Funda1 The Child Module 1st Sem - FS

Republic of the Philippines
Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao

GANI L. ABPI COLLEGE, INCORPORATED
Formerly Central Maguindanao Institute Buayan,
Datu Piang Maguindanao, 9607
(Professional Ed)
LEARNING MODULE ON Funda 1
THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES
This Learning Module belongs to:

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1 First Semester,AY 2021-2022
About this Module….
This 3-unit course focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on current
research and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional dimensions of
development. Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of development and
shall include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each developmental level.
It will help the future teachers and educators in teaching THE CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES methods, understand processes of
learning, and interrelationship of instructional goals and assessment.
References:
This Learning Module contains information that belongs to their rightful owners:
Bergin, C.C. and Bergin, D.A.(2018). Child and adolescent development in your
classroom (3rd ed). USA: WADSWORTH CENGAGE Learning.
Corpuz, B., Lucas, M.R., Borabo, H.G., & Lucido, P. (2018). Child and adolescent development.
Manila: Lorimar Publishing Inc.
Clark, R.M. (2016). Childhood in Society for the early years (3rd ed.). London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
Kostelnik, M., Soderman, A.K., Whiren, A.P., Rupiper, M., Gregory, K. (2015). Guiding
children‘s social development and learning: theory and skills, (8thed). Australia: Cengage
Learning.
Sigelman, C. and Rider, E. (2015). Life-span human development (8

th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning.
Child and adolescent development: Overview. Retrieved from

http//www.mentalhelp.net/articles/child-adolesecent-developmentoverview.
CDC-child development, adolescence. Retrieved from
http//www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/child development/positive parenting.
Children and video games: Playing with violence. Retrieved from

http//www.aacap.org/aacap/Families-and-Youth.
Page 2 College of Education

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the course, the pre-service teachers should be able to:
a. Articulate the rootedness of education in philosophical, socio-
cultural, historical, psychological, and political contexts.
b. Demonstrate mastery of subject matter/discipline.
c. Facilitate learning using a wide range of teaching methodologies

and delivery modes appropriate to specific learners and their
environment.
d. Develop innovative curricula, instructional plans, teaching

approaches, and resources for various learners.
e. Apply skills in the development and utilization of ICT to promote

quality, relevant, and sustainable educational practices.
f. Demonstrate a variety of thinking skills in planning, monitoring,

assessing, and reporting learning processes and outcomes.
g. Practice professional and ethical teaching standards sensitive to

the local, national and global realities.
h. Pursue lifelong learning for personal and professional growth

through varied experiential and field-based opportunities
College of Education Page 3

Lesson 1: Foundation of Human Development

A. Basic Concepts
B. Issues in Human
C. Development Research in Human Development
WHO ARE THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER?
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Definition of Childhood and Adolescence
CHILDHOOD – the state or time of being a child; especially, the period from
infancy to puberty.
The time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and confident
with the love and encouragement of their family and an extended community of
caring adults.
It is a precious time in which children should live free from fear, safe from
violence and protected from abuse and exploitation. (www.unicef.org)
1. By Parents: problem age/ troublesome age (less appealing age as compared

to babyhood), toy age.
2. By Educators: preschool age.
3. By Psychologists: pre-gang age, exploratory age, imitative/creative age.
1. By Parents: most problematic age, sloppy age, quarrelsome age.

2. By Educators: elementary school age, critical period in the achievement
drive.
3. By Psychologists: gang age (age of conformity), creative age, play age.

ADOLESCENCE – the period following the onset of puberty during which a young
person develops from a child into an adult. (ages 13–19 years old)
up‖.

occurring during the period from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority).The
period of adolescence is most closely associated with the teenage years, though its
physical, psychological and cultural expressions can begin earlier and end later.
1. Early adolescence (9-13 years) – characterized by a spurt of growth and the

development of secondary sexual characteristics.
2. Middle adolescence (14-15 years) – this stage is distinguished by the
development of a separate identity from parents, of new relationships with
peer groups and the opposite sex, and of experimentation.
3. Late adolescence (16-19 years) – At this stage, adolescents have fully
developed physical characteristics (similar to adults), and have formed a
distinct identity and have well-formed opinions and ideas.(NCERT 1999)
CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN
Ages and Stages
Middle childhood is an exciting time for children. It‘s more than just a time for
losing baby teeth. Often it is the time when first childhood memories are made
and when many other changes are happening to and around the child.
By understanding Clover Kids members‘ current developmental stage, and by
offering challenging opportunities to help them transition into the next stage, you
can help make 4-H a rewarding and fulfilling experience for them.
Characteristics Implications
Physical growth is lower than during Plan activities using large motor skills and
infancy and early childhood. introduce fine motor skills, one at a time.
Muscular coordination and control is Plan lots of physical activity with each meeting.
uneven and incomplete. Large muscles are
easier to control than small muscles.
Able to handle tools and materials more Introduce new physical activities that require
skillfully than during preschool years. coordination such as roller skating, bike riding,
rope jumping and simple outdoor games.
Can throw different-sized balls better Provide projects that don‘t require
than they can catch them. Most cannot perfection and that can be successfully
bat well. completed by beginners.

Most can learn to snap fingers, whistle Provide patient guidance and
and wink. encouragement for fine motor activities.
May repeat an activity over and over to
master it.
Mental Development
Unable to handle abstract ideas. Give instructions verbally and visually. Don‘t expect
them to read.
Can distinguish their own left and Avoid a lot of paper and pencil activities
right, but not yours. that require writing.
Define things by their use, i.e., pencil Plan a series of small activities broken up by long times
is for writing. of physical exercise rather
than one longer session.
Just learning letters and words. By Plan active learning around concrete objects.
six, most can read words or
combinations of words.
Short attention span, sometimes as Provide lots of materials and mediums for learning (i.e.,
little as five to ten minutes. paper, paint, brushes glue, building blocks, games,
puzzles).
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Sensitive to criticism, doesn‘t Always encourage effort.
accept failure well.
Strong desire for affection and Provide lots of opportunities for adult
adult attention. interaction with children.
Cooperative and helpful Provide opportunities for children to help in ―adult-like‖
ways, such as setting up for an
activity.
Get upset with changes in plans Give clear description of what your activity or schedule
and routine. will be and maintain it.
Say what they think and feel,
i.e.,
―you stink,‖ you‘re ugly,‖ etc.

Social Development
Learning to play cooperatively. Organize projects and activities that
Prefer to work in small groups of involve two or three children. If there is
two a larger
or three. Still like to focus on his or group, break activities into sections so
her own work or play. that only two or three are involved at
one time.
May begin to pair up to have a best Help children develop friendships
friend; however, the best friend through learning to share, taking turns,
may following
change frequently. rules and being trustworthy (not
tattling).
Mother (or parent) is still social Organize activities with high adult/child
focus as prime caregiver; however, ratios.
may ―fall in love‖ with kindergarten
teacher.
Likes being part of and around Develop projects and activities involving
family. or focusing on the family.
Can engage in group discussions. Avoid competition or activities that
select a
single winner or best person.
May have need to first, to win, or to Use imaginary play that involved real-life
be the best and may be bossy. situations (playing store, playing house).
Can be unkind to others, but
extremely sensitive to criticism of
self.

Characteristics and Implications for Children Ages 7 – 8
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Period of slow, steady growth. Will have difficulty with some fine
motor projects such as gluing, cutting,
hammering nails, bouncing
balls, etc.
Learn best if physically active. Can throw a ball more easily than
catching it.
Still awkward at some activities using small Provide opportunities to practice skills,
muscles, but have improved large muscle but use projects that can be completed
activities like riding a bike, skating or successfully by beginners.
jumping rope.
May repeat an activity over and over before
mastering it.
MENTAL DEVELOPMENT
May spend more time alone doing Give instructions verbally and visually. Most
projects, watching TV or day- children will be able to read and comprehend
dreaming. simple instructions.
Beginning to understand the Can introduce some written assignments
perspective of others. and activities; however, most children will still
prefer to be active.
Beginning to tell time. Activities requiring sorting, organizing or
classifying will be enjoyed.
Enormous curiosity and delight in Encourage children to develop or make
discovery. collections.
Are able to collect, sort, organize Encourage projects that can be done over
and classify. and over in different ways.
Can recognize some similarities and Use lots of activities requiring the children to
differences. participate in a ―hands-on‖ way.
Can do some abstract thinking, but Guide the children in reflecting on their
learn best through active, concrete learning experience.
methods.

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Increased awareness of Enjoy making gifts for family.
themselves, more sensitive to
others.
Enjoy being part of the Involve them in doing things for others.
family.
Worry about failure or being Be sensitive when teaching a new concept or skill that a child may
criticized. resist. Break it down in small steps
and provide reinforcement at each step.
Will try themselves out on Provide lots of adult encouragement and praise.
others to see how they are
accepted.
May claim tasks are too hard
rather than admit being
scared.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
May be moody, but less likely to Introduce the ―art of social graces.‖ Teaching table
direct negative feelings toward manners and other social niceties will be more
others. accepted.
Have high expectations of parents Activities will be more successful if children can be in
and adults and are critical when same-sex groups.
parents ―mess up‖.
Value adult interaction and may Select activities that involve the child‘s
actually be more polite to adults. curiosity and creative abilities.
More outgoing, curious and talkative. Children will enjoy naming their group or activity and
―coining‖ phrases to describe their activities.
Begin to internalize adult feelings Promote social activities that appreciate and
toward religion, ethnic groups and emphasize
money.
Begin to develop friendships Use lots of songs, rhythms, fairy tales and comics to
involving sharing secrets and help socialize the group.
possessions.
Begin to choose same-sex playmates Provide learning activities to stimulate
and development of play groups. conversation.
Like to practice different roles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENTS
PHYSICAL:
1. Experiences onset of puberty, develop secondary sex characteristics.
2. Grow rapidly, are often clumsy and uncoordinated.
3. A concern with changes in body size and shape. Become highly self-conscious, body
image can affect self-image.
4. Restlessness and fatigue due to hormonal changes.
5. A need for physical activity because of increased energy.
6. Developing sexual awareness, and often touching and bumping into others.
7. Physical vulnerability resulting from poor health/dietary habits or engaging in risky
behaviors.
-INTELLECTUAL
1. Moving from concrete to abstract thinking. Develop ability to think abstractly, but
many still think literal terms.
2. An ability to be self-reflective. Develop critical thinking skills and become more self-
aware, self-critical.
3. Exhibit increased communication skills.
4. Become argumentative and demonstrate an intense need to be ―right‖.
5. Develop decision-making skills and want a voice in their choices.
6. Show intense focus on a new interest but lack discipline to sustain.
7. Prefers active over passive learning experiences.
8. Interest in interacting with peers during learning activities.
9. Demand the relevance in learning and what is being taught.
10. Developing the capacity to understand higher levels of humor, some of which may be
misunderstood by adults to be sarcastic or even aggressive.
1. Are unpredictable emotionally, are sensitive and prone to outbursts.

