The ratio of hydrogen to carbon in the compound can be
660 987 Minican pressurised gas canister, methane 1
derived directly from the increase in gas volume. In experiment
660 988 Minican pressurised gas canister, ethane 1 C2.1.2.1, the gases methane and ethane are studied in this way.
667 052 Test tube rack, for 12 tubes, 18 mm diam., 6 drying pegs 1
656 016 Bunsen burner, universal 1
666 729 Safety gas hose, 1 m 1
59
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
REACTIONS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C2.2.2
OXIDATION REACTIONS
C2.2.2.1
Oxidation of propanol
Oxidation of propanol (C2.2.2.1)

C2.2.2.1
C2.2.2.1
666 602 Base rail, 55 cm 1 672 1010 Glass wool, 100 g 1

664 0771 Reaction tube, quartz, GL 18 1 672 1210 Glycerine, 99 %, 250 ml 1
664 078 Copper wire, gauze roll, 60 x 10 mm diam. 1 674 4400 2-Propanol, 250 ml 1
667 313 Glass connector, 1 GL 18, with glass olive 2 672 9710 Copper(II)-sulfate, anhydrous, 250 g 1
665 935 Spring pressure gauge 1 additionally required:
667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 1 cold water, ice, hot water (60 °C)

375 56 Water jet pump 1 Oxidation and reduction reactions also occur in organic chemistry.
These involve oxygen transfer reactions, e.g. the oxidation of
alcohols to carboxylic acids, or hydrogen transfer reactions, in
301 09 Bosshead S 2
which, technically, a hydride ion (H-) is transferred. But redox
reactions can also occur radically or via displacement or addition-
666 609ET2 Stand tubes, 450 mm, 10 mm diam. , set of 2 1
elimination mechanisms.
664 051 Test tube, with side arm, Boro 3.3, 20 x 180 mm, SB 19 2
In experiment C2.2.2.1, acetone is produced. To do so, the secon-
667 256 Rubber stopper, one 7-mm hole, 16...21 mm diam. 2
dary alcohol 2-propanol is oxidised to 2-propanone (acetone).
665 231 Angled tube, 90°, 250/50 mm 2 The oxidising agent used is copper oxide (CuO), which at high
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 1 temperature gives off oxygen to reducing materials. Continuous
666 724 Wide-flame attachment 1 air supply immediately re-oxidises the metal copper, however. In
664 114 Beaker, DURAN, 400 ml, tall 2 order to provide the largest possible Cu-CuO surface area, an
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 anoxidised, rolled up copper mesh is used.
664 442 Evaporating dish, 80 mm diam. 1
667 035 Crucible tongs, 200 mm 1
666 685 Wire gauze, 160 mm x 160 mm 1
661 083ET20 Wooden turnings, 200 pcs 1
667 026 Tweezers, pointed, 130 mm 1
667 605 Safety screen 1 Oxidation of propanol and reoxidation of copper to copper oxide
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PETROCHEMISTRY
C2.3.1
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS AS
FUELS
C2.3.1.1
The calorific value of coal
C2.3.1.3
The calorific value of fuel oil
The calorific value of coal (C2.3.1.1)
Organic compounds store chemical energy. During combustion,

C2.3.1.3
C2.3.1.1
the conversion to thermal energy takes place, which is given off

Cat.-Nr. Name to the surroundings in the form of heat. A heating value can be
established for every fuel. The heating value of different fuels
666 429 Calorimeter for solids and liquids, CPS 1 1
varies over a wide range. It indicates how much heat is released
666 819 Stirring top, with GL 32 screw thread 1 1
when one kilogram or one litre or 1 cubic meter of a material is
664 800 Gas scrubber bottle, lower section, 200 ml 4 4 completely burned.
664 805 Glass tube insert, ST 29/32 4 4
In experiment C2.3.1.1, coal is burned and the heat of combustion
521 231 Low-voltage power supply, 3/6/9/12 V 1 1
is determined with a calorimeter. The calorimeter completely sur-
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 1 rounds the sides and top of the combustion chamber. The hot com-
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* 1* bustion gases generated are fed through a double glass coil and
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* 1* give off their energy to the environment (the glass element and the
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 bath liquid) in the form of heat. In this way, the heat of combustion
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 1 can be determined using the total heat capacity of the calorimeter.
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 1 In experiment C2.3.1.3 the heating value of fuel oil is determined
667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 3 3 with a demonstration calorimeter.
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2 2
604 510 Hose connector, 4…15 mm 1 1
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 2 2
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 1
660 998 Minican pressurised gas canister, oxygen 1 1
666 4660 Adhesive magnetic board, 300 mm 2 2
666 428 Panel frame C100, two-level, for CPS 1 1
666 4664 Spring clips, magnetic, size 6a, 27...29 mm 4 4
301 312 Console 1 1
726 22 Equipment platform, 500 mm 1 1
1
61
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PETROCHEMISTRY
C2.3.2
FROM CRUDE OIL TO
PETROLEUM PRODUCT
C2.3.2.1
Fractionated petroleum distillation
with a bubble tray column
Fractionated petroleum distillation with a bubble tray column (C2.3.2.1)
The organic chemical industry is largely based on the raw mate-

C2.3.2.1
rials crude oil and natural gas. Those raw materials were formed a
Cat.-Nr. Name long time ago from biomass through biochemical and geochemi-
cal processes. Based on its origin, crude oil is classified as a fossil
666 447 Crude oil distillation, bubble tray column, CPS 1
fuel together with natural gas and coal.
These fuels and raw materials cannot be used directly in their
natural condition. First they must be refined by various physical
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
and chemical processes. This is done in so-called oil refineries,
where different processes are used in order to produce from the
crude oil the desired mineral oil products and primary chemicals
666 6533 Heating mantle, 500 ml, adjustable 1
for the chemical industry.
300 75 Laboratory stand I 1
Crude oil is first separated into different fractions by fractionated
666 659 Clamp for heating mantle 1
distillation. Individual substances cannot be isolated in this way,
666 194 Protective sleeves for temperature sensors, set of 5 1
because the boiling points are very close to one another. Rather,
665 755 Measuring cylinder, 250 ml, with plastic base 1 the objective here is to collect hydrocarbons of certain boiling
604 501 PVC tube, 7 mm diam., 1 m 3 point ranges.
604 460 Hose clamp, 8...12 mm 3
In chemical engineering, crude oil is distilled in bubble tray
664 241 Erlenmeyer flask, 100 ml, narrow neck, SB 19 3
columns. This process is simulated in experiment C2.3.2.1. The
667 281 Assorted cork stoppers, set of 100 3 system is fitted with two bubble trays so multiple fractions can
661 0771 Warning labels, GHS 1 be extracted simultaneously.
661 081 Aluminium, foil, 1 roll 1
667 026 Tweezers, pointed, 130 mm 1
608 311 Evaporating dish, 72 ml, 77 mm diam. 3
674 5840 Crude oil, artificial, 1 L 1
674 5810 Crude oil, 500 ml 1*
661 091 Boiling stones 1
672 1200 Glycerine, 99 %, 100 ml 1
additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8 1
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PETROCHEMISTRY
C2.3.2
FROM CRUDE OIL TO
PETROLEUM PRODUCT
C2.3.2.3
Catalytic cracking
Catalytic cracking (C2.3.2.3)

C2.3.2.3
C2.3.2.3
665 338 Distillation bridge after Claisen 1 665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1
664 301 Round-bottom flask, 250 ml, ST 19/26 1 661 082 Stopcock grease, 60 g 1
664 300 Round-bottom flask, 100 ml, ST 19/26 1 674 0800 Paraffine, thick, 100 ml 1
664 105 Beaker, DURAN, 600 ml, squat 1 674 1980 Bead catalyst, 100 g 1
667 072 Support ring for round flask, 250 ml, cork 1 671 8400 Iron wool, 50 g 1
665 391ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 19/26, set of 10 1 672 1210 Glycerine, 99 %, 250 ml 1
665 237 Glass nozzle, straight 1 * additionally recommended
665 255 Three-way valve, T-shaped, ST nozzles 1
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 1 Distillation can only extract materials which are naturally present
667 256 Rubber stopper, one 7-mm hole, 16...21 mm diam. 1 in the crude oil to start with. Because the share of petrol in the
666 161 Chemical thermometer, -10...+220 °C/1 K 1 crude oil is insufficient to cover the need, however, conversion
666 6522 Heating Mantle, 250 ml 1 processes (modification processes) have been developed. They
include, along with thermal cracking, also the catalytic cracking
which is carried out in experiment C2.3.2.3. Here, paraffin oil is
cracked in the heat of a bead catalyst and the gaseous and liquid
fractions are collected.
664 153 Watch glass dish, 60 mm diam. 2
667 052 Test tube rack, for 12 tubes, 18 mm diam., 6 drying pegs 1*
604 170 Powder funnel d=65mm 1
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1
666 003 Pipetting ball 1
63
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PETROCHEMISTRY
C2.3.3
PROPERTIES OF
PETROCHEMICAL PRODUCTS
C2.3.3.1
Boiling range distribution of petrol
C2.3.3.2
Boiling range distribution
and fractionated distillation
of petroleum
Boiling range distribution of petrol (C2.3.3.1)

C2.3.3.2
C2.3.3.2
C2.3.3.1
C2.3.3.1
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 1 667 227 Glass stopper for ST 19/26 3
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 661 0771 Warning labels, GHS 1
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* 1* 661 081 Aluminium, foil, 1 roll 1
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* 1* 674 5840 Crude oil, artificial, 1 L 1
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 1 674 5810 Crude oil, 500 ml 1*
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 1 additionally required:
1 1
665 338 Distillation bridge after Claisen 1 1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8
664 301 Round-bottom flask, 250 ml, ST 19/26 1 1 * additionally recommended

667 072 Support ring for round flask, 250 ml, cork 1 1
665 391ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 19/26, set of 10 1 1 Petrochemistry concerns the production and further processing
604 501 PVC tube, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2 1
of organic raw materials based on oil and natural gas. Petro-
chemical products are always mixtures of many hydrocarbons -
604 460 Hose clamp, 8...12 mm 2 2
only very rarely are pure substances involved! The various hydro-
carbon groups are differentiated from one another based on their
667 305 Screw cap, GL 18, with hole 1 1
boiling points. Petrol, for example, is the hydrocarbon mixture
667 295 Silicone gaskets, GL 18/8, set of 10 1 1 which boils between 40 °C and 220 °C.
666 194 Protective sleeves for temperature sensors, set of 5 1 1
The petrol fraction, in turn, is subdivided into several subgroups,
666 6523 Heating Mantle, 250 ml, adjustable 1 1 so-called special petrols. Petrol benzene boils between 40 °C and
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 1 70 °C, for example, and regular petrol boils between 65 °C and
666 4659 Adhesive magnetic board, 500 mm 2 2 90 °C. In experiment C2.3.3.1, a boiling point analysis is carried
666 4662 Spring clips, magnetic, size 3, 11...14 mm 2 2 out on petrol. For this purpose, different petrol fractions are
666 4663 Spring clips, magnetic, size 5, 18...22 mm 2 2 heated in a distillation apparatus in order to determine the
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1 1 boiling range.
661 091 Boiling stones 1 1 In a fractionated distillation of crude oil, fractions of different
670 8200 Petroleum ether, 90...110 °C, 250 ml 1 boiling ranges can be separated. In experiment C2.3.3.2, a frac-
661 082 Stopcock grease, 60 g 1 1 tionated distillation of crude oil is carried out and the fractions
664 300 Round-bottom flask, 100 ml, ST 19/26 3 are characterised according to their boiling points.
667 071 Support ring for round flask, 100 ml, cork 3
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
SYNTHESIS AND PURIFICATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
C2.4.1
SYNTHESIS OF ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS
C2.4.1.1
Synthesis and use of indigo
Synthesis and use of indigo (C2.4.1.1)

C2.4.1.1
C2.4.1.1
664 246 Erlenmeyer flask, DURAN, 100 ml, wide neck 1 673 6810 Sodium hydroxide, pellets, 250 g 1
665 161 Büchner funnel, 45 mm diam. 1 additionally required:
1
661 030 Round filter, type 595, 40 mm diam., 100 pcs. 1 white cotton cloth
665 060 Rubber collars, set of 7 1

664 865 Suction flask, 250 ml, glass 1 The synthesis of new compounds is a major branch of orga-
382 21 Stirring thermometer, -30...+110 °C 1 nic chemistry. Because carbon and the heteroatoms oxygen,
666 967 Spoon-ended spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1 nitrogen and sulphur can be linked together in so many different
665 751 Measuring cylinder, 10 ml, with plastic base 1 combinations, the number of compounds characterised increases
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 year after year. Every synthesis of a new compound consists of
carrying out a chemical reaction and subsequently purifying the
reaction mixture.
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1
Indigo, a dye, can be produced in a simple organic synthesis.
In so doing, o-nitrobenzaldehyde reacts with acetone in a con-
densation reaction to form isatin. That dimerises into finished
indigo. Indigo is not water soluble and can simply be filtered out
after the reaction. In experiment C2.4.1.1, this reaction is carried
664 154 Watch glass dish, 80 mm diam. 1 out and the finished indigo is used as a dye.
375 56 Water jet pump 1
666 839 Magnetic stirrer with hot plate 1
673 9390 2-Nitrobenzaldehyde, 5 g 1
670 0410 Acetone, 1 l 1
673 8420 Soda lye, 1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
671 9711 Ethanol, absolute, 500 ml 1
671 6700 Diethylether, 250 ml 1
673 6310 Sodium dithionite, 250 g 1
65
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C2.4.2
EXTRACTION AS A
PURIFICATION PROCESS
C2.4.2.1
Soxhlet extraction from leaves
Soxhlet extraction from leaves (C2.4.2.1)
The term ‘extraction’ refers to the process of dissolving out indi-

vidual substances from the extraction material, a liquid or solid
C2.4.2.1
mixture of substances. For this it takes a suitable solvent - the ex-

Cat.-Nr. Name
traction agent - in which ideally only the substance to be dissolved
665 453 Extraction unit after Soxhlet 1 out (the extract) dissolves.
665 422 Counter-flow coller after Dimroth 1 When low solubility or insoluble solids are to be extracted, then a
664 301 Round-bottom flask, 250 ml, ST 19/26 1 Soxhlet extraction is carried out as in experiment C2.4.2.1. In this
665 391ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 19/26, set of 10 1 case the vapourised solvent condenses on a chiller and drips onto
665 392ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 29/32, set of 10 1 the extraction material in a filter sleeve. It collects in the ex-
666 6523 Heating Mantle, 250 ml, adjustable 1 traction space, draws the extract out of the extraction material,
and is automatically drawn into the flask. From there the solvent
evaporates once again (without extract).
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
301 09 Bosshead S 2
667 193 PVC tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2
604 460 Hose clamp, 8...12 mm 2
661 050 Extraction thimbles, 80 x 26 mm diam., 25 pieces 1
661 167 Narrow-neck bottle, amber glass, 250 ml 1
665 005 Funnel, Boro 3.3, 100 mm diam. 1
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1
1
leaves, dry, fine powder
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C2.4.2
EXTRACTION AS A
C2.4.2.2
Extracting pigments from
leaf extract
Extracting pigments from leaf extract (C2.4.2.2)
The solvent extraction of a substance is a simple liquid-liquid

C2.4.2.2
extraction. In this case the extraction material is shaken with

Cat.-Nr. Name the extraction agent in a closed vessel, the separatory funnel.
The liquids must not be miscible! The substance to be extracted
665 123 Separating funnel, 250 ml, ungraduated 1
goes over to the extraction agent. In experiment C2.4.2.2 this
300 01 Stand base, V-shaped, large 1
technique is illustrated by the solvent extraction of a leaf extract
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 with oil.
301 09 Bosshead S 1
666 573 Stand ring with stem, 100 mm diam. 1
667 016 Scissors, 200 mm, pointed 1
610 061 Safety gloves 1
1
Cooking oil, leaf extract from experiment C2.4.2.1
67
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C2.4.3
DISTILLATION AS A
C2.4.3.1
Distillation of red wine
Distillation of red wine (C2.4.3.1)
Distillation is a purification process for separating fluids from one

another. It relies on the different volatilities and boiling points of
C2.4.3.1
the components.
Cat.-Nr. Name
In distillation, the liquid mixture is heated and the vapours are
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 re-cooled. The composition of the vapours differs from that of
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 the liquid, and the same also applies then to the condensate.
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* If the boiling points are far enough apart, then mixtures can be
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* separated by simple distillation. This is the case, for example, in
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 the distillation of red wine in experiment C2.4.3.1. Ethanol boils
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 at 78 °C and water boils at 100 °C. Here CASSY is used to track
665 338 Distillation bridge after Claisen 1 the temperature curve in computerised form.
664 301 Round-bottom flask, 250 ml, ST 19/26 1
665 391ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 19/26, set of 10 1
604 501 PVC tube, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2
604 460 Hose clamp, 8...12 mm 2
667 305 Screw cap, GL 18, with hole 1
667 295 Silicone gaskets, GL 18/8, set of 10 1
666 194 Protective sleeves for temperature sensors, set of 5 1
666 6522 Heating Mantle, 250 ml 1
1
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C2.4.3
DISTILLATION AS A
C2.4.3.3
Purification of a substance with
water vapour distillation
Purification of a substance with water vapour distillation (C2.4.3.3)
In experiment C2.4.3.3, water vapour distillation is used to isolate

fragrance and flavouring substances from crushed plant parts.
C2.4.3.3
The readily volatile fragrance and flavouring substances are car-

Cat.-Nr. Name
ried away by the hot steam. In addition, the water solubility of
666 4659 Adhesive magnetic board, 500 mm 2 these essential oils is temperature dependent. They dissolve in the
666 4662 Spring clips, magnetic, size 3, 11...14 mm 1 hot water in the receiver flask. During cooling in the distillation
666 4663 Spring clips, magnetic, size 5, 18...22 mm 2 unit, the water and essential oil separate again. In this way, the
666 6522 Heating Mantle, 250 ml 1 oil can be easily separated from the solvent water.
665 338 Distillation bridge after Claisen 1
665 391ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 19/26, set of 10 1
666 161 Chemical thermometer, -10...+220 °C/1 K 1
604 501 PVC tube, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2
604 460 Hose clamp, 8...12 mm 2
667 305 Screw cap, GL 18, with hole 1
1
one lemon or orange
69
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
C2.4.4
COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY
AS A PURIFICATION PROCESS
C2.4.4.1
Separation of a leaf extract with
column chromatography
C2.4.4.2
Separation of petroleum by means
of column chromatography
Separation of a leaf extract with column chromatography (C2.4.4.1)

