Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 2016;67(3):309-314

http://wydawnictwa.pzh.gov.pl/roczniki_pzh/

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

HEAVY METALS HAZARDS FROM NIGERIAN SPICES

Rose Ngozi Asomugha1, Nnaemeka Arinze Udowelle2, Samuel James Offor3, Chinonso Judith Njoku1,
Ifeoma Victoria Ofoma1, Chiaku Chinwe Chukwuogor 1, Orish Ebere Orisakwe2*

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra State, Nigeria
1

2
Toxicology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria
3
Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Uyo, Rivers State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
Background. Natural spices are commonly used by the people in Nigeria. They may be easily contaminated with heavy
metals when they are dried and then pose a health risk for the consumers.
Objective. The aim of this study was to determine the levels of heavy metals in some commonly consumed natural spices
namely Prosopis Africana, Xylopia aethiopica, Piper gineense, Monodora myristica, Monodora tenuifolia and Capsicum
frutescens sold in the local markets of Awka, Anambra state, South East Nigeria to estimate the potential health risk.
Results. The range of heavy metal concentration was in the order: Zn (14.09 – 161.04) > Fe (28.15 – 134.59) > Pb
(2.61 – 8.97) > Cr (0.001 – 3.81) > Co (0.28 – 3.07) > Ni (0.34 – 2.89). Pb, Fe and Zn exceeded the maximum allowable
concentrations for spices. The Target Hazard Quotient (THQ) of the spices varied from 0.06 – 0.5. Estimated daily intakes
(EDI) were all below the tolerable daily intake (TDI). The lead levels in Prosopis africana, Xylopia aethiopica, Piper
gineense, Monodora myristica and Capsicum frutescens which are 8-30 times higher than the WHO/FAO permissible limit
of 0.3 mg/kg.
Conclusions. Lead contamination of spices sold in Awka (south east Nigeria) may add to the body burden of lead. A good
quality control for herbal food is important in order to protect consumers from contamination.

Key words: food products, spices, potential toxic metals, risk assessment, public health

INTRODUCTION soil or aerial depositions as these spices are dried on

the ground or on roof tops [36]. Exposures to toxic
Spices are dried parts of plants which are used to metals are associated with severe health problems
improve colour, aroma, palatability and acceptability of with varying degrees of severity and conditions:
food [25]. Most common spices have been documented kidney problems, neurobehavioral and developmental
to possess outstanding microbial, antidiabetic, anti- disorders, high blood pressure and possibly cancer [5,
inflammatory, antioxidant and antihypertensive 12, 17]. Natural spices used in Nigeria are mostly used
potential [9, 15, 37]. On the other hand, the method by the population in the rural areas although different
of preparation and handling of spices can make them local spices have ethnic and regional peculiarities,
a source of food poisoning [34]. Currently there is an which may be as a result of distinct preparation
increased emphasis on eating healthy foods which methods.
are low in fat and salt [27], although they belong Most of these spices are produced from natural
to condiments, spices are substances which do not sources and therefore the wide spread public opinion
contain nutritive components [21] but their ability that they are harmless and free from adverse effect.
to improve taste and sometimes appearance of food Nevertheless, a good quality control for herbal food
has led to increased usage among locals in Nigeria. is important in order to protect consumers from
Spices are a potential link to transfer contaminants and contamination [41].
heavy metals from the environment to humans through Although spices represent a small fractions of
the food chain due to their plant origin. These spices the total food intake, their use in the preparation of
may easily be contaminated by heavy metals from the popular daily Nigerian meals such as jollof rice,

Corresponding author: Orish Ebere Orisakwe,, Toxicology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State,
*

Nigeria, phone: +23408068533281, e-mail: orishebere@gmail.com

© Copyright by the National Institute of Public Health - National Institute of Hygiene
310 R. N. Asomugha, N. A. Udowelle, S. J. Offor et al. No 3

beans, moi-moi, and a variety of soups, results in the

need to determine its safety. Spices have now been
considered a potential non-paint, non-petrol source
of lead poisoning within apparently lead safe home
environments [13].
The aim of this study is to determine the levels
of heavy metals contamination in some commonly
consumed natural spices namely Prosopis africana,
Xylopia aethiopica, Piper gineense, Monodora
myristica, Monodora tenuifolia and Capsicum
frutescens sold in the local markets of Awka, Anambra
state, South-East Nigeria and to estimate their potential
health risk.