2. Are vulnerable to emotional pleas and can be easily manipulated.
3. Exhibit an increasing capacity for empathy.
4. Experience increasing sexual feelings, may engage in sexual behavior without realizing
consequences.
5. Needing to release energy, with sudden outbursts of activity.
6. A desire to become independent and to search for adult identity and acceptance.
7. Self-consciousness and being sensitive to personal criticism.
8. Concern about physical growth and maturity.
9. A belief that their personal problems, feelings, and experiences are unique to

themselves.
10. Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection.
11. Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting behaviors.
-INTERPERSONAL
1. Display a more social consciousness.
2. Are more aware of relationships and have a strong need to belong.
3. Exhibit desire for independence and autonomy.
4. Experience a shift in dependence on family to dependence on peers.
5. Able to critically compare parents with others.
6. Seek deeper friendships based on shared interests, loyalty.
7. Experience increased interest in opposite sex, though may often feel uncomfortable
and awkward with the other sex.
8. Modeling behavior after that of older students, not necessarily that of parents and
other adults.
-INTERPERSONAL
1. Experimenting with ways of talking and acting as part of searching for a social position
with peers.
2. Exploring questions of racial and ethnic identity and seeking peers who share the same
background.
3. Exploring questions of sexual identity in visible or invisible ways.
4.
and being interested in popular culture.
5. Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection.
6. Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting behaviors.
7. As interpersonal skills are being developed, fluctuates between a demand for
independence and a desire for guidance and direction
1. Tend to be legalistic, focusing on ―rules‖ and ―fairness‖.

2. Retain moral beliefs of parents but begin to test rules of childhood.
3. Are influenced by the values of peers.
4. Form a more personal conscience; seek moral criteria that make sense to them.
5. Exhibit a stronger sense of responsibility toward larger society.
6. An understanding of the complexity of moral issues (question values, cultural
expressions, and religious teachings).
7. Being capable of and interested in participating in democracy.

8. Impatience with the pace of change, and underestimating how difficult it is to make
social changes.
9. Needing and being influenced by adult role models who will listen and be trustworthy.
10. Relying on parents and important adults for advice, but wanting to make their own
decisions.
11. Judging others quickly, but acknowledging one‘s own faults slowly.
12. Show compassion and are vocal for those who are downtrodden or suffering and have
special concern for animals and environmental issues.
1. Exhibit ―affinitive faith‖ (faith identity shaped by family and community).

2. Are open to service opportunities primarily to connect with peers, test skills.
3. Can be open to new prayer experiences.
4. Seek adult role models who live their faith authentically.
5. Desire a deeper relationship with God.
6. Begin moving away from religious imagery, beliefs, and practices of childhood; may
begin to explore new images of God.
Task:
What are the different issues in Human Development Research in Human Development?

Lesson 2: Learner- Centered Principles
You, the learner, are the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around you.
This lesson is focused on the fourteen (14) principles that are learner-centered.
Learner- Centered Principles

1. Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors (6 Principles)
2. Motivational and Affective Factors (3 Principles)
3. Developmental and Social Factors (2 Principles)
4. Individual Difference Factors (3 Principles)
TASK:
Examine the title, ―Learner-Centered Principles.‖
Quickly, jot down at least 10 words that come to your mind. Go back to each word and write
phrases about why you think the words can be associated with LCP. Form groups of three (3)
members each. Share your responses and summarize afterwards on a one-half sheet of paper.
―We think that LCP focus on…‖
American Psychological Association

1. Focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of
the learner rather than conditioned habits of physiological factors.
2. The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real-
world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to

(1) cognitive and metacognitive,
(2) motivational and affective,
(3) developmental and social, and
(4) individual difference factors influencing learners and learning.
Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners—from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational system.

COGNITINE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

1. Nature of the Learning Process-Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-
regulating, and assume responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
2. Goals of the Learning Process- The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal-directed. To construct
useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning strategies
necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students must generate
and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students‘ short-term goals and learning
may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can be refined by…
Filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their understanding of the subject
matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent
with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of Knowledge The successful learner can link new information with
existing knowledge in meaningful ways. Knowledge widens and deepens as students
continue to build links between new information and experiences and their existing
knowledge base. The nature of these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding
to, modifying, or reorganizing existing knowledge or skills. How these links may are
made or developed may vary in different subject areas, and among students with
varying talents, interests and abilities.
However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner‘s prior knowledge
and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used most
effectively in new tasks, and does not readily transfer to new situations.
Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of

strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such
as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.
4. Strategic Thinking - The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking
and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Successful learners use
strategic thinking in their approach to learning, reasoning, problem solving and concept

learning. They understand and can use a variety of strategies to help them reach
learning and performance goals, and to apply their knowledge in novel situations.
They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the

methods they use to see which work well for them, by receiving guided instruction and
feedback, and by observing or interacting with appropriate models. Learning outcomes
can be enhanced if educators assist learners in developing, applying, and assessing their
strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about Thinking- Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and
monitor their progress toward these goals.
In addition, successful learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not
making sufficient or timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative
methods to reach their goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal).
Instructional methods that focus on helping learners develop these higher order
(metacognitive) strategies can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for
learning.
6. Context of Learning -Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

technology, and instructional practices.
ers play a major interactive role with both
the learner and the learning environment.
variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.

chnologies and instructional practices must be appropriate for learners‘ level of
prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and their learning and thinking strategies.
can also have significant impacts on student learning.

Motivational and Affective Measures
1. Motivational and emotional influences on learning-What and how much is learned is

influenced by the learner‘s motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the
individual‘s emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success or
failure can enhance or interfere with the learner‘s quality of thinking and information
processing.
Students‘ beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning have a
marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also influence both
the quality of thinking and information processing as well as the individual‘s motivation
to learn.
Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally enhance motivation and facilitate learning
and performance. Mild anxiety can also enhance learning and performance by focusing
the learner‘s attention on a particular task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g.
anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and related thoughts (e.g. worrying about competence,
ruminating about failure, fearing punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally
detract from motivation, interfere with learning, and contribute to low performance.
2. Intrinsic Motivation to learn-The learner‘s creativity, higher order thinking, and

natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated
by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing
for personal choice and control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of the
learners‘ intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting basic
needs to be competent and to exercise personal control.
Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and

personally relevant and meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the
learners‘ abilities, and on which they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is
also facilitated on tasks that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs

for choice and control.
Educators can encourage and support learners‘ natural curiosity and motivation to learn
by attending to individual differences in learners‘ perceptions of optimal novelty and
difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
3. Effects of Motivation on effort - Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills require

extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners‘ motivation to learn, the
willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex

knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and
strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
Educators need to be concerned with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance

learner effort and commitment to learning and to achieving high standards of
comprehension and understanding.
Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities that enhance positive

emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase learners‘
perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
Developmental and Societal Factors
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints for learning.
Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
Because individual development varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
domains, achievement in different instructional domains may vary.
Overemphasis on one type of developmental readiness—such as reading readiness, for

example—may preclude learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in

other areas of performance. The cognitive, emotional, and social development of

individual learners and how they interpret life experiences are affected by prior
schooling, home, culture and community factors.
Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling and the quality of language
interactions and two-way communications between adults and children can influence
these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of developmental differences
among children with and without emotional, physical, or intellectual disabilities can
facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
Task 2. Read each question carefully and choose the best answer.
1. It has 14 principles and focuses on psychological factors that are primarily internal to
and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological
factors.
a. Metacognition
b. Thoeries on Learner's Development
c. Learner-centered Psychological Principles
d. Vision and Mission
2. Learner-Centered Psychological Principles are divided into four categories, which of the
following is not included?
a. Cognitive and Metacognitive
b. Motivational and Affective
c. Construction of Knowledg
d. Individual Differences
3. Which of the following is not part of Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors?
a. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn
b. Context of Learning
c. Thinking about thinking
d. Nature of the Learning Process
4. When does learning of a complex subject matter most effective?
a. When a learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways
b. When it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
c. When a learner can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
d. When learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies
to achieve complex learning goals.

5. What is the goal of the learning process?
a. When a learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways
b. When it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and
experience.
c. When a learner can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
d. When learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies
to achieve complex learning goals.
6. What factor in Cognitive and Metacognitive explains that learners continue to expand
repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for
them by receiving guided instruction and feedback and by observing or interacting with
appropriate model?
a. Context of Learning b.Strategic Thinking
c.Thinking about thinking d. Construction of Knowledge
7. Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.
a. Context of Learning b. Strategic Thinking
c. Thinking about thinking d. Construction of Knowledge
8. In the context of learning, which of the following factors does not influence learning?
a. Social Status b. Technology c.Culture d.Instructional Practices
9. Which of the following facilitate creative and critical thinking?

a. Support and instructional guidance
b. Linking new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways
c. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring operations
d. None of the above
10. Which of the following does not influence individual‘s motivation to learn?
a.Emotional States b.Habits of Thinking c.Interests and Goals d.Metacognition

Lesson 3:Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
1. Pre-natal Period
2. Infancy (birth – 2 years)
3. Early Childhood (3 – 5 years)
4. Middle and Late Childhood (6 to 12 years)
5. Adolescence (13 – 18 years)
6. Early Adulthood (19 – 29 years)
7. Middle Adulthood (30 – 60 years) 8. Late Adulthood (61 years and above)
Progress before Birth Prenatal Development

3 phases
germinal stage = first 2 weeks conception, implantation, formation of placenta
embryonic stage = 2 weeks – 2 months formation of vital organs and
systems fetal stage = 2 months – birth bodily growth continues, movement capability begins,
brain cells multiply age of viability
Overview of fetal development

It involves tremendous growth – from a single cell to an organism complete with brain and
behavioral capabilities
Infancy( birth-2 years)

• extreme dependence on adults
• beginning psychological activities:
• language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination and social learning •language of
newborn is the cry
• usually eats every 2 to 3 hours • uncoordinated movements • toothless • poor vision (focusing
range 8 to 12 inches)
• usually doubles weight by 9 months • responds to human voice & touch
Infancy- 1 year old

•change from plump baby to leaner more muscular toddler
•begins to walk & talk
• ability for passive language (better understanding of what‘s being said)
• tentative sense of independence • determined explorer
Infancy-2 years old

• begins to communicate verbally (name, etc.)
• can usually speak in 3 to 4 word sentences
• famous for negative behavior ―NO!‖ to everything! temper tantrums
• will play side by side other children, but does not actively play with them
• great imitators
Early Childhood-3 years old

• wants to be just like parents
• vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand
• climbs stairs with alternating feet • can briefly stand on one foot

• sentences are more complex; speaks well enough for strangers to understand
• imagination is vivid; line between what is real & imaginary is often indistinct
• develops fears (common fears: fear of dark, fear of animals, & fear of death)


• can hop on one foot & skip
• can accurately copy figures
• may begin to read
• socialize with other children their age
Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years old)

• both large & small muscles well-developed
•developed complex motor skills
•from independent activities to same sex group activities
•acceptance by peers very important
•parental approval still important
Adolescence
• traumatic life stage for child & paren
•puberty occurs
•extremely concerned with appearance
•trying to establish self-identity
•confrontations with authority
Early Adulthood/Young Adult(19-29 years old)

•physical development complete
•emotional maturation continues to develop
•usually learned to accept responsibility for actions & accept criticism
•usually knows how to profit from errors
•socially progress from age-related peer groups to people with similar interests
Middle Adulthood (30-60 years old)

• physical changes begin to occur:
• hair begins to thin & gray • wrinkles appear
• hearing & vision decrease
• muscles lose tone • main concerns: children, health, job security, aging parents, & fear of
aging
•love & acceptance still take a major role

LATE Adulthood (61 yeasr old and above)
•fastest growing age bracket of society
•physical deterioration (brittle bones, poor coordination)
•some memory problems
•coping with retirement & forms of entertainment
•very concerned with health & finances
• significant number become depressed; suicide rate is high
Developmental Tasks
›One that ―arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to
happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval,
and difficulty with later tasks.‖ by Robert Havighurst , 1972
1. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?

2. What task/s is/are expected of each development stage?
3. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of the lower level of
developmental tasks?


