Gas Turbine Theory and

Construction
 Design
A design was available by 1955 for main
propulsion with maximum turbine inlet
conditions of 6 bar, 650*C and specific fuel
consumption approaching 0.3 kg/kWh.
Starting of the twin shaft unit was by electric
motor, power variation by control of gas
flow, conventional gear reduction and
propeller drive by hydraulic clutch with
astern torque converter (more modern
practice uses variable pitch propeller).
To improve efficiency even further it is
necessary to use much higher inlet gas
temperatures (1200*C would give a specific
fuel consumption of about 0.2 kg/kWh). The
limiting factor is suitable materials.
Experiments have been, and still are, being
carried out with ceramic blades and with
cooled metallic blades. Essentially the
problem is the same for steam turbine plant
and there has been no marked incentive for
the ship owner to install gas turbine plant
Reciprocating Engine Vs Gas Turbine
Gas Laws:
1. Boyle’s Law
2. Charle’s Law
3. Gay Lussac Law
4. Joule’s Law

Boyle’s Law: The absolute pressure of a given mass of

a perfect gas varies inversely as its Volume, when the
temperature remains constant

1. P is proportional to 1/v or pv=Constant

Charle’s Law: The volume of a given mass of a
perfect gas varies as its absolute temperature
when the absolute pressure remains constant
v is proportional to T or v/t = Constant
Gay Lussac Law: The absolute pressure of a
given mass of a perfect gas varies directly as
its absolute temperature when the volume
remains constant.
P is proportional to T or P/T=Constant
Hence the general equation is pv/t = constant
Or p1v1/t1=p2v2/t2 etc.
Joule’s Law: The change in the internal energy of a perfect
gas is directly proportional to the change of
temperature.
E=mct
E is change in internal energy
M is mass of the gas
C is specific heat (Cp and Cv)
T is change in temperature
Cp/Cv = Gamma – always more than one
And it is called adiabatic index.
Cp is always more than Cv
Unit of specific heat is ….Kilo joule/kg.kelvin
Gamma value for air is 1.4 (1/.72)
Comparison between reciprocating engine
and gas turbine

Theoretical cycles: A cycle is a process that begins with certain conditions,

progresses through a series of events and returns to the original conditions.
As an introduction to gas turbine operation, consider first the reciprocating engine,
which operates on the otto cycle. The otto cycle consists of four basic events that
occur at different times but in the same place, inside a cylinder of the engine.
The events are intake, where a mixture of air and fuel is drawn into the
cylinder; compression , where the mixture is squeezed into a much smaller
volume ; power ( combustion ), where the mixture is burnt ; and exhaust ,
where the burnt fuel / air mixture is forced from the cylinder.
Now consider the gas turbine engine. The gas turbine engine operates on the
brayton cycle . The brayton cycle consists of the same four events as the otto
cycle. However , all four events occur at the same time, but in different
locations within the gas turbine engine. During the brayton cycle, air enters
the inlet (1) at atmospheric pressure and constant volume. As the air passes
through the compressor (2) it increases in pressure and decreases in volume.
In the combustion (3) the air mixes with fuel and burns..
During combustion, pressure remains constant, but the increased
temperature causes a sharp increase in volume. The gases at constant
pressure and increased volume enter the turbine (4) and expand through it.
As the gases pass through the turbine rotor , the rotor turns kinetic and
thermal energy into mechanical energy to do work. The gases are released
through the exhaust (5) with a large drop in volume and at constant pressure.
The cycle is now completed
 Brayton Cycle

1-2: Compression

2-3: Combustion

3-4: Expansion through

Turbine and Exhaust
Nozzle

(4-1: Atmospheric
Pressure)
 Advantages and Disadvantages
(a) The machinery is simple containing a smaller
number of Components. The plant requires a less
number of auxiliaries. From these consideration's
the first cost of machinery is likely to be less.
(b)The gas turbine plant requires a very high mass
flow. For this reason the plant has to handle a
large quantity of air and exhaust gases. The air
and exhaust pipe ducting tends to be, substantial.
Use of special material for this ducting
compensates some of the economic advantages
derived because of its simplicity.
(c)it is difficult to obtain salt free air though filters
are installed.
d)Easy maintenance. The concept of complete
turbine change over by a spare engine for shop
floor overhaul can be applied to special
purpose ships operating between fixed terminal
ports and having to provide a maximum ship
availability.
(e)Not efficient at part load
(f)Suitable for unidirectional operation, reversing
gear or C.P. propeller is necessary.
(g)High obnoxious low pitch irritating noise level.
(h)Thermal efficiency is low in comparison with
diesel engine cycle. Efficiency can be increased by
increasing the temperature of a gas at intake.
Considering metallurgy, the temperature at
present is limited between 650 to 730*C.
(i)High fuel cost as it burns a distillate, good
quality fuel which should burn completely
leaving no residue and molten ash.
(j)Compact in size, the engine room length can
be shortened. The gain in the ship earning
space can be offset because of high fuel cost.
The saving in engine room height can be
provided for a continuous twin deck.
(k) The saving in weight for a certain power is
considerable.
Basic Components
 Basic Components