C2.4.4.2
C2.4.4.2
C2.4.4.1
C2.4.4.1
665 592 Chromatography column, 235 x 20 mm diam. 1 1 672 1000 Glass wool, 10 g 1 1
665 073 Dropper funnel, 75 ml, ST 29, graduated 1 674 8210 Sea sand, purified, 1 kg 1 1
664 101 Beaker, DURAN, 100 ml, squat 2 2 670 0410 Acetone, 1 l 1 1
602 013 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 800 ml, tall 1 1 661 058 Silica gel, 35-70 mesh, 500 g 1
667 092 Mortar, porcelain, 70 mm Ø 1 661 082 Stopcock grease, 60 g 1 1
667 091 Pestle, 100 mm long 1 602 385 Dropper funnel, 50 ml, spherical 1
665 005 Funnel, Boro 3.3, 100 mm diam. 1 674 5840 Crude oil, artificial, 1 L 1
661 038 Round filter, Type 595, 150 mm diam., 100 pcs. 1 674 5810 Crude oil, 500 ml 1*
661 161 Narrow-neck glass bottle, amber glass, 100 ml 1 670 2910 Aluminium oxide, 500 g 1
602 347 Laboratory bottle, 500 ml, GL 45 thread 1 1 674 2220 Petroleum ether, 40...70 °C, 1 l 1
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 additionally required:
1
665 756 Measuring cylinder, 500 ml, with plastic base 1 2 green leaves, dry or fresh
665 217 Glass stirring rod, 500 mm x 8 mm diam., set of 10 1 1 * additionally recommended
665 025 Powder funnel, 100 mm diam., plastic 1 1
After a synthesis, the resulting reaction mixture is often separated
604 5682 Powder spatula, steel, 185 mm 1 1
by means of column chromatography. Often used is a solid-liquid
661 0771 Warning labels, GHS 1 1
adsorption chromatography, which takes advantage of the different
667 050 Test tube rack, plastic, for 9 tubes, 18 mm diam. 1 1
polarities of the individual compounds.
664 043 Test tubes, Fiolax, 16 x 160 mm, set of 10 1 1
The process of chromatography was developed by Tsvet on leaf
667 253 Rubber stopper, solid, 14...18 mm diam. 9 9
pigments at the beginning of the 20th century. Although ridiculed
666 966 Spoon-ended spatula, PP, 180 mm 1
at first, the technique has since become one the most important
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1
methods in organic chemistry. In experiment C2.4.4.1, a leaf extract
666 584 Filtration stand for two funnels 1 is produced and separated into its components by means of column
665 954 Rubber bulbs, 10 pcs. 1 chromatography.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1
Crude oil is a liquid mixture of many organic substances. The aromatic
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 1
substances in the crude oil can be separated on aluminium oxide by
301 09 Bosshead S 2 2 means of column chromatography. This is carried out in experiment
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 2 2 C2.4.4.2. Using column chromatography, however, it is also possible
670 8200 Petroleum ether, 90...110 °C, 250 ml 1 to assay the different compound classes in crude oil fractions.
C3 ANALYTIC CHEMISTRY
C.3.1 DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES 72-77

C3.1.1 PROPERTIES OF GASES 72
C3.1.2 PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS 73-75
C3.1.3 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS 76-77
C3.2 CHROMATOGRAPHY 78-79

C3.2.1 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY 78-79
C3.3 OPTICAL ANALYSIS METHOGS 80-84

C3.3.1 SPECTROMETRY 80-81
C3.3.2 PHOTOMETRY 82
C3.3.3 REFRACTOMETRY 83
C3.3.4 POLARIMETRY 84
C3.4 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 85-86

C3.4.3 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY (NMR SPECTROSCOPY) 85
C3.4.4 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY 86
C3.5 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS 87-89

C3.5.1 POTENTIOMETRIC AND ACID-BASE TITRATIONS 87
C3.5.2 CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATIONS 88
C3.5.3 REDOX TITRATIONS 89
C3.6 APPLIED ANALYTICS 90-94

C3.6.1 WATER ANALYTICS 90
C3.6.2 AIR ANALYTICS 91-92
C3.6.4 FOOD ANALYTICS 93
C3.6.5 MATERIAL ANALYTICS 94
71
DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
C3.1.1
PROPERTIES OF GASES
C3.1.1.1
Determination of the density
of gases
Determination of the density of gases (C3.1.1.1)
A gas is a collection of molecules which are separated by great

distances from one another and are in chaotic motion. It complete-
C3.1.1.1
ly fills any volume which is available to it. In so doing, it always has

Cat.-Nr. Name
the same volume, regardless of which gas it is. Because of the large
379 07 Sphere with 2 stop-cocks, glass, 1 l 1 molecular distances, gases are highly compressible.
667 072 Support ring for round flask, 250 ml, cork 1 Density (s) is defined as mass (m) per unit volume (V):
OHS PU123 Electronic precision balance SPU123 1 V
s =
375 58 Hand vacuum pump 1 m
665 913 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 1-way stopcock 1 In experiment C3.1.1.1, a sphere of known volume with two stop-
661 000 Minican pressurised gas canister, nitrogen 1 cocks is used to determine the density of various gases. The mass
660 998 Minican pressurised gas canister, oxygen 1 of the enclosed air is determined from the measured difference
660 980 Fine regulating valve for minican gas canisters 1 between the total weight of the sphere filled with gas and the
604 481 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 4 mm diam., DIN 12865 1 empty weight of the evacuated sphere.
C3.1.2
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
C3.1.2.1
Determination of viscosity
with the falling ball viscometer
according to Höppler
Determination of viscosity with the falling ball viscometer according to Höppler (C3.1.2.1)
Liquid particles glide easily alongside one another. A liquid

conforms to the shape of the vessel in which it is placed. All
C3.1.2.1
objects which are heavier than the liquid sink into it unimpeded.
Cat.-Nr. Name
The surface of liquids always remains horizontal. Liquids cannot
665 906 Höppler falling ball viscometer 1 be compressed.
313 07 Hand-held stop-watch I, mechanical 1 When a substance (gas, liquid or solid) deforms, it opposes the
666 7681 Circulation thermostat SC 100-S5P 1 change in form by a resistance which is generally referred to
667 194 Silicone tubing, 7 mm diam., 1 m 2 as its viscosity. If one liquid layer moves at constant speed in
OHC S-200E Electronic balance, CS200E 1 a direction parallel to a second layer, then a force friction acts
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 between the two layers. The friction converts the energy of
664 138 Beaker, Boro3.3, 250 ml, tall 1
motion into heat. For this reason, the viscosity of a substance is
a measure of the internal friction. The viscosity of a substance
determines how well or poorly it flows in a pipe (e.g. blood
674 6050 D(+)-Saccharose, 100 g 1
through a vein) and how much resistance it exerts against a solid
675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 2
body moving in it.
Viscosity is highly temperature dependant. Experiment C3.1.2.1
studies the dependence of the viscosity on concentration in
concentrated sugar solutions at room temperature.
73
C3.1.2
C3.1.2.2
Measurement of surface tension
using the „break-away“ method
Measurement of surface tension using the „break-away“ method (C3.1.2.2)
Surface tension is a property of the surface (boundary layer)

between a fluid and a gas, such as air. The surface of a liquid behaves
C3.1.2.2
like a stretched elastic film. This effect is the reason that water
Cat.-Nr. Name
droplets form, for example, and helps make it possible for certain
367 46 Surface tension determination device 1 insects to walk on the water or for a coin to “swim” on the water.
664 175 Crystallisation dish, 95 mm diam., 300 ml 1 Experiment C3.1.2.2 determines the surface tension of water and
314 111 Precision dynamometer , 0.1 N 1 ethanol. Here it will be shown that water is characterised by a
311 53 Vernier callipers 1 particularly high surface tension as compared with other liquids.
(Published value for water: 0.073 Nm-1, for ethanol: 0.022 Nm-1).
301 08 Clamp with hook 1
671 9740 Ethanol, denaturated, 250 ml 1
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1
C3.1.2
C3.1.2.3
Determination of density
according to Mohr-Westphal
C3.1.2.4
Determination of density
with the pycnometer
Determination of density with the pycnometer (C3.1.2.4)
Experiment C3.1.2.3 provides a plummet for determining the

of density of liquids. The measurement task is to determine the
C3.1.2.3
C3.1.2.4
density of ethanol-water mixtures. Using the plummet, the den-

Cat.-Nr. Name
sity is determined from the buoyancy that a body of known volu-
362 025 Plumb bob 1 me experiences in the liquid under examination.
315 011 Hydrostatic balance 1 Experiment C3.1.2.4 provides a pycnometer according to Gay-
315 31 Set of weights, 10 mg to 200 g 1 Lussac for determining the of density of liquids. The measurement
382 21 Stirring thermometer, -30...+110 °C 1 1 task is to determine the density of ethanol-water mixtures. The
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 2 2 pycnometer is a bulb-shaped bottle into which the liquid under
664 138 Beaker, Boro3.3, 250 ml, tall 1 study is filled for weighing. The volume capacity of the pycno-
671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1 1
meter is determined by weighing with a liquid of known density
(e.g. water).
666 145 Gay-Lussac pycnometer, 50 ml 1
75
C3.1.3
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
C3.1.3.1
Determination of the melting point
of salicylic acid
Determination of the melting point of salicylic acid (C3.1.3.1)
The solid state of a substance is defined as featuring a definite,

C3.1.3.1
nearly temperature-independent volume and stable shape. All

Cat.-Nr. Name substances which meet those criteria are known as solids.
667 500 Melting point determination apparatus 1 In experiment C3.1.3.1, the thiele tube is used to determine the
661 085 Melting point detection tubes, set of 100 1
melting point of salicylic acid. The melting point is, along with
the boiling point, a characteristic property of every substance.
667 307 Silicone gaskets, GL 18, solid, set of 10 1
The melting point determination apparatus is filled with paraffin
666 161 Chemical thermometer, -10...+220 °C/1 K 1
and fitted with a thermometer. A melting point tube is filled with
the substance to be assayed. The tube is inserted with the open
666 523 Stand rod, 450 x 12 mm diam., M10 thread 1 side into the device in a way that it is positioned alongside the
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 thermometer. The melting point is determined by slow heating in
301 09 Bosshead S 1 the water bath.
602 725 Laboratory dish, 140 mm diam., 900 ml 1
674 0820 Paraffin, thick, 1 l 1
674 6210 Salicylic acid, 100 g 1
C3.1.3
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
C3.1.3.4
Determination of the density
of solids
Determination of the density of solids (C3.1.3.4)
Experiment C3.1.3.4 determines the density of irregularly shaped

solid bodies. Weighing is coupled with a measurement of volume.
C3.1.3.4
The volume of the bodies are determined by the volume of liquid

Cat.-Nr. Name
which the bodies displace from an overflow vessel.
362 04 Overflow vessel 1
590 08ET2 Measuring cylinders, 100 ml, set of 2 1
309 48ET2 Fishing line, set of 2 1
674 7560 Sulfur, Pcs., 500 g 1
309 42 Colouring, red, 10 g 1*
77
CHROMATOGRAPHY
C3.2.1
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
C3.2.1.1
Gas chromatographical analysis of
cigarette lighter gas (butane gas)
Gas chromatographical analysis of cigarette lighter gas (butane gas) (C3.2.1.1)
In use all around the world today, gas chromatography is a me-

thod for analyzing chemical substances and mixtures. Especially
C3.2.1.1
useful for identifying the components of gaseous hydrocarbons,

Cat.-Nr. Name
e.g. natural gas, it can also be used to study volatile substances
665 580 Gas chromatograph LD 1 1 such as fragrances or alcohols. Substances are separated in a
665 582 Hydrocarbon sensor 1 two-phase system comprising a stationary phase - the separa-
665 5831 Separation column silicone OV101 1 tion column with column material - and a mobile phase - the
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 carrier gas. Samples are introduced into the carrier gas stream
and travel along the column at different speeds depending on
polarity, which makes it possible to separate them.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
Cigarette lighter gas is a mixture of different gaseous hydro-
carbons. They can be easily separated by gas chromatography
524 0621 UIP sensor S 1
techniques. The stationary phase is silicone oil OV-101 on sili-
662 2861 Aquarium pump, 100 l/h 1
ca gel. Air is used as the mobile phase. The proportions of the
664 814 Bubble counter, with flash back valve 1
individual hydrocarbons in the gas mixture is different in every
665 957 Disposable syringe, 1 ml, with Luer fitting 1 cigarette lighter - depending on the source of the natural gas.
665 960 Cannula, 0.45 diam., 10 pcs., with Luer fitting 1 This is studied in experiment C3.2.1.1.
666 503 Base plate for bunsen stand, 130 x 210 mm 1
301 09 Bosshead S 1
665 589 Septa, silicone, 13 mm diam., 10 pcs. 1
660 988 Minican pressurised gas canister, ethane 1
660 989 Minican pressurised gas canister, n-Butane 1
1
cigarette lighter(s)
Chromatogram of the analysis of lighter gases
CHROMATOGRAPHY
C3.2.1
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
C3.2.1.2
Gas chromatographical separation
of alcohols
Gas chromatographical separation of alcohols (C3.2.1.2)
A gas chromatograph can be used to separate not only gase-

ous substances, but also volatile liquids. Only the gaseous part is
C3.2.1.2
separated, however. In such cases, the separation column and the

Cat.-Nr. Name
carrier gas can be warmed if necessary. In experiment C3.2.1.2,
665 580 Gas chromatograph LD 1 1 the gas chromatographic analysis of an alcohol mixture is carried
665 582 Hydrocarbon sensor 1 out.
665 584 Separation column with Porapak P 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
662 2861 Aquarium pump, 100 l/h 1
664 814 Bubble counter, with flash back valve 1
665 617 Microlitre syringe, 1 µl 1
666 503 Base plate for bunsen stand, 130 x 210 mm 1
Chromatogram of the analysis of different alcohols
301 09 Bosshead S 1
665 589 Septa, silicone, 13 mm diam., 10 pcs. 1
673 2700 Methanol, 250 ml 1
674 4310 1-Propanol, 250 ml 1
674 4400 2-Propanol, 250 ml 1
1
79
OPTICAL ANALYSIS METHODS
C3.3.1
SPECTROMETRY
C3.3.1.1
Absorption spectra of pigments
on a screen
C3.3.1.2
Recording of absorption spectra
with a spectrometer
Absorption spectra of pigments on a screen (C3.3.1.1)
The impression of colour observed when looking through liquids is

C3.3.1.2
created by the part of the white light which is transmitted („passed

C3.3.1.1
Cat.-Nr. Name through“). Every coloured substance absorbs at characteristic

wavelengths. In this way, a characteristic spectrum can be created
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1 1
for a dye.
466 05 Direct vision prism 1
In experiment C3.3.1.1, the light from a lamp is separated out into
466 04 Holder for direct vision prism 1
its spectrum with a direct vision prism. That light is then projected
477 14 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 50 x 50 x 20 mm 1 1
through coloured liquids and compared with the continuous spec-
460 25 Prism table 1 1 trum of the light from the lamp. The original continuous spectrum
441 53 Screen, translucent 1 with the different spectral colours disappears. Only the colour
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1 1 components of the liquid remain visible.
450 521 Bulbs, 12 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1 1
In experiment C3.3.1.2, the solution of a dye is exposed to the
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1 1 light from a lamp. For the absorption spectrum, the light pas-
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1 1 sing through the coloured solution is recorded with a spectro-
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1 1 meter. The absorption spectrum is compared with the continuous
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 5 4 spectrum of the light from the lamp.
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 1
672 7010 Potassium permanganate, 250 g 1
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1
460 251 Fibre holder 1
309 42 Colouring, red, 10 g 1
671 0800 Bromothymol blue solution, 0.1 %, 50 ml 1
Spectra of a red and a green pigment
672 0110 Fluoresceine, 25 g 1*
1
C3.3.1
SPECTROMETRY
C3.3.1.3
Recording of a fluorescence
spectrum with a spectrometer
Recording of a fluorescence spectrum with a spectrometer (C3.3.1.3)
In experiment C3.3.1.3, a solution of the fluorescent dye fluore-

scein is exposed to the light from a lamp. For this purpose, the
C3.3.1.3
spectrometer is arranged at a right angle to the lamp. In this way,

Cat.-Nr. Name
the fluorescence spectrum of the dye can be recorded. This can be
477 14 Plate glass cell (cuvette), 50 x 50 x 20 mm 1 compared with the absorption spectrum from experiment C3.3.1.2.
460 25 Prism table 1
460 03 Lens in frame, f=100 mm 1
450 60 Lamp housing with cable 1
450 521 Bulbs, 12 V/30 W, E14, set of 2 1
460 20 Condenser with diaphragm holder 1
521 210 Transformer, 6/12 V 1
467 251 Compact spectrometer, physics (spectral photometer) 1
460 251 Fibre holder 1
460 310 Optical bench, S1 profile, 1 m 1
460 311 Clamp rider with clamp 3
672 0110 Fluoresceine, 25 g 1
1
81
C3.3.2
PHOTOMETRY
C3.3.2.1
The Beer-Lambert law
The Beer-Lambert law (C3.3.2.1)
The intensity of light diminishes when it passes through a coloured

C3.3.2.1
solution. Photometric measurements make use of this fact to

Cat.-Nr. Name determine the concentration of such a solution. For this purpose,
the transmittance T of the solution is measured, i.e. the ratio of the
intensity of the transmitted light I to the intensity of light exposure I0.
I
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* T=
I0
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
The extinction or absorption of the solution, i.e. the number of light
524 069 Immersion photometer S 1 quanta absorbed, is proportional to the concentration. Transmission
666 2605 Holder for immersion photometer S 1 and extinction have the following relationship:
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 1  I0  I 
E = log 10   = − log 10   = − log 10 (T )
665 792 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 50 ml 1 I   I0 
If the extinction of a solution is measured, its concentration can
665 995 Graduated pipette, 2 ml 1 be calculated from the result. That relationship is expressed by the
665 996 Graduated pipette, 5 ml 1 Beer-Lambert law. Along with the concentration c of a solution, the
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1 extinction also depends on the thickness d of the layer and on the
666 003 Pipetting ball 3 substance-specific extinction coefficient e.
667 054 Test tube rack, for 12 tubes, 32 mm diam. 1  I0 
E = log 10   = e ⋅ c ⋅ d
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 I 
672 9700 Copper(II)-sulfate, anhydrous, 50 g 1 In experiment C3.3.2.1, a dilution series is used to study the
670 3600 Ammonia solution, 25 %, 250 ml 1 proportional relationship between extinction and concentration and
additionally required: to determine the extinction coefficient of blue copper tetraammine.
1
Dilution series of copper tetraammine
C3.3.3
REFRACTOMETRY
C3.3.3.1
Determination of the refractive
index with the refractometer
Determination of the refractive index with the refractometer (C3.3.3.1)
Every liquid has a characteristic refractive index nD. The refractive

index of a mixture of two liquids is determined by the refractive
C3.3.3.1
index of the individual liquids and by their proportion in the mix-

Cat.-Nr. Name
ture. If the refractive indices of the individual liquids are known,
667 359 Laboratory refractometer 1 then their mixing proportion in a solution can be determined. The
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 refractive index is measured with a refractometer.
602 020 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 25 ml, squat 5 The refractometer is also useful for determining the Brix value
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1 (mass for the soluble solids or sugar content). In experiment
665 954 Rubber bulbs, 10 pcs. 1 C3.3.3.1, the refractometer is used to determine the mass frac-
661 243 Wash bottle, PE, 500 ml 1 tion w in % in a solution by measuring the refractive index.
604 5661 Spatula, double ended, 185 mm 1
(w = the mass of the components / the mass of the mixture. To
express the result in percent, the number is multiplied by 100). For
this purpose, solutions with different mass fractions of a substance
are prepared. In this way, a sample with unknown mass fraction
can be determined.
83
C3.3.4
POLARIMETRY
C3.3.4.1
Rotation of the polarisation plane
through sugar solutions
Rotation of the polarisation plane through sugar solutions (C3.3.4.1)
The term ‘optical activity’ refers to the property of some materi-

als which rotate the polarisation plane of linearly polarised light
C3.3.4.1
as it passes through a substance. The angle of rotation a depends