Lesson 4:Issues on Human Development
INTRODUCTION
Each of us has his/her own way of looking at our own and other people‘s development. These
paradigms of human development while obviously lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with
a conceptual framework for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up
with their own models of human development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on
issues on human development.
THREE ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT

 Nature versus Nurture
 Continuity versus Discontinuity
 Stability versus Change
Nature versus Nurture
The degree to which human behavior is determined by genetics/biology (nature) or learned

through interacting with the environment (nurture)(
http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint)
Nature
 Behavior is caused by innate
characteristics :The physiological/biological characteristics we are born with.
 Behavior is therefore determined by biology.
 Also a Determinist view- suggests all behavior is determined by hereditary factors:
Inherited characteristics, or genetic make-up we are born with.
(http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint-)
 All possible behaviors are said to be present from conception.
 Genes provide the blueprint for all behaviors; some present from birth, others pre-
programmed to emerge with age.
 Is a developmental approach: E.g. Piaget: children‘s thought processes change at
predetermined age-related stages changes in age are related to changes in behavior.
Nurture
 An individuals behavior is determined by the environment- the things people teach them,
the things they observe, and because of the different situations they are in.
 Also a determinist view- proposes all human behavior is the result of interactions with
the environment.
 Behaviorist theories are nurture theories: - Behavior is shaped by interactions with the
environment.

 Born an empty vessel- waiting to be filled up by experiences gained from environmental

interaction.
 No limit to what they can achieve: -Depends on quality of external influences and NOT
genes.
 The quality of the environment is the KEY -You can become anything provided the
environment is right.
Nature Nurture Interaction

 Behavior is often a result of the interaction between nature AND nurture.
 An individual‘s characteristics may elicit particular responses in other people e.g.
Temprament: how active, responsive or emotional an infant is influences in part determines
their caregivers responses. Gender: people tend to react differently to boys and girls due
to expectations of masculine and feminine characteristics.
 Aggression: Displaying aggressive behavior create particular responses from other
people.
SUPPORTING APPROACHES & PERSPECTIVE

Supporting Nature Supporting Nurture
-Physiological
- Social (e.g. Helping Behavior)
- Individual Differences
- Behavioral
- Developmental
Continuity versus Discontinuity
Continuity and discontinuity are two competing theories in developmental psychology that
attempt to explain how people change through the course of their lives, where the
continuity theory says that someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course
while the discontinuity theory instead contends that people change abruptly. These changes
can be described as a wide variety of someone's social and behavioral makeup, like their
emotions, traditions, beliefs, https://www.reference.com/education/continuity-versus-
discontinuity-developmental-psychology-
Furthermore, continuity and discontinuity disagree with one another in how they assess the
changes that someone undergoes throughout the course of their life. The continuity theory
examines the way someone changes in a quantitative and continuous respect. Discontinuity
theory, on the other hand, looks at these changes through the lens of a qualitative analysis
with an emphasis on the discontinuous nature of how someone changes.
Developmental psychology encompasses a very wide array of observations related to how

people think, behave and interact with their environment as well as other people. This field,
at first, was focused on how young children develop but, in recent years, it has expanded

past the pediatric setting to encompass studies of how people change throughout the
course of their entire lives, up until the point of their death.
Is Child Development continuous or discontinuous?
Not all psychologists, however, agree that development is a continuous process. Some view
development as a discontinuous process. They believe development involves distinct and
separate stages with different kinds of behavior occurring in each stage.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theori
What is the theory of development?

Developmental stage theories are theories that divide child development into distinct
stages which are characterized by qualitative differences in behaviour. There are a number
of different views about the way in which psychological and physical development proceed
throughout the life span.
Stability versus Discontinuity

 deals with the issue of whether or not personality traits present during present during
infancy endure throughout the lifespan.
 The stability-change debate describes the developmental psychology discussion about
whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth remain constant or
change throughout the life span.
For example, does a naturally extroverted and talkative baby remain that way for their
entire life? The stability vs. change debate is one of the fundamental questions in
developmental psychology along with nature vs. nurture. Typically cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies are used in research concerning stability vs. change
Change
Change Theorists- argue that personalities are modified by interactions with family,
experiences at school, and acculturation.
 Studies of children have often revealed impressive stability over time in aspects of
development such as the attachment to their parents or in personality. However, there is
evidence which suggests a contrary view, that change is both possible and indeed, is likely
under appropriate conditions.
 Freud was one of the first psychologist to emphasize the critical nature of our early
experiences for our later development. He believed that how we resolve our sexual and
aggressive urges is strongly tied to the nature of our personality as adults. Psychoanalysts
believe that personality traits developed in the first 5 years predict adult personality.

How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
 What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious,
overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes or
high blood pressure?
There's a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are because
it's in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of our childhood experiences. Or our
health and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices we make as adults.
But there's another powerful source of influence you may not have considered: your life
as a fetus. The nutrition you received in the womb; the pollutants, drugs and infections you
were exposed to during gestation; your mother's health and state of mind while she was
pregnant with you — all these factors shaped you as a person.
This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose pioneers assert
that the nine months of gestation constitute the most consequential period of our lives,
permanently influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of organs such as the
heart, liver and pancreas. In the literature on the subject, which has exploded over the
past 10 years, you can find references to the fetal origins of cancer, cardiovascular
disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental illness. At the farthest
edge of fetal-origins research, scientists are exploring the possibility that intrauterine
conditions influence not only our physical health but also our intelligence, temperament,
even our sanity. As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard
about fetal origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into the field, I
had a more personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was true that my actions over
the next nine months would affect my offspring for the rest of his life, I needed to know
more.
Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the message that what she
does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor's appointments, sees it in the pregnancy
guidebooks: Do eat this, don't drink that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant
mothers could be forgiven for feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog, full of guilt
and devoid of pleasure, and this research threatened to add to the burden.
But the scientists I met weren't full of dire warnings but of the excitement of discovery —
and the hope that their discoveries would make a positive difference. Research on fetal
origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in thinking about where human qualities come from
and when they begin to develop. It's turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier: the
National Institutes of Health embarked last year on a multidecade study that will examine
its subjects before they're born. And it makes the womb a promising target for prevention,
raising hopes of conquering public-health scourges like obesity and heart disease through
interventions before birth.

Task . Read each question and answer choice carefully and choose the ONE best answer.
1. Which of the following statements is TRUE about a child's adjustment to changes that
occur during middle childhood?
a. Difficulty with adjustment can result in emotional problems
b. All children experience difficulty adjusting to middle childhood in the same way
c. Difficulty with adjustment is normal and does not lead to any serious issues
d. It is rare for a child to have difficulty with adjustment during middle children
2. What was Eli M. Bower's contribution to the study of the education of children?
a. He was the first researcher to clearly define high-functioning autism
b. He developed a set of characteristics used to identify emotional and behavioral
disorders
c. He discovered autism and advocated for research on treatment options
d.He pioneered research on deficits in social imagination among children with Asperger's
3.Ivan was diagnosed with severe depression. He has a(n) _____ developmental abnormality.
a. cognitive b. behavioral c. emotional d.physical
4.The book of mental illnesses used to help psychologists diagnose patients is called the:
a. DSM b. MMD c. MTD d.DTM e. MRI
5. How is abnormal development defined?

a. When a child shows similar development to their peers in every way.
b. When development occurs in an unexpected way, and exhibits an unusual pattern of behavior,
emotion, or thought.
c. When development occurs in an expected way with typical patterns of behavior.
d. When development occurs in an unexpected way during adulthood.
Part 2:
1. Intimacy versus Isolation -
A. Erikson‘s stage (ages of 18 - 35 years) when people begin to explore relationships,
moving to commitment and long-term relationships; failure brings isolation
B. Kohlberg's highest level of moral development; occurs around age 13 or older
C. Love between two adults
D. Erikson‘s stage which speaks to children beginning to have more social interactions
and developing a sense of pride in their accomplishments

2. Macrosystem -
A. A craft
B. Society at large, including the immediate culture and the world
C. According to Maslow, this level of human development is achieved by people who are
all they can be; they have fulfilled their potential
D. Looks at how ecological systems influence development over time and with
transitions, such as divorce
3. Theories -
A. Promises that certain things will happen in certain ways
B. Can never actually be used to guide our thinking and behavior; they are just for
general knowledge
C. Answer all our questions about human development
D. Ways of thinking that help us understand, give us questions to ask and offer looks
with different views
4. Basic physiological needs -

A. Developed by Glen Elder to study growth and development past childhood,
throughout the entire lifetime
B. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, these are the basics of air, food, water, shelter,
clothing, rest and sleep
C. Needs of the mind; ways to stay creative and interested
D. Maslow's third level of human needs
5. Stage 6 of Kohlberg‘s theory -

A. Glen Elder‘s last stage in his Life Course Theory
B. Looks at how ecological systems influence development over time and with
transitions, such as divorce
C. Highest stage in Kohlberg's stage of moral development, included in Level III;
individuals follow their own conscience about what is right and behavior is the same
no matter who is present
D. The stage from birth to about age 18 months when children either learn that the world
is a safe and nurturing place or they learn to be mistrustful and frightened
6. Trust versus Mistrust -
A. Erikson's stage which states that children expand their world and learn to control their
new environments, acquire feelings of competence and independence and develop
leadership skills
B. Part of Kohlberg's moral development theory which states that people are moral due to
knowledge of punishment and obedience; children obey to avoid being caught and
punished
C. Kohlberg's highest level of moral development; occurs around age 13 or older
D. Erikson‘s first stage from birth to about age 18 months when children either learn that

the world is a safe and nurturing place, or they learn to be mistrustful and frightened
7. Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance -

A. Erikson‘s five stages of development
B. The five stages of divorce
C. The stages that accompany puberty
D. Kubler-Ross' five stages of grief
8. Level I, Stage 1 -
A. In Erikson's theory, children ages 2-3 begin to have some control over their own
bodies and, to some extent, their lives, which allows for great independence and selfconfidence
B. A person's interaction with the immediate environment; these are generally twoperson
relationships, but they can happen at home, school or playgroups
C. A part of Kohlberg's moral development theory which states that people are moral
due to knowledge of punishment and obedience; children obey to avoid being caught
and punished
D. Kohlberg's highest level of moral development; occurs around age 13 or older
9. Maslow -
A. Developer of the Psychoanalytic Theory
B. Developer of the Bio-Ecological Systems Theory
C. Developer of the Hierarchy of Needs Theory
D. Developer of the Life Course Theory
10. Life Course Theory -

A. Developed by Maslow to study children
B. Erikson's theory which states that personality is shaped over the life span and that
experiences later in life can heal problems in early childhood
C. A way of thinking that helps us understand early childhood
D. Developed by Glen Elder to study growth and development past childhood,
throughout the entire lifetime

Lesson 5:PSYCHOLOGY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
WHAT IS PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT?

>Physical development is the physical growth from birth to adulthood and the development of
both gross(eg. Walking) and fine motor(eg. Finger movement) control of the body.
>Physical development means the progress of a child's control over his body.This includes control
over muscles,physical coordination,ability to sit and stand.
STAGES OF CHILD‘S DEVELOPMENT

>Every child is a changing, growing and developing organism. Rousseau attempted to divide the
child‘s development into 4 stages.
>infancy up to 5 years,
>childhood up to 12 years
>adolescence up to 18 years
>maturity from 18 years onwards
MODIFIED STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

>Pre-natal or pre-birth: from conception to birth
>Infant stage: from birth to 3 years
>Childhood stage : from 4 to 12 years
>a. Pre-child stage: from 4 to 6 years <
>b. early childhood: from 7 to 9 years
>c. late childhood: from 10 to 12 years
MODIFIED STAGES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

>Adolescence:from the outset of puberty to the age of maturity (generally from 13 th year to 19
years)
>Adulthood: from 20 th year to 55 years of age
>Old age: end of productivity to death
DEVELOPMENT TREE
>The Italian Committee for UNICEF organized a workshop at Rome in the year 1990 for
promoting the movement of child growth and development.
>It prepared the Development Tree that represents the rights of children that should be taken
into account for their growth and development.
>The idea of the Development Tree is that the respect of all rights is necessary to assure the
harmonious growth of the child.

