Nutrition and Human Development

1/23- Tues

Intro to Nutrition:

Nutrition: the process of providing or obtaining the food necessary for health and
growth
We take in molecules and break it down into something we can use for growth,
metabolism and repair
→The body is resilient; many survived the Holocaust despite lack of nutrition
The science includes:
Science of food and their components (nutrients etc)
Health and disease
Digestion, absorption and elimination
Social, economic, cultural etc implications of eating
Why learn about nutrition? Make good diet choices, improve health, reduce disease,
increase longevity

Why do we eat the way we do?

“Eat to live” vs “live to eat”
Dif factors including gender (men like meat, women are fleishophobes and eat salad),
age (little kids eat candy, chicken nuggets and fries, teenage boys eat tons, older
people eat carefully and at the same time every day), occupation (young professionals
eat when they’re not busy), culture (ashkenazi vs sfardi)
Social eating, serving a certain food because it’s “appropriate” or “trendy”

Personal preferences change over time and can be swayed by peer pressure
Neophobia: disliking anything new- preschoolers are likely to go through this; as you
get older you get over it
What influences food preferences? (1/25-Thurs)
● Senses:
○ Sight- colorful/appetizing appearance, nice presentation, social media
(cooking shows)
○ Hearing- crunchy food, sound of frying, music in restaurant
○ Smell- good aroma makes you want to eat and vice versa; much of what
we perceive as taste is from smell
○ Touch- texture of food
○ Taste- do I want sweet, salty, sour, bitter or umami?
 ● Habits
We learn to cook certain foods, for certain meals and occasions and to eat 3
meals a day, at the same time every day
● Comfort Food
We get positive or negative associations with food- chicken soup is for when
you’re ill, ice cream is a reward, I hated broccoli as a kid so I do now as well
● Advertising and Promotions
Ads make their food look a lot better than it actually is- businesses spend nearly
$10 billion annually marketing food, specifically fast food etc
● Food and Diet Trends
Low-carb trends, gluten-free trends now etc
● Social Factors
The part of the world you live in (ex. Spicy food in Mexico), food is the focus of
social gatherings
● Environment
○ Your economic situation- poor people can’t afford healthy food; people
may feel pressure to serve more expensive food than they can afford
○ Lifestyle- busy people don’t have time to stand and cook healthy, on the
go food is unhealthy
○ Culture- food habits are among the last to change in immigration and
assimilation
○ Religion- religions all have traditional foods that they use in their customs
*The American diet, overall, is heavy on starch and low on fruits, veggies, etc. Lots of
white bread and red meat.*

Nutrients are chemicals essential for body function that we take in from diet. 6 types:
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water
An absence of nutrients results in changes in health.
Macronutrients include carbs, lipids and proteins since the body needs more of them.
Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals since the body needs less.
Organic foods include carbon, inorganic foods don’t.
Most foods include more than one type of nutrient.

Carbohydrates made of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen

This is starch and sugar found in fruits, veggies, grains
Body can store for a rainy day
Lipids are fats and oils, include cholesterol
Provide structure for body cells carrying some vitamins
Necessary for body but not good in excess
Founds in oil, avocado, coconut
Proteins are made of amino acids
Help build and maintain body structure
Found in meat and dairy
Vitamins are organic compounds that help regulate body processes
Fat-soluble vitamins- A, D, E, K; water-soluble vitamins- C, B (8 types of B- 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,
7, 9, 12). Why does it matter? Fat vs water is how they get through the body
Minerals are inorganic compounds. Macrominerals are the ones essential to health,
microminerals are the ones that are not.
Water is the most essential, we can’t do anything without it.

We need nutrients to have energy, which is the ability to do work. Energy comes from
foods that contain carbs, lipids and proteins. These nutrients are broken down and used
for energy. Food energy is measured in calories.
To calculate calories, multiply grams of fat by 9 and grams of carbs and protein by 4

1/30- Thurs
Health (according to WHO) is a state of complete physical, mental and social well
being. Disease is an impairment of normal state of being, which interrupts performance
of vital functions, can be acute or chronic. Nutrition is more likely to affect risk of chronic
diseases, like heart disease from high levels of cholesterol, diabetes from too much fast
food. The top cause of death in America is heart disease.
Physical activity is good for health- a sedentary lifestyle is bad. ⅔ of American adults
are obese, which increases the likelihood of diseases. However, obesity, diabetes etc
are often genetic, we can’t always blame the person.

Nutrition uses the scientific method. Scientists want to be objective, and for that they
need proof. They use inductive reasoning (from specific to general) to develop a
hypothesis about something, and then must do an experiment to prove their claim. An
experiment must include a control group and an experimental group. The more data, the
more statistically significant (we want a small p value, under 0.05 and under 0.01 is
even better) They use deductive reasoning to draw their conclusion (from general to
specific)

Digestive System:

Carnivores, herbivores, omnivores

Different feeding mechanisms:
Filter feeding- take in nutrients through their cells- ex. Aquatic animals
Substrate feeding- living on food source ex. Caterpillars
Fluid feeding- feeding off living hosts- ex. Mosquitoes
Bulk feeding- eating large pieces of food and breaking it down- ex. Us

Our digestive system, the mammalian gastrointestinal (GI) tract is called the alimentary
canal. It’s made up of: upper GI tract (oral cavity, esophagus, stomach), middle GI
tracts (small intestine), lower GI tract (large intestine) and accessory organs (salivary
gland, liver, gallbladder, pancreas)
Layers of the GI tracts: Lumen (the cavity in the middle of each organ), mucosa
(innermost layer of tissues), submucosa (next later), muscularis (next layer, made of
muscle), serosa (thin outermost layer)
The process includes ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
2/1-Thurs
Ingestion begins in the oral cavity. There is also digestion in the mouth: mechanical
digestion with the teeth and chemical digestion with saliva.
There are 3 salivary glands on each side of the mouth. The job of saliva is to mix with
food to make it easier to digest. Saliva includes amylase which breaks down starch-
this is where carb digestion begins.
Swallowing is both voluntary and involuntary- it starts off voluntary, but once it hits back
of the throat it’s involuntary. Swallowed ball of food is called bolus. It enters pharynx
which has 3 parts. Next, enters the esophagus, which has entrance and exit doors
called sphincters which decide what can enter. Upper sphincter is next to the pharynx
so it’s also called the inferior pharyngeal sphincter. Lower sphincter, also called cardiac
sphincter, is located right behind the heart, so when a person has acid in the
esophagus, they feel it in the heart, so it’s called heartburn even though it’s really acid
reflux.
Peristalsis is muscular contraction of food through the digestive tract, starting from the
esophagus to intestine. “Reverse peristalsis” is throwing up.
Stomach includes both mechanical and chemical digestion. Chemical digestion
includes hydrochloric acid and pepsin which breaks down food. This is where protein
digestion begins.
*Notes are just a repeat of slides so just read slides for the rest of this class*

2/6-Tues
**See video of digestion posted on canvas under “pages”, was very helpful**
GI Motility is the propelling of food and fluid throughout the GI tract. 2 types of
movement: rhythmic, which is just moving food forward and mixing it, like in esophagus
and small intestine, and tonic, which is a contrast level of contraction, like in the
sphincters and valves.
The GI tract is made of smooth muscle, meaning it’s involuntary, except for a few
voluntary areas like the mouth and external anal sphincter and are made of striated
muscle.
GI Innervation has 2 parts: intrinsic, the enteric nervous system (a special portion of
nervous system meant for digestion) and extrinsic, the autonomic nervous system.
Recall that the autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems. Digestion takes place when you’re in the
parasympathetic state, at which point activity in the enteric nervous system, like
secretions and motility, increases. (slightly confused, see slides)

We need diet for several things:

1. Chemical energy for cellular processes like activities of the organs and cells. The
energy is used to produce ATP
2. Building macromolecules
3. Essential nutrients, including essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins and
minerals- diet lacking these nutrients means you’re malnourished
We require 20 amino acids to complete a set of protein, only half of which our body can
produce on its own, so the remaining amino acids must come from our food. These are
called essential amino acids, and include isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine (and histidine in babies). Meat, cheese
and eggs are “complete” proteins because they contain all the required amino acids;
plant proteins are “incomplete.”