Cat.-Nr. Name
on the molecular structure and the concentration of the dissol-
657 591 Polarimeter 1 ved substance, on the distance that the light travels through the
OHC S-200E Electronic balance, CS200E 1 solution, and on the wavelength of the light.
666 963 Spoon-ended spatula, stainless steel, 120 mm 1 Experiment C3.3.4.1 demonstrates that optically active sub-
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 3 stances can rotate the plane of a linerally polarised beam of light
664 137 Beaker, Boro3.3, 100 ml, tall 3 by a specific value. For a given cuvette length d, the angle of
672 1100 D(+)-Glucose, 100 g 1 rotation a of an optically active solution is proportional to the
672 0700 D(-)-Fructose, 50 g 1
concentration c of the solution.
674 6050 D(+)-Saccharose, 100 g 1 To determine the concentration c of the solution, the following
expression applies:
a
c =
l ⋅ [a ]
specific rotation: [a] (°· ml/g · dm)

The angle of rotation is given as a positive (+) value when the
polarisation plane of the light directed toward the observer
rotates clockwise (to the right). Counterclockwise rotation is
referred to as rotation to the left and expressed as a negative
number, hence preceded by a minus sign (-).
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
C3.4.3
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC
RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY
(NMR SPECTROSCOPY)
C3.4.3.1
Nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) on polystyrene, glycerine
and Teflon
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) on polystyrene, glycerine and Teflon (C3.4.3.1_a)
In a magnetic field B, the magnetic moment of a nucleus asso-

C3.4.3.1 (b)
C3.4.3.1 (a)
ciated with nuclear spin I takes on the following energy states:

Em = −gI ⋅ µK ⋅ m ⋅ B with m = −I, − I + 1, …, I
Cat.-Nr. Name
J
µK = 5.051 ⋅ 10−27 : nuclear magneton
514 602 NMR supply unit 1 1 T
gI: g factor of nucleus
514 606 NMR probe 1 1
562 11 U-core with yoke 1 1 A high-frequency magnetic field with frequency f projected perpen-
562 131 Coil, 480 turns, 10 A 2 2 dicular to that magnetic field excites transitions between neighbou-
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1 ring energy states when they meet the resonance conditions:
575 212 Two-channel oscilloscope 400 1 h ⋅ ν = Em +1 − Em
h: Planck's constant .
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 2
531 835 Universal measuring instrument, Physics 1* 1* This phenomenon is the basis for nuclear magnetic resonance
524 0381 Combi B sensor S 1* 1* (NMR). Nuclei with an uneven number of protons are active here.
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1* 1*
The exact resonance frequency of a nucleus depends on the type
of the atom and on its chemical surroundings. Along with the
500 621 Safety connection lead, 50 cm, red 1 1
outer magnetic field B, a local, inner field also affects every
500 641 Safety connection lead, 100 cm, red 1 1
nucleus. This is generated by the nuclei in the immediate proxi-
500 642 Safety connection lead, 100 cm, blue 1 1
mity. In this way, NMR is useful for analyzing structures.
In experiment C3.4.3.1, nuclear magnetic resonance is demon-
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
strated on polystyrene, glycerine and Teflon. The position, width
575 24 Screened cable, BNC/4 mm 2 and intensity of the resonance lines are evaluated. The recording
additionally required: is made with an oscilloscope in variant a and with Sensor-CASSY
1
2 and CASSY Lab 2 in variant b.
Diagram of resonance condition of hydrogen
85
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
C3.4.4
ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE
SPECTROSCOPY
C3.4.4.1
Electron spin resonance on DPPH
Electron spin resonance on DPPH (C3.4.4.1)
In the magnetic field, the magnetic moment of the unpaired elec-

tron with the total angular momentum j takes on the discrete
C3.4.4.1
energy states:
Cat.-Nr. Name
Em = -gj ⋅ ∝B ⋅ m ⋅ B ; m = - j ,- j + 1,..., j
514 55 ESR basic unit 1
Here mB is the Bohr magneton and gj is the g factor. A high-
514 571 ESR supply unit 1
frequency magnetic field with frequency f projected perpendi-
555 604 Pair of Helmholtz coils 1 cular to that magnetic field excites transitions between neigh-
575 212 Two-channel oscilloscope 400 1 bouring energy states when they meet the resonance conditions
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 2 h ⋅ f = Em +1 - Em
(h = Planck’s constant). This fact is the basis of electron spin
501 23 Connecting lead, 32 A, 25 cm, black 1
resonance, in which the resonance signal is registered using high
501 25 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, red 1
frequency technology. The electrons can often be considered as
501 26 Connecting lead, 32 A, 50 cm, blue 1
free. The subjects studied by electron spin resonance are the inner
magnetic fields of the sample substance, which are generated by
the magnetic moments of the neighbouring electrons and nuclei.
In experiment C3.4.4.1, electron spin resonance is demonstrated
on diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH). DPPH is a radical in which a
free electron occurs on a nitrogen atom. In the experiment, the
resonance frequencies can be predefined continuously between
13 and 130 MHz. The aim of the assessment is to determine the
g factor.
Diagram of resonance condition of free electrons
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
C3.5.1
POTENTIOMETRIC AND
ACID-BASE TITRATIONS
C3.5.1.1
Determination of acid
concentration by titration
with drop counter
Determination of acid concentration by titration with drop counter (C3.5.1.1)
The classic technique for determining the exact quantity of a

substance in solution (quantitative analysis) is titration. Here a
C3.5.1.1
reagent is slowly added in drops with a burette until the equiva-

Cat.-Nr. Name
lence point is reached, i.e. the point at which the substance under
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 investigation has reacted completely. In manual titrations, that
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 point is made visible by means of a detection reagent, but it can
524 0672 pH adapter S 1 also be measured by means of instrumentation.
667 4172 pH sensor with plastic shaft, BNC 1 In experiment C3.5.1.1, the acid concentration of balsamic vine-
524 074 Timer S 1 gar is determined. Due to the dark colour, coloured indicators
337 4681 Drop counter 1 cannot be used here. Rather, the pH is measured continuously.
This is done with a pH electrode. pH electrodes are potentio-
metric electrodes which respond ion-selectively only to changes
in the potential of protons. The measured potential is then
converted to a pH value. In the experiment, a complete titration
curve of the titration of balsamic vinegar with sodium hydroxide
665 845 Burette, clear glass, 25 ml 1 is recorded using a drop counter.
665 816 Burette filling funnel, plastic, 25 mm diam. 1
666 543 Double bosshead 2
673 8420 Soda lye, 1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
balsamic vinegar or other dark coloured vinegar, 1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8 Titration curve of vinegar
87
C3.5.2
CONDUCTOMETRIC TITRATIONS
C3.5.2.1
Conductometric titration of a
hydrochloric acid solution
C3.5.2.2
Conductometric titration of a
hydrochloric acid solution with
pH measurement
Conductometric titration of a hydrochloric acid solution with pH measurement (C3.5.2.2)
In conductometric titrations, the equivalence point is determined

C3.5.2.2
C3.5.2.1
by measuring the conductivity. This technique relies on the fact

Cat.-Nr. Name
that dissolved salts dramatically increase the conductivity of a
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 solution. Acid-base titrations or precipitation titrations can be
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* tracked conductometrically.
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* In experiment C3.5.2.1, an acid-base titration is performed
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 in which a hydrochloric acid solution is titrated with sodium
524 0671 Conductivity adapter S 1 1 hydroxide. Because hydronium ions and hydroxide ions have very
529 670 Conductivity sensor 1 1 high conductivity, the equivalence point is easy to determine.
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1 1 During the titration, the conductivity falls at first because more
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1 1 and more hydronium ions are neutralised.
665 975 Bulb pipette, 10 ml, one mark 1 1 H3O+ + OH- 2 H2O
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 1
Beginning exactly from the equivalence point, it starts to rise
665 845 Burette, clear glass, 25 ml 1 1
again because then there is a surplus of hydroxide ions.
665 816 Burette filling funnel, plastic, 25 mm diam. 1 1
In experiment C3.5.2.2, along with conductivity, the change in
666 559 Burette clamp for 1 burette, roller clamp 1 1
pH is also traced. It becomes clear that the two measurement
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 1
methods determine the same equivalence point. This is attribu-
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 table to the fact that the same chemical process is measured in
666 543 Double bosshead 1 2 different ways.
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 2
674 6950 Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 mol/l, 500 ml 1 1
673 8410 Soda lye, 0.1 mol/l, 500ml 1 1
667 4172 pH sensor with plastic shaft, BNC 1
additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8 1 1
Conductometric titration of hydrochloric acid
C3.5.3
REDOX TITRATIONS
C3.5.3.2
Manganometric determination
of iron(II) ions
Manganometric determination of iron(II) ions (C3.5.3.2)
In redox titrations, a redox reaction takes place as an assay reac-

tion. Similar to the pH indicator in acid-base titrations, the equi-
C3.5.3.2
valence point is determined with redox indicators. Oxidation or

Cat.-Nr. Name
reduction makes them change their colour at a specific „endpoint
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 potential“. Similar to the pH electrode, a redox electrode is used
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 in the instrumental titration.
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* Manganometry requires no redox indicator because a potassi-
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* um manganate solution is used as a reference solution. It has a
524 0672 pH adapter S 1 deep violet colour and serves as an oxidising agent. In experiment
667 416 Single-rod redox probe, BNC 1 C3.5.3.2, an iron(II) solution is titrated with a potassium perman-
ganate solution.
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1 5 Fe2+ + MnO-4 + 8 H+ 5 Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4 H2O
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 2 The endpoint is reached when the solution retains a constant vio-
300 42 Stand rod, 47 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 let colour. At the same time, a redox electrode is used to measure
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 the potential of the solution.
665 845 Burette, clear glass, 25 ml 1
671 9100 Iron(II)-sulfate-7-hydrate, 100 g 1
674 4670 Buffer solution pH 7.00, 250 ml 1 Titration curve of a redox titration
674 6900 Hydrochloric acid, 1 mol/l, 500 ml 1*
675 3500 Hydrogen peroxide, 30 %, 250 ml 1*
89
APPLIED ANALYTICS
C3.6.1
WATER ANALYTICS
C3.6.1.1
Determination of water contents
with indicator reagents and
immersion photometer
Determination of water contents with indicator reagents and immersion photometer (C3.6.1.1)
The determination of water quality plays a role in many areas

today. Not only drinking water and mineral water are analysed,
C3.6.1.1
but, for example, also swimming pools and lakes. Chemical and
Cat.-Nr. Name
biological analyses can be carried out. In chemical water analy-
524 069 Immersion photometer S 1 tics, various ingredients are assayed. The concentrations of these
666 2605 Holder for immersion photometer S 1 substances indicate the quality of the water.
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 In experiment C3.6.1.1, water samples are tested for several
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* ingredients, e.g. phosphate, ammonium or nitrate. These are
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* photometric assays. The chemical basis for this relies on the fact
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 that the ingredient to be identified forms a coloured compound or
666 2600 Photometry - reagent set 1 (with storage case and accessories) 1
turbidity with the reagents added. At an appropriate wavelength,
the extinction of the colour or turbidity created in this way
666 961 Double-ended microspatula, stainless steel, 185 mm 1
is directly proportional to the concentration of the ingredient.
667 050 Test tube rack, plastic, for 9 tubes, 18 mm diam. 1
667 031ET10 Test tube holder, wooden, 20 mm diam., set of 10 1
607 025 Safety gas hose 1.5 m 1
674 7860 Sulfuric acid, 95-98 %, 500 ml 1
1
APPLIED ANALYTICS
C3.6.2
AIR ANALYTICS
C3.6.2.1
Continuous measurement of
carbon dioxide concentration
in the classroom
Continuous measurement of carbon dioxide concentration in the classroom (C3.6.2.1)
The air all around us contains mainly nitrogen and oxygen. But
the other substances, the ones which occur in significantly lower
C3.6.2.1
concentrations - in the ppm range (ppm = parts per million) or

Cat.-Nr. Name
even less - are precisely the ones which can be harmful to humans.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 These are studied in air analyses.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 One of the challenges here is the low concentration of the
524 083 CO2 sensor S 1 substances. In addition, the analysis of gases requires more com-
501 11 Extension cable, 15 pin 1* plex instrumentation and is less easily accessible than the analysis
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 of liquids.
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 2 In this context, it is worthwhile to study the interiors of classrooms
additionally required: or seminar rooms, where it is particularly important to maintain
1
PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8 optimal air conditions, in order to facilitate the learning process.
* additionally recommended In experiment C3.6.2.1, the carbon dioxide concentration in the
classroom is studied for a period of one week. At the same time, the
temperature is measured at two positions, e.g. on the radiator and
in the classroom. In a room full of people, the CO2 concentration
rises rapidly above 1 %, and simply letting some air in can hardly
lower it to the value in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide values in a class room
91
APPLIED ANALYTICS
C3.6.2
AIR ANALYTICS
C3.6.2.2
Analysis of cigarette smoke
Analysis of cigarette smoke (C3.6.2.2)
Smoke from cigarette tobacco contains not only nicotine, but also
many toxic substances, including nitrogen oxides, tar and form-
C3.6.2.2
aldehyde. In experiment C3.6.2.2, cigarette smoke is analysed for

Cat.-Nr. Name
various airborne toxic substances. In so doing, different cigarette
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 3 brands and strengths can be compared.
665 255 Three-way valve, T-shaped, ST nozzles 1
667 312 Glass connector S, 2 x GL 18 3
666 313 Testing tube for NOx, 0.5...50 ppm, set of 10 1
666 319 Testing tube for CO, 0.5...7.0 %, set of 10 1
666 314 Testing tube for SO2, 1...25 ppm, set of 10 1
667 015 Glass file, triganular 1
APPLIED ANALYTICS
C3.6.4
FOOD ANALYTICS
C3.6.4.2
Determination of the content of
phosphoric acid in a cola drink
Determination of the content of phosphoric acid in a cola drink (C3.6.4.2)
As an applied science, food analytics forms the basis for the study
and assessment of the quality and safety of food.
C3.6.4.2
Cat.-Nr. Name Phosphoric acid is added to cola in order to heighten the sensa-
tion of thirst, as a preservative, and to cover up the sugary taste.
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 In experiment C3.6.4.2, phosphoric acid is titrated with sodium
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 hydroxide. When titrating cola, the first two buffer stages are
524 0672 pH adapter S 1 also clearly recognisable, just as in the titration of phosphoric
529 672 pH sensor, BNC 1 acid. (It is generally impossible to titrate the third stage in the-
524 074 Timer S 1 se diluted solutions.) The second stage becomes indistinct in the
337 4681 Drop counter 1 presence of other ingredients. The phosphoric acid content of the
cola beverage can be determined with the first stage.
301 09 Bosshead S 2
Titration of a cola drink
673 8421 Soda lye, 1 mol/l, 1 l 1
1
Cola beverage
93
APPLIED ANALYTICS
C3.6.5
MATERIAL ANALYTICS
C3.6.5.1
X-ray fluorescence analysis
of chemical composition
C3.6.5.2
The chemical composition
of a brass specimen
X-ray fluorescence analysis of chemical composition (C3.6.5.1)
X-ray fluorescence is a method for the non-destructive analy-

sis of the chemical composition of an alloy. Under exposure to
C3.6.5.2
C3.6.5.1
X-rays, each of the individual elements emits characteristic X-ray

Cat.-Nr. Name
fluorescence, which identifies the element like a fingerprint.
554 800 X-ray apparatus 1 1 In experiment C3.6.5.1, four alloys are analyzed by means of
554 861 X-ray tube, Mo 1 1 X-ray fluorescence and the composition is determined qualita-
554 831 Goniometer 1 1 tively. The alloys are chrome-nickel steel, two brass alloys and a
559 938 X-ray energy detector 1 1 rare earth magnet.
554 848 Set of target alloys 1 1 In experiment C3.6.5.2, the composition of a brass alloy is ana-
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 1 lysed quantitatively. The weight percents of each component are
524 058 MCA box 1 1 calculated from the strength of the X-ray fluorescence.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
501 02 BNC cable, 1 m 1 1
554 844 Set of targets for K-line fluorescence 1
554 846 Set of targets for L-line fluorescence 1
1 1
Analysis of alloys
C4 PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
C4.1 REACTION KINETICS 96-98

C4.1.1 CATALYSIS 96
C4.1.2 REACTION ORDERS 97
C4.1.3 INFLUENCING THE RATE OF REACTION 98
C4.2 CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM 99-100

C4.2.1 LAW OF MASS ACTION 99
C4.2.2 PROTOLYSIS EQUILIBRIUM 100
C4.3 THERMOCHEMISTRY 101-104

C4.3.1 ENTHALPY OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS 101
C4.3.3 CALORIMETRY 102-104
C4.4 ELECTROCHEMISTRY 105-119

C4.4.1 CONDUCTIVITY AND IONS 105-108
C4.4.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL POTENTIALS 109-113
C4.4.4 GALVANIC CELLS 114-115
C4.4.5 ELECTROLYSIS 116-117
C4.4.6 GALVANIC PROCESSES IN ENGINEERING 118
C4.4.7 FUEL CELLS 119
C4.6 TRANSPORT PROCESSES 120

C4.6.2 OSMOSIS 120
95
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
REACTION KINETICS
C4.1.1
CATALYSIS
C4.1.1.1
Catalytic oxidation of tartaric
acid with hydrogen peroxide
Catalytic oxidation of tartaric acid with hydrogen peroxide (C4.1.1.1)
The rate of a reaction is defined as the change in concentration

over time. For the reaction
C4.1.1.1
A+BC
Cat.-Nr. Name
therefore, the following applies:
d [ A] d [B ] d [C ]
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 vA = − ; vB = − ; vC =
dt dt dt
667 416 Single-rod redox probe, BNC 1 One challenge in analyses of this type is to continuously measure
the concentration of one of the participants in the reaction. This
is possible with reactions in which one or more participants in the
reaction change colour or oxidation level, or in which salts form
(increase in conductivity).
Apart from elevating the concentration and temperature,
the rate of reactions can also be increased by the addition of
catalysts. Because catalysts are not consumed in a reaction, a
666 961 Double-ended microspatula, stainless steel, 185 mm 1 small amount is already enough to enable the conversion of large
666 8451 Magnetic stirrer 1 quantities of the reacting substances.
666 850 Stirring magnet, 15 mm x 5 mm diam. 1 In experiment C4.1.1.1, hydrogen peroxide is used to convert
666 859 Stirring bar retriever 1 tartaric acid oxidatively to CO2 and H2O under catalysis. The
666 502 Bunsen burner stand, 450 mm high 1 catalyst cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate speeds up the reaction,
301 09 Bosshead S 2 but does not participate in the transformation and remains un-
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 2 changed once the process has been completed. The reaction is
672 6710 Potassium sodium tartrate, 250 g 1 monitored by measuring the redox potential and the temperature.
675 3500 Hydrogen peroxide, 30 %, 250 ml 1
672 8000 Cobalt(II)-chloride-6-hydrate, 25 g 1
1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
REACTION KINETICS
C4.1.2
REACTION ORDERS
C4.1.2.1
Hydrolysis of tertiary butyl
chloride
C4.1.2.2
Determination of the reaction
order of the reaction of malachite
green with hydroxide ions
Hydrolysis of tertiary butyl chloride (C4.1.2.1)