REPRESENTATION BY DEV. TREE
>The roots of the tree represent the basic needs of the children like food, health, love,
nutrition, shelter, protection etc.
>The trunk represents the right to social and economic development like right to proper
childhood, balanced growth and legal protection.
>The branches represent the complementary rights like right to education, equality, play,
information, cultural identity, freedom of expression to live in peace etc.
HEALTHY PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

The age from the birth to 2 ½ years is that of immense physical development in a child.
>The child has to cross his milestones at regular intervals to be healthy. </li></ul>
MILESTONES
>At 1 month – hold head up

>2 months – smiles with recognition
>3 months – reaches out for objects but misses, rolls over
>4 months – sits up with support
>5 months – sits on lap and grasps given objects
>6 months – sits in chair with back rest and grasps dangling objects
>7 months – sits unaided
>8 months – tries to crawl
>9 months – stands using furniture or some support
>10 months – crawls
>11 months – walks with support
>12 months – stands unaided
>Between 13 months to 2 ½ years the child learns to walk freely, talk small words and eat on his
own.
Birth to 15 Months
CHILD FROM 21/2 TO 4 YRS
>walks around on his own, visits neighbours.
>can walk on tiptoe.
>tries to dress and undress alone.
>acquires proper toilet habits.
>recognizes colours, shapes etc.
>can state his name and age and related things.
>listens to stories and asks questions.
>plays with children of same age.
>learns to share and shows affection for younger brothers and sisters.

4 - 5 YRS
>Leaps, jumps and swings,
>speaks clearly
>can tell the days of the week, months of a year,
>is curious to learn more
>can recognize basic colours, shapes and can differentiate sizes
>protests vigourously when prevented form doing what he wants,
>learns to count on fingers,
>can walk down stairs taking one step at a time,
>listens to stories and can repeat them,
>is curios about activities of adults.
5 - 6 YRS
>can catch a ball thrown from a distance of 1 metre,
>speaks correctly but in childish language
>begins to distinguish right from left, yesterday from tomorrow etc
>distinguishes tastes
>detests authority imposed on him and carries out orders slowly
>performs simple tasks with interest
>takes interest in activities of home
>can understand rules and regulations, can dance, climb, hop etc.
ACTIVITES FOR 5 – 6 YRS

>play in open air for 2 ½ - 3 hours per day
>asked to run, jump, climb, swing, ride tricycle etc.
>advised to play indoor games.
>play with friends and share things
>cut pictures and paste them
>made to concentrate on studies but without force
>sleep at least for 8 – 9 hours
>advised to cut soft vegetables under adult supervision
>lace their shoes, button their shirts
>weigh things upto 3 – 4 kgs
Factors influencing physical development

>Heredity: The genes of parents define the physical personality of the child.
>Environment: Fresh air, sunlight, hygienic surroundings help in the good development of the child.
>Balanced diet: Balanced diet gives the necessary nourishment to the body and helps to keep the
child away from diseases
>Daily routine: Daily schedule of sleep, play & eat .Proper timings should be maintained for all
activities.
>Sleep and rest: Sleep and rest -timings should be maintained, over-sleep restricted.

>Love: Love is a very vital factor influencing a child‘s all round development without which he
develops into a person with criminal tendencies. Hence parents and teachers should shower love
on the children .
Task: Write the letter of your choice in the answer sheet.

1. Hours in a day most newborns sleep.
a. 8 b. 13 c. 16 d. 20
2. Infants turn their head toward something that touches their cheek.
a. Hungry b. Rooting reflex c. Moro reflex d. Survival reflex
3. Ability to grasp an object with the thumb and forefinger.

a. 2 years b. Grab c. Pincer d. Raking
4. Approximate age babies are first able to sit without support.

a. Newborn b. 6 months c. 18 months d. 1 year
5. Approximate age when babies pull themselves to stand with support.

a. 6 months b. 1 year c. Newborn d. 9 months
6. Implicit memories are those which we are not consciously aware of, but affect our
behavior.
a. True b. False
7. Neurons are the basic nerve cells in our brains.
a. True b. False
8. Infant distress when their caregiver departs.

a. Trust vs. Mistrust b. Stranger anxiety c. Attachment d. Separation anxiety
9. Erik Erikson‘s psychosocial theory of emotional development identifies infants‘ stage
of development.
a. Trust vs. Mistrust
b. Initiative vs. Guilt
c. Personality vs. Temperament
d. Goodness of Fit
10. Personality is identified as the sum total of characteristics that differentiate one
person from another.
a. True b. False

Lesson 6: Cognitive Development

I. Jean Piaget: Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) :

History • Born: August 9, 1896, Switzerland
• Died: September 16,1980 (Age 84)
• Parents: Eldest son of Arthur Piaget and Rebecca Jackson.
• Education: Received Ph.D. from University of Neuchatel in 1918.
• Wife: Married to Valentine Chatenay in 1923
• Children: 3 children namely Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent whose intellectual development
from infancy to language was studied by Piaget.
Introduction
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th century's most influential researchers in the
area of developmental psychology.
• He was originally trained in the areas of biology and philosophy and considered himself a
"Genetic Epistemologist".
• Piaget wanted to know how children learned through their development in the study of
knowledge.
• He administered Binet's IQ test in Paris and observed that children's answers were
qualitatively different.
• Piaget's theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive structures.
• He believes that the child's cognitive structure increases with the development.
• Piaget's Theory of infant development were based on his observations of his own three
children.
What is Cognition?
• The term cognition is derived from the latin word "cognoscere" which means "to know" or "to
recognise" or "to conceptualise".
• Cognition is "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through
thought, experience, and the senses."
What is Cognitive Development?

• Cognitive Development is the emergence of the ability to think and understand.
• The acquisition of the ability to think, reason and problem solve.
• It is the process by which people's thinking changes across the life span.
• Piaget studied Cognitive Development by observing children in particular, to examine how
their thought processes changed with age.
• It is the growing apprehension and adaptation to the physical and social environment.
How Cognitive Development occurs?

• Cognitive Development is gradual and orderly changes by which mental process becomes more

complex and sophisticated.
• The essential development of cognition is the establishment of new schemes.
• Assimilation and Accommodation are both the processes of the ways of Cognitive
Development.
• The equilibration is the symbol of a new stage of the Cognitive Development.
Key Concepts :
• Schema : Schema is an internal representation of the world. It helps an individual understand
the world they inhabit. They are cognitive structures that represent a certain aspect of the
world, and can be seen as categories which have certain pre-conceived ideas in them. For
example, my schema for Christmas includes: Christmas trees, presents, giving, money, green,
red, gold, winter, Santa Claus etc. Someone else may have an entirely different schema, such as
Jesus, birth, Church, holiday, Christianity etc
• Assimilation :It is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.Here, the
learner fits the new idea into what he already knows.In Assimilation, the schema is not
changed, it is only modified. Example : A 2 year old child sees a man who is bald on top of his
head and has long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father‘s horror, the toddler shouts ―Clown,
clown‖
• Accommodation : This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work and
needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.In Accommodation, the schema is
altered; a new schema may be developed. Example : In the ―clown‖ incident, the boy‘s father
explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a
clown‘s, he wasn‘t wearing a funny costume and wasn‘t doing silly things to make people laugh. •
With this new knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of ―clown‖ and make this idea
fit better to a standard concept of ―clown‖.
• Equilibration : Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate,
but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most
new information through assimilation. As a child progresses through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (
assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibrium
helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought to the next.
The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 yrs) - Infancy • Infants construct an understanding of the
world by coordinating sensory experiences (seeing, hearing) with motor actions (reaching,
touching). • Develop Object Permanence (memory) - Realize that objects exist even if they are
out of sight. • Infants progress from reflexive, instinctual actions at birth to the beginning of
problem solving (intellectual) and symbolic abilities (language) toward the end of this stage.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 yrs) -Toddler and Early Childhood • This stage begins when the child

starts to use symbols and language. This is a period of developing language and concepts. So,
the child is capable of more complex mental representations (i.e, words and images). He is still
unable to use 'operations', i.e,logical mental rules, such as rules of arithmetic. This stage is
further divided into 2 sub-stages :
• Preconceptual stage (2-4 yrs) : Increased use of verbal representation but speech is
egocentric. The child uses symbols to stand for actions; a toy doll stands for a real baby or the
child role plays mummy or daddy.
• Intuitive stage (4-7 yrs) : Speech becomes more social, less egocentric. Here the child base
their knowledge on what they feel or sense to be true, yet they cannot explain the underlying
principles behind what they feel or sense.
The following are the key features of this stage :

• Egocentrism: The child's thoughts and communications are typically egocentric (i.e, about
themselves or their own point of view). Eg.: "if i can't see you, you also can't see me". It is the
inability to see the world from anyone else's eyes. It is well explained by Piaget as Three
Mountain Task.
• Animism: Treating inanimate objects as living ones. Eg.: children dressing and feeding their
dolls as if they are alive. • Concentration: The process of concentrating on one limited aspect
of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects. It is noticed in Conservation. Conservation on the
other hand is the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical
appearance of objects. Children at this stage are unaware of conseravtion.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 yrs) -Childhood and Early Adolescence The concrete
operational stage is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important processes during
this stage are :
• Seriation: The ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape or any other
characterstic. Eg.: if given different-sized objects, they may place them accordingly.
• Transitivity: The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order.
Eg.: if A is taller than B and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C.
• Classification: The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features. The
child also begins to get the idea that one set can include another. Eg.: there is a class of
objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the
class of animals includes that of dogs.
• Decentring: The ability to take multiple adpects of a situation into account. Eg.: the child will
no longer perceive an exceptionally- wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide,
taller cup.
• Reversibility: The child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned
to their original state. Eg.: the child will rapidly determine that if 4+4=8 then 8-4=4, the

original quantity.
• Conservation: Understanding that the quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the
arrangement or appearance of the object or item.
• Elimination of Egocentrism: The ability to view things from another's perspective.
•The child performs operations: combining, separating, multiplying, repeating, dividing etc
Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs & above) -Adolscence and Adulthood
• The thought becomes increasingly flexible and abstract, i.e, can carry out systematic
experiments.
• The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodological way.
• Understands that nothing is absolute; everything is relative.
• Develops skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning as well as inductive reasoning and
sytematic planning etc.
• Understands that the rules of any game or social system are developed by a man by mutual
agreement and hence could be changed or modified. • The child's way of thinking is at its most
advanced, although the knowledge it has to work with, will change.
Educational Implications
• Emphasis on discovery approach in learning.

• Curriculum should provide specific educational experience based on children's developmental
level. • Arrange classroom activities so that they assist and encourage self learning.
• Social interactions have a great educational value for Piaget. Positive social actions, therefore
should be encouraged.
• Instruction should be geared to the level of the child. As the level of the child changes at
each stage, the level of instruction or exploratory activities should also change.
• Simple to Complex and Project method of teaching.
• Co-curricular activities have equal importance as that of curricular experiences in the
cognitive development of children.
• Major Goals of education according to Piaget are critical and creative thinking.
Contribution to Education
• Piaget's theory helped educators, parents and investigators to comprehend the capacity of
children in their different stages.
• He made us conscious with the way children and adults think.
• A lot of school programs have been redesigned taking as base Piaget's discoveries.
• Piaget made a revolution with the developmental psychology concentrating all his attention to
the mental process and his role with behavior.