MATERIALS AND METHOD

Sample collection, preparation and analysis

Samples of spices namely Prosopis africana, Xylopia Figure 1. Samples of tested spices
aethiopica, Piper gineense, Monodora myristica,
Monodora tenuifolia and Capsicum frutescens (Figure HEAVY METAL HEALTH RISK
1) sold in different parts of Awka, Anambra state, south- ASSESSMENT
east region of Nigeria, were taken from the open markets
within the state in March 2015 and kept in plastic Calculation of Estimated Daily Intake of Metals (EDI)
bags. Only edible parts of the samples were used for The daily intake of metals depends on both
the analysis. The sources of spices were authenticated the metal concentration in food and the daily food
from the seller at the point of purchase to validate they consumption. In addition, the body weight of humans
were locally produced in the area. The samples were can influence the tolerance of contaminants. The EDI
cutting into small pieces before drying in the oven to the was calculated based on the following formula [35].
constant weight. The samples were then pulverized with
a ceramic mortar and pestle to fine powder. About 0.5 g
of dried powdered sample was weighed and transferred
into beaker and were subjected to wet digestion with Where:
10 mL HNO3:HClO4 (at a volume ratio of 4:1) at C - the metal concentration in spices in mg/kg,
150 oC for four hours. Following this, samples were left D - the daily intake of food in kg person-1
to cool; filtered using a filter paper, transferred into a BW - average body weight in kg person-1.
50 mL volumetric flask and a final volume of 25 mL
was made by adding deionized water. For each of the An average daily consumption of 0.01 kg of spices was
samples, triplicate digestion were carried out together assumed in this study. This method was adapted because
with blank reagent and kept in refrigerator until analysis. spices are widely consumed as a major part of the diet.
The samples were analysed for the presence of Pb, Cr, Average adult body weight was considered to be 65 kg.
Ni, Zn, Fe and Co using Flame Atomic Absorption Non carcinogenic risk estimation of heavy metals
Spectrometer (FAAS). The limit of detection of the consumption was determined using THQ values.
heavy metals were 0.005 µg/g, with blank values reading THQ is a ratio of the determined dose of a pollutant
below this value for the metals in deionized water with to a reference level considered harmful. THQ values
an electrical conductivity value of <5 µS cm-1. Standard were determined based on the following formula [35].
quality control measures were carried out to reduce the
risk of contamination and assure reliability of the results.

Where:
Efr - exposure frequency in 156 days year-1
ED - exposure duration in 70 years (equivalent to an
average lifetime) [3]
FIR - average daily consumption in kg person-1day-1
C - concentration of metal in food sample in mg/kg
RfDo - reference dose in mg/kg day-1
ATn - average exposure time for non – carcinogens in days.
No 3 Heavy metals hazards from Nigerian spices. 311

The following reference doses were used (Pb = 4.0 RESULTS

x 10-3, Cd = 0.001, Cu = 0.04, Fe = 0.7, Zn = 0.3, Mn
= 0.014, Co = 0.043). THQs were calculated according The concentration (mg/kg) of heavy metals (Pb,
to the methodology described by the Environmental Cr, Co, Zn, Fe and Ni) analysed in the local spices
Protection Agency (EPA) in the USA [39]. Doses collected from various location in Awka are presented
were calculated using the standard assumption for in Table 1 with the following ranges Pb (2.61 – 8.97),
an integrated risk analysis and an average adult body Cr (0.001 – 3.81), Fe (28.15 – 134.59), Zn (14.09 –
weight of 65 kg [39, 42]. In addition, based on EPA 161.04), Co (0.28 – 3.07) and Ni (0.34 – 2.89).
guidelines, it was assumed that ingested doses were
equal to absorbed contaminant doses [7].
Table 1. Concentration (mg/kg) of heavy metals in studied spices
Spices Nickel Cobalt Zinc Iron Chromium Lead
Prosopis Africana 0.34 1.69 15.31 134.59 1.2 8.51
Xylopia aethiopica 2.34 3.07 14.32 28.15 <0.001 6.1
Mondora myristica 1.42 0.28 161.04 84.45 0.92 8.97
Piper gineense 0.98 1.77 16.1 55.9 1.48 2.67
Capiscum frutescens 1.37 1.16 14.09 87.68 0.08 2.61
Mondora tenuifolia 2.89 1.55 23.4 83.63 3.81 <0.001
____________________________________
Permissible limits (WHO/FAO) 5.0 3.5 50 20 - 0.3
<0.001 = Below detectable limit
WHO/FAO - World Health Organization/ Food and Agricultural Organization, (2009) permissible limit.