C4.1.2.2
C4.1.2.2
C4.1.2.1
C4.1.2.1
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 1 661 243 Wash bottle, PE, 500 ml 1
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* 1* 673 1670 Malachite green, 25 g 1
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* 1* 671 9720 Ethanol, denaturated, 1 l 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1 673 6800 Sodium hydroxide, 100 g 1
524 0671 Conductivity adapter S 1 675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1
529 670 Conductivity sensor 1 additionally required:
1 1
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1 1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1 3 * additionally recommended

300 11 Saddle base 1 1
The reaction order can be used to test hypotheses about the step-
wise course of reactions. The reaction order must be determined
301 09 Bosshead S 1
experimentally. In order to do so, a diagram is drawn showing of
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 1 the rate of reaction versus the respective concentration. If the re-
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 sulting curve is a straight line, then it represents a first-order reac-
665 994 Graduated pipette, 1 ml 1 tion. A parabola indicates a second-order reaction.
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 1
In experiment C4.1.2.1, the hydrolysis of tertiary butylchloride
671 1450 Tertiary butyl chloride, 100 ml 1 (2-chloro-2-methylpropane) generates tertiary butanol and hydro-
670 0400 Acetone, 250 ml 1 chloric acid (HCl). In this protolysis reaction, HCl forms hydronium
524 069 Immersion photometer S 1 and chloride ions, which cause a strong increase in conductivity:
666 851 Stirring magnet, 25 mm x 6 mm diam. 1
(CH3 )3 -Cl +2 H2O → (CH3 )3C-OH + H3O+ +Cl-
665 755 Measuring cylinder, 250 ml, with plastic base 1 The change in conductivity and the concentration of the butyl-
665 753 Measuring cylinder, 50 ml, with plastic base 1 chloride are used to determine the reaction order.
667 7988 Analytical balance ABS 80-4, 83:0.0001 g 1 In Experiment C4.1.2.2 malachite green is bleached using sodium
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 1 hydroxide solution. This bleaching can be followed with an immer-
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1 sion photomoeter. This way, the half time, the reaction order and,
602 347 Laboratory bottle, 500 ml, GL 45 thread 1 based on these data, the reaction rate constant can be determined.
97
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
REACTION KINETICS
C4.1.3
INFLUENCING THE RATE OF
REACTION
C4.1.3.1
Reaction of malachite green with
hydroxide ions
Reaction of malachite green with hydroxide ions (C4.1.3.1)
The rate of a reaction can be affected by many parameters. These

include the temperature and the concentration of the substance
C4.1.3.1
involved. The choice of solvent can also play a role.

Cat.-Nr. Name
Reactions in which a participant in the reaction changes colour
524 069 Immersion photometer S 1 are a suitable choice if one wishes to observe the course of a re-
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 action. Such reactions are easy to track photometrically, because
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 the decrease and increase in the extinction rate can be directly
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* converted mathematically into concentration changes.
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* In experiment C4.1.3.1, the reaction of malachite green with
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1 hydroxide ions is monitored with an immersion photometer in a
666 851 Stirring magnet, 25 mm x 6 mm diam. 4 glass beaker. Blue-green at first, the solution loses colour when
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 4 sodium hydroxide is added. This simple system makes it possible
to investigate how the rate of reaction is affected by tempera-
ture, concentration and the choice of solvent.
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 1
602 347 Laboratory bottle, 500 ml, GL 45 thread 1
Reaction of malachite green with sodium hydroxide solution
673 1670 Malachite green, 25 g 1
673 6800 Sodium hydroxide, 100 g 1
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
C4.2.1
LAW OF MASS ACTION
C4.2.1.1
Influencing the equilibrium
Influencing the equilibrium (C4.2.1.1)
One of the most important laws in chemistry is the law of mass

action. It provides insight into the mechanism of chemical
C4.2.1.1
reactions while also offering the chemist the ability to affect a

Cat.-Nr. Name
chemical reaction in a way that favours the creation of specifi-
664 268 Flat-bottom flask, DURAN, 250 ml, wide neck 3 cally intended molecules. The law of mass action states that in
664 249 Erlenmeyer flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml, narrow neck 2 a chemical reaction the concentration of the starting materials
604 5681 Powder spatula, steel, 150 mm 1 remains in an absolutely constant proportion to the concentra-
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 tion of the final materials.
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 Experiment C4.2.1.1 studies the chemical equilibrium of the
666 854 Stirring magnet, 50 mm x 8 mm diam. 1 reaction of thiocyanate with iron. The chemical equilibrium is
a dynamic equilibrium in which the starting materials and final
products are present alongside one another in the reaction mix-
ture. Under equilibrium conditions, exactly so many parts react
in one direction as back in the opposite direction. In so doing,
665 009 Funnel, PP, 75 mm diam. 1
the concentrations of the participants in the reaction remain
666 859 Stirring bar retriever 1 constant and their quotient is expressed as the equilibrium con-
671 8710 Iron(III)-chloride-6-hydrate, 250 g 1 stant K. By adding one of the substances involved, a new equili-
672 7400 Potassium thiocyanate, 100 g 1 brium is established.
For the reaction being investigated here
Fe3+ + 3 SCN- Fe(SCN)3
the equilibrium constant can be calculated as follows:

[Fe(SCN)3 ]
=K
[Fe3+ ] ⋅ [SCN- ]3
99
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
C4.2.2
PROTOLYSIS EQUILIBRIUM
C4.2.2.1
Determination of the acidity
constant of bromothymol blue
Determination of the acidity constant of bromothymol blue (C4.2.2.1)
The reaction of acids (AH) with water - protolysis - is an equili-

C4.2.2.1
brium reaction.
Cat.-Nr. Name
AH + H2O A - + H3O+
467 252 Compact spectrometer, complete 1
The equilibrium constant Ka, also known as the acid dissociation
664 470 Rectangular cuvette cell, glass, 10 x 10 mm 2 constant, is a measure of the strength of an acid.
[H3O+ ] ⋅ [A - ] [H O+ ] ⋅ [A - ]
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 K= ; K a = K ⋅ [H2O ] = 3
[HA] ⋅ [H2O] [HA]
602 345 Laboratory bottle, 100 ml, GL 45 thread 5
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 2 It indicates the magnitude of the ratio between the protonated
and non-protonated form of the acid. In most cases, however,
the pKa value, i.e. the negative base 10 logarithm of the acid dis-
667 4781 Digital pH-Meter 201 1
sociation constant, is given.
674 4600 Buffer solution set, 250 ml 1
In experiment C4.2.2.1, the pH-dependent colour of the indica-
671 0800 Bromothymol blue solution, 0.1 %, 50 ml 1
tor bromothymol blue is used to determine the pKa value of the
dye. The colouration enables the simultaneous determination of
673 8410 Soda lye, 0.1 mol/l, 500ml 1
the concentration of the protonated (yellow) and non-protonated
673 6710 Sodium acid phosphate, 250 g 1 (blue) form of the indicator, with which, in turn, the Henderson-
673 6010 Sodium dihydrogenphosphate, 250 g 1 Hasselbalch equation
1  A-  
pH = pKs + log10    
 [HA ] 
 
can be used to compute the pKa value.
Spectra of bromthymol blue solutions at different pH values
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
THERMOCHEMISTRY
C4.3.1
ENTHALPY OF CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
C4.3.1.1
Differentiating between
endothermic and exothermic
reactions
Differentiating between endothermic and exothermic reactions (C4.3.1.1)
Every chemical reaction is characterised by a transformation of

material. That transformation is closely connected with an energy
C4.3.1.1
transformation and/or energy change. In this way, heat energy

Cat.-Nr. Name
is either consumed or heat is created, i.e. the reaction proceeds
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 endothermically or exothermically.
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* In experiment C4.3.1.1, copper(II) sulfate in the pentahydrate
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* form and in the anhydrous form is used to demonstrate the
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 principle of endothermic and exothermic reactions. Here the
524 044 Temperature sensor S, NTC 1 reaction of copper(II) sulfate-5-hydrate under high heat to
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 anhydrous copper(II) sulfate represents the endothermic reaction.
The anhydrous copper(II) sulfate obtained in this way reacts in
turn with water while generating heat, thereby demonstrating an
301 09 Bosshead S 2
exothermic reaction.
664 043 Test tubes, Fiolax, 16 x 160 mm, set of 10 1 CuSO 4 × 5 H2O CuSO4 + 5 H2O
667 053 Test tube rack, for 10 tubes, 22 mm diam. 1 (blue) (white)
667 031ET10 Test tube holder, wooden, 20 mm diam., set of 10 1

667 187 Safety gas hose with end clamp, 1 m 1
672 9600 Copper(II)-sulfate-5-hydrate, 100 g 1
101
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
THERMOCHEMISTRY
C4.3.3
CALORIMETRY
C4.3.3.1
Determination of the heat of
combustion of benzoic acid
Determination of the heat of combustion of benzoic acid (C4.3.3.1b)
The term ‚calorimetry‘ refers to the measurement of quantities

C4.3.3.1b
C4.3.3.1a
of heat which are linked to biological, chemical or physical pro-

Cat.-Nr. Name cesses. They can be both exothermic and endothermic. Quantities
of heat are determined by means of calorimeters.
666 429 Calorimeter for solids and liquids, CPS 1
664 800 Gas scrubber bottle, lower section, 200 ml 2 2 In experiment C4.3.3.1, the temperature rise in the demonstra-
664 805 Glass tube insert, ST 29/32 2 2
tion calorimeter is measured while burning benzoic acid. The
531 836 Universal measuring instrument, Chemistry 1 1
substance is weighed before and after the combustion process.
The combustion takes place in an oxygen atmosphere, whereby
524 044 Temperature sensor S, NTC 1 1
ignition is initiated by a filament. The energy released is calcu-
lated using either a previously determined heat capacity of the
667 180 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 7 mm diam., DIN 12865 1 1
filled calorimeter or the individual theoretical values of the heat
capacities of the glass jacket and calorimeter liquid. The quantity
604 510 Hose connector, 4…15 mm 1 1
of heat Q is calculated according to the following formula:
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 1
Q = ∆T × (mk × Ck + m(H2O) × C(H2O))
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 1
660 998 Minican pressurised gas canister, oxygen 1 1 Here DT is the measured temperature difference, mk and m(H2O)
are the mass of the calorimeter and of the water and C k and
C(H2O) is the heat capacity of the glass apparatus and the wa-
ter. In order to calculate the heat of combustion DH, the ignition
energy, which also contributed to the heating of the apparatus,
must be subtracted and the quantity of heat must be expressed
relative to one mol of substance.
301 312 Console 1
Variant (a) is set up in a chemistry board system frame and vari-
726 21 Equipment platform, 350 mm 1
ant (b) is set up on a base rail.
670 8300 Benzoic acid, 50 g 1 1
667 325 Calorimeter for solids and liquids 1
666 603 Base rail, 95 cm 1
301 09 Bosshead S 3
additionally required: PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8 1 1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
THERMOCHEMISTRY
C4.3.3
CALORIMETRY
C4.3.3.3
Determination of the enthalpy of
neutralisation of acids and alkali
solutions
Determination of the enthalpy of neutralisation of acids and alkali solutions (C4.3.3.3)
When strong acids and strong alkalis react with one another,
energy is given off to the surroundings in the form of heat - the
C4.3.3.3
so-called ‚heat of neutralisation‘.

Cat.-Nr. Name
In experiment C4.3.3.3, measured quantities of hydrochloric acid
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 and sodium hydroxide at the same temperature are neutralised
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* together. The temperature increase DT is measured and from that
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* result the quantity of heat Q P is calculated:
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 (
QP = ∆T × CH2O × m + Ck )
From the quantity of heat, the following equation can be used to
calculate the molar heat of neutralisation DRHm:
QP
666 850 Stirring magnet, 15 mm x 5 mm diam. 1 ∆ R Hm =
n
301 09 Bosshead S 1
673 8400 Soda lye, diluted, 500 ml 1
673 8420 Soda lye, 1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
674 6920 Hydrochloric acid, approx. 2 mol/l, 500ml 1
671 9550 Acetic acid, dil., (approx. 2 mol/l), 500 ml 1
1
Determination of the enthalpy of neutralisation
103
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
THERMOCHEMISTRY
C4.3.3
CALORIMETRY
C4.3.3.4
Determination of enthalpy
of mixing
Determination of enthalpy of mixing (C4.3.3.4)
When two substances A and B are mixed together without ini-

tiating a chemical reaction, heats of mixing are released or con-
C4.3.3.4
sumed. If the mixing process takes place at constant pressure, the

Cat.-Nr. Name
heat of mixing is equal to the enthalpy of mixing.
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 The cause of the enthalpy of mixing lies in the differences of the
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* interaction energies of the similar molecules in the pure compo-
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* nents along with the interaction energy between the different
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 types of molecules in the mixture. If the interaction between
386 40 Dewar flask, clear, for demonstration 1 similar molecules is stronger than between dissimilar ones, the
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 mixing requires energy, so the solution cools down. In the oppo-
site case, the solution warms up.
664 155 Watch glass dish, 100 mm diam. 1 Experiment C4.3.3.4 determines the enthalpy of mixing of two
solutions with different concentrations and measures the heat of
mixing released.
666 850 Stirring magnet, 15 mm x 5 mm diam. 1
301 09 Bosshead S 1
670 0410 Acetone, 1 l 1
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1
1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.1
CONDUCTIVITY AND IONS
C4.4.1.1
Ion transport in liquids
Ion transport in liquids (C4.4.1.1)
Unlike solids, in which current is transported via electrons

(1st order conductor), liquids can transport charges only via ions
C4.4.1.1
(2nd order conductor). The conductivity depends on both the

Cat.-Nr. Name
number and the mobility of the ions present in the solution.
664 091 Double U-tube, 160 mm, with 2 G4 filters 1 Conductivity relies on the migration of ions in the electric field.
664 369 Platinum leaf rod electrodes, set of 2 1 Anions (negative) migrate to the positive pole, cations (positive)
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 migrate to the negative pole.
501 44 Connecting leads, 19 A, 25 cm, red/blue, pair 1 In experiment C4.4.1.1, this migration is observed directly. The
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1 coloured anion permanganate (MnO4 -) and the coloured cation
666 472 Table for electrochemistry, CPS 1 copper tetraammine (Cu(NH3)42+) are used for this purpose. In this
591 21 Clip plug, large 2 way, the direction of migration and the magnitude of the speed
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 can be determined.
665 217 Glass stirring rod, 500 mm x 8 mm diam., set of 10 3
604 5682 Powder spatula, steel, 185 mm 1
670 4910 Ammonium sulfate, 500 g 1
670 3600 Ammonia solution, 25 %, 250 ml 1
674 6691 Nitric acid, 1 mol/l, 1 l 1
105
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.1
C4.4.1.2
Determination of migration
velocity of permanganate ions
Determination of migration velocity of permanganate ions (C4.4.1.2)
In a solution ions migrate toward the oppositely charged pole.

The speed of migration depends on many factors, including the
C4.4.1.2
size and hydration of the ions.

Cat.-Nr. Name
Experiment C4.4.1.2 determines the speed of migration of per-
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 manganate ions.
666 472 Table for electrochemistry, CPS 1
664 243 Erlenmeyer flask, 100 ml, narrow neck, SB 19 1
665 212ET10 Glass stirring rod, 200 mm x 8 mm diam., set of 10 1
604 5682 Powder spatula, steel, 185 mm 1
672 6800 Potassium nitrate, 100 g 1
670 1600 Agar-Agar, 50 g 1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.1
C4.4.1.3
Determination of specific
conductivity
Determination of specific conductivity (C4.4.1.3)
The conductivity of a solution depends on the type and quantity

of the dissolved ions. Every type of ion has a specific conducti-
C4.4.1.3
vity k, which is the reciprocal of the specific resistance V. The

Cat.-Nr. Name
conductivity depends on the length of the conductor (electrode
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 distance) l and on the cross-sectional area of the electrodes q
664 401 Electrochemistry accessories set 1 according to the following formular:
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1 1 1 l
κ= = ⋅
666 472 Table for electrochemistry, CPS 1 ς R q
604 5682 Powder spatula, steel, 185 mm 1 Experiment C4.4.1.3 determines the specific conductivity of tap
665 212ET10 Glass stirring rod, 200 mm x 8 mm diam., set of 10 1 water. The effect of electrode distance on conductivity can also
be investigated.
107
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.1
C4.4.1.4
Electrolytic dissociation:
Dependence of conductivity
on electrolyte concentration
Electrolytic dissociation: Dependence of conductivity on electrolyte concentration (C4.4.1.4)
The conductivity of a solution is concentration-dependent. A

distinction is drawn between strong and weak electrolytes.
C4.4.1.4
While strong electrolytes are completely dissociated, the dis-

Cat.-Nr. Name
sociation of weak electrolytes is highly concentration-dependent.
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 In experiment C4.4.1.4, this behaviour is investigated in po-
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 tassium chloride and acetic acid, and among other things the
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* equivalent conductivity is determined.
524 0671 Conductivity adapter S 1
529 670 Conductivity sensor 1
665 792 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 50 ml 1
604 591 Stirring magnet, PTFE, oval, l = 30 mm 1
301 09 Bosshead S 1
671 9560 Acetic acid, 0.1 mol/l, 500ml 1
672 5200 Potassium chloride, 100 g 1
1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.3
ELECTROCHEMICAL POTEN-
TIALS
C4.4.3.1a
The electrochemical series
The electrochemical series (C4.4.3.1_a)
If a metal M is immersed in a solution of its ions Mn+, then its

C4.4.3.1 (a)
dissolution and deposition tendency creates a potential.

M Mn+ + n e-
Cat.-Nr. Name
A measurable potential difference occurs only after two different
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 of such half-cells are combined to form a galvanic cell (voltage,
664 401 Electrochemistry accessories set 1 electromotive force EMF).
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1 There are noble and base metals. This property depends on the
666 472 Table for electrochemistry, CPS 1 potential of the half-cell of a metal. In experiment C4.4.3.1,
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 voltage measurements on combinations of different metals are
used to create an electromotive series of the metals. In so doing,
the noblest or basest half-cell can serve as reference point.
675 5410 Zinc sulfate-7-hydrate, 250 g 1
674 8610 Silver nitrate, 25 g 1
The experiment can be carried out in two variants: In variant
C4.4.3.1 (a) the experiment is carried out with the demonstration
670 9650 Lead nitrate solution, 500 ml 1*
unit for electrochemistry and in variant C4.4.3.1 (b) the experi-
ment is carried out with a salt bridge.
673 9000 Nickel(II)-sulfate, 100 g 1*
109
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.3
ELECTROCHEMICAL
POTENTIALS
C4.4.3.1b
The electrochemical series
with salt bridge
The electrochemical series with salt bridge (C4.4.3.1_b)

C4.4.3.1 (b)
C4.4.3.1 (b)
531 836 Universal measuring instrument, Chemistry 1 591 56 Plate electrodes, nickel, 76x40 mm, set of 5 1*
524 0621 UIP sensor S 1 673 9000 Nickel(II)-sulfate, 100 g 1*
664 137 Beaker, Boro3.3, 100 ml, tall 6 591 591 Plate electrodes, lead, 76x40 mm, set of 2 1*
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 670 9650 Lead nitrate solution, 500 ml 1*
667 455 Salt bridge, 90 mm x 90 mm, 20 mm diam. 1 * additionally recommended
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 If a metal M is immersed in a solution of its ions Mn+, then its
501 861 Crocodile-clips, polished, set of 6 1 dissolution and deposition tendency creates a potential.
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 M Mn+ + n e-
A measurable potential difference occurs only after two different
of such half-cells are combined to form a galvanic cell (voltage,
301 09 Bosshead S 1 electromotive force EMF).
There are noble and base metals. This property depends on the
604 5682 Powder spatula, steel, 185 mm 1 potential of the half-cell of a metal. In experiment C4.4.3.1,
672 5200 Potassium chloride, 100 g 1 voltage measurements on combinations of different metals are
591 53 Plate electrodes, copper, 76x40 mm, set of 10 1 used to create an electromotive series of the metals. In so doing,
672 9600 Copper(II)-sulfate-5-hydrate, 100 g 1 the noblest or basest half-cell can serve as reference point.
591 54 Plate electrodes, zinc, 76x40 mm, set of 10 1 The experiment can be carried out in two variants: In variant
675 5410 Zinc sulfate-7-hydrate, 250 g 1 C4.4.3.1 (a) the experiment is carried out with the demonstration
664 421 Plate electrodes, silver, 55 x 40 mm, set of 2 1 unit for electrochemistry and in variant C4.4.3.1 (b) the experi-
674 8610 Silver nitrate, 25 g 1 ment is carried out with a salt bridge.
591 55 Plate electrodes, iron, 76x40 mm, set of 10 1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.3
ELECTROCHEMICAL
POTENTIALS
C4.4.3.2
Standard potentials of metals
Standard potentials of metals (C4.4.3.2_a)
To determine the potential of a half-cell, a reference parameter

is necessary. By international agreement, the half-cell H2/H3O+
C4.4.3.2 (b)
C4.4.3.2 (a)
has been established as reference cell. That standard hydrogen

Cat.-Nr. Name electrode has been arbitrarily assigned the potential E0 = 0.00 V.
In experiment C4.4.3.2, a standard hydrogen electrode is used
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 to measure the standard potentials of various metals. This can
664 401 Electrochemistry accessories set 1 be done either with the demonstration unit for electrochemistry
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1 (experiment C4.4.3.2 (a)) or with the Universal measuring instru-
666 472 Table for electrochemistry, CPS 1 ment, Chemistry and the prefabricated standard hydrogen elec-
664 111 Beaker, DURAN, 100 ml, tall 1 2 trode HydroFlex (experiment C4.4.3.2 (b)).
672 9600 Copper(II)-sulfate-5-hydrate, 100 g 1 1
675 5410 Zinc sulfate-7-hydrate, 250 g 1 1
674 6910 Hydrochloric acid, 1 mol/l, 1 l 1
672 1901 Hexacloroplatinic acid, 5 g 1
664 412 Standard hydrogen electrode HydroFlex 1
591 53 Plate electrodes, copper, 76x40 mm, set of 10 1
591 54 Plate electrodes, zinc, 76x40 mm, set of 10 1
111
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.3
ELECTROCHEMICAL
POTENTIALS
C4.4.3.3
Standard potentials of non-metals
Standard potentials of non-metals (C4.4.3.3_b)
In experiment C4.4.3.3, the standard potentials of different

C4.4.3.3 (b)
C4.4.3.3 (a)
non-metals are measured. This can be done either with the

demonstration unit for electrochemistry (experiment C4.4.3.3 (a))
Cat.-Nr. Name or with the Universal measuring instrument, Chemistry and the
prefabricated standard hydrogen electrode HydroFlex (experi-
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1
ment C4.4.3.3 (b)).
666 472 Table for electrochemistry, CPS 1
673 5700 Sodium chloride, 250 g 1 1
674 6910 Hydrochloric acid, 1 mol/l, 1 l 1
672 4920 Potassium bromide, 250 g 1 1
672 6620 Potassium iodide, 50 g 1 1
672 1901 Hexacloroplatinic acid, 5 g 1
664 412 Standard hydrogen electrode HydroFlex 1
591 61 Plate electrodes, carbon, 76x40 mm, set of 5 1
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.3
ELECTROCHEMICAL
POTENTIALS
C4.4.3.4
Concentration potentials
(Nernst equation)
Concentration potentials (Nernst equation) (C4.4.3.4)
If two similar half-cells which differ only in the concentration

c of their electrolyte solutions are combined, then a potential
C4.4.3.4
difference also forms between those half-cells. The general rela-

Cat.-Nr. Name
tionship is described in the Nernst equation:
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 R ⋅T
E = E0 + ln c (M n + )
664 401 Electrochemistry accessories set 1 n ⋅F
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1 The potential E therefore depends on the temperature in Kelvin T
666 472 Table for electrochemistry, CPS 1 and on the proportionality factor R, the universal gas constant.
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 Other parameters which play a role include the ion valence n and
665 996 Graduated pipette, 5 ml 1 the Faraday constant F. The dependence on concentration and
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 temperature are investigated in experiment C4.4.3.4.
666 711 Butane gas burner 1
666 681 Tripod, 22 cm x 14 cm diam. 1
666 685 Wire gauze, 160 mm x 160 mm 1
674 8800 Silver nitrate solution, 0,1 mol/l, 250 ml 1
113
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.4
GALVANIC CELLS
C4.4.4.1
The Daniell cell
The Daniell cell (C4.4.4.1)
A galvanic cell comprises two half-cells which are connected to

each other via an electrically conductive element. Each half-cell
C4.4.4.1
contains one electrode which is immersed in an electrolyte. The

Cat.-Nr. Name
electrode material can contain metals or non-metals.
664 397 Daniell cell 1 In the galvanic cell, the process is the reverse of electrolysis.
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 Chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
301 339 Stand bases, pair 1 Experiment C4.4.4.1 studies the characteristics of a Cu/Zn cell
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 (Daniell cell). In a Daniell cell, a copper plate is immersed in a
501 44 Connecting leads, 19 A, 25 cm, red/blue, pair 1 copper(II)-sulfate solution and a zinc plate is immersed in a zinc
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 4 sulfate solution. The solutions are separated from each other by
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 2 a diaphragm (porous partition wall). The redox reaction does not
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 begin until the copper plate and the zinc plate are connected by
an electrically conductive cable.
675 5410 Zinc sulfate-7-hydrate, 250 g 1 Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e-
Cu + 2 e- → Cu
2+
______________________
Cu2 + + Zn → Cu + Zn2+
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.4
GALVANIC CELLS
C4.4.4.2
The Leclanché cell
The Leclanché cell (C4.4.4.2)
The Leclanché cell is a zinc/coal battery. Here the negative pole

is the steel-jacketed battery cup made of zinc. The positive pole
C4.4.4.2
is formed by a graphite bar which is surrounded by a mixture of

Cat.-Nr. Name
graphite powder and manganese dioxide. An ammonium chloride
664 398 Leclanché cell 1 solution (20 %) thickened by starch serves as the electrolyte. This
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 prevents the cell from spilling out.
301 339 Stand bases, pair 1 Experiment C4.4.4.2 demonstrates the principle of this dry cell.
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 The voltage of the cell is first measured with the electrochemistry
501 44 Connecting leads, 19 A, 25 cm, red/blue, pair 1 demonstration unit in the no-load condition. The Leclanché cell
602 010 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 150 ml, tall 1 is then connected to the motor, and the voltage and current are
measured simultaneously.
666 8471 Magnetic stirrer with hotplate 1 Reaction at the negative pole:
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
670 4010 Ammonium chloride, 250 g 1
674 9210 Starch, soluble, 250 g 1 Reaction at the positive pole:
2MnO2 + 2H+ + 2e- → 2MnO(OH)
Reaction in the electrolyte solution:

2Zn2+ + 2NH4 + + 2Cl- → [Zn(NH3 )2 ]Cl2 + 2H+
115
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.5
ELECTROLYSIS
C4.4.5.1
Electrolytic polarisation
Electrolytic polarisation (C4.4.5.1)
When a direct electric current flows through an electrolyte it

provokes a chemical reaction. The resulting changes in the elec-
C4.4.5.1
trolyte and the electrodes are referred to as ‚electrolysis‘.

Cat.-Nr. Name
A chemical reaction can take place because the direct current
524 011USB Power-CASSY USB 1 provides electrons to the solution locally at the negative pole
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 (cathode) and at the same time electrons are transferred from
664 373 Electrode holder 1 the solution into the electrode at the positive pole (anode). As a
664 370 Rod electrodes, carbon, 150 x 8 mm diam., set of 2 1 result, reduction takes place at the cathode and oxidation at the
664 374 Rod electrodes, copper, 150 x 8 mm diam., set of 2 1 anode.
664 378 Rod electrodes, zinc, 150 x 5 mm diam., set of 2 1 In experiment C4.4.5.1 the voltage during an electrolysis is rai-
664 130 Beaker, Boro3.3, 250 ml, squat 1 sed starting from zero. Note that there is no significant flow of
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 current until a certain voltage level is reached. That voltage is
called the decomposition voltage or the deposition voltage. It is
the combination of the polarisation voltage and the overvoltage.
Both parameters depend on the electrode material. Different
301 09 Bosshead S 1
electrode materials are investigated in experiment C4.4.5.1.
673 8410 Soda lye, 0.1 mol/l, 500ml 1
672 9660 Copper(II)-sulfate solution, 1 %, 500 ml 1
1
Polarisation on charcoal and copper electrodes
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.5
ELECTROLYSIS
C4.4.5.2
Determination of the Faraday
constant
Determination of the Faraday constant (C4.4.5.2)
In electrolysis, the electrical conduction processes are linked

to a material deposition. The quantity of material deposited is
C4.4.5.2
proportional to the transported charge Q which flowed through

Cat.-Nr. Name
the electrolyte. In this respect, the process is an application of
664 350 Water electrolysis unit 1 Faraday‘s law.
382 35 Thermometer, -10...+50 °C/0.1 K 1
Q = n ⋅F ⋅z
531 832 Digital multimeter P 1
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 z = valency number of ions of the substance
501 46 Connecting leads, 19 A, 100 cm, red/blue, pair 1 F = Faraday constant
Experiment C4.4.5.2 determines the Faraday constant F. For this
purpose, a Hofmann voltameter is used to produce a certain
649 45 Tray, 552 mm x 459 mm x 48 mm 1
quantity of hydrogen. The number of moles n of hydrogen atoms
deposited can be calculated from the volume V using the ideal
gas equation. At the same time, the amount of electrical charge
Q required for this can be determined from the electrical work W.
117
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.6
GALVANIC PROCESSES IN
ENGINEERING
C4.4.6.1
Galvanisation of a metal
Galvanisation of a metal (C4.4.6.1)
Galvanisation is a process in which objects are coated with a

thin layer of metal by electrolytic means. Objects can be copper-
C4.4.6.1
plated, chrome-plated or silver-plated in this way.

Cat.-Nr. Name
In experiment C4.4.6.1, a thin layer of copper is applied to a
664 4071 Electrochemistry demonstration unit, CPS 1 metal object (e.g. a key or a nail) by means of galvanisation. In so
301 339 Stand bases, pair 1 doing, the object is wired as a cathode and immersed in a copper
664 137 Beaker, Boro3.3, 100 ml, tall 1 sulfate solution. A copper plate serves as the anode, which is also
664 138 Beaker, Boro3.3, 250 ml, tall 1 immersed in the copper sulfate solution. The process is started
664 382 Plate electrodes, copper, 43x28 mm, set of 10 1 by applying a direct current source (3V).
672 4460 Potassium lye, 1 N (1 mol/l), 1 l 1
672 6710 Potassium sodium tartrate, 250 g 1
1
object to be galvanised
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
C4.4.7
FUEL CELLS
C4.4.7.1
Investigation of a PEM fuel
cell stack
C4.4.7.2
Recording the characteristic
curves of a PEM fuel cell stack
Investigation of a PEM fuel cell stack (C4.4.7.1)
Fuel cells produce extremely efficient electric current in a „silent

C4.4.7.1-2
combustion“. Fuels are easily oxidised compounds such as hydro-

gen, hydrazine or methanol. The oxidation reaction takes place
Cat.-Nr. Name
on a catalyst, usually platinum, over which the current generated
666 4812 PEM fuel cell stack, CPS 1 is also carried. Because the fuels can be supplied continuously,
666 4795 HydroStik PRO, CPS 1 it is possible - unlike with batteries - to generate electric power
666 4796 HydroStik PRO 1* continuously.
666 4794 Bubble counters, CPS 1 Fuel cells are considered to be a technology of the future,
666 4831 Electric load, CPS 1 because they are an extremely efficient means of converting
666 4798 HydroFill PRO 1 the energy stored in a chemical compound into electric power.
Unfortunately, however, it is not always easy to implement fuel
cells in practical applications or to handle the fuels, which are
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
usually gases.
524 020USB CASSY-Display USB 1*
PEM fuel cells contain a proton-conducting membrane which
separates two half-cells. They require no other electrolytes, and
that means that they can function with almost no liquid. Due to
the low voltage that an individual fuel cell supplies, many fuel
667 198 Silicone tubing, 2 mm diam., 1 m 1 cells are wired together to form a „stack“. In experiment C4.4.7.1,
666 464 Blank panel, 100 mm, CPS 2 the function of such a fuel cell stack is studied and various
1 circuits are compared with one another.
The performance of fuel cells is analyzed by recording so-called
* additionally recommended characteristic curves. In experiment C4.4.7.2, the characteri-
stic curves of voltage and output are recorded for the PEM fuel
cell stack. The individual cells are wired in series in part a of the
experiment and they are wired in parallel in part b of the expe-
riment.
119
PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
TRANSPORT PROCESSES
C4.6.2
OSMOSIS
C4.6.2.1
Determination of the osmotic
pressure of a sugar solution
Determination of the osmotic pressure of a sugar solution (C4.6.2.1)
Osmosis is a diffusion process in one direction only which

occurs when two similar solutions of different concentration are
C4.6.2.1
separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Only molecules of the

Cat.-Nr. Name
solvent can diffuse through that membrane. Molecules or ions
662 403 Osmosis apparatus, large 1 of a dissolved substance, which are too large, are held back. In
667 501 Scale for large osmosis apparatus 1 so doing, more solvent molecules diffuse into the area of higher
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1 concentration than vice versa to create equalised concentrations
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 on both chambers.
665 794 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 250 ml 2 Experiment C4.6.2.1 uses the osmometer to demonstrate the
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 principle of osmosis. This process plays a key role in regulating
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1
the volume and water of cells. The two chambers contain diffe-
rent concentrations of a solution and are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane. The solvent flows osmotically into the so-
674 6060 D(+)-Saccharose, 250 g 1
lution of higher concentration. This raises the liquid level of that
solution in the open system. The higher the concentration of the
solution, the greater the water ingress. It slows to a stop when
the hydrostatic pressure of the water column in the capillary tube
is exactly equal to the osmotic pressure.
C5 CHEMCIAL ENGINEERING
C5.1 INDUSTRIAL-SCALE PROCESSES 122-125

C5.1.1 PRODUCTION OF BASE CHEMICALS 122-123
C5.1.2 EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM ORE 124-125
C5.2 PRODUCTS OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 126

C5.2.4 PIGMENTS AND DYESTUFFS 126
C5.3 CHEMISTRY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 127-129

C5.3.1 WASTE GAS PURIFICATION 127
C5.3.2 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 128-129
C5.4 PRODUCTS MADE FROM RENEWABLE RAW MATERIALS 130

C5.4.1 FUELS 130
121
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
INDUSTRIAL-SCALE PROCESSES
C5.1.1
PRODUCTION OF
BASE CHEMICALS
C5.1.1.1
Production of sulfuric acid
by the contact method
Production of sulfuric acid by the contact method (C5.1.1.1)

C5.1.1.1
C5.1.1.1
666 360 Catalytic converter 1 666 961 Double-ended microspatula, stainless steel, 185 mm 1
666 428 Panel frame C100, two-level, for CPS 1 665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1
666 4660 Adhesive magnetic board, 300 mm 6 661 243 Wash bottle, PE, 500 ml 1
666 4662 Spring clips, magnetic, size 3, 11...14 mm 6 602 023 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 150 ml, squat 1
666 4664 Spring clips, magnetic, size 6a, 27...29 mm 3 665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1
665 001 Funnel for gas collection 1 665 954 Rubber bulbs, 10 pcs. 1
664 442 Evaporating dish, 80 mm diam. 1 OHS PU401 Electronic precision balance SPU401 1
664 800 Gas scrubber bottle, lower section, 200 ml 3 674 7510 Sulfur, cryst., 250 g 1
664 805 Glass tube insert, ST 29/32 3 674 7860 Sulfuric acid, 95-98 %, 500 ml 1
665 392ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 29/32, set of 10 1 672 0820 Fuchsine solution, 50 ml 1
667 313 Glass connector, 1 GL 18, with glass olive 2 670 7200 Barium chloride, 100 g 1
667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 2 661 082 Stopcock grease, 60 g 1
665 935 Spring pressure gauge 1
Base chemicals serve as starting materials for many industrial
667 261 Rubber stopper, one 7-mm hole, 25-31 mm diam. 1
products. In most cases they are produced in large quantities (more
524 009A Mobile-CASSY 1
than 1 million tonnes per year) in optimised industrial plants.
Experiment C5.1.1.1 demonstrates the technical production of sulfuric
acid by the contact method. The sulfur dioxide produced from the
300 76 Laboratory stand II 2 combustion of sulfur is oxidised by a catalyst to sulfur trioxide in the
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 reaction tube. That is then led to water or sulfuric acid.
300 43 Stand rod, 75 cm, 12 mm diam. 1 S + O2 → SO2
SO2 is oxidised out to SO3 on a catalyst.
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 2
2 SO2 + O2 → SO3
667 186 Vacuum rubber tubing, 8 mm diam. 1 SO3 is easily soluble in concentrated sulfuric acid. This results in disul-
307 64 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 6 mm diam. 1
furic acid, which can be transformed into sulfuric acid by the addition
of water:
665 226 Connector, straight, 6 ... 8 mm diam. 1
H2SO4 + SO3 → H2S2O7
608 020 Four-legged stand, rectangular, 155 x 155 x 220 mm 1
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2 H2SO4
666 686 Heat protection cover plate, Ceran®, 155 mm x 155 mm 1
C5.1.1
PRODUCTION OF BASE
CHEMICALS
C5.1.1.2
Synthesis of ammonia by
the Haber-Bosch process
Synthesis of ammonia by the Haber-Bosch process (C5.1.1.2)