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and
the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky‘s
theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of
cognition. Vygotsky believed everything is learned on two levels.
First, through interaction with others, and then integrated into the individual‘s mental
structure. Every function in the child‘s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social
level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical
memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships between individuals. (Vygotsky, 1978, p.57)
A second aspect of Vygotsky‘s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development
is limited to a "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). This "zone" is the area of exploration for
which the student is cognitively prepared, but requires help and social interaction to fully
develop (Briner, 1999). A teacher or more experienced peer is able to provide the learner with
"scaffolding" to support the student‘s evolving understanding of knowledge domains or
development of complex skills. Collaborative learning, discourse, modelling, and scaffolding are
strategies for supporting the intellectual knowledge and skills of learners and facilitating
intentional learning.
―the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem
solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under
adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers.

Information Processing and Intelligence Theories
Information processing theory-is a "group of theoretical frameworks that address

• how human beings receive,
•mentally modify,
•remember information,
•On how such cognitive processes change over the course of development"
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

•theory that attempts to categorize the way information is recognized, utilized, and stored in
the memory.
•This theory recognizes the ability for a person to control what information is processed and
the changes
•Thinking
•Analysis of stimuli
•Situational modification
•Obstacle evaluation
THE FOUR PILLARS OF THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
Thinking -The process of thinking includes the activities of perception of external stimuli,
encoding the same and storing the data so perceived and encoded in one's mental recesses
Analysis of stimuli- This is the process by which the encoded stimuli are altered to suit the
brain's cognition and interpretation process to enable decision making. There are four distinct

sub-processes that form a favourable alliance to make the brain arrive at a conclusion
regarding the encoded stimuli it has received and kept stored. These four sub-processes are
encoding, strategization, generalization and automatization.
Situational modification
This is the process by which an individual uses his experience, which is nothing other than a
collection of stored memories, to handle a similar situation in future. In case of certain
differences in both situations, the individual modifies the decisions they took during their
previous experience to come up with solutions for the somewhat different.
Obstacle evaluation
This step maintains that besides the subject's individual development level, the nature of the
obstacle or problem should also be taken into consideration while evaluating the subject's
intellectual, problem solving and cognitive acumen. Sometimes, unnecessary and misleading
information can confuse the subject and he / she may show signs of confusion while dealing
with a situation which is similar to one he / she was exposed to before, which he / she was able
to handle
1. Sensory Memory
2. Working Memory
3. Long-term Memory Structure of the information- processing system :
Information is received through a person's senses, it comes from the environment around you
(McDevitt & Ormrod, 2004) Sensory Memory holds information associated with the senses
(e.g., vision, hearing) just long enough for the information to be processed further (mere
seconds).
Sensory Register
• detects visual, auditory, haptic (touch), smell, taste, temperature, pain, body position
information
STM functions as a temporary working memory, whereby further processing is carried out to
make information ready for long-term storage or for a response. Working memory holds
information for a limited amount of time and holds a limited amount of information.
Working Memory
•Where information is processed and "problem solving" occurs; the working memory usually only
processes things for a short period of time.

• The working memory will process information for longer periods of time if the person is
actively concentrating on the
B. Working memory
presentations suitable for
manipulation, using strategies like
– attempting to learn something by repeating it over and over; repetition

– attempting to learn something by identifying relationships among pieces of
information as a way of categorizing them
– embellishing on new information based on what you already know (using prior
knowledge)
to use effective learning strategies when teachers and other adults

encourage their use, or when it is culturallyTeresa M. McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis O
rmrod Child Development and Education, third edition Copyright ©2007 by Pearson Education,
Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
•where the information remembered over time is kept; there are many ways that information is
moved from working memory into long term memory •represents our permanent storehouse of
information, capable of retaining an unlimited Long-term Memory
D. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
amnesia –
amount of knowledge stored in LTM increases many times over
– one‘s knowledge about specific topics and the world in general Teresa M.
McDevitt and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod Child Development and Education, third edition Copyright
©2007 by Pearson Education, Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved.
– tightly
integrated set of ideas about a specific object or situation Scripts – schema that involves a
base facilitates learning
Thinking and Reasoning

makes use of symbols
– mental entity that represents an external object or event, often without
reflecting its perceptual and behavioral qualities

Perceive cause and effect relationships as young as 6 months old
e memory) Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Autobiographical
Term Memory
inal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but

consolidated and stored elsewhere Explicit Memory (declarative)
Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events in time, as well as supporting their
formation and retrieval. Some examples of episodic memory would be remembering someone's
name and what happened at your last interaction with each other. Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory Semantic memory refers to knowledge about factual information, such as
the meaning of words. Semantic memory is independent information such as information
remembered for a test
Semantic Memory-- facts and generalized information (concepts, principles, rules; problem-
solving strategies; learning strategies)
Schema / Schemata -- networks of connected ideas or relationships; data structures or

procedures for organizing the parts of a specific experience into a meaningful system (like a
standard or stereotype)
Proposition -- interconnected set of concepts and relationships; if/then statements (smallest
unit of information that can be judged true or false)
Script -- "declarative knowledge structure that captures general information about a routine
series of events or a recurrent type of social event, such as eating in a restaurant or visiting
the doctor" (Stillings et al., 1987)
Frame -- complex organization including concepts and visualizations that provide a reference
within which stimuli and actions are judged (also called "Frame of Reference") Scheme -- an
organization of concepts, principles, rules, etc. that define a perspective and presents specific
action patterns to follow
Program -- set of rules that define what to do in a particular situation Paradigm -- the basic
way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and doing associated with a particular vision of reality

(Harman, 1970)
Model -- a set of propositions or equations describing in simplified form some aspects of our
experience. Every model is based upon a theory or paradigm, but the theory or paradigm may
not be stated in concise form.
Autobiographical Memory -Autobiographical memory refers to knowledge about events and

personal experiences from an individual's own life
Procedural memory involves memories of body movement and how to use objects in the
environment. How to drive a car or use a computer are examples of procedural memories
Implicit Memory Cont‘d Implicit memory - refers to the use of objects or movements of the
body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is
encoded and it is presumed stored by the striatum and other parts of the basal ganglia. The
basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural memory and other brain structures and is
largely independent of the hippocampus.Research by Manelis, Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found
that the reactivation of the parietal and occipital regions was associated with implicit memory.
Procedural memory is considered non-declarative memory or unconscious memory which
includes priming and
Priming is an implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a

later stimulus. It can occur following perceptual, semantic, or conceptual stimulus repetition.
For example, if a person reads a list of words including the word table, and is later asked to
complete a word starting with tab, the probability that he or she will answer table is greater
than if they are not primed. Another example is if people see an incomplete sketch they are
unable to identify and they are shown more of the sketch until they recognize the picture,
later
"alive" or help transfer it from one memory stage to the next:
Selective attention refers to the learner's ability to select and process certain information
while simultaneously ignoring other information. Several factors influence attention:
•The meaning that the task or information holds for the individual
•Similarity between competing tasks or sources of information Attention
Rehearsal is the process where information is kept in short-term memory by mentally
repeating it. When the information is repeated each time, that information is reentered into
the short-term memory, thus keeping that information for another 15 to 20 seconds (the
average storage time for short-term memory) Rehearsal
Chunking is the process by which one can expand his/her ability to remember things in the

short term. Chunking is also a process by which a person organizes material into meaningful
groups. Chunking refers to the process of relating incoming information to concepts and ideas
already in memory in such a way that the new material is more memorable. Various encoding
schemes include: •Organization, e.g.: -grouping information into categories -outlines -
hierarchies -concept trees •Mnemonics Encoding
Retrieval of Information from Long-Term Memory The process of retrieval from LTM involves
bringing to mind previously learned information, to either (a) understand some new input or (b)
make a response. Making a response may involve either recall or recognition. Retrieval
Recall or Recognition. Recall In free recall situations, learners must retrieve previously stored
information with no cues or hints to help them remember. Cued recall tasks are those in which
a hint or cue is provided to help learners remember the desired information. Recognition
involves a set of pregenerated stimuli (e.g., multiple-choice questions) presented to learners
for a decision or judgment.
Environment and heredity Factors that can influence intelligence and the processing of
information
Task: Answer briefly:
What are the different Development of Executive Skills and Behavioral Development

Lesson 7: Erikson’s Social Theory of Development
Erikson‘s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson‘s Theory
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud‘s controversial theory of
psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that
the ego makes positive contributions to development by
mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each stage of development.
This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing members of society. During each
of Erikson‘s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome
in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.
Stages Of Psychosocial Development

Erikson‘s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand upon) Freud‘s
psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve
competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight
stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage
there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental
task results in a sense of competence and a
healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
Erikson also added to Freud‘s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development;
certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and
survival needs.

Trust vs. Mistrust
From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs
when adults meet a child‘s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their
caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant‘s needs help their
baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby‘s needs can engender feelings of anxiety,
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated
cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of
mistrust for people in the world.
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control
their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences
for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler‘s main task
is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and
doubt by working to establish independence. This is the ―me do it‖ stage. For example, we
might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her
clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her
input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the
opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to
low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating
activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning
to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task.
Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore
within limits and then support the child‘s choice. These children will develop self-confidence
and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative
misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up.
They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social
activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they

don‘t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and
adulthood.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent‘s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescents struggle with questions such as ―Who am I?‖ and ―What do I want to do with my
life?‖ Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they
explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their ―adult‖ selves.
Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to
remain true to their beliefs and values in the face
of problemsand other people‘s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a
conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents‘ ideas for the
future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion.
They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to
adopt a positive role will likely struggle to ―find‖ themselves as adults.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation.
After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with
others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have
trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we
must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships.
Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of
loneliness and emotional isolation.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to
the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity
involves finding your life‘s work and contributing to the development of others through
activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged
adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for
others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to
society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they
are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with
others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.
Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson‘s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late
adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.
People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look
back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may
feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what
―would have,‖ ―should have,‖ and ―could have‖ been. They face the end of their lives with
feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.
TASK: Choose the letter of your choice in the answer sheet only.
1. What is the name of Erik Erickson's development theory?
a.Psycho-social b. Cognitive c.Moral d.Physical
2. How many stages are in the psycho-social theory?

a. 8 b.4 c.12 d. 7
3. Which is an example of the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage?

a. A teenager trying out new fashions and hairstyles
b. A preschooler insisting on picking out her own clothes, no matter how mismatched they are
c. A middle-schooler completing a challenging math assignment
d. none of the above
4. What do people face during each psychosocial stage that can serve as a turning point in
development?
a. Conflict b. Turmoil c. Epiphany d. none of the above
5. The stage that occurs between birth and one year of age is concerned with:
a. Initiative vs. Guilt b.Trust vs. Mistrust
c.Identity vs. Role Confusion d. none of the above
6. If a child struggles to do well in school, what problem might emerge?

a. Struggle with feelings of inferiority
b. Develop a poor self-identity
c. Begin to mistrust the people around him
7. Intimacy vs. Isolation occurs at what stage?