The heavy metals with the highest concentration Table 2. Provisionally tolerable daily intake of heavy metals
(mg/kg) was Zinc (161.04) in Mondora myristica Heavy Concentration
and Iron (134.59) in Prosopis africana. While the Regulatory body
metals (mg/kg day-1 bw)
least concentration of heavy metals was in Xylopia Ni 0.0028 EFSA, 2015
aethiopia while Mondora tenuifolia had Lead and Pb 0.0005 WHO/FAO, 2010
Chromium levels below the detectable limit. The level Cr 0.3 EFSA, 2014
of iron in all the samples was relatively high when Co 0.023 FSA, 2003
compared with other heavy metals present in different Zn 0.43 SCF, 2003
samples. Also the least concentration of heavy metal Fe 0.8 EFSA, FAO/WHO, 2010
was chromium with the highest concentration of
3.81 mg/kg in Mondora tenuifolia. The lead levels in Table 2 shows the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) of
Prosopis Africana, Xylopia aethiopica, Piper gineense, metals from the consumption of spices. All samples were
Monodora myristica and Capsicum frutescens were below the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) of the different
higher than the World Health Organization/ Food and metals when compared with the calculated result in Table
Agricultural organization permissible limit of 0.3 mg/ 2. The THQ values of Pb, Zn, Fe, Co, Cr and Ni for the
kg. The combined heavy metal contamination (mg/ investigated samples had THQ values less than one. Also
kg) in the local spices followed this trend Mondora the Total Target Hazard Quotient (TTHQ) of all samples
myristica (257.08) > Prosopis Africana (161.64) > ranged from 0.06 – 0.5 (Figure 2).
Mondora tenuifolia (115.28) > Capiscum frutescens
(106.99) > Piper gineense(78.9) and Xylopia
aethiopica (53.98). The FAO/WHO permissible limits
of Pb, Zn, Fe, Co and Ni is shown in Table 1 and when
compared with the result of our present work were
lower than the permissible limit for spices, except for
Pb, Fe and Zn (Mondora tenuifolia) which was above
the set standard.

Figure 2. Target Hazard Quotient

312 R. N. Asomugha, N. A. Udowelle, S. J. Offor et al. No 3

DISCUSSION Nigeria reported by Njoku and Orisakwe in 2012 [26].

Although most cases of lead poisoning are caused by
Spices include the leaves, seeds, flowers, and/or contaminated paint and dust in older homes, a variety
other plant parts of herbs containing oils and other of unusual sources of lead exposure are occasionally
chemicals, which impart the characteristic taste and found. Woolf and Woolf [44] reported families whose
aroma give to the spices. Spices used in foods are children were poisoned by lead-contaminated spices.
purchased after grinding has produced a powdered A middle aged German suffered clinically severe lead
substance, and mixtures of individual spices are intoxication that required chelation with intravenous
commonly used to enhance the flavouring of prepared Na-CaEDTA after using “red lead” adulterated paprika
foods. There has been an increasing concern over the [24]. In 1994, Hungarian health officials reported that
years on the adverse health effect resulting from heavy the intentional adulteration of paprika with red lead had
metal exposure through food consumption in Nigeria. resulted in widespread poisoning of 141 adults, many
Trace food components such as spices which are of whom were symptomatic and required chelation
contaminated by heavy metals from the atmosphere, therapy [19]. Mixed spices generally exhibited higher
soil and water pose health risk to humans and animals value for trace metals specially lead (6.6–9.2 µg/g),
[18]. The present study investigated the presence of cadmium (0.65–1.34 µg/g), iron (142.3–285.0 µg/g)
toxic and essential heavy metals in local spices which and zinc (64.2–65.8 µg/g) [32].
is a major component of the diet among the population The presence of heavy metals in spices has
in South Eastern Nigeria. The growing use of these been reported from different places [1, 14, 45].
spices as flavouring, colouring and preservative agent Contamination may occur accidentally through
gotten/prepared from variety of plant seed, fruit, root contaminated irrigation water and fertilizer or
and vegetables which could have been contaminated deliberately when weight and colour are deceptively
by heavy metals during agricultural cultivation, enhanced for profit especially to the artificial spices.
industrial or human activities and from leaded gasoline Lead forms complexes with oxo-groups in
[20]. However there should be strict regulation or enzymes used in haemoglobin synthesis and porphyrin
sensitization on the level of contaminants present in metabolism [2]. Lead is a toxic metal of public health
locally produced spices in Nigeria, arising from food concern with no known biological function and report
preparation processes. This may support export as to induce toxicity at concentrations as low as 10 µg/
there is an increased use of spices in most regions of kg [43].
the world including Europe, North America and Asia Exposure to Cr can occur through food, it is
[27]. considered an essential metal for carbohydrate and
The concentration (mg/kg) in the present study lipid metabolism [29]. The level of chromium in this
with Pb range (< 0.001 – 8.97) were higher than those study with range (0.001 – 3.81), is in contrast with
reported by others [21, 27] in Ghana, Poland and levels reported for spices in Northern Nigeria; Singh
Libya. They are also lower than the level reported et al. [35] reported a range of (3.87 – 7.87) in spices
by Umar and Salihu [38] and Mubeen et al. [25] in gotten from plants irrigated with effluent water, while
Abuja and Pakistan respectively. In studies of heavy Umar and Salihu [38] reported Cr levels which were
metal levels in artificial spices in Nigeria, Nnorom below detectable limit. Although Cr exist in two forms
et al. [28] reported lead and cadmium (µg/g) levels Cr3+ and Cr6+, the essential Cr3+ is mainly found in food
which ranged from 3.60-3.65 for bouillon cubes, 3.9- and dietary supplements while the carcinogenic Cr6+
5.05 for chicken seasoning, nd-1.80 for curry powder, form is found in water [33].
0.85- 4.80 for beef seasoning, 1.10-1.15 for thyme and It is known that zinc is an essential trace element
0. 80-4.90 for mixed species. Although the Estimated not only for humans, but for all organisms, it is
Daily Intake (EDI) of metals from the consumption of a component of over 300 enzymes and even greater
spices were below Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) and number of other proteins, which emphasizes its
the Total Target Hazard Quotient (TTHQ) were <1, the indispensable role for human health [31]. The observed
lead levels in Prosopis africana, Xylopia aethiopica, range of Zn in the current study was between (14.09
Piper gineense, Monodora myristica and Capsicum – 161.04 mg/kg) with Mondora myristica having the
frutescens were 8-30 times higher than the World Health highest concentration of 161.04 mg/kg. The result
Organization/ Food and Agricultural organization indicates that only Mondora myristica exceeded the
permissible limit of 0.3 mg/kg [43]. The public health FAO/WHO permissible limit of Zinc among all the
implication of this should not be overlooked. The high studied samples. This result is comparable with the
consumption of these natural spices in Eastern Nigeria results of Dghaim et al [8] and Krejpcio et al. [21].
may explain at least in part the higher blood lead There is relatively high level of Fe recorded
levels in rural than urban pregnant women in Eastern in the present study ranging from 28.15 – 134.59
when compared to other metal concentrations across
No 3 Heavy metals hazards from Nigerian spices. 313

