Ecosystem: It’s Structure and Functions

The biosphere

The biosphere contains all living organisms and it is intimately related to the other three spheres: most
living organisms require gases from the atmosphere, water from the hydrosphere and nutrients and
minerals from the lithosphere. Living organisms also require a medium for life, and are adapted to inhabit
one or more of the other three spheres.

Ecosystem

An organism is always in the state of perfect balance with the environment (surroundings). The
environment refers to the medium and conditions around the organism that directly or indirectly
influences its life, development and their populations. Organisms and environment are two non-separable
factors. Organisms interact with each other and also with the physical conditions that are present in their
habitats. The organisms and the physical features of the habitat form an ecological complex referred to as
an ecosystem. An ecosystem is a complex in which habitat, plants and animals are considered as one
interesting unit, the materials and energy of one passing in and out of the others. , the ecosystem is the
basic functional unit of organisms and their environment interacting with each other and with their own
components.

An ecosystem is a major ecological unit. It has both structure and functions. The structure is related to
species diversity. The more complex is the structure the greater is the diversity of the species in the
ecosystem. The functions of ecosystem are related to the flow of energy and cycling of materials through
structural components of the ecosystem. An ecosystem may be conceived and studied in the habitats of
various sizes, e.g., one square metre of grassland, a pool, a large lake, a large tract of forest, balanced
aquarium, a certain area of river and ocean. All the ecosystems of the earth are connected to one another,
e.g., river ecosystem is connected with the ecosystem of ocean, and a small ecosystem of dead logs is a
part of large ecosystem of a forest. A complete self-sufficient ecosystem is rarely found in nature but
situations approaching self-sufficiency may occur.

Structure of Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical features of
environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular habitat. It also provides
information regarding the range of climatic conditions prevailing in the area.

From the structure point of view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic components:

1. Abiotic components

2. Biotic components

1. Abiotic Components:

Ecological relationships are manifested in physicochemical environment. Abiotic component of

ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements and compounds, such as soil, water, oxygen, calcium
carbonates, phosphates and a variety of organic compounds (by-products of organic activities or death).
It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind currents and solar radiation.
Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. The amount of non-living
components, such as carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, etc. that are present at any given time is known as
standing state or standing quantity.

2. Biotic Components:

The biotic components include all living organisms present in the environmental system.

From nutrition point of view, the biotic components can be grouped into two basic components:

(i) Autotrophic components, and

(ii) Heterotrophic components

The autotrophic components include all green plants which fix the radiant energy of the sun and
manufacture food from inorganic substances. The heterotrophic components include non-green plants and
all animals which take food from autotrophs.

So biotic components of an ecosystem can be described under the following three heads:

1. Producers (Autotrophic components),

2. Consumers, and

3. Decomposers or reducers and transformers

The amount of biomass at any time in an ecosystem is known as standing crop which is usually expressed
as fresh weight, dry weight or as free energy in terms of calories/metre.

Producers (Autotrophic elements):

The producers are the autotrophic elements—chiefly green plants. They use radiant energy of sun in
photosynthetic process whereby carbon dioxide is assimilated and the light energy is converted into
chemical energy. The chemical energy is actually locked up in the energy rich carbon compounds.
Oxygen is evolved as by-product in the photosynthesis.

This is used in respiration by all living things. Algae and other hydrophytes of a pond, grasses of the field,
trees of the forests are examples of producers. Chemosynthetic bacteria and carotenoid bearing purple
bacteria that also assimilate CO2 with the energy of sunlight but only in the presence of organic
compounds also belong to this category.

The term producer is misleading one because in an energy context, producers produce carbohydrate and
not energy. Since they convert or transduce the radiant energy into chemical form, the better alternative
terms are ‘converters’ or ‘transducers’
Consumers

Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by producers are called
consumers. Under this category are included all kinds of animals that are found in an ecosystem.

There are different classes or categories of consumers, such as:

(a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers,

(b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers,

(c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers, and

(d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes.