a. infancy
b. young adulthood
c. maturity

8. Integrity vs. Despair occurs in which age group/stage?
a. b.
c. d.
9. According to Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development, which stage describes a child

who needs to learn important academic skills and compare favorably with peers in school to
achieve competence?
a. Trust vs Mistrust
b. Identity vs Role Confusion
c. Initiative vs Guilt
d. Industry vs Inferiority
10. Successful completion of Erickson's 8th stage of psychosocial development results in which
of the following virtues?
a. Hope
b.Fidelity
c.Wisdom
d. Purpose

Lesson 8:Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
An outstanding example of research in the Piagetian tradition is the work of Lawrence

Kohlberg. Kohlberg has focused on moral development and has proposed a stage theory of
moral thinking which goes well beyond Piaget's initial formulations. Kohlberg, who was born in
1927, grew up in Bronxville, New York, and attended the Andover Academy in Massachusetts, a
private high school for bright and usually wealthy students. He did not go immediately to
college, but instead went to help the Israeli cause, in which he was made the Second Engineer
on an old freighter carrying refugees from parts of Europe to Israel. After this, in 1948, he
enrolled at the University of Chicago, where he scored so high on admission tests that he had
to take only a few courses to earn his bachelor's degree. This he did in one year. He stayed on
at Chicago for graduate work in psychology, at first thinking he would become a clinical
psychologist. However, he soon became interested in Piaget and began interviewing children and
adolescents on moral issues. The result was his doctoral dissertation (1958a), the first
rendition of his new stage theory. Kohlberg is an informal, unassuming man who also is a true
scholar; he has thought long and deeply about a wide range of issues in both psychology and
philosophy and has done much to help others appreciate the wisdom of many of the "old
psychologists," such as Rousseau, John Dewey, and James Mark Baldwin. Kohlberg has taught at
the University of Chicago (1962-1968) and, since 1968, has been at Harvard University.
PIAGET'S STAGES OF MORAL JUDGMENT

Piaget studied many aspects of moral judgment, but most of his findings fit into a
two-stage theory. Children younger than 10 or 11 years think about moral dilemmas
one way; older children consider them differently. As we have seen, younger children
regard rules as fixed and absolute. They believe that rules are handed down by adults
or by God and that one cannot change them. The older child's view is more
relativistic. He or she understands that it is permissible to change rules if everyone
agrees. Rules are not sacred and absolute but are devices which humans use to get
along cooperatively.
At approximately the same time--10 or 11 years--children's moral thinking undergoes

other shifts. In particular, younger children base their moral judgments more on
consequences, whereas older children base their judgments on intentions. When, for
example, the young child hears about one boy who broke 15 cups trying to help his
mother and another boy who broke only one cup trying to steal cookies, the young
child thinks that the first boy did worse. The child primarily considers the amount of
damage--the consequences--whereas the older child is more likely to judge wrongness
in terms of the motives underlying the act (Piaget, 1932, p. 137).
There are many more details to Piaget's work on moral judgment, but he essentially
found a series of changes that occur between the ages of 10 and 12, just when the
child begins to enter the general stage of formal operations.

Intellectual development, however, does not stop at this point. This is just the beginning of
formal operations, which continue to develop at least until age 16. Accordingly, one might
expect thinking about moral issues to continue to develop throughout adolescence. Kohlberg
therefore interviewed both children and adolescents about moral dilemmas, and he did find
stages that go well beyond Piaget's. He uncovered six stages, only the first three of which
share many features with Piaget's stages.
KOHLBERG'S METHOD
Kohlberg's (1958a) core sample was comprised of 72 boys, from both middle- and
lower-class families in Chicago. They were ages 10, 13, and 16. He later added to his
sample younger children, delinquents, and boys and girls from other American cities
and from other countries (1963, 1970).
The basic interview consists of a series of dilemmas such as the following:
Heinz Steals the Drug

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the
doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had
recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times
what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small
dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money, but he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the
druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got
desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband
have
done that? (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 19) Kohlberg is not really interested in whether the subject says
"yes" or "no" to this dilemma but in the reasoning behind the answer. The interviewer wants to
know why the subject thinks Heinz should or should not have stolen the drug. The interview
schedule then asks new questions which help one understand the child's reasoning .For
example, children are asked if Heinz had a right to steal the drug, if he wasviolating the
druggist's rights, and what sentence the judge should give him once he was caught. Once again,
the main concern is with the reasoning behind the answers. The interview then goes on to give
more dilemmas in order to get a good sampling of a subject's moral thinking.
Once Kohlberg had classified the various responses into stages, he wanted to know whether his
classification was reliable. In particular, he. wanted to know if others would score the
protocols in the same way. Other judges independently scored a sample of responses, and he
calculated the degree to which all raters agreed. This procedure is called interrater reliability.
Kohlberg found these agreements to be high, as he has in his subsequent work, but whenever
investigators use Kohlberg's interview, they also should check for interrater reliability before

scoring the entire sample.
KOHLBERG'S SIX STAGES
Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's first
stage of moral thought. The child assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of
rules which he or she must unquestioningly obey. To the Heinz dilemma, the child typically says
that Heinz was wrong to steal the drug because "It's against the law," or "It's bad to steal,"
as if this were all there were to it. When asked to elaborate, the child usually responds in
terms of the consequences involved, explaining that stealing is bad "because you'll get
punished" (Kohlberg, 1958b).
Although the vast majority of children at stage 1 oppose Heinz‘s theft, it is still possible for a
child to support the action and still employ stage 1 reasoning. For example, a child might say,
"Heinz can steal it because he asked first and it's not like he stole something big; he won't get
punished" (see Rest, 1973). Even though the child agrees with Heinz‘s action, the reasoning is
still stage 1; the concern is withhat authorities permit and punish.Kohlberg calls stage 1
thinking "preconventional" because children do not yet speak as members of society. Instead,
they see morality as something external tothemselves, as that which the big people say they
must do.
Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different
viewpoints. "Heinz," they might point out, "might think it's right to take the drug, the druggist
would not." Since everything is relative, each person is free to pursue his or her individual
interests. One boy said that Heinz might steal the drug if he wanted his wife to live, but that
he doesn't have to if he wants to marry someone younger and better-looking (Kohlberg, 1963,
p. 24). Another boy said Heinz might steal it because maybe they had children and he might
need someone at home to look after them. But maybe he shouldn't steal it because they might
put him in prison for more years than he could stand. (Colby and Kauffman. 1983, p. 300) What
is right for Heinz, then, is what meets his own self-interests. You might have noticed that
children at both stages 1 and 2 talk about punishment.
However, they perceive it differently. At stage 1 punishment is tied up in the child's mind with
wrongness; punishment "proves" that disobedience is wrong. At stage 2, in contrast, punishment
is simply a risk that one naturally wants to avoid. Although stage 2 respondents sometimes
sound amoral, they do have some sense of right action. This is a notion of fair exchange or fair
deals. The philosophy is one of returning favors--"If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours."
To the Heinz story, subjects often say that Heinz was right to steal the drug because the
druggist was unwilling to make a fair deal; he was "trying to rip Heinz off," Or they might say
that he should steal for his wife "because she might return the favor some day" (Gibbs et al.,

1983, p. 19).Respondents at stage 2 are still said to reason at the preconventional level because
they speak as isolated individuals rather than as members of society. They see individuals
exchanging favors, but there is still no identification with the values of the family or
community.
Level II. Conventional Morality
Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. At this stage children--who are by now usually
entering their teens--see morality as more than simple deals. They believe that people should
live up to the expectations of the family and community and behave in "good" ways. Good
behavior means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love, empathy, trust,
and concern for others. Heinz, they typically argue, was right to steal the drug because "He
was a good man for wanting to save her," and "His intentions were good, that of saving the life
of someone he loves." Even if Heinz doesn't love his wife, these subjects often say, he should
steal the drug because "I don't think any husband should sit back and watch his wife die"
(Gibbs et al., 1983,
pp. 36-42; Kohlberg, 1958b).
If Heinz‘s motives were good, the druggist's were bad. The druggist, stage 3 subjects
emphasize, was "selfish," "greedy," and "only interested in himself, not another life."
Sometimes the respondents become so angry with the druggist that they say that he ought to
be put in jail (Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 26-29, 40-42). A typical stage 3 response is that of Don,
age 13: It was really the druggist's fault, he was unfair, trying to overcharge and letting
someone die. Heinz loved his wife and wanted to save her. I think anyone would. I don't think
they would put him in jail. The judge would look at all sides, and see that the druggist was
charging too much. (Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25)
We see that Don defines the issue in terms of the actors' character traits and motives. He
talks about the loving husband, the unfair druggist, and the understanding judge. His answer
deserves the label "conventional "morality" because it assumes that the attitude expressed
would be shared by the entire community—"anyone" would be right to do what Heinz did
(Kohlberg, 1963, p. 25).
As mentioned earlier, there are similarities between Kohlberg's first three stages and Piaget's
two stages. In both sequences there is a shift from unquestioning obedience to a relativistic
outlook and to a concern for good motives. For Kohlberg, however, these shifts occur in three
stages rather than two.
Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. Stage 3 reasoning works best in two-person
relationships with family members or close friends, where one can make a real effort to get to
know the other's feelings and needs and try to help. At stage 4, in contrast, the respondent
becomes more broadly concerned with society as a whole. Now the emphasis is on obeying laws,

respecting authority, and performing one's duties so that the social order is maintained. In
response to the Heinz story, many subjects say they understand that Heinz's motives were
good, but they cannot condone the theft. What would happen if we all started breaking the
laws whenever we felt we had a good reason? The result would be chaos; society couldn't
function. As one subject
explained, I don't want to sound like Spiro Agnew, law and order and wave the flag, but if
everybody did as he wanted to do, set up his own beliefs as to right and wrong, then I think you
would have chaos. The only thing I think we have in civilization nowadays is some sort of legal
structure which people are sort of bound to follow. [Society needs] a centralizing framework.
(Gibbs et al., 1983, pp. 140-41)
Because stage 4, subjects make moral decisions from the perspective of society as a whole,
they think from a full-fledged member-of-society perspective (Colby and
Kohlberg, 1983, p. 27). You will recall that stage 1 children also generally oppose stealing
because it breaks the law. Superficially, stage 1 and stage 4 subjects are giving the same
response, so we see here why Kohlberg insists that we must probe into the reasoning behind
the overt response. Stage 1 children say, "It's wrong to steal" and "It's against the law," but
they cannot elaborate any further, except to say that stealing can get a person jailed. Stage 4
respondents, in contrast, have a conception of the function of laws for society as a whole--a
conception which far exceeds the grasp of the younger child.
Level III. Postconventional Morality