all samples. Fe serves as a constituent in proteins Organization permissible limit of 0.3 mg/kg may
e.g. haemproteins: haemoglobin, myoglobin; non- contribute to the body burden of lead even amongst the
haemproteins: ferritin, transferrin and as a co- rural population that consume lots of natural spices.
factor for many important iron dependent enzymes
(Cytochromes A, B, C; peroxidases, catalases) [10]. Conflict of interest
The levels reported in UAE, Egypt and Pakistan [1, 8, The authors declare no conflict of interest.
25, 36] were significantly higher in comparison with
our present study thus confirming that the heavy metal REFERENCES
contents in spices varied depending on the country of
origin, environmental pollution levels, plant parts and 1. Arab A.A.K., Abou-Donia M.A.: Heavy metals in
technological processes [21]. Egyptian spices and medicinal plants and the effect of
The cobalt concentration (mg/kg) varied slightly processing on their levels. Journal of Agricultural and
between 0.28 – 3.07. The maximum concentration is in food chemistry. 2000;48: 2300 – 2304.
2. Ademorati C.M.A.: Environmental chemistry and
Xylopia aethiopica with 3.07. Cobalt is a component of
toxicology pollution by heavy metals. Foludex press
the essential Vitamin B12, important for the functioning
Ibadan 1996;171–172.
of red blood cells, with the largest source of cobalt 3. Bennett D.H., Kastenberg W.E., McKone T.E.A.:
in humans through the diet. Although environmental Multimedia, multiple pathway risk assessment of
exposure to toxic levels may occur in industrial atrazine: The impact of age differentiated exposure
settings [22] and this has been shown to cause adverse including joint uncertainty and variability. Reliab Eng
health effects which includes liver toxicity, dermatitis, Syst Saf. 1999; 63:185–198.
endocrine and reproductive toxicity [11, 23, 30]. 4. Cameron K.S., Buchner V., Tchounwou PB.: Exploring
Although there is no permissible limit for the levels the molecular mechanisms of nickel-induced
of Cobalt in food, a 1.5 mg/kg maximum permissible genotoxicity and carcinogenicity: A literature review.
limit of this metal has been reported because higher Reviews Environ. Health 2011; 26:81-92.
levels can be related with health problems [40]. 5. Castro-Gonzalez M.I., Mendez-Armenta M.: Heavy
metals: implications associated to fish consumption.
In humans nickel toxicity is influenced by the
Environ Toxicol Pharmacol 2008; 26: 263–271.
route of exposure, dose and solubility [4]. Samples
6. Coogan T.P., Latta D.M., Snow E.T., Costa M.: Toxicity
with concentrations ranging from 0.34 – 2.89 in this and carcinogenicity of nickel compounds. Crit Rev
study which were below the WHO/FAO permissible Toxicol. 1989; 19 (4):341–384.
limit of 50 mg/kg in spices, suggests the levels 7. Cooper C.B., Doyle M.E., Kipp K.: Risks of consumption
currently detected in the various samples are within of contaminated seafood: The Quincy Bay case study.
the safe limit. The most common effect of Nickel Environ Health Perspect. 1991; 90: 133–140.
exposure is allergic reaction [16] from products 8. Dghaim R., Al Khatib S., Rasool H., Khan M.A.:
like jewellery, coins and stainless steel but dietary Determination of heavy metals concentration in
exposure is responsible for the high intake of Nickel traditional herbs commonly consumed in the United
in the general population [6]. Arab Emirates. J. Environ. Public Health 2015: doi.
The toxic metals investigated in this study org/10.1155/2015/973878.
9. Duraka I.K.A., Vutcub M., Ay Tac B.¸ Avcia A., De Vrim
which includes Pb, Ni and Cr are known food and
E, Oz Bek H, Oz Turka H.S.: Effects of garlic extract
environmental contaminants, continuous ingestion from
consumption on blood lipid and oxidant/antioxidant
spices and other sources of heavy metal exposure taken parameters in humans with high blood cholesterol. J.
into account is likely to result in health risk challenges. Nutr. Biochem. 2004; 15:373.
The estimated daily intake (EDI) of metals based on 10. EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances
the assumption that an adult consumes at least 10 g of used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) 2013. European Food
spices daily suggests that all metals were below the Safety Authority (EFSA), Parma, Italy. EFSA Journal.
tolerable daily intake with the essential metals below 11(7):3287
the recommended daily intake in the investigated spices. 11. Finley BL, Monnot AD, Paustenbach DJ, Gaffney SH.:
Ingestion of heavy metals from other food sources could Derivation of a chronic oral reference dose for cobalt.
either augment for this concentration in essential metals Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 2012; 64(3): 491-503. doi:
or increase the body burden in toxic metals. 10.1016/j.yrtph.2012.08.022.
12. Galanis A., Karapetsas A., Sandaltzopoulos R.: Metal-
induced carcinogenesis, oxidative stress and hypoxia
CONCLUSION
signalling. Mutat Research 2009; 674: 31–35.
13. Gorospe EC.: Gerstenberger, http://www.aboutlawsuits.
The lead levels in Prosopis africana, Xylopia com/risk-lead-poisoning-indian-spices-
aethiopica, Piper gineense, Monodora myristica and powders-8981/). 2008
Capsicum frutescens which are 8-30 times higher than 14. http:// www.aboutlawsuits.com/risk-lead-poisoning-
the World Health Organization/ Food and Agricultural indian-spices-powders-8981/
314 R.K Randhawa, N. Gupta, M. Bansal et al. No 3