C5.1.1.2
C5.1.1.2
664 0772 Reaction tube, quartz, 16 cm 1 608 360 Pestle, 52 mm long 1

666 428 Panel frame C100, two-level, for CPS 1 664 154 Watch glass dish, 80 mm diam. 1
666 4660 Adhesive magnetic board, 300 mm 2 602 032 Beaker, DURAN, 150 ml, tall 1
666 4659 Adhesive magnetic board, 500 mm 2 661 243 Wash bottle, PE, 500 ml 1
667 286 Silicone stopper, one 7-mm hole, 16...21 mm diam. 2 661 251 Flip-flap glass, 20 ml 1
666 4795 HydroStik PRO, CPS 1 671 8300 Iron powder, reduced, 50 g 1
666 4665 Spring clips, magnetic, size 7a, 30...32 mm 2 670 2900 Aluminium oxide, 250 g 1
666 4661 Spring clips, magnetic, size 2, 9...11 mm 2 671 3200 Calcium oxide, powder, 100 g 1
666 9881 Combustion boat, glazed 1 672 6800 Potassium nitrate, 100 g 1
667 197 Silicone tubing, 4 mm diam., 1 m 1 The Haber-Bosch process is the most important process for the
667 198 Silicone tubing, 2 mm diam., 1 m 1 production of ammonia. It was developed by the chemist Fritz
604 510 Hose connector, 4…15 mm 1 Haber and the engineer Carl Bosch and was already being used in
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 2 industrial scale operations in 1913.
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 1 3 H2 + N2 2 NH3
666 731 Gas igniter, mechanical 1 Ammonia is synthesised here from molecular nitrogen and
667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 1 hydrogen. A catalyst is required in order to speed up the rate of
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 reaction.
666 4798 HydroFill PRO 1 Experiment C5.1.1.2 uses the catalyst developed by Mittasch (iron
660 980 Fine regulating valve for minican gas canisters 1 powder, aluminium oxide, calcium oxide and potassium nitrate)
661 000 Minican pressurised gas canister, nitrogen 1 in order to produce small quantities of ammonia even at normal
pressure. The ammonia can be assayed using the base reaction
on indicator paper.
667 7933 Pocket Balance JE500 1
MA9 0201 Universal indicator paper, roll 1
602 002 Test tubes, DURAN, 16 x 160 mm, set of 100 1
667 032 Test tube holder, wooden, 40 mm diam. 1
608 350 Mortar, 50 ml 1
123
C5.1.2
FROM ORE
C5.1.2.1
Extraction of iron by the blast
furnace process
Extraction of iron by the blast furnace process (C5.1.2.1)
Metal is certainly the most commonly used material in the

manufacture of tools, weapons and jewellery. Hardly any other
C5.1.2.1
material has so profoundly marked human development.

Cat.-Nr. Name
Iron does not exist on the Earth as an element, but rather in the
661 541 Blast furnace model 1 form of its oxides and sulphides in iron ore. They are the star-
664 752 Mini-compressor, electric 1 ting materials for the technical extraction of pig iron in the blast
521 55 High current power supply 1 furnace.
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 The blast furnace operates at 1900 °C in order to smelt iron from
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 iron ore. To attain that temperature, coke (and not coal) is used
301 09 Bosshead S 1 as fuel, and the fire inside the furnace is fanned with hot air
301 72 Universal clamp, 0...120 mm 1 at 1200 °C to 1300 °C degrees. Lime is added as an additional
667 104 Cover plate, 50 cm x 50 cm 1 component; it binds contaminants. The blast furnace is fed from
665 223ET10 Connector, T-shaped, 8 mm diam., 10 pieces 1
the top, so that alternating layers of coke and iron ore are formed.
The highest temperature occurs in the lower part of the furnace.
The liquid iron, on which the slag floats, collects at the base.
667 176 Hofmann tubing clamp, 30 mm 1
About once every two or three hours, the furnace is „tapped“.
671 8810 Peroxide of iron (haematite), 250 g 1
First the slag is allowed to flow out, and then the glowing yellow
670 2020 Activated charcoal, granulated, 500 g 1
pig iron at about 1450 °C. The toxic waste gases (blast furnace
672 2490 Charcoal, small pieces, 500 g 1
gases) rise, are fed into a gas purification system, and heat the
672 1000 Glass wool, 10 g 1 supply air for the furnace.
Experiment C5.1.2.1 uses the blast furnace model to demonstrate
the reduction of iron ore in a way that is similar to the indus-
trial scale process. Depending on the ore used and the reaction
conditions (temperature, air supply, additives), the resulting
reaction product is a mixture of different proportions of slag,
partially reduced iron ore (Fe3O4) and metallic iron.
C5.1.2
FROM ORE
C5.1.2.2
The thermite process
The thermite process (C5.1.2.2)
Experiment C5.1.2.2 demonstrates the principle of the thermite

process. In engineering, the thermite process is used to weld rail-
C5.1.2.2
way tracks together. A mixture of aluminium grit and iron(II, III)

Cat.-Nr. Name
oxide is added to the apparatus and lit with an ignition rod. Liquid
661 540 Thermite experiment 1 iron and aluminium oxide form in a very exothermic reaction. The
666 714 Cartridge burner, DIN type 1 iron has a higher density than aluminium oxide and so it sinks
666 731 Gas igniter, mechanical 1 down in the melt.
Fe2O3 + 2 Al → 2 Fe + Al2O3
Because aluminium releases immense quantities of energy in the

reaction with oxygen, the reaction needs only to be started with
an igniter. The energy released drives the rest of the process, and
along with that it also liquefies the resulting iron.
125
PRODUCTS OF THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
C5.2.4
PIGMENTS AND DYESTUFFS
C5.2.4.1
Production and use of indigo
Production and use of indigo (C5.2.4.1)

C5.2.4.1
C5.2.4.1
664 246 Erlenmeyer flask, DURAN, 100 ml, wide neck 1 673 6810 Sodium hydroxide, pellets, 250 g 1
665 161 Büchner funnel, 45 mm diam. 1 additionally required:
1
661 030 Round filter, type 595, 40 mm diam., 100 pcs. 1 white cotton cloth
665 060 Rubber collars, set of 7 1

664 865 Suction flask, 250 ml, glass 1 Synthetic dyes have been known since the middle of the 19th
382 21 Stirring thermometer, -30...+110 °C 1 century. Many major chemical companies started out as dye
666 967 Spoon-ended spatula, stainless steel, 150 mm 1 producers. The first dyes were extracted from tar. Today most dyes
665 751 Measuring cylinder, 10 ml, with plastic base 1 are based on crude oil.
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 Chemical compounds are coloured when they absorb wavelengths
665 996 Graduated pipette, 5 ml 3 from the visible range of the spectrum. The compound then
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 appears in the complementary colour of the absorbed wavelength.
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1 Along with their colour, the ability to colour materials more or less
665 954 Rubber bulbs, 10 pcs. 1 colourfast is a decisive feature of dyes. That colouring is done by
664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1 binding the dyes to the carrier materials or having the dyes pene-
trate into them. This, too, can be influenced by chemical means.
664 154 Watch glass dish, 80 mm diam. 1 Experiment C5.2.4.1 synthesizes indigo, the dye used to colour
jeans. Developed by Adolf von Baeyer in 1870, this synthesis was
one of the first dye syntheses to be applied on an industrial sca-
le. The educt used is nitrobenzaldehyde, which condenses with
acetone under base conditions. The reduced, soluble leuco form of
666 839 Magnetic stirrer with hot plate 1
the dye is insolubly anchored in the tissue through oxidation by air.
673 9390 2-Nitrobenzaldehyde, 5 g 1
670 0410 Acetone, 1 l 1
673 8420 Soda lye, 1 mol/l, 500 ml 1
671 6700 Diethylether, 250 ml 1
673 6310 Sodium dithionite, 250 g 1
CHEMISTRY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
C5.3.1
WASTE GAS PURIFICATION
C5.3.1.1
Analysis of waste gases
C5.3.1.2
Catalytic purification of
automobile exhaust gases
Catalytic purification of automobile exhaust gases (C5.3.1.2)
The fossil energy carriers coal, oil and natural gas are primarily used
C5.3.1.2
C5.3.1.1
as fuels. The combustion processes generate waste gases which

Cat.-Nr. Name enter the atmosphere and are harmful to the environment and to
human health. Carbon dioxide (CO2) intensifies the greenhouse
665 914 Gas syringe, 100 ml with 3-way stopcock 3 2
effect, for example, and sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides
667 312 Glass connector, 2 x GL 18 3 3
(NOx) cause acid rain. Today pollution emissions are strictly control-
666 313 Testing tube for NOx, 0.5...50 ppm, set of 10 1 led. Plant operators must reduce their emissions. Catalytic conver-
666 319 Testing tube for CO, 0.5...7.0 %, set of 10 1 ters are a mandatory feature of automotive exhaust systems.
666 314 Testing tube for SO2, 1...25 ppm, set of 10 1 Under ideal conditions, the combustion of hydrocarbons would
667 015 Glass file, triganular 1 generate only water and carbon dioxide. When it involves a
666 360 Catalytic converter 1 mixture of different fuels, e.g. petrol, then combustion can also
665 912 Gas syringe, 100 ml 2 produce nitrogen oxides or sulphur oxides. Experiment C5.3.1.1
665 255 Three-way valve, T-shaped, ST nozzles 2 uses detection tubes to test for the presence of such byproducts
524 009A Mobile-CASSY 1 in different waste gases.
524 0673 NiCr-Ni adapter S, type K 1 The so-called ‚three-way catalyst‘ removes the three most impor-
529 676 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, 1.5 mm, type K 1 tant toxic substances from automotive exhaust simultaneously:
666 425 Panel frame C50, two-level, for CPS 1 unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides.
666 4659 Adhesive magnetic board, 500 mm 2 It consists of a ceramic carrier to which noble metals such as
platinum and palladium are applied. The reactions which take
place include the following:
CH4 + 2 NO2 CO2 + 2 H2O + N2
4 CO + 2 NO2 CO2 + N2
2 CO + 2 NO 2 CO2 + N2
607 020 Safety gas hose with clamp, 0.5 m 1
300 76 Laboratory stand II 1 In experiment V5.3.1.2, waste gases are purified with a three-way
additionally required: catalyst. The waste gas used in the investigation can be either
1
exhaust sample, such as car exhausts or cigarette smoke automotive exhaust or a self-made mixture of waste gases.
additonally required:
exhaust sample or a self produced exhaust mixture made 2
of nitrogen dioxide and methane or carbon monoxide
127
C5.3.2
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS
C5.3.2.1
Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse effect (C5.3.2.1)
The Earth‘s climate is determined by a complex interaction of

numerous factors. Many of those factors mutually affect and
C5.3.2.1
strengthen one another. As a result, the climate is subject to con-

Cat.-Nr. Name
stant fluctuations on all time scales, from decades to millions of
666 2651 IR-CO2 experiment set 1 years. Today humans are intervening in this self-regulating sys-
524 013 Sensor-CASSY 2 1 tem to a massive extent.
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 In experiment C5.3.2.1, the IR-CO2 experimentation kit is used
524 0511 Lux adapter S 1 to demonstrate the absorption of infrared (IR) radiation by CO2
666 248 IR-CO2 sensor 1 in the wavelength range from 4100 to 4300 nm. The short-wave
524 045 Temperature box, NiCr-Ni/NTC 1 radiation of the Sun penetrates water vapour, carbon dioxide,
666 216 Temperature probe, NiCr-Ni, fast 1
ozone, nitrous oxide and methane in the Earth‘s atmosphere and
reaches the surface of the Earth unimpeded. The long-wave heat
521 535 DC power supply, 2 x 0...16 V/0...5 A 1
radiation is absorbed. Acting like the glass of a greenhouse, the
660 999 Minican pressurised gas canister, carbon dioxide 1
greenhouse gases impede the release of energy from the Earth
and cause heat to build up. Only a small part of the heat radiation
667 197 Silicone tubing, 4 mm diam., 1 m 1 is emitted directly into space - the far greater share is reflected
back toward the surface of the Earth. This is referred to as the
natural greenhouse effect. The proportion of greenhouse gases
is changing as a result of human activity. The associated tempe-
rature increase is referred to as the anthropogenic greenhouse
effect.
C5.3.2
GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS
C5.3.2.2
Ozone hole problem
Ozone hole problem (C5.3.2.2)
In experiment C5.3.2.2, the UV-IR-VIS experimentation kit is used

to demonstrate the absorption of UV-C radiation by ozone and
C5.3.2.2
the formation and decomposition of ozone. The ozone layer in the

Cat.-Nr. Name
stratosphere (at a height of 15 to 50 km) is vitally important to
666 265 UV-IR-VIS experiment kit 1 life on Earth. Without its protective effect, strong short-wave UV
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 radiation would make life outside of water impossible. The ozone
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 layer acts as a filter for radiation from 220 to 310 nm. As a result
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* it completely absorbs UV-C radiation (220 nm to 280 nm) and ab-
sorbs most of the UV-B radiation (280 nm to 320 nm).
524 0511 Lux adapter S 1 For that reason, a reduction in the ozone concentration (ozone
666 246 UV-C sensor 1
depletion, „ozone hole“) is increasing the intensity of biologically
effective UV-B radiation. This can damage plants, thereby redu-
667 818 Spark gap supply unit 1
cing harvest yields. Phytoplankton (types of algae at shallow ocean
500 621 Safety connection lead, 50 cm, red 1
depths) are also affected – an important link in the food chain of
500 622 Safety connection lead, 50 cm, blue 1
the sea. Because it also absorbs a considerable quantity of carbon
667 489 Crocodile clips, insulated, set of 2 1 dioxide, it represents an integral part of the carbon cycle and plays
667 241 Rubber bellows, single bulb 1 a role in the greenhouse effect. Ozone forms in the stratosphere by
665 957 Disposable syringe, 1 ml, with Luer fitting 1 the effect of hard UV radiation on oxygen.
603 030 Cannulae, 0.6 mm diam., set of 10 1
671 6600 Dichloromethane, 250 ml 1
1
129
PRODUCTS MADE FROM RENEWABLE RAW MATERIALS
C5.4.1
FUELS
C5.4.1.1
Production of fuel from
rapeseed oil
C5.4.1.2
Analysis of fuel from
rapeseed oil
Production of fuel from rapeseed oil (C5.4.1.1)

C5.4.1.2
C5.4.1.2
C5.4.1.1
C5.4.1.1
666 8471 Magnetic stirrer with hotplate 1 675 3410 Water, pure, 5 l 2
666 851 Stirring magnet, 25 mm x 6 mm diam. 1 additionally required:
1
666 850 Stirring magnet, 15 mm x 5 mm diam. 1 rapeseed oil
602 004 Test tubes, DURAN, 20 x 180 mm, set of 100 1 biodiesel from rapeseed oil produced in experiment
1
C5.4.1.1
667 053 Test tube rack, for 10 tubes, 22 mm diam. 1
602 022 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 100 ml, squat 1 Rising energy demand ushered in by the industrial age in com-
300 02 Stand base, V-shaped, small 1 bination with the continuously increasing world population have
608 050 Stand tube, 300 mm, diam. 10 mm 1
caused worldwide consumption of fossil fuels such as oil, natural
gas and coal to increase by more than twenty-fold over the past
301 09 Bosshead S 2
100 years. The resulting shortage of fossil fuels demands, along
with more frugal use of energy, the search for equivalent renew-
382 21 Stirring thermometer, -30...+110 °C 1
able sources of energy, including the suitable eco-friendly fuels.
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1
In experiment C5.4.1.1, sodium methoxide is used to produce bio-
diesel from rapeseed oil. In this reaction, the rapeseed oil is first
665 995 Graduated pipette, 2 ml 1 split into glycerine and fatty acids, and then esterified with me-
665 996 Graduated pipette, 5 ml 1 thanol (transesterification) in a second step. The rapeseed acid-
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 methylesters produced in this way represent the actual biodiesel.
667 257 Rubber stopper, solid, 19...24 mm diam. 1 Experiment C5.4.1.2 determines the viscosity of fuel made from
667 258 Rubber stopper, one 7-mm hole, 19...24 mm diam. 1 rapeseed oil. For this purpose, the temperature control chamber of
665 204 Glass tube, 300 mm x 8 mm diam. 1 the viscometer is connected to a recirculation thermostat and the
673 2700 Methanol, 250 ml 1 viscosity is measured in relation to temperature.
665 906 Höppler falling ball viscometer 1
313 07 Hand-held stop-watch I, mechanical 1
666 7681 Circulation thermostat SC 100-S5P 1
C6 BIOCHEMISTRY
C6.1 THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE 132-134

C6.1.1 CARBOHYDRATES 132
C6.1.2 AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS 133
C6.1.4 FATS AND OILS 134
C6.2 BIOTECHNOLOGY 135

C6.2.1 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES 135
C6.2.2 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PRODUCTS 136
131
BIOCHEMISTRY
THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE
C6.1.1
CARBOHYDRATES
C6.1.1.1
Test for reducing
sugar - Fehling’s reaction
Test for reducing sugar - Fehling’s reaction (C6.1.1.1)
Carbohydrate is the collective name for a broad-ranging group

C6.1.1.1
of natural substances to which all types of sugar, starch and

Cat.-Nr. Name cellulose belong. They have the general molecular formula
Cn(H2O)m (n and m either equal or only slightly different), which
is why they were previously erroneously regarded as „hydrates of
382 33 Thermometer, -10...+150 °C/1 K 1
carbon“. Carbohydrates are polyalcohols, in which a primary or a
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 2 secondary hydroxyl group is oxidised to the aldehyde group or the
665 212ET10 Glass stirring rod, 200 mm x 8 mm diam., set of 10 1 ketone group (carbonyl group).
664 137 Beaker, Boro3.3, 100 ml, tall 1 Fehling‘s solution was developed by Herrmann Fehling in 1848. It
664 132 Beaker, Boro3.3, 600 ml, squat 1 is a reaction for the detection of reducing groups, such as alde-
665 754 Measuring cylinder, 100 ml, with plastic base 1 hyde functions, for example. It makes it possible to differentiate
667 7977 Electronic Balance 200 : 0,01 1 between reducing and non-reducing sugars. Originally it was also
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1 used to determine blood sugar content in diabetics by means of
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 titration.
664 045 Test tubes, Fiolax, 30 x 200 mm, set of 10 1 Experiment C6.1.1.1 uses the Fehling reagent to analyse glucose,
667 054 Test tube rack, for 12 tubes, 32 mm diam. 1 fructose and sucrose.
664 155 Watch glass dish, 100 mm diam. 1
666 961 Double-ended microspatula, stainless steel, 185 mm 1
672 1100 D(+)-Glucose, 100 g 1
672 0700 D(-)-Fructose, 50 g 1
674 6050 D(+)-Saccharose, 100 g 1
672 6710 Potassium sodium tartrate, 250 g 1
674 6750 Hydrochloric acid concentrated, 25 %, 250 ml 1
670 9160 Boiling stones, 250 g 1
BIOCHEMISTRY
C6.1.2
AMINO ACIDS AND PROTEINS
C6.1.2.1
Enzymatics: Splitting urea with
urease
C6.1.2.2
Michealis-Menten kinetics using
the enzyme urease
Enzymatics: Splitting urea with urease (C6.1.2.1)
Proteins are the biomolecules made of amino acids. In nature

C6.1.2.2
C6.1.2.1
there are 20 amino acids which have been found in proteins

Cat.-Nr. Name (proteinogenic amino acids). Proteinogenic amino acids are
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 1 a-amino acids. They are carbonic acids, which have an amino
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* 1*
group in the a position (nearest C atom).
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* 1* In protein synthesis, the carbonic acid group of the one amino
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 1
acid reacts with the amino function of the next one in a conden-
sation reaction. A peptide bond is formed. Amino acids can be
524 0671 Conductivity adapter S 1 1
linked in nearly any sequence via peptide bonds. This is why there
529 670 Conductivity sensor 1 1
is such a large number of different proteins.
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1 1
Proteins are the building blocks of the cell. A distinction is drawn
300 11 Saddle base 1 1
between scaffold proteins, which provide stability, and globu-
301 26 Stand rod, 25 cm, 10 mm diam. 1 1
lar, soluble proteins. The subgroup of globular proteins includes
666 543 Double bosshead 1 1 enzymes, which catalyse reactions. They play an important role in
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 1 1 the digestion of food, for example.
602 010 Beaker, Boro 3.3, 150 ml, tall 2 2 Experiment C6.1.2.1 takes a closer look at the enzyme urease.
665 997 Graduated pipette, 10 ml 1 1 Urease splits urea into ammonia and carbonate ions. Since the
666 003 Pipetting ball 1 1 urea solution does not conduct electricity, but a solution with
665 793 Volumetric flask, Boro 3.3, 100 ml 1 1 ammonia and carbonate does, the course of the reaction can be
664 153 Watch glass dish, 60 mm diam. 2 2 recorded with conductivity measurements. The maximum rate of
602 680 Powder funnel, glass, 50 mm diam. 2 2 reaction and the reaction order are determined. Also an inhibitor
664 043 Test tubes, Fiolax, 16 x 160 mm, set of 10 1 1 is tested.
667 253 Rubber stopper, solid, 14...18 mm diam. 2 2 In experiment C6.1.2.2 the kinetics of the enzyme urease
667 050 Test tube rack, plastic, for 9 tubes, 18 mm diam. 1 1 are examined. The rate of the reaction with different starting
666 961 Double-ended microspatula, stainless steel, 185 mm 1 1 concentration is measured. Applying Michaelis-Menten kinetics,
the maximal reaction rate vmax and the michaelis constant Km can
be determined.
670 3900 Ammonium carbonate, 100 g 1
672 1700 Urea, 100 g 1 1
675 2810 Urease (1 U/mg), 5 g 1 1
675 3400 Water, pure, 1 l 1 1
133
BIOCHEMISTRY
C6.1.4
FATS AND OILS
C6.1.4.1
Determination of the calorific
value of olive oil with a
demonstration calorimeter
Determination of the calorific value of olive oil with a demonstration calorimeter (C6.1.4.1)
Nutritional fats differ in their consistency. At room temperature

C6.1.4.1
some are solid, others are spreadable, and many are liquid. Liquid
Cat.-Nr. Name fats are referred to as oils. Fats are less dense than water and
insoluble in water. In non-polar solvents, on the other hand, they
dissolve readily. So fats are non-polar.
Fats represent the most energy-rich group of the foods which are
vital for the human organism. The mean physiological calorific
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1
value of fats is about 38.8 kJ/g. Apart from the supply of energy,
524 044 Temperature sensor S, NTC 1
however, the significance of fats lies also in the transport and
667 325 Calorimeter for solids and liquids 1
resorption of fat-soluble vitamins and in the enhanced flavour
666 603 Base rail, 95 cm 1 of our dishes.
In experiment C6.1.4.1, the calorific value of olive oil is deter-
666 609ET2 Stand tubes, 450 mm, 10 mm diam. , set of 2 2 mined. For this purpose, olive oil is burned in an O2 atmosphere
666 555 Universal clamp, 0...80 mm 2 and the temperature rise is measured in the calorimeter. A
301 72 Universal clamp, 0...120 mm 1 filament is used to ignite the oil. The energy released is calcu-
301 09 Bosshead S 4 lated using either a previously determined heat capacity of the
664 800 Gas scrubber bottle, lower section, 200 ml 2 filled calorimeter or the individual theoretical values of the heat
664 805 Glass tube insert, ST 29/32 1 capacities of the glass jacket and calorimeter liquid. The quantity
664 806 Glass tube insert with filter, ST 29/32 1 of heat Q is calculated according to the following formula:
665 392ET10 Joint clip, plastic, ST 29/32, set of 10 1 Q = ∆T × (mk × Ck + m(H2O) × C(H2O))
521 546 DC Power Supply 0 ... 16 V, 0 ... 5 A 1 Here DT represents the temperature difference, mk and m(H2O)
501 45 Connecting leads, 19 A, 50 cm, red/blue, pair 1 are the mass of the calorimeter and of the water, and C k and
307 65 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 7 mm diam. 1 C(H2O) are the heat capacities of the glass apparatus and the
604 481 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 4 mm diam., DIN 12865 1 water. In order to calculate the heat of combustion DH, the
604 510 Hose connector, 4…15 mm 1 ignition energy, which also contributed to the heating of the
660 998 Minican pressurised gas canister, oxygen 1 apparatus, must be subtracted. The quantity of heat is then
expressed relative to one mol of substance.
SAT E2101 Electronic precision balance, TE2101 1
1
BIOCHEMISTRY
BIOTECHNOLOGY
C6.2.1
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
PROCESSES
C6.2.1.1
Yeast fermentation - Test of
oxygen consumption
Yeast fermentation - Test of oxygen consumption (C6.2.1.1)

C6.2.1.1
C6.2.1.1
524 018 Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1 664 103 Beaker, DURAN, 250 ml, squat 1
524 220 CASSY Lab 2 1 661 242 Wash bottle, PE, 250 ml 1
524 019 Rechargeable battery for Pocket-CASSY 2 Bluetooth 1* 672 1100 D(+)-Glucose, 100 g 1
524 0031 Bluetooth dongle 1* additionally required:
1
524 0521 Oxygen adapter S 1 PC with Windows XP/Vista/7/8
667 458 Oxygen electrode 1 * additionally recommended

386 40 Dewar flask, clear, for demonstration 1
607 105 Magnetic stirrer mini 1 In biotechnology, products are produced with the aid of micro-
666 851 Stirring magnet, 25 mm x 6 mm diam. 1 organisms. This occurs in large vessels known as bioreactors.
300 11 Saddle base 2 Bioreactors can be operated in batches (batch processing) or
continuously. In any case, successful culture relies on understan-
ding the growth conditions of microorganisms.
301 09 Bosshead S 2
Experiment C6.2.1.1 verifies the respiration in a yeast fermen-
tation by measuring the oxygen consumption. For this purpose,
a yeast suspension is saturated with oxygen. Then the oxygen
supply is shut off and the oxygen saturation is tracked.
307 64 Rubber tubing, 1 m x 6 mm diam. 1
665 953 Droppers, 7 x 150 mm, 10 pcs. 1
602 355 Laboratory bottle 250ml, ISOthread 45 1
135
BIOCHEMISTRY
BIOTECHNOLOGY
C6.2.2
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL
PRODUCTS
C6.2.2.3
Production of yoghurt
Production of yoghurt (C6.2.2.3)
For thousands of years now, humans have been using biotechno-

logy to produce food, textiles and other commodities. A whole
C6.2.2.3
series of perfectly ordinary, everyday things – including leavened

Cat.-Nr. Name
bread, yoghurt, cheese, wine, beer and vinegar – are produced
665 563ET5 Miniature separation tank 250 ml, set of 5 1 with the help of cultivated microorganisms.
382 33 Thermometer, -10...+150 °C/1 K 1 Biotechnology is a technology which uses the living organism or
666 767 Hotplate, 1500 W, 180 mm diam. 1 parts of it to manufacture or modify products.
607 0721 Bath vessel, stainless steel 1 In experiment C6.2.2.3, yoghurt is produced from milk. If some
666 8061 Drying Oven/Hot Air Sterilizer E 28 1 yoghurt or isolated cultures of Lactobacillus bulgaricus (lactic
666 966 Spoon-ended spatula, PP, 180 mm 1 acid bacteria) and possibly Streptococcus themophilus are added
665 753 Measuring cylinder, 50 ml, with plastic base 1 to milk, then the milk will become yoghurt. Yoghurt is the end
MA9 0201 Universal indicator paper, roll 1 product of an anaerobic bacteria metabolism. Lactic acid bacteria
ferment in the lactose contained in the milk. The latter is first
1 split into glucose and galactose by the enzyme lactase. Those
1 l of milk (UHT) and plain yoghurt
cleavage products are then transformed into lactic acid by glyco-
lysis and lactic acid fermentation.
APPENDIX
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INDEX 140-143
137
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Handout sheets (demonstration instructions) with link to CASSY LAB 2 and SpektraLab
Experiments for students as interactive pdf files:
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Student version with typewriter tool for filling out Teacher version with an example of the solution and
protocols on the computer notes about the experiments
139
INDEX
A Chemistry and the environment.................................................................................................... 127-130

Absorption spectra..........................................................................................................................................80 Chemistry plate system..................................................................30, 40, 45, 59, 61, 63-64, 68-69,
Absorption spectra of pigments on a screen.......................................................................................80 .................................................................................................102, 105-107, 109, 111-113, 122-123, 127
Acetic acid............................................................................................................................... 53, 87, 103, 108 Chemistry product............................................................................................................. 65, 122-126, 130
Acetone..............................................................................................................................................60, 70, 104 Chromatography................................................................................................................................70, 78-79
Acid.........................................................................................................................................................53-54, 87 Chrome-nickel steel........................................................................................................................................94
Acid-base titration...........................................................................................................................53-54, 87 Cigarette lighter gas.......................................................................................................................................78
Acidity.........................................................................................................................................................53, 100 Cigarette smoke................................................................................................................................................92
Adhesive magnetic board............................................30, 40-41, 45, 61, 63-64, 68-69, 123, 127 Claisen, distillation bridge after ....................................................................................... 63-64, 68, 69
Aerobic................................................................................................................................................................135 Class room...........................................................................................................................................................91
Air...................................................................................................................................... 31, 45-46, 72, 91-92 Coal........................................................................................................................................................................61
Air analytics.................................................................................................................................................91-92 Cola drink.............................................................................................................................................................93
Alcohols................................................................................................................................................................79 Column chromatography..............................................................................................................................70
Aldehyde............................................................................................................................................................132 Combustion analysis.......................................................................................................................................58
Alkaline metals..................................................................................................................................................38 Combustion chamber.....................................................................................................................................59
Alkaline earth metal ......................................................................................................................................38 Compact spectrometer........................................................................................................ 38, 80-81, 100
Alloy.......................................................................................................................................................................94 Components of air...................................................................................................................................45-46
Alpha particles...................................................................................................................................................35 Composition of organic compounds........................................................................................................58
Aluminium.................................................................................................................................................30, 125 Computer-assisted...............................32, 37-38, 52-55, 61-62, 64, 68-69, 78-82, 85, 87- 91,
Aluminium oxide...............................................................................................................................................70 ................................................................ 93-94, 96-98, 100-101, 103-104, 108, 128-129, 133-135
Amino acids..................................................................................................................................................... 133 Concentration potentials............................................................................................................................113
Ammonia............................................................................................................................................................123 Conditions for iron corrosion......................................................................................................................50
Analysis of cigarette smoke.........................................................................................................................92 Conductivity..................................................................................................................88, 97, 107-108, 133
Analysis of copper(I) oxide and copper(II) oxide................................................................................. 41 Conductivity, specific.................................................................................................................................. 107
Analysis of fuel from rapeseed oil.......................................................................................................... 130 Conductometric titration..............................................................................................................................88
Analysis of Rutherford scattering.............................................................................................................35 Conductometric titration of a hydrochloric acid solution..............................................................88
Analysis of triprotic phosphoric acid by titration...............................................................................54 Conductometric titration of a hydrochloric acid solution with pH measurement...............88
Analysis of waste gases...............................................................................................................................127 Conductometry.................................................................................................................................................88
Atom nucleus.....................................................................................................................................................35 Conservation of mass in the reaction of marble with acid............................................................39
Atomic model.....................................................................................................................................................37 Contact method..............................................................................................................................................122
Continuous measurement of carbon dioxide concentration in the classroom......................91
B Copper...........................................................................................................................................................45, 49
Bacteria..............................................................................................................................................................136 Copper oxide........................................................................................................................ 41, 48-49, 58, 60
Base..............................................................................................................................................................53, 123 Copper sulfate.........................................................................................................................................82, 105
Base chemicals......................................................................................................................................122-123 Corrosion...................................................................................................................................................... 50-51
Bead catalyst......................................................................................................................................................63 Corrosion protection.......................................................................................................................................51
Beer-Lambert law............................................................................................................................................82 Cracking...............................................................................................................................................................63
Benzoic acid..................................................................................................................................................... 102 Crude oil............................................................................................................................................... 62, 64, 70
Berzelius...............................................................................................................................................................40
Beta particles.....................................................................................................................................................35 D
Biochemistry..........................................................................................................................................132-134 Daniell cell.........................................................................................................................................................114
Biodiesel............................................................................................................................................................ 130 Density...................................................................................................................................44, 46, 72, 75, 77
Biotechnology........................................................................................................................................135-136 Deposition voltage.........................................................................................................................................116
Blast furnace process...................................................................................................................................124 Distillation...........................................................................................................................................................62
Bohr, Niels............................................................................................................................................................37 Determination of acid concentration by titration with drop counter.......................................87
Boiling points..............................................................................................................................62, 64, 68-69 Determination of acidity (pKa value) by titration .............................................................................53
Boiling range distribution and fractionated distillation of petroleum......................................64 Determination of density according to Mohr-Westphal.................................................................75
Boiling range distribution of petrol..........................................................................................................64 Determination of density with the pycnometer ................................................................................75
Brass......................................................................................................................................................................94 Determination of enthalpy of mixing .................................................................................................. 104
Break-away method........................................................................................................................................ 74 Determination of migration velocity of permanganate ions...................................................... 106
Brix value.............................................................................................................................................................83 Determination of specific conductivity............................................................................................... 107
Bromthymol blue....................................................................................................................................80, 100 Determination of the acidity constant of bromothymol blue.................................................... 100
Brownian motion of smoke particles.......................................................................................................33 Determination of the calorific value of olive oil with a demonstration calorimeter................... 134
Bubble tray column.........................................................................................................................................62 Determination of the content of phosphoric acid in a cola drink...............................................93
Building blocks of life.........................................................................................................................132-134 Determination of the density of air..........................................................................................................46
Buoyancy.............................................................................................................................................................75 Determination of the density of gases....................................................................................................72
Butane........................................................................................................................................................... 58, 78 Determination of the density of solids....................................................................................................77
Butyl chloride.....................................................................................................................................................97 Determination of the elementary electric charge according to Millikan
and proof of charge quantisation.............................................................................................................36
C Determination of the enthalpy of neutralisation of acids and alkali solutions.................. 103
Calcium.................................................................................................................................................................30 Determination of the enthalpy of solution of salts...........................................................................55
Calorific value..........................................................................................................................................61, 134 Determination of the Faraday constant...............................................................................................117
Calorimetry...........................................................................................................................55, 102-104, 134 Determination of the heat of combustion of benzoic acid......................................................... 102
Carbohydrates.................................................................................................................................................132 Determination of the melting point of salicylic acid........................................................................76
Carbon...........................................................................................................................................................58, 59 Determination of the molar mass of gases...........................................................................................31
Carbon dioxide..................................................................................................................................................91 Determination of the osmotic pressure of a sugar solution........................................................120
Carbon monoxide...................................................................................................................................92, 127 Determination of the oxygen content of air.........................................................................................45
CASSY.................................................32, 37, 44, 52-56, 61-62, 64, 68-69, 78-79, 82, 85, 87-91, Determination of the reaction order of the reaction of malachite green with hydroxide ions.97
.....................................................................................93-94, 96-98, 101-104, 108, 128-129, 133-135 Determination of the refractive index with the refractometer...................................................83
Catalysis..........................................................................................................................63, 96, 122-123, 127 Determination of the relative atomic mass of metals......................................................................30
Catalytic cracking............................................................................................................................................63 Determination of the solubility product of silver halides...............................................................56
Catalytic oxidation of tartaric acid with hydrogen peroxide .......................................................96 Determination of viscosity with the falling ball viscometer according to Höppler...........................73
Catalytic purification of automobile exhaust gases.......................................................................127 Determination of water contents with indicator reagents and immersion photometer.................90
Change of modification of sulphur...........................................................................................................52 Differential thermal analysis.......................................................................................................................52
Characteristic curves....................................................................................................................................119 Differentiating between endothermic and exothermic reactions.............................................101
Charcoal...............................................................................................................................................................49 Diffusion.............................................................................................................................................................120
Charge quantisation........................................................................................................................................36 Diphenylpicrylhydrazyl..................................................................................................................................86
Chemical engineering..............................................................................................49, 118, 122-127, 130 Distillation................................................................................................................................... 63-64, 68-69
Chemical Equilibrium......................................................................................................................................56 Distillation of red wine...................................................................................................................................68
Chemistry product...........................................................................................................................................60 DPPH......................................................................................................................................................................86
Chemical reactions.................................................................................................................................. 39-41 Drop counter.......................................................................................................................................54, 87, 93
INDEX
Dropping funnel...................................................................................... 47, 65, 80-81, 97-98, 100, 126 Glycerol.................................................................................................................................................................85