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. At stage 4, people want to keep society
functioning. However, a smoothly functioning society is not necessarily a good one. A
totalitarian society might be well-organized, but it is hardly the moral ideal. At stage 5, people
begin to ask, "What makes for a good society?" They begin to think about society in a very
theoretical way, stepping back from their own society and considering the rights and values
that a society ought to uphold. They then evaluate existing societies in terms of these prior
considerations. They are said to take a "prior-to-society" perspective (Colby and Kohlberg,
1983, p. 22). Stage 5 respondents basically believe that a good society is best conceived as a
social contract into which people freely enter to work toward the benefit of all They recognize
that different social groups within a society will have different values, but they believe that all
rational people would agree on two points. First they would all want certain basic rights, such as
liberty and life, to be protected Second, they would want some democratic procedures for
changing unfair law and for improving society.
In response to the Heinz dilemma, stage 5 respondents make it clear that they do not
generally favor breaking laws; laws are social contracts that we agree to uphold until
we can change them by democratic means. Nevertheless, the wife‘s right to live is a
moral right that must be protected. Thus, stage 5 respondent sometimes defend
Heinz‘s theft in strong language:
It is the husband's duty to save his wife. The fact that her life is in danger transcends

every other standard you might use to judge his action. Life is more important than property.
This young man went on to say that "from a moral standpoint" Heinz should save the life of
even a stranger, since to be consistent, the value of a life means any life. When asked if the
judge should punish Heinz, he replied: Usually the moral and legal standpoints coincide. Here
they conflict. The judge should weight the moral standpoint more heavily but preserve the
legal law in
punishing Heinz lightly. (Kohlberg, 1976, p. 38) Stage 5 subjects,- then, talk about "morality"
and "rights" that take some priority over particular laws. Kohlberg insists, however, that we do
not judge people to be at stage merely from their verbal labels. We need to look at their social
perspective and mode of reasoning. At stage 4, too, subjects frequently talk about the "right
to life," but for them this right is legitimized by the authority of their social or religious group
(e.g., by the Bible). Presumably, if their group valued property over life, they would too. At
stage 5, in contrast, people are making more of an independent effort to think out what any
society ought to value. They often reason, for example, that property has little meaning
without life. They are trying to determine logically what a society ought to be like (Kohlberg,
1981, pp. 21-22; Gibbs et al., 1983, p. 83).
Stage 6: Universal Principles. Stage 5 respondents are working toward a conception of the good
society. They suggest that we need to (a) protect certain individual rights and (b) settle
disputes through democratic processes. However, democratic processes alone do not always
result in outcomes that we intuitively sense are just. A majority, for example, may vote for a
law that hinders a minority. Thus, Kohlberg believes that there must be a higher stage--stage
6--which defines the principles by which we achieve justice.
Kohlberg's conception of justice follows that of the philosophers Kant and Rawls, as well as
great moral leaders such as Gandhi and Martin Luther King. According to these people, the
principles of justice require us to treat the claims of all parties in an impartial manner,
respecting the basic dignity, of all people as individuals. The principles of justice are therefore
universal; they apply to all. Thus, for example, we would not vote for a law that aids some
people but hurts others. The principles of justice guide us toward decisions based on an equal
respect for all.
In actual practice, Kohlberg says, we can reach just decisions by looking at a situation through
one another's eyes. In the Heinz dilemma, this would mean that all parties--the druggist,
Heinz, and his wife--take the roles of the others. To do this in an Impartial manner, people can
assume a "veil of ignorance" (Rawls, 1971), acting as ifthey do not know which role they will
eventually occupy. If the druggist did this, even he would recognize that life must take priority
over property; for he wouldn't want to risk finding himself in the wife's shoes with property
valuedover life. Thus, they would all agree that the wife must be saved--this would be the fair
solution. Such asolution, we must note, requires not only impartiality, but the principle that
everyone is given full and equal respect. If the wife were considered of less value than the

others, a just solution could not be reached. Until recently, Kohlberg had been scoring some of
his subjects at stage 6, but he has temporarily stopped doing so, For one thing, he and other
researchers had not been finding subjects who consistently reasoned at this stage. Also,
Kohlberg has concluded that his interview dilemmas are not useful for distinguishing between
stage 5 and stage 6 thinking. He believes that stage 6 has a clearer and broader conception of
universal principles (which include justice as well as individual rights), but feels that his
interview fails to draw out this broader understanding. Consequently, he has temporarily
dropped stage 6 from his scoring manual, calling it a "theoretical stage" and scoring all
postconventional responses as stage 5 (Colby and Kohlberg, 1983, p.
28).
Theoretically, one issue that distinguishes stage 5 from stage 6 is civil disobedience. Stage 5
would be more hesitant to endorse civil disobedience because of its commitment to the social
contract and to changing laws through democratic agreements. Only when an individual right is
clearly at stake does violating the law seem justified. At stage 6, in contrast, a commitment to
justice makes the rationale for civil disobedience stronger and broader. Martin Luther King,
for example, argued that laws are only valid insofar as they are grounded in justice, and that a
commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. King also recognized,
of
course, the general need for laws and democratic processes (stages 4 and 5), and he was
therefore willing to accept the penalities for his actions. Nevertheless, he believed that the
higher principle of justice required civil disobedience (Kohlberg, 198 1, p.43).
Summary
At stage 1 children think of what is right as that which authority says is right. Doing the right
thing is obeying authority and avoiding punishment. At stage 2, children are no longer so
impressed by any single authority; they see that there are different sides to any issue. Since
everything is relative, one is free to pursue one's own interests, although it is often useful to
make deals and exchange favors with others. At stages 3 and 4, young people think as members
of the conventional society with its values, norms, and expectations. At stage 3, they
emphasize being a good person, which basically means having helpful motives toward people
close to one At stage 4,the concern shifts toward obeying laws to maintain society as a whole.
At stages 5 and 6 people are less concerned with maintaining society for it own sake, and more
concerned with the principles and values that make for a good society. At stage 5 they
emphasize basic rights and the democratic processes that give everyone asay, and at stage 6
they define the principles by which agreement will be most just.

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory views child development as a complex system of

relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, from immediate
settings of family and school to broad cultural values, laws, and customs.
To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her immediate
environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.
Bronfenbrenner divided the person's environment into five different systems: the microsystem,
the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystemm.
The microsystem is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory. This is the most
immediate environmental settings containing the developing child, such as family and school.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory has implications for educational practice.
Background and History

American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner was critical of previous theories of child
development. He argued that studies of children in unfamiliar laboratory environments with one
other person, usually a stranger, were ecologically invalid (See Mary Ainsworth‘s 1970
experiment of the ‗
Strange Situation‘).
Bronfenbrenner (1974) claimed most earlier studies were ‗unidirectional‘, meaning that the
laboratory studies observed the influence of A on B (e.g. a stranger/mother with a child),
rather than looking at the possible influence of the child on the stranger/mother, or any other
third party‘s influence.
Bronfenbrenner maintained that these laboratory features of research are not characteristic
of environments that children actually live and develop in.
Bronfenbrenner recognized there are multiple aspects of a developing child‘s life that
interacts with and affects the child. His work looked beyond individual development, taking into
account wider influencing factors and the context (or ecology) of development. He proposed
the ‗Ecological Systems Theory‘ based on these dynamic interactions that the environments
have on the developing child.
Bronfenbrenner‘s (1974) perspective has some resemblance to the works of Albert Bandua‘s
social learning theory and Lev Vygotsky‘s sociocultural theory in which the environment is
explicitly or implicitly considered as a crucial mechanism in development.

The Five Ecological Systems

Bronfenbrenner (1977) suggested that the environment of the child is a nested arrangement
of structures, each contained within the next. He organized them in order of how much of an
impact they have on a child.
He named these structures the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and the
chronosystem.
Because the five systems are interrelated, the influence of one system on a child‘s
development depends on its relationship with the others.
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
The Microsystem
The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things that have
direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings,
teachers and school peers.
Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional, meaning the child can be influenced by other
people in their environment and is also capable of changing the beliefs and actions of other
people too.
Furthermore, the reactions of the child to individuals in their microsystem can influence how
they treat them in return.
The interactions within microsystems are often very personal and are crucial for fostering and
supporting the child‘s development.
If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive
effect on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on
the child.
The Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child‘s microsystems, such as the
interactions between the child‘s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings.
The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function independently,

but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another.
For instance, if a child‘s parents communicate with the child‘s teachers, this interaction may
influence the child‘s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems.

According to the ecological systems theory, if the child‘s parents and teachers get along and
have a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the child‘s development,
compared to negative effects on development if the teachers and parents do not get along.
The Exosystem
The exosystem is a component of the ecological systems theory developed by Urie
Bronfenbrenner in the 1970s. It incorporates other formal and informal social structures,
which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of
the microsystems.
Examples of exosystems include the neighborhood, parent‘s workplaces, parent‘s friends and
the mass media. These are environments in which the child is not involved, and are external to
their experience, but nonetheless affects them anyway.
An instance of exosystems affecting the child‘s development could be if one of the parents
had a dispute with their boss at work.
The parent may come home and have a short temper with the child as a result of something
which happened in the workplace, resulting in a negative effect on development.
The Macrosystem
The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory that focuses
on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status, wealth,
poverty, and ethnicity.
Thus, culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions
about events that transpire in life.
The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does not refer to the specific
environments of one developing child, but the already established society and culture which the
child is developing in.
This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of
the culture.
For example, a child living in a third world country would experience a different development
than a child living in a wealthier country.
The Chronosystem
The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is known as the
chronosystem.

This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime which
influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events.
These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include non-
normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new house.
The Bioecological Model

It is important to note that Bronfenbrenner (1994) later revised his theory and instead named
it the ‗Bioecological model‘.
Bronfenbrenner became more concerned with the proximal processes of development, meaning
the enduring and persistent forms of interaction in the immediate environment. His focus
shifted from focusing on environmental influences to developmental processes individuals
experience over time.
‗…development takes place through the process of progressively more complex reciprocal
interactions between an active, evolving biopsychological human organism and the persons,
objects, and symbols in its immediate external environment.‘ (Bronfenbrenner, 1995).
Bronfenbrenner also suggested that in order to understand the effect of these proximal
processes on development, we have to focus on the person, context and developmental outcome
as these processes vary and affect people differently (Bronfenbrenner & Evans, 2000).
Critical Evaluation
Bronfenbrenner‘s model quickly became very appealing and became accepted as a useful
framework for psychologists, sociologists and teachers to study child development.
The Ecological Systems Theory provides a holistic approach which is inclusive of all the
systems children and their family are involved in, accurately reflecting the dynamic nature of
actual family relationships (Hayes & O‘Toole, 2017).
Paat (2013) considers how Bronfenbrenner‘s theory is useful when it comes to the development
of immigrant children. They suggest that immigrant children‘s experiences in the various
ecological systems are likely to be shaped by their cultural differences. An understanding of
these children‘s ecology can aid in strengthening social work service delivery for these
children.
A limitation of the Ecological Systems Theory is that there is limited research examining the
mesosystems; mainly the interactions between neighborhoods and the family of the child
(Leventhal & Brooks-Gunn, 2000). Therefore, it is unclear the extent to which these systems
can shape child development.