• Compressor
– Draws in air & compresses it
• Combustion Chamber
– Fuel pumped in and ignited to burn with compressed air
• Turbine
– Hot gases converted to work
– Can drive compressor & external load
 Compressor
Supplies high pressure air for
combustion process

Radial/centrifugal flow
– Adv: simple design, good for low
compression ratios (5:1)
– Disadv: Difficult to stage, less
efficient
Axial flow
– Good for high compression ratios
(20:1)
– Most commonly used
 Combustion Chambers
• Where air & fuel are mixed, ignited, and
burned
• Spark plugs used to ignite fuel
• Types
• -- Can:
– Cannular: for small, Radial Or centrifugal
compressors
– Annular: for larger, axial compressors
CAN
Can combustors are self contained cylindrical combustion chambers. Each
"can" has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing. The primary air from
the compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is decelerated,
mixed with fuel, and then ignited. The secondary air also comes from the
compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner (inside of which is where the
combustion is taking place). The secondary air is then fed, usually through
slits in the liner, into the combustion zone to cool the liner via thin film
cooling.
In most applications, multiple cans are arranged around the central axis of the
engine, and their shared exhaust is fed to the high pressure turbine. Can type
combustors were most widely used in early gas turbine engines, owing to their
ease of design and testing (one can test a single can, rather than have to test the
whole system). Can type combustors are easy to maintain, as only a single can
needs to be removed, rather than the whole combustion section. Most modern gas
turbine engines (particularly for aircraft applications) do not use can combustors,
as they often weigh more than alternatives.
Additionally, the pressure drop across the can is
generally higher than other combustors (on the
order of 7%). Most modern engines that use can
combustors are turboshafts featuring centrifugal
compressors.
Cannular
 Cannular
Cannular combustor for a
gas turbine engine, viewing
axis on, through the
exhaust.
The next type of combustor
is the cannular combustor;
Like the can type
combustor, can annular
combustors have discrete
combustion zones
contained in separate liners
with their own fuel
injectors. Unlike the can
combustor, all the
combustion zones share a
common ring (annulus)
casing.
Each combustion zone no
longer has to serve as a
pressure vessel. The
combustion zones can also
"communicate" with each
other via liner holes or
connecting tubes that
allow some air to flow
circumferentially. The exit
flow from the cannular
combustor generally has a
more uniform temperature
profile, which is better for
the turbine section. It also
eliminates the need for
each chamber to have its
own igniter. Once the fire is
lit in one or two cans, it can
easily spread to and ignite
the others.
This type of
combustor is
also lighter
than the can
type, and has a
lower pressure
drop (on the
order of 6%).
However, a
cannular
combustor can
be more
difficult to
maintain than a
can combustor.
Annular
 Annular
Annular combustor for a
gas turbine engine,
viewed axis on looking
through the exhaust. The
small orange circles are
the fuel injection nozzles.
The final, and most
commonly used, type of
combustor is the fully
annular combustor.
Annular combustors do
away with the separate
combustion zones and
simply have a continuous
liner and casing in a ring
(the annulus).
There are many
advantages to annular
combustors, including
more uniform combustion,
shorter size (therefore
lighter), and less surface
area. Additionally, annular
combustors tend to have
very uniform exit
temperatures. They also
have the lowest pressure
drop of the three designs
(on the order of 5%).The
annular design is also
simpler, although testing
generally requires a full
size test rig. Most modern
engines use annular
combustors;
 Turbines
• Consists of one or more stages designed to
develop rotational energy
• Uses sets of nozzles & blades
• Single shaft
– Power coupling on same shaft as turbine
– Same shaft drives rotor of compressor and
power components
 Gas Turbine Accessory Systems
• Starting System
– To get compressor initially rotated, HP air used
(can use electrical also)
– Once at certain RPM, fuel injected and spark
ignited
• Power Transmission System
– Reduction gears used to transfer torque
– With split shaft, turbines can run @ different
speeds
A foil bearing, also known as a foil-air bearing, is a type of air bearing. A shaft is
supported by a compliant, spring-loaded foil journal lining. Once the shaft is
spinning fast enough, the working fluid (usually air) pushes the foil away from the
shaft so that no contact occurs. The shaft and foil are separated by the air's high
pressure, which is generated by the rotation that pulls gas into the bearing via
viscosity effects. A high speed of the shaft with respect to the foil is required to
initiate the air gap, and once this has been achieved, no wear occurs. Unlike
aerostatic or hydrostatic bearings, foil bearings require no external pressurisation
system for the working fluid, so the hydrodynamic bearing is self-starting.

Foil Bearing

A foil-air bearing for the core rotor

shaft of an aircraft turbine engine
Turbo machinery is the most common application because foil
bearings operate at high speed.[6] The main advantage of foil
bearings is the elimination of the oil systems required by
traditional bearing designs. Other advantages are:
•Higher efficiency, due to a lower heat loss to friction; instead of
fluid friction, the main source of heat is parasitic drag
•Increased reliability
•Higher speed capability
•Quieter operation
•Wider operating temperature range (40–2,500 K)
•High vibration and shock load capacity
•No scheduled maintenance
•No external support system
•Truly oil free where contamination is an issue
•Capable of operating above critical speed
Principles of gas turbine
Single shaft gas turbine
 Turbines
• Split Shaft
– Gas generator turbine drives compressor
– Power turbine separate from gas generator turbine
– Power turbine driven by exhaust from gas generator
turbine
– Power turbine drives power coupling
Dual Shaft, Split Shaft
Open cycle marine gas turbine
Regenerator

The temperature of the compr.air is increased before it reaches

combustion chamber and therefore less fuel is required to raise the air
to specified turbine inlet temperature. Net work done not affected by
addition of regenerator to the cycle. Hence the thermal efficiency of
the cycle is increased.Regeneration is only possible when the
temperature of exhaust gases is higher than air outlet temp. from
compressor. This is usually the case for pressure ratios upto 7.
Inter-cooling will reduce the
work of the compressors
and will increase the net
work and the power output
and the work ratio.
The work of the turbine increases in isothermal expansion. This is
accomplished in actual by expanding in two or more stages and
reheating in between. At constant pressure back up to the maximum
permissible turbine inlet temperature. Since there is great excess of
air reheating is done by burning fuel.
Air Rate:
In addition to the thermal efficiency, which is a
measure of the fuel economy, the size of the plant
is equally important in many applications,
particularly in the field of aviation. For a given
duty, the size of a plant is dependent on the rate
flow of air in relationship to the useful
horsepower output. This is expressed as kg of
air per horsepower-hour and is called the air
rate.The reciprocal of air rate, termed specific
power (hp-hr per kg air), is sometimes used;
however, air rate will be used in, this text.
Air rate is a criterion of the size of the plant,
The lower the air rate the smaller the plant.
From the mechanical and metallurgical
standpoint, the lowering of the air rate results in
turbines of smaller physical dimensions with a
more nearly uniform temperature distribution.
Any means by which the physical dimensions
can be reduced and the inherent distortions
minimized are steps toward greater reliability of
the gas turbine.
Effect of turbine inlet temperature and pressure ratio on the air rate:
As the turbine inlet temperature is increased, the air rate is decreased. As the
pressure ratio is increased, the air rate will decrease to a minimum value .
Effect of compressor inlet temperature on the air rate: An increase in the
compressor inlet air temperature increases the compressor work. Since the turbine
output is not affected by variation in the compressor inlet temperature, the network
of the gas turbine is decreased.
An increase in compressor inlet temperature will decrease the network and
hence will increase the air rate.
Effect of regeneration, inter-cooling, and reheating on the air rate:
The main advantages of inter cooling and reheating is to reduce the air rate,
particularly at higher pressure ratios, which results in a reduction in the size of
the gas turbine and the elements therein. Regeneration alone, however, will
increase the air rate a small amount.
Effect of compressor and turbine efficiencies on the air rate:
An increase in the compressor and turbine efficiencies will decrease the air
rate. The present day gas turbines with their relatively high component
efficiencies are small in size compared to the early gas turbines.
Work Ratio: A good gas turbine design not only requires that the gas turbine
have a high thermal efficiency and low air rate, but that it also have a high work ratio.
The work ratio is defined as the ratio of the net or useful work to the turbine
expansion work. The work ratio may be also used as a guide in the determination of
the size of the gas turbine. In addition to being an aid in measurement of the effective
utilization of the component parts, the work ratio also serves as an indicator of the
sensitivity of the plant to the decrease or deterioration of the component efficiencies,
ie., the compressor and turbine efficiencies.
The component efficiencies will decrease during part load performance from
their optimum values and they will also be lowered from their design values
during continuous operation. If the work ratio is high the variations in the
compressor and turbine efficiencies will have less effect on the thermal
efficiency of the cycle than if the work ratio is low. Furthermore, a plant with
a high work ratio, ie., not as sensitive to component efficiency changes, will
have a higher part load performance efficiency than a plant with a low work
ratio.
 A gas turbine plant with work ratio of 40 per cent will develop 400
horsepower useful work for every 1000 horsepower output of the turbine.
The remaining 600 horsepower would be required for the compressor and
the auxiliaries. A gas turbine plant with a work ratio of 50 per cent would
develop 500 horsepower useful output for every 1000 horsepower output of
the turbine.
Effect of compressor inlet temperature on the work ratio: The work ratio is increased
as compressor inlet temperature is decreased due to the decrease in the power
required by the compressor while the turbine output remains the same.
Effect of compressor and turbine efficiencies on the work ratio: Figure indicates the
great effect the compressor and turbine efficiencies have on the work ratio. A slight
change in the element efficiencies has a large effect on the work ratio indicating the
sensitivity of the plant to the compressor and turbine efficiencies.
Effect of turbine inlet temperature and pressure ratio on the work ratio:
The work ratio is decreased as the pressure ratio is raised and that the work
ratio is increased as the turbine inlet temperature is raised
Effect of Regeneration. Inter-cooling:. and
Reheating: on Performance: The additional cost, weight, and
complexity of the gas turbine engine caused by the insertion of a regenerator, an
intercooler, and a reheater into the system is more than offset, in many
applications, by the improvement in the performance. The effect of these
elements on the thermal efficiency, power output, air rate, and work ratio are
interrelated.
The regeneration by the exhaust gases is one method of increasing the
thermal efficiency of an open cycle gas turbine. A regenerator, which is a
comparatively inexpensive piece of equipment with a relatively low
maintenance, will reduce the fuel consumption, but the addition of this
element will increase the weight and overall dimensions of the plant. While
the regenerator alone will increase the thermal efficiency.
Water injection in Gas Turbines:
It is a method used to improve the performance
of the gas turbine is to inject water into the
working air at the entrance to the compressor.
The compressed air is cooled by the latent heat
of vaporization of the water. The total mass flow
of the working medium is increased by the mass
of the injected water. The increase in the flow
rate through the turbine increases the power
output. In this manner the network or useful
power output of the cycle is increased, the work
ratio is increased, and the air rate is lowered..
The water injection will cause an increase in the
range of optimum thermal efficiencies similar to
that accomplished by inter-cooling.
Water injection is most commonly used as a
power boost for take-off and emergencies with
jet propelled . However, the power boost is of
short duration in aircraft due to the weight and
storage requirements of the water. The marine
or land based gas turbines may have long
duration or continuous water injection for
power boost.
However, water, particularly if it has impurities,
may cause corrosion or deposit on the blades,
which will have a detrimental effect on the
performance and maintenance
 For the shipping industry, the advantages of the gas turbine have
always been eclipsed by the disadvantages. Principally the high fuel
and initial cost have made it an unattractive option for ship owners.
The gas turbine relies on oil for lubrication of parts. Because of the high
temperature reached by the oil leaving the bearing surfaces, 300
degrees as opposed to the normal 100 degrees, the preferred medium
is synthetic oils. The passages and conduit for the oil adds to the
complex looks, as does the fuel delivery system which must introduce
fuel in a uniform fashion throughout the combustor. The fuel is also
heat treated to obtain the maximum efficiency from it.
In a series setup, the first gas turbine -also know as the compressor
drive, high pressure or gas generator provides the drive for the
compressor. The second turbine - also know as the low pressure, free
or power turbine is better suited to drive the propeller or generator.
This splitting of functions needed for a ship’s propeller
The operating environment of the marine gas turbine provides
some unique challenges. Salty air for combustion has never really
been a big problem for diesel engine or steam plants. But the large
amounts of air of required by the gas turbine allows a
considerable amount of moisture to enter the engine, therefore
the engine needs to be adapted to prevent corrosion and the
blocking, by salt deposits, of passages. Another challenge that
has to be considered with the gas turbine is the shock that a
turbine is exposed to; pitching rolling, propeller vibrations and
such. Proper care must be exercised to the design and
maintenance of support and dampening structures.

inability to burn the cheaper, dirtier heavy fuel oils.

But this is only a matter of time. ABB has been testing
it's heavy fuel burning gas turbine
Kawasaki gas turbine
Free piston gas generator
Air in the cushion
cylinders (B)
forces the pistons
together. The
compressor
pistons force air
into the engine
case (C'); a fresh
charge of air is
being compressed
in the combustion
cylinder (D).
Combustion forces
the pistons apart.
Air is being
compressed (B)
and the air pumps
(A) are taking in a
fresh charge of air.
The air pumps (A)
are full. The ports
in the combustion
cylinder are
uncovered and
scavenge air
forces the exhaust
gases into the gas
collector (E) and
through the
turbine. Air in the
cushion, cylinders
is fully
compressed to
"bounce" the
pistons back for a
fresh cycle.