15. Hinne Bur Gi, Damien Dorman Hj, Hiltunen R.: 32. Sattar A., Wahid M., Durrani S.K.: Concentration of se-
Antioxidant activities of extracts from selected culinary lected heavy metals in spices, dry fruits and plant nuts.
herbs and spices. Food Chem. 2006; 97: 122. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 1989; 39(3), 279-286.
16. Hostynek J.J. : Sensitization to nickel: etiology, 33. Sazakli E., Villanueva C.M., Kogevinas M., Maltezis K.,
epidemiology, immune reactions, prevention, and Mouzaki A., Leotsinidis M.: Chromium in drinking wa-
therapy. Rev Environ Health 2006; 21(4): 252–280. ter: association with biomarkers of exposure and effect.
17. Jarup L. :Hazards of heavy metal contamination. Br Int J Environ Res Public Health 2014; 11(10):10125-
Med Bull 2003; 68, 167–182. 10145.
18. Kabata-Pendias A., Pendias H.: Trace Element in Soil 34. Sherman W.P., Billing J.: Antimicrobial functions of
and Plant. USA: CRC Press. 2001, 3rd ed. spices: why some like it hot. Quarterly Review of Biol-
19. Kakosy .T, Hudak A., Baray M.: Lead intoxication ogy 1998; 73(3): 1-47.
epidemic caused by ingestion of contaminated ground 35. Singh A., Sharma R.K., Agrawal M., Marshall F.M.:
paprika. J. Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1996; 34:507–511. Risk assessment of heavy metal toxicity through
20. Khairiah J., Ding-Woei Y., Habibah J., Ahmed-Mahir contaminated vegetables from waste water irrigated
R., Aminah A., Ismail B.S.: Concentration of heavy area of Varanasi. India. Trop Ecol. 2010; 51: 375–387.
metals in guava plant parts and soil in the Sungai Wangi 36. Soliman N.F.: Metals contents in spices and herbs
Plantation, Perak, Malaysia. International Journal available on the Egyptian market: assessment of
Agriculture Research. 2009; 4: 310–316. potential human health risk. In Open Conf Proc J, 2015;
21. Krejpcio Z., Król E., Sionkowski S.: Evaluation of 6:24-29.
heavy metals contents in spices and herbs available on 37. Srini-Vasan K.: Plant foods in the management of
the Polish market. Polish J. Environ. Stud. 2007; 16(1): diabetes mellitus: Spices as beneficial anti-diabetic
97–100. food adjuncts. Int. Food Sci. Nutr. 2005; 56: 399.
22. Kusaka Y., Ichikawa Y., Shirakawa T., Goto S. : Effect 38. Umar M.A, Salihu Z.O.O.: Heavy metals content of
of hard metal dust on ventilatory function. Br J Ind some spices available within FCT-Abuja, Nigeria.
Med. 1986; 43: 486–489. International Journal of Agricultural and Food Science
23. Liu Y.K., Xu H., Liu F., Tao R., Yin J.: Effects of serum 2014;4 (1): 66-74.
cobalt ion concentration on the liver, kidney and heart 39. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Mid-
in mice. Orthop Surg. 2010; 2: 134–140. Atlantic Risk Assessment: Human Health Risk
24. Lohmoller G.: Lead poisoning caused by red lead in Assessment. From: www.epa.gov/reg3hwmd/risk/