(a) Primary consumers:

These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on producers or green plants.
Insects, rodents, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the common herbivores in the terrestrial
ecosystem, and small crustaceans, molluscs, etc. in the aquatic habitat. The herbivores serve as the chief
food source for carnivores.

(b) Secondary consumers:

These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals and the omnivores are
the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants as their food. Examples of secondary
consumers are sparrow, crow, fox, wolves, dogs, cats, snakes, etc.

(c) Tertiary consumers:

These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and herbivores. Lions, tigers,
hawk, vulture, etc. are considered as tertiary or top consumers.

(d) Besides different classes of consumers, the parasites, scavengers and saprobes are also included in the
consumers. The parasitic plants and animals utilize the living tissues of different plants and animals. The
scavengers and saprobes utilize dead remains of animals and plants as their food.

Decomposers and transformers:

Decomposers and transformers are the living components of the ecosystem and they are fungi and
bacteria. Decomposers attack the dead remains of producers and consumers and degrade the complex
organic substances into simpler compounds. The simple organic matters are then attacked by another kind
of bacteria, the transformers which change these organic compounds into the inorganic forms that are
suitable for reuse by producers or green plants. The decomposers and transformers play very important
role in maintaining the dynamic nature of ecosystems.
Function of Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a discrete structural, functional and life sustaining environmental system. The
environmental system consists of biotic and abiotic components in a habitat. Biotic component of the
ecosystem includes the living organisms; plants, animals and microbes whereas the abiotic component
includes inorganic matter and energy.

Abiotic components provide the matrix for the synthesis and perpetuation of organic components
(protoplasm). The synthesis and perpetuation processes involve energy exchange and this energy comes
from the sun in the form of light or solar energy.

Thus, in any ecosystem we have the following functional components:

(i) Inorganic constituents (air, water and mineral salts)

(ii) Organisms (plants, animals and microbes), and

(iii) Energy input which enters from outside (the sun).

These three interact and form an environmental system. Inorganic constituents are synthesized into
organic structures by the green plants (primary producers) through photosynthesis and the solar energy is
utilized in the process. Green plants become the source of energy for renewals (herbivores) which, in turn
become source of energy for the flesh eating animals (carnivores). Animals of all types grow and add
organic matter to their body weight and their source of energy is complex organic compound taken as
food.

They are known as secondary producers. All the living organisms whether plants or animals in an
ecosystem have a definite life span after which they die. The dead organic remains of plants and animals
provide food for saprophytic microbes, such as bacteria, fungi and many other animals. The saprobes
ultimately decompose the organic structure and break the complex molecules and liberate the inorganic
components into their environment.

These organisms are known as decomposers. During the process of decomposition of organic molecules,
the energy which kept the inorganic components bound together in the form of organic molecules gets
liberated and dissipated into the environment as heat energy. Thus in an ecosystem energy from the sun,
the input is fixed by plants and transferred to animal components.

Nutrients are withdrawn from the substrate, deposited in the tissues of the plants and animals, cycled from
one feeding group to another, released by decomposition to the soil, water and air and then recycled. The
ecosystems operating in different habitats, such as deserts, forests, grasslands and seas are interdependent
on one another. The energy and nutrients of one ecosystem may find their way into another so that
ultimately all parts of the earth are interrelated, each comprising a part of the total system that keeps the
biosphere functioning.

Thus the principal steps in the operation of ecosystem are as follows:

(1) Reception of radiant energy of sun,

(2) Manufacture of organic materials from inorganic ones by producers,

(3) Consumption of producers by consumers and further elaboration of consumed materials; and.

(4) After the death of producers and consumers, complex organic compounds are degraded and finally
converted by decomposers and converters into such forms as are suitable for reutilization by producers.

The principal steps in the operation of ecosystem not only involve the production, growth and death of
living components but also influence the abiotic aspects of habitat. It is now clear that there is transfer of
both energy and nutrients from producers to consumers and finally to decomposers and transformers
levels. In this transfer there is a progressive decrease of energy but nutrient component is not diminished
and it shows cycling from abiotic to biotic and vice versa.