Goniometer.........................................................................................................................................................94
E Greenhouse effect.........................................................................................................................................128
Electricity.............................................................................................................................................................36
Electrochemical corrosion protection.....................................................................................................51 H
Electrochemical series....................................................................................................................................51 Haber-Bosch process....................................................................................................................................123
Electrochemistry....................................................................................................................50-51, 105-119 Half time..............................................................................................................................................................97
Electrochemistry demonstration unit..................................................... 51, 105-109, 111-115, 118 Heat of combustion.....................................................................................................................61, 102, 134
Electrodes..........................................................................................................................................................116 Heat of mixing................................................................................................................................................ 104
Electrolysis....................................................................................................................................... 42, 116-117 Heat of neutralisation................................................................................................................................. 103
Electrolytic dissociation............................................................................................................................. 108 Heat of solution................................................................................................................................................55
Electrolytic dissociation: Dependence of conductivity on electrolyte concentration............. 108 Hertz, Gustav.....................................................................................................................................................37
Electrolytic polarisation..............................................................................................................................116 Höppler, falling ball viscosimeter after .......................................................................................73, 130
Electrolytic water decomposition according to Hoffmann...........................................................42 Hydroxide.............................................................................................................................................................98
Electromotive force............................................................................................................................. 109-111 Hydrocarbons.....................................................................................................................................................78
Electron spin resonance on DPPH.............................................................................................................86 Hydrochloric acid....................................................................................................................39, 47, 88, 103
Electrons..............................................................................................................................................................86 HydroFill PRO.................................................................................................................. 41, 43, 48, 119, 123
Elementary analysis.........................................................................................................................................58 Hydrogen................................................................................................... 30, 41-43, 47-48, 58, 119, 123
Elementary electric charge..........................................................................................................................36 Hydrogen as a reducing agent....................................................................................................................48
Endothermic.....................................................................................................................................................101 Hydrogen peroxide......................................................................................................................... 47, 96, 117
Energy content............................................................................................................................................... 134 Hydrolysis............................................................................................................................................................97
Enthalpy...........................................................................................................................55, 61, 101-104, 134 Hydrolysis of tertiary butyl chloride .......................................................................................................97
Enthalpy of combustion............................................................................................................61, 102, 134 HydroStik PRO................................................................................................................ 41, 43, 48, 119, 123
Enthalpy of mixing........................................................................................................................................ 104 Hydroxide.............................................................................................................................................................97
Enthalpy of neutralisation......................................................................................................................... 103
Enthalpy of solution........................................................................................................................................55 I
Environment.......................................................................................................................................................90 Ice...........................................................................................................................................................................32
Enzymatics....................................................................................................................................................... 133 Immersion photometer...................................................................................................................90, 97-98
Enzymatics: Splitting urea with urease............................................................................................... 133 Incandescent wire............................................................................................................................................59
Equilibrium constant.......................................................................................................................................99 Indigo...........................................................................................................................................................65, 126
Equilibrium, chemical.........................................................................................................56, 99-100, 123 Indigo...................................................................................................................................................................126
ESR spectroscopy.............................................................................................................................................86 Industrial-scale processes................................................................................................................122-125
Essential oils.......................................................................................................................................................69 Influencing the equilibrium..........................................................................................................................99
Esterification reaction................................................................................................................................ 130 Investigation of a PEM fuel cell stack...................................................................................................119
Estimation of the size of oil molecules...................................................................................................34 Ion compounds..........................................................................................................................................55, 56
Ethane........................................................................................................................................................... 59, 78 Ion transport..........................................................................................................................................105-107
Ethanol........................................................................................................................................... 68, 74-75, 79 Ion transport in liquids................................................................................................................................ 105
Exhaust gases..................................................................................................................................................127 Ions.........................................................................................................................................105-107, 128, 133
Exothermic........................................................................................................................................................101 IR-CO2-Experiment set...............................................................................................................................128
Experiments with the corrosion set.........................................................................................................51 Iron..................................................................................................................................................... 50, 124-125
Extinction............................................................................................................................................................82 Iron(II)-sulfate...................................................................................................................................................89
Extracting pigments from leaf extract...................................................................................................67 Iron(III)-chloride................................................................................................................................................99
Extraction.............................................................................................................................................66-67, 70
Extraction of copper from copper oxide................................................................................................49 K
Extraction of iron by the blast furnace process...............................................................................124 Kalorimetry.........................................................................................................................................................61
Extraction of metals.......................................................................................................................................49 Ketone...................................................................................................................................................................60
Kinetics...............................................................................................................................................96-98, 133
F Kipp‘s apparatus...............................................................................................................................................47
Falling ball viscosimeter......................................................................................................................73, 130
Faraday constant.................................................................................................................................... 42, 117 L
Fehling‘s reaction...........................................................................................................................................132 Lactase................................................................................................................................................................136
Flame colouring................................................................................................................................................38 Lactic acid bacteria.......................................................................................................................................136
Flame Test............................................................................................................................................................38 Lavoisier, Antoine de.......................................................................................................................................39
Flavouring substance......................................................................................................................................69 Law of conservation of mass......................................................................................................................39
Fluorescein..........................................................................................................................................................81 Law of definite proportions.........................................................................................................................40
Fluorescence.......................................................................................................................................................81 Law of mass action..........................................................................................................................................99
Fluorescence spectra......................................................................................................................................81 Law of multiple proportions........................................................................................................................ 41
Food analytics....................................................................................................................................................93 Leaf pigments.....................................................................................................................................66-67, 70
Fractionated petroleum distillation with a bubble tray column..................................................62 Lechlanché cell................................................................................................................................................115
Fractions......................................................................................................................................................62, 64 Lemon....................................................................................................................................................................69
Fragance...............................................................................................................................................................69 Liquid-liquid extraction.................................................................................................................................67
Franck, James.....................................................................................................................................................37 Liquids............................................................................................................................................................73-75
Franck-Hertz experiment..............................................................................................................................37 Lithium chloride................................................................................................................................................55
Fructose......................................................................................................................................................84, 132 Local element.....................................................................................................................................................51
Fuels....................................................................................................................................................61, 119, 130 Lye...........................................................................................................................................................................53
Fuel oil...................................................................................................................................................................61
M
G Maey gas generator.........................................................................................................................................47
g factor.................................................................................................................................................................86 Magnesium.................................................................................................................................................30, 40
Galvanic elements.................................................................................................................................114-115 Magnesium oxide.............................................................................................................................................40
Galvanisation...................................................................................................................................................118 Malachite green.........................................................................................................................................97, 98
Galvanisation of a metal ............................................................................................................................118 Manganese(IV)-oxide.....................................................................................................................................47
Gases.....................................................................................................................................................................72 Manganometric determination of iron(II) ions....................................................................................89
Gas chromatographical analysis of cigarette lighter gas (butane gas) ....................................78 Manganometry..................................................................................................................................................89
Gas chromatographical separation of alcohols...................................................................................79 Marble...................................................................................................................................................................39
Gas chromatography.............................................................................................................................. 78, 79 Mass fraction.....................................................................................................................................................83
Gas generator.....................................................................................................................................................47 Material properties................................................................................................................... 30-35, 37-38
Gases..............................................................................................................................................31, 45-48, 78 Measurement of surface tension using the „break-away“ method...........................................74
Gay-Lussac, Pycnometer after ..................................................................................................................75 Melting ice, boiling water.............................................................................................................................32
Global environmental problems.....................................................................................................128-129 Melting point............................................................................................................................................. 32, 76
Glucose.......................................................................................................................................................84, 132
141
INDEX
Metal hydride storage................................................................................................. 41, 43, 48, 119, 123 Production of gases.........................................................................................................................................47
Metals....................................................................................................30, 49-51, 109-111, 118, 124-125 Production of gases with a dropping funnel........................................................................................47
Methane...............................................................................................................................................................59 Production of gases with a Kipp’s apparatus.......................................................................................47
Methanol...................................................................................................................................................79, 130 Production of sulfuric acid by the contact method .......................................................................122
Michaelis konstant........................................................................................................................................ 133 Production of yoghurt..................................................................................................................................136
Michaelis-Menten kinetics....................................................................................................................... 133 Propanol............................................................................................................................................... 58, 60, 79
Michealis Menten kinetics using the enzyme urease.................................................................... 133 Proteins.............................................................................................................................................................. 133
Migration velocity......................................................................................................................................... 106 Protolysis equilibrium...........................................................................................................................53, 100
Millikan, Robert A............................................................................................................................................36 Purification................................................................................................................................................. 66, 70
Mittasch catalyst...........................................................................................................................................123 Purification of a substance with water vapour distillation............................................................69
Modification changes.....................................................................................................................................52 Pycnometer.........................................................................................................................................................75
Mohr-Westphal.................................................................................................................................................75
Molar mass................................................................................................................................... 30-35, 37-38 Q
Molecular motion.............................................................................................................................................33 Qualitative water synthesis.........................................................................................................................43
Molecular size....................................................................................................................................................34 Quantitative determination of carbon ...................................................................................................58
Quantitative determination of hydrogen ..............................................................................................58
N Quantum nature...............................................................................................................................................36
Neon.......................................................................................................................................................................37
Nernst equation...................................................................................................................................... 56, 113 R
Neutralisation..........................................................................................................................................53, 103 Radioactivity......................................................................................................................................................35
Nitrogen.............................................................................................................................................................123 Rapeseed oil..................................................................................................................................................... 130
Nitrogen oxides.......................................................................................................................................92, 127 Rare earth magnet...........................................................................................................................................94
NMR spectroscopy...........................................................................................................................................85 Reaction enthalpy..........................................................................................................................................101
Non-metals............................................................................................................................................... 52, 112 Reaction of malachite green with hydroxide ions.............................................................................98
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)........................................................................................................85 Reaction order............................................................................................................................................97-98
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) on polystyrene, glycerine and Teflon............................85 Reaction rate....................................................................................................................................96-98, 133
Nucleus.................................................................................................................................................................35 Reaction tube..............................................................................................................................40-41, 45, 48
Recording emission spectra of a flame test.........................................................................................38
O Recording of a fluorescence spectrum with a spectrometer .......................................................81
Oil............................................................................................................................................................................34 Recording of absorption spectra with a spectrometer....................................................................80
Olive oil.............................................................................................................................................................. 134 Recording the characteristic curves of a PEM fuel cell stack.....................................................119
Optical activity..................................................................................................................................................84 Redox probe................................................................................................................................................ 89, 96
Orange...................................................................................................................................................................69 Redox reaction................................................................................................................... 48, 50-51, 60, 96
Ore...................................................................................................................................................... 49, 124-125 Redox titration..................................................................................................................................................89
Organic compounds................................................................................................................................58, 65 Reducing agent.................................................................................................................................................48
Oscilloscope ............................................................................................................................................... 85, 86 Reducing sugars..............................................................................................................................................132
Osmosis...............................................................................................................................................................120 Reduction................................................................................................................................48, 89, 124, 132
Osmotic pressure............................................................................................................................................120 Refractive index................................................................................................................................................83
Oxidation.............................................................................................................................. 50-51, 60, 89, 96 Refractometer...................................................................................................................................................83
Oxidation of propanol....................................................................................................................................60 Renewable resources................................................................................................................................... 130
Oxygen................................................................................................................................. 40, 42, 45, 47, 135 Respiration........................................................................................................................................................135
Oxygen consumption....................................................................................................................................135 Rotation of the polarisation plane through sugar solutions.........................................................84
Oxygen content.................................................................................................................................................45 Rust........................................................................................................................................................................50
Oxygen corrosion.............................................................................................................................................50 Rutherford, Ernest...........................................................................................................................................35
Oxygen electrode...........................................................................................................................................135
Oxygen-family...................................................................................................................................................52 S
Ozone hole........................................................................................................................................................ 129 Saccharose..............................................................................................................................73, 84, 120, 132
Ozone hole problem..................................................................................................................................... 129 Salicylic acid.......................................................................................................................................................76
Salt bridge........................................................................................................................................56, 110, 112
P Salts....................................................................................................................................................... 38, 55-56
Paraffine..............................................................................................................................................................63 Screen...................................................................................................................................................................80
Parallel circuit..................................................................................................................................................119 Separation...........................................................................................................................................................70
Petrochemical products................................................................................................................................64 Separation of a leaf extract with column chromatography..........................................................70
Petrochemistry...........................................................................................................................61, 63-64, 70 Separation of petroleum by means of column chromatography.................................................70
Petroleum............................................................................................................................................................70 Separatory funnel............................................................................................................................................67
Petroleum product...................................................................................................................................62, 64 Series circuit.....................................................................................................................................................119
Petroleum............................................................................................................................................................70 Silica gel...............................................................................................................................................................70
pH value................................................................................................................................ 53-54, 87-88, 93 Silver nitrate.......................................................................................................................................................56
Phosphoric acid.........................................................................................................................................54, 93 Size.........................................................................................................................................................................34
Photometric assay...........................................................................................................................................90 Soda lye....................................................................................................................... 53-54, 87-88, 93, 103
Photometry.........................................................................................................................................................82 Sodium chloride............................................................................................... 53-56, 83, 87-88, 93, 103
Physical properties...................................................................................................................................72-76 Solid state.....................................................................................................................................................76-77
Pigments...................................................................................................................................................... 80-81 Solid-liquid extraction...................................................................................................................................66
pKa value...................................................................................................................................................53, 100 Solids..............................................................................................................................................................76-77
Platin catalyst........................................................................................................................................122, 127 Solubility product.............................................................................................................................................56
Plummet...............................................................................................................................................................75 Solution................................................................................................................................................................55
Polarimetry.........................................................................................................................................................84 Soxhlet extraction from leaves..................................................................................................................66
Polarisation.......................................................................................................................................................116 Specific rotation...............................................................................................................................................84
Polarisation plane.............................................................................................................................................84 Spectral lines......................................................................................................................................................38
Polystyrole...........................................................................................................................................................85 SpectraLab................................................................................................................................ 38, 80-81, 100
Potassium bromide..........................................................................................................................................56 Spectrometry........................................................................................................................... 38, 80-81, 100
Potassium chloride................................................................................................................................55, 108 Spectroscopy.............................................................................................................................................. 85-86
Potassium iodide..............................................................................................................................................56 Spectrum........................................................................................................................................... 80-81, 100
Potassium permanganate.........................................................................................................89, 105-106 Standard hydrogen electrode........................................................................................................... 111-112
Potassium sodium tartrate...........................................................................................................................96 Standard potentials.............................................................................................................................. 111-112
Potassium thiocyanate..................................................................................................................................99 Standard potentials of metals..................................................................................................................111
Potentials.................................................................................................................................................109-115 Standard potentials of non-metals........................................................................................................112
Potentiometric titration................................................................................................................................87 States of matter................................................................................................................................................32
Precipitation.......................................................................................................................................................56 Stoichiometry.....................................................................................................................................30, 39-41
Production and use of indigo....................................................................................................................126 Structure of matter...................................................................................................................33-35, 37-38
Production of fuel from rapeseed oil .................................................................................................. 130 Sugar..........................................................................................................................................73, 84, 120, 132
INDEX
Sulfur....................................................................................................................................................52, 77, 122 Universal measuring instrument, Chemistry...................................................44, 56, 102, 110-113
Sulfur dioxide.........................................................................................................................................122, 127 Urea..................................................................................................................................................................... 133
Sulfuric acid......................................................................................................................................................122 Urease................................................................................................................................................................ 133
Surface tension................................................................................................................................................. 74 UV radiation..................................................................................................................................................... 129
Synthesis................................................................................................................................ 65, 122-123, 126 UV-C sensor..................................................................................................................................................... 129
Synthesis and use of indigo.........................................................................................................................65
Synthesis of ammonia by the Haber-Bosch process.......................................................................123 V
Synthesis of magnesium oxide...................................................................................................................40 Vinegar..................................................................................................................................................................87
Viscosimeter.............................................................................................................................................73, 130
T Viscosity...............................................................................................................................................................73
Teflon.....................................................................................................................................................................85
Test for reducing sugar - Fehling’s reaction.......................................................................................132 W
Test tubes for gases.......................................................................................................................................127 Waste gases......................................................................................................................................................127
Testing tubes......................................................................................................................................................92 Water............................................................................................................................... 32, 42-44, 74-75, 90
The Beer-Lambert law....................................................................................................................................82 Water analysis...................................................................................................................................................90
The calorific value of coal.............................................................................................................................61 Water contents..................................................................................................................................................90
The calorific value of fuel oil ......................................................................................................................61 Water decomposition.....................................................................................................................................42
The chemical composition of a brass specimen..................................................................................94 Water electrolysis.................................................................................................................................. 42, 117
The Daniell cell................................................................................................................................................114 Water synthesis.................................................................................................................................................43
The electrochemical series........................................................................................................................ 109 Water vapour distillation..............................................................................................................................69
The electrochemical series with salt bridge........................................................................................110 Wine.......................................................................................................................................................................68
The Leclanché cell..........................................................................................................................................115
The thermite process....................................................................................................................................125 X
Thermal analysis of hydrocarbons............................................................................................................59 X-ray......................................................................................................................................................................94
Thermal anomaly of water...........................................................................................................................44 X-ray fluorescence..........................................................................................................................................94
Thermal decomposition.................................................................................................................................59 X-ray fluorescence analysis of chemical composition.....................................................................94
Thermite process............................................................................................................................................125 X-ray tube, Mo..................................................................................................................................................94
Thermochemistry.........................................................................................................55, 61, 101-104, 134
Three-way-catalyst.......................................................................................................................................127 Y
Titration......................................................................................................................53-54, 87- 89, 93, 108 Yeast fermentation........................................................................................................................................135
Transport process...........................................................................................................................................120 Yeast fermentation - Test of oxygen consumption.........................................................................135
Triprotic acid.......................................................................................................................................................54 Yoghurt...............................................................................................................................................................136
U Z
UV-IR-VIS experiment kit.......................................................................................................................... 129 Zinc.........................................................................................................................................................................47
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CHEMISTRY EXPERIMENTS FOR DEMONSTRATION

BRANDS OF THE LD DIDACTIC GROUP

It takes experiments to bring a chemistry class to life. Ideally, they should

For classroom instruction in schools and universities

Grouped according to different levels of knowledge

QUICK AND EASY SET-UP AND

EXPERIMENT LITERATURE ADAPTED

FEW DEVICES, MANY EXPERIMENTS

Basic Science Kit Chemistry Oxygen - isolation, detection

Students’ Work Sheet

Object of the experiment

204 602 Science Kit Chemie - Basics 309 150 58

1 Rubber stopper with 2 holes

ADVANCED SCIENCE 400

FOR HIGHER EDUCATION

Alcohols, aldehydes and ketones

CHEMISTRY Carboxylic acids and esters

Air, gases and their properties

Metals and non-metals Chromatography

Number of experiments 57 Number of experiments 24

Additives and associated agents

Minerals and vitamins 13

Topics Experiments Changes in foodstuffs

Enzymatic test pocedures 3

CHEMICAL PROCESSES Number of experiments 163

Inorganic key chemicals 4

Glass and ceramics

Chemistry of black and white photography

OVERVIEW OF THE TOPICS

Acids and bases Carboxylic acids and esters

Metals and non-metals

Number of Experiments 53 Number of Experiments 31

Number of Experiments 10 Number of Experiments 7

Sensors for chemistry measure-

BASIC UNITS SENSO

FOR DEMONSTRATION EXPERIMENTS

The experiment tray is suitable for experiments

FOR EXPERIMENTS WITH LIQUIDS

This stand system has been specially designed for use

CHEMISTRY PANEL SYSTEM

Clearly arranged mounting systems for experiments with plain background

FAST AND SAFE SET-UP

The new magnetic holders make it possible to assemble experiment

ASSEMBLY AND MODIFICATION OF THE

Fit inside every fume cupboard:

2. Push a GL connector cap (silicone seals

CPS fuel cell stack (666 4812).

WITH THE LEYBOLD

THE EASY WAY TO PRODUCE ALL

HydroFill PRO Video at

Charging the HydroStik PRO –

The electrochemistry demo system is ideal for demonstration

Its large display makes it clearly visible

Topics Electrochemistry demo, CPS, equipment package 664 4071P

Experiment instructions (668 131) Accessory set (664 401)

In combination with the fibre optic cable, the spectrometer is

Small device with USB connection

SpectraLab software: displays spectra

C4.6 Transport processes