paprika powder. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1994; human/index.htm Accessed: Oct 2014.
119:1756 40. Valadez-Vega C., Zúñiga-Pérez C., Quintanar-Gómez
25. Mubeen H., Naeem I., Taskeen A., Saddiqe Z.: S., Morales-González J.A., Madrigal-Santillán E.,
Investigations of heavy metals in commercial spices Villagómez-Ibarra J.R., Sumaya-Martínez M.T.,
brands. New York Science Journal 2009; 2(5). García-Paredes J.D. : Lead, Cadmium and Cobalt (Pb,
26. Njoku C.O., Orisakwe O.E: Higher blood lead levels in Cd, and Co) Leaching of Glass-Clay Containers by pH
rural than urban pregnant women in Eastern Nigeria. Effect of Food. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2011; 12: 2336-2350;
Occup. Environ Medicine 2012; 69:850-851. doi:10.3390/ijms12042336.
27. Nkansah M.A., Amoako C.O.: Heavy metal content of 41. Volpe M.G., Nazzaro M., Di Stasio M., Siano F.,
some common spices available in markets in the Ku- Coppola F, De Marco A.: Content of micronutrients,
masi metropolis of Ghana. American Journal of Scien- mineral and trace elements in some Mediterranean
tific and Industrial Research 2010; doi: 10.5251|Aj- spontaneous edible herbs. Chemistry Central Journal,
sir.2010.1.2.158.163. 2015; 9, 57 DOI 10.1186/s13065-015-0137-9.
28. Nnorom I.C., Osibanjo O., Ogugua K.: Trace Heavy 42. Wang X., Sato T., Xing B., Tao S.: Health risks of heavy
Metal Levels of Some Bouillon Cubes, and Food metals to the general public in Tianjin, China via
Condiments Readily Consumed in Nigeria. Pakistan J. consumption of vegetables and fish. Sci Total Environ.
Nutr. 2007; 6 (2): 122-127. 2005; 350:28–37. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.09.044.
29. Parveen Z., Khuhro M.I., Rafiq N.: Market basket 43. WHO/FAO.: Corporate document repository plants as
survey for lead, cadmium, copper, chromium, nickel, storage pesticides (http://www.fao.org/docrep/x2230e/
and zinc in fruits and vegetables. Bull Environ Contam x2230e05.htm 2009; Accessed: 20/09/2009).
Toxicol. 2003; 71: 1260–1264. 44. Woolf A.D., Woolf, N. T.: Childhood lead poisoning in 2
30. Permenter M.G., Dennis W.E., Sutto T.E., Jackson families associated with spices used in food preparation.
D.A., Lewis J.A., Stallings J.D.: Exposure to Cobalt Pediatrics, 2005; 116(2), e314-e318.
Causes Transcriptomic and proteomic changes in two 45. Zahir E., Navi II., Uddin S.M.: Market basket survey of
rat liver derived cell lines. PLoS One. 2013; 8 (12) doi: selected metals in fruits from Karachi city (Pakistan).
10.1371/journal.pone.0083751. Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 2009; 5:47-52.
31. Plum L.M., Rink L., Haase H.: The Essential Toxin:
Impact of Zinc on Human Health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Received: 22.03.2016
Public Health. 2010; 7: 1342-1365; doi:10.3390/ijer- Accepted: 04.07.2016
ph7041342.