Another limitation with Bronfenbrenner‘s theory is that it is difficult to empirically test the
theory. The studies investigating the ecological systems may establish an effect, but they
cannot establish whether the systems are the direct cause of such effects.
Furthermore, this theory can lead to assumptions that those who do not have strong and
positive ecological systems lack in development. Whilst this may be true in some cases, many
people can still develop into well-rounded individuals without positive influences from their
ecological systems.
For instance, it is not true to say that all people who grow up in poverty-striken areas of the
world will develop negatively. Similarly, if a child‘s teachers and parents do not get along, some
children may not experience any kind of negative effect from this if it does not concern them.
As a result, people need to take care not to make broad assumptions about individuals using
this theory.
Bronfenbrenner‘s theory in the 21st century

The world has changed a lot since this theory was introduced in terms of technological
developments. However, it could still be said that the exosystem of a child could be expanded
to include social media, video gaming and other modern-day interactions within the ecological
system.
This could suggest that the ecological systems are still valid but will expand over time to
include new modern developments.
Kelly and Coughlan (2019) used constructivist grounded theory analysis to develop a theoretical
framework for youth mental health recovery and found that there were many links to
Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological systems theory in their own more recent theory.
Their theory suggested that the components of mental health recovery are embedded in the
‗ecological context of influential relationships‘ which fits in with Bronfenbrenner‘s theory that
the ecological systems of the young person such as peers, family and school all help mental
health development.
Classroom Application
The Ecological Systems Theory has been used to link psychological and educational theory to
early educational curriculums and practice. At the center of the theory is the developing child,
and all that occurs within and between the five ecological systems are done so to benefit the
child in the classroom.
To strengthen the development between the ecological systems in educational practice

according to the theory, teachers and parents should keep good communication with each other
and work together to benefit the child.
Teachers should also be understanding of the situations their student‘s families may be
experiencing, including social and economic factors that are part of the various systems.
According to the theory, if parents and teachers have a good relationship, this should shape
the child‘s development in a positive way.
Likewise, the child must also be active in their learning, engaged both academically and socially.
They must work as a team with their peers and get involved in meaningful learning experiences
to enable positive development (Evans, 2012).
Empirical Evidence
There are lots of studies that have investigated the effects of the school environment on
students.
Lippard, LA Paro, Rouse and Crosby (2017) conducted a study to test Bronfenbrenner‘s theory.
They investigated the teacher-child relationships through teacher reports and classroom
observations.
They found that these relationships significantly related to children‘s academic achievement
and classroom behavior, suggesting that these relationships are important for children‘s
development and supports the Ecological Systems Theory.
Wilson et al., (2002) found that creating a positive school environment, through a school ethos
valuing diversity has a positive effect on student‘s relationships within school. Incorporating
this kind of school ethos influences those within the developing child‘s ecological systems.
Langford et al., (2014) found that whole-school approaches to the health curriculum can
positively improve educational achievement and student well-being, thus the development of
the students are being affected by the microsystems.

Lesson 9 :Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
Ecological systems theory:
This theory looks at a child‘s development within the context of the system of relationships
that form his or her environment. Bronfenbrenner‘s theory defines complex ―layers‖ of
environment, each having an effect on a child‘s development. This theory has recently been
renamed ―bioecological systems theory‖ to emphasize that a child‘s own biology is a primary
environment fueling her development. The interaction between factors in the child‘s maturing
biology, his immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and
steers his development.
Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child‘s
development then, we
must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of
the larger environment
as well.
The various terms in this graphic are links that lead to pages explaining their implications in
this theory

Bronfenbrenner‘s structure of environment:
The microsystem – this is the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which
the child has direct contact. The microsystem encompasses the relationships and interactions a
child has with her immediate surroundings (Berk, 2000). Structures in the microsystem include
family, school, neighborhood, or childcare
environments.
At this level, relationships have impact in two directions - both away from the child and toward
the child. For example, a child‘s parents may affect his beliefs and behavior; however, the child
also affects the behavior and beliefs of the parent. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional
influences, and he shows how they occur among all
levels of environment. The interaction of structures within a layer and interactions of
structures between layers is key to this theory.
At the microsystem level, bi-directional influences are strongest and have the greatest impact
on the child. However, interactions at outer levels can still impact the inner structures.
The mesosystem – this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child‘s
microsystem (Berk, 2000).
Examples: the connection between the child‘s teacher and his parents, between his church and
his neighborhood,
etc.
The exosystem – this layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not
function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child‘s development by interacting
with some structure in her microsystem (Berk, 2000). Parent workplace schedules or
community-based family resources are examples. The child may not be directly involved at this
level, but he does feel the positive or negative force involved with the interaction with his
own system.
The macrosystem – this layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child‘s
environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural values,
customs, and laws (Berk, 2000). The effects of larger principles defined by the macrosystem
have a cascading influence throughout the interactions of all other layers.
For example, if it is the belief of the culture that parents should be solely responsible for
raising their children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents. This, in
turn, affects the structures in which the parents function. The parents‘ ability or inability to
carry out that responsibility toward their child within the context of the

child‘s microsystem is likewise affected.
The chronosystem – this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child‘s
environments. Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of a
parent‘s death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging of a
child. As children get older, they may react differently to environmental
changes and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence them.
Nature vs. Nurture?
More modern child development theories accept that both a child‘s biology and his environment
play a role in change and growth. Theories now focus on the role played by each and the extent
to which they interact in ongoing Bronfenbrenner development. Bronfenbrenner‘s ecological
systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child‘s environment. He states that
as a child develops, the interaction within these environments becomes more complex. This
complexity can arise as the child‘s physical and cognitive structures grow and mature. So, given
that nature continues on a given path, how does the world that surrounds the child help or
hinder continued development?
Thisis the question answered by Bronfenbrenner‘s theory. Urie Bronfenbrenner, co-founder of

Head Start, uses his bioecological model to provide a startlingly clear view of the
problems we have been seeing in our students and in our families. He says that technology has
changed our society, and while we are taking great pains to safeguard the physical environment
from the damage done by a technology, we have spent no resources to provide similar
safeguards to the damage done to our societal environment. (Henderson, 1995). Our economy
has shifted from an industrial model to a technological model, yet the patterns of the
workplace have continued to rely on the factory work ethic. Parents are expected to work a
schedule that revolves around the factory whistle – even though they may work in a high tech
office. The technology that enables workers to be free of
manual labor, should also free them from the time and place boundary. Yet, our work ethic
demands more face time – not less. As women entered the work force, they too were subject
to the same demands. Family life in this country has taken a back seat to the needs of the
workplace.
Also of concern to Bronfenbrenner is the ―deficit‖ model used to determine the level of
support granted by the public to struggling families. Parents must declare themselves deficient
in some way in order to qualify for help in solving problems that may come about because of our
cultural value of independence. A larger degree of failure means a larger amount of support. By
working from this deficit model, we expect families to hold their hands up from deep inside a
black hole of helplessness. Then, we expect them to have the psychological strength to climb
up the thin rope the throw down.

Implications for practice
Bronfenbrenner sees the instability and unpredictability of family life we‘ve let our economy
create as the most destructive force to a child‘s development (Addison, 1992). Children do not
have the constant mutual interaction with important adults that is necessary for development.
According to the ecological theory, if the relationships in the immediate microsystem break
down, the child will not have the tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children
looking for the affirmations that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other
important adult) relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies
show themselves especially in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and
inability to provide self-direction (Addison, 1992).
This theory has dire implications for the practice of teaching. Knowing about the breakdown
occurring within children‘s homes, is it possible for our educational system to make up for
these deficiencies? It seems now that it is necessary for schools and teachers to provide
stable, long-term relationships. Yet, Bronfenbrenner believes that the primary relationship
needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime.
This relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the
child‘s influence. Schools and teachers fulfill an important secondary role, but cannot provide
the complexity of interaction that can be provided by primary adults. For the educational
community to attempt a primary role is to help our society continue its denial of the real issue.
The problems students and families face are caused by the conflict between the workplace and
family life – not between families and schools. Schools and teachers should work to support the
primary relationship and to create an environment that welcomes and nurtures families. We can
do this while we work to realize Bronfenbrenner‘s ideal of the creation of public policy that
eases the work/family conflict (Henderson, 1995). It is in the best interest of our entire
society to lobby for political and economic policies that support the importance of parent‘s
roles in their children‘s development. Bronfenbrenner would also agree that we should foster
societal attitudes that value work done on behalf of children at all levels: parents, teachers,
extended family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators.

Task: Try the multiple choice questions below to test your knowledge of the lesson 9.
1. Who proposed the bio-ecological systems theory?

a. Tudge
b. Elliott
c. Hahn
d. Bronfenbrenner
2. What is the outermost system in the ecological model?

a. The mesosystem
b. The exosystem
c. The chronosystem
d. The macrosystem
3. Which level in the bio-ecological model is characterised by interactions between immediate

environments?
a. The mesosystem
b. The exosystem
c. The macrosystem
d. The microsystem
4. In which bio-ecological system would a parent‘s workplace be located?

a. The chronosystem
b. The exosystem
c. The microsystem
d. The mesosystem
5. Desforges and Abouchaar (2003) observed which of the following findings?

a. Performance on the Eleven-Plus predicts children‘s achievement at secondary school
b. Good parenting has the biggest positive effect on children‘s achievement at school
c. Teachers who act as role models have the biggest positive effect on children‘s
achievement at school
d. None of these
6. Which type of parenting would be characterized as a high and nurturing involvement with
the children, while placing very few restrictions on them?
a. Authoritarian parenting
b. Authoritative parenting
c. Indulgent parenting
d. Neglectful parenting

7. Which type of parenting would be characterized as encouraging independence, but providing

clear boundaries and limits for behavior?
a. Authoritative parenting
b. Indulgent parenting
c. Authoritarian parenting
d. Neglectful parenting
8. Miller et al. (2012) identified that authoritarian parenting can result in which of the
following outcomes?
a. Perfectionism and a lack of creativity
b. Nurturing and compassionate relationships
c. The development of artistic dispositions
d. Over-confidence and a lack of discipline
9. In which system of Bronfenbrenner‘s theory are links between the family and the school
important?
a. The exosystem
b. The microsystem
c. The chronosystem
d. The mesosystem
10. Epstein (2001) placed importance on which of the following?

a. The family
b. All of these
c. The community
d. The school
MAJOR /FINAL TASK

Term Paper on the following topics:
1. Pre-Natal Development
2. Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive, and Socio-emotional Development of Pre-natal period
3. Infancy and Toddlerhood
4. Psychosocial Development
 Development of Identity  Gender and Contexts of Development
 Family, Peers, Friends, Play and Media
5. Moral Development
6. Children‘s Rights and other Laws on Children

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Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao

LEARNING MODULE ON Funda 1

THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

This Learning Module belongs to:

About this Module….

Sigelman, C. and Rider, E. (2015). Life-span human development (8

Child and adolescent development: Overview. Retrieved from

Children and video games: Playing with violence. Retrieved from

Page 2 College of Education

b. Demonstrate mastery of subject matter/discipline.

c. Facilitate learning using a wide range of teaching methodologies

d. Develop innovative curricula, instructional plans, teaching

e. Apply skills in the development and utilization of ICT to promote

f. Demonstrate a variety of thinking skills in planning, monitoring,

g. Practice professional and ethical teaching standards sensitive to

h. Pursue lifelong learning for personal and professional growth

College of Education Page 3

Lesson 1: Foundation of Human Development

WHO ARE THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNER?

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Definition of Childhood and Adolescence

1. By Parents: problem age/ troublesome age (less appealing age as compared

3. By Psychologists: pre-gang age, exploratory age, imitative/creative age.

1. By Parents: most problematic age, sloppy age, quarrelsome age.

Definition of Childhood and Adolescence

Page 4 College of Education

1. Early adolescence (9-13 years) – characterized by a spurt of growth and the

College of Education Page 5

Page 6 College of Education

College of Education Page 7

Characteristics and Implications for Children Ages 7 – 8

Page 8 College of Education

College of Education Page 9

1. Are unpredictable emotionally, are sensitive and prone to outbursts.

Page 10 College of Education

1. Tend to be legalistic, focusing on ―rules‖ and ―fairness‖.

College of Education Page 11

1. Exhibit ―affinitive faith‖ (faith identity shaped by family and community).

Page 12 College of Education

Learner- Centered Principles

American Psychological Association

The 14 principles are divided into those referring to

College of Education Page 13

COGNITINE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of

Page 14 College of Education

They also continue to expand their repertoire of strategies by reflecting on the

6. Context of Learning -Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,

variables, such as motivation, orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking.

can also have significant impacts on student learning.

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Motivational and Affective Measures

1. Motivational and emotional influences on learning-What and how much is learned is

2. Intrinsic Motivation to learn-The learner‘s creativity, higher order thinking, and

Intrinsic motivation is facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and

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3. Effects of Motivation on effort - Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills require

Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex