Lec No 14

THE NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS
Nuclear Membrane
Nuclear pore
Nucleolus
What is Nucleus ?
• Nucleus” is a Latin word meaning Kernel. It is
the “CONTROL CENTER” of the cell. It was First
cell organelle to be discovered It is membrane
bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells.
Main functions are - to maintain the integrity
of genes - to control the activities of the cell
by regulating gene expression .
THE NUCLEUS:FUNCTIONS
• It stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA.
• Site of DNA replication
• Site of DNA transcription to mRNA
• Ribosomal formation
• -Nucleolus: RNA & protein required for ribosomal
synthesis
• It coordinates the cell's activities, which include
growth, intermediary metabolism, protein
synthesis, and reproduction (cell division) by
regulating gene expression.
THE NUCLEUS:STRUCTURE
• Average diameter of nucleus is 6um, which

occupies around 10% of cell volume
• The contents of the nucleus are enclosed by a
complex nuclear envelope.
• Included within the nucleus are:
• 1- Chromatin
• 2- Nucleoplasm
• 3- Nucleolus (concentrated area of chromatin,
RNA and proteins)
The NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (NE)
• The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus
and separates the cell's genetic material from the
surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to prevent
macromolecules from diffusing freely between the
nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
• Also known as perinuclear envelope, nuclear
membrane or karyotheca Encloses the nucleus and
separates the cell's genetic material from the
surrounding cytoplasm.
• The space between the membranes is called the
perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER
lumen.
NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX
• It is a complex in the nuclear membrane that
enables the trafficking of molecules between
the nucleus and cytoplasm.
Nuclear envelope and lamina
cytoplasm
N. lamina
Nuclear
pore
heterochromatin
Lamins are filamentous proteins in the
intermediate filament family
Lamin phosphorylation in
prophase disassembles
the nuclear lamina &
allows for nuc. envel.
breakdown
Laminins are extracellular

proteins, unrelated
CHROMATIN
The interphase chromosomes is present in a highly extended nucleoprotein fibers
called chromatin.
• Chromatin is the complex of DNA and protein (Histones) that makes up
chromosomes.
• Each unreplicated chromosome contains a single continuous DNA molecule.
• The mitotic chromosome represents a higlhy condensed structure (10000:1)
Chromosomes
Chromatin
Nucleosomes particles connected by

short strands of linker DNA
Heterochromatin = too compacted, transcriptionally inactive
nuclear envelope
Nucleolus Nucleoplasm
Euchromatin = can be transcriptionally active
LETZ STUDY THIS PART ON BOARD.
Nucleolus :
• Nucleolus is the discrete densely stained
structure found in nucleus It is a nuclear
inclusion that is not surrounded by a
membrane Present in cells that are actively
synthesizing proteins Its size depends on
metabolic activity of cell Average size .5-5um
in dia Nucleolus .
• It is mainly associated with synthesis of rRNA
Nucleoplasm :
• Nucleoplasm is the protoplasm within the
nuclear envelope It consists of a nuclear
matrix and various types of particles Highly
viscous liquid which scaffolds chromosomes,
nucleolus and various granules like
heterochromatin, perichromatin granules
Many substances like nucleotides and certain
enzymes are also dissolved in it Nucleoplasm.
Cell Cycle
• Four stages to the cell

cycle
– Growth period -
Interphase includes:
• G1
• S Stage
• G2
– Division period -
Includes:
• Mitosis
G1
Stage #1
• Chromosomes are not

visible under a
microscope - because
they are uncoiled,
therefore called
chromatin
• Proteins are quickly

made
S Stage
Stage #2
• Chromatin is
replicated in the
nucleus
• Chromatin divides to
form sister
chromatids which
are connected by
centromeres
G2
Stage #3
• Chromatin shortens and coils
• Organelles are made
• Most proteins made are for

mitosis
• Animals - centriole pair

replicates and prepares to
form spindle fibers.
Mitosis
• Four Phases of
mitosis
– Prophase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
Prophase
first phase of mitosis
• Longest Phase
• Chromatin coils up into
visible chromosomes
• Chromosomes look
hairy
• Each chromosome now
has two halves
Prophase
• Chromosomes
– are also called sister chromatids
– Two sister chromatids can be
called a diploid chromosome
– One sister chromatid can also be
called a haploid chromosome
– DNA in sister chromatids are
alike
– Sister chromatids are held
together by a centromere
Prophase
• Nucleus disappears
• Nuclear envelope
disintigrates
• Nucleolus disintigrates
• Completely absent by the

end of prophase
Metaphase
second stage of mitosis
• Short stage
• Sister chromatids
(SC)line up at the
equator
• Sister chromatids
are attached by their
centromeres to the
spindle fibers
Anaphase
third stage of mitosis
• SC are pulled apart at
the centromere to
opposite ends of the
cell
• This ensures that each

new cell gets one set of
the information needed
• SC are pulled apart

because the spindle
fiber shortens
Telophase
fourth stage of mitosis
• Chromatids reach opposite poles
of cell
• Chromosomes unwind
• Spindle breaks down
• Nucleolus reappears
• New nuclear envelope forms
around each set of
chromosomes
• New double membrane begins to
form between the two new
nuclei.
Cytokinesis
end of telophase
• The dividing of the

cytoplasm
• ANIMALS
– Plasma membrane
pinches along the
equator
– Two new cells are
separated
MEIOSIS
Meiosis
• Sex cells divide to produce gametes (sperm or egg).
• Gametes have half the # of chromosomes.
• Occurs only in gonads (testes or ovaries).
Male: spermatogenesis
Female: oogenesis
• Meiosis is similar to mitosis with some chromosomal

differences.
Meiosis – mouse testes
Parent cell
1st division
2nd division
4 gametes
Meiosis I (four phases)
• Cell division that reduces the chromosome number
by one-half.
• four phases:
a. prophase I
b. metaphase I
c. anaphase I
d. telophase I
Prophase I
• Longest and most complex phase (90%).
• Chromosomes condense.
• Synapsis occurs: homologous chromosomes come
together to form a tetrad.
• Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids

(sister and nonsister chromatids).
Prophase I - Synapsis
Homologous chromosomes
sister chromatids Tetrad

sister chromatids
Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”
Y chromosome
X chromosome
Crossing Over
• Crossing over (variation) may occur between

nonsister chromatids at the chiasmata.
• Crossing over: segments of nonsister chromatids
break and reattach to the other chromatid.
• Chiasmata (chiasma) are the sites of crossing over.
Crossing Over - variation
nonsister chromatids Tetrad
chiasmata: site of variation

crossing over
Another Way Meiosis Makes Lots of Different
Sex Cells – Crossing-Over
Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of different gamete types produced by
independent assortment.
Prophase I
spindle fiber
centrioles
aster
fibers
Metaphase I
• Shortest phase
• Tetrads align on the metaphase plate.
• INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
1. Orientation of homologous pair to poles is random.
2. Variation
3. Formula: 2n
Example: 2n = 4
then n = 2
thus 22 = 4 combinations
Metaphase I
OR
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes separate and move
towards the poles.
• Sister chromatids remain attached at their

centromeres.
Telophase I
• Each pole now has haploid set of chromosomes.
• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells are formed.

Meiosis II
• No interphase II
(or very short - no more DNA replication)
• Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis

Prophase II
• same as prophase in mitosis
Metaphase II
• same as metaphase in mitosis
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase II
• same as anaphase in mitosis
• sister chromatids separate
Telophase II
• Same as telophase in mitosis.

• Nuclei form.
• Cytokinesis occurs.
• Remember: four haploid daughter cells

produced.
gametes = sperm or egg

Telophase II

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THE NUCLEUS

• Average diameter of nucleus is 6um, which

Laminins are extracellular

Nucleosomes particles connected by

• Four stages to the cell

• Chromosomes are not

• Proteins are quickly

• Organelles are made

• Most proteins made are for

• Animals - centriole pair

• Completely absent by the

• This ensures that each

• SC are pulled apart

• The dividing of the

• Meiosis is similar to mitosis with some chromosomal

• Tetrad is two chromosomes or four chromatids

sister chromatids Tetrad

• Crossing over (variation) may occur between

chiasmata: site of variation

metaphase plate metaphase plate

• Sister chromatids remain attached at their

• Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid daughter cells are formed.

• Remember: Meiosis II is similar to mitosis

metaphase plate metaphase plate

• Same as telophase in mitosis.

• Remember: four haploid daughter cells

gametes = sperm or egg

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