2/13-Tues
**See chart for each of the vitamins and minerals, their dietary sources, function in the
body and symptoms of deficiency**

Minerals are inorganic (it’s just the substance itself, no added carbon), necessary for
function but in varying amounts, deficiencies are not so common- iron deficiency most
common.
Calcium–found in dairy–strengthens bones–lack leads to osteoporosis
Iodine–found in seafood and iodized salt–necessary for function of thyroid–lack leads to
goiter and swelling of thyroid
Iron– found in red meat and green vegetables–necessary for oxygen in red blood
cells–lack causes anemia, which makes you feel very tired and weak (menstrual women
who lose blood should be careful and maybe take supplements)
Magnesium–found in whole grains and leafy substances–enzyme for nervous
system–lack causes nervous system disturbances
Potassium–found in bananas and potassium–necessary for heart, acid and water
balance, s/th abt kidneys–deficiencies involve heart and kidneys
Sodium–found in salt–acid and water balance,connected to water–deficiencies cause
muscles cramps and lost appetite
Sulfur–found in proteins–component of amino acids–impaired growth, fatigue
Diseases Related to Nutrition:

Swallowing Disorders:
There could be many different causes- problems with esophagus, nerve function etc.
This is a problem because they need to get nutrition, so they work with a large team
including speech therapists. For many, thick liquids are easiest- water goes straight into
lungs, can’t swallow food. If they can’t manage even that, might need feeding tube that
brings food straight to stomach
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease/GERD/Acid Reflux/Heartburn:
The lower esophageal sphincter is weak and so the contents of the stomach can go
backwards, and acid that goes back into the esophagus causes burning sensation.
Usually happens soon after meals and is worse when bending over, better when sitting
up. Made worse by spicy and fatty foods, caffeine, alcohol, smoking, too much Advil or
motrin.
Why can’t we ignore it? The esophagus isn’t able to hang so much acid, could lead to
esophagitis (inflammation of esophagus) or even cancer
How does this affect nutrition? People with acid reflux need a more bland diet
Stomach disorders:
Gastritis is inflammation of lining of stomach, can be acute (sudden, not as long lasting,
more likely to cause damage and lead to ulcers) or chronic (comes on slowly, can lead
to bleeding of lining)
Gastroparesis, “paralysis of the stomach,” refers to delayed emptying of the stomach,
due to damage to the nerve that controls motility. Associated with diabetes and other
diseases. Normal stomach emptying time is 4 hours, but since the outlet of stomach is
so narrow, takes longer, and they also feel full too soon. Different levels of severity and
therefore different treatments; start with least invasive and work their way up
Celiac is an autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten, where there’s an inappropriate
immune response to gluten. Tons of different symptoms in different ages, see slide.
Inflammatory Bowel Diseases include Crohn’s and Ulcerative Colitis, both run in
families, a lot of Ashkenazim have, likely to be genetic

Organic Molecules:
Carbon contains 4 valence electrons (elements like to have 8 electrons in their
outermost shell) so it can form 4 additional bonds. Therefore, it can create large chains
that vary in length and shape, and are the skeleton of a lot of molecules.
Functional groups are the carbon groups that most frequently appear
Hydroxyl groups- end in -OH, form alcohols
Carboxyl groups- found in fatty and amino acids
Amino groups- end in -NH2, important in amino acids
Phosphate groups- used in DNA and ATP
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is made of adenosine and 3 phosphates (which is why
it’s called adenosine triphosphate), and is basically energy (or used for it)
Macromolecules are large and complex, and have special properties based on what
they’re made of. They are made of smaller molecules, called monomers (the smallest
possible “building block”) and these monomers bond through losing a water molecule.
Dehydration synthesis is the bonding of monomers (“dehydration” because they’re
losing water).
Hydrolysis is the disassembling of polymers into monomers (“hydro” is water, “lysis” is
breaking of bonds)

Carbohydrates are fuel and building material, including sugar, of different complexities.
Monosaccharide (“1 sugar”) is simple sugar, and 2 monosaccharides combine to form
a disaccharide, which is also a simple sugar. 3+ sugars is a polysaccharide.
Monosaccharides are multiples of CH2O, so the formula of glucose, which is a
monosaccharide, is C6H12O6. The covalent bond between sugars is called a glycosidic
linkage.
Polysaccharides have storage and structural roles. Our bodies store glucose for when
our body needs energy. This stored glucose is called glycogen in animals. Plants store
sugar in the form of starch and something about cellulose.

Lipids are very diverse, and don’t have a specific monomer (building block) like
carbohydrates- there’s a lot of types of fats, and therefore a lot of monomers and
polymers. The thing they all have in common is that they don’t mix well with water-
they’re hydrophobic (“water fearing”) and don’t match bond-wise. Most important lipids
are fats, steroids and phospholipids.
1. Fat is a polymer made of glycerol with a fatty acid (that bond through dehydration
synthesis) Fatty acid is a long chain of carbon ending in carboxyl group, and vary
in length. Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens
attached (no double bonds to take up more of the empty spaces, except by
carboxyl group at end) Unsaturated fatty acids have 1+ double bonds (meaning
there’s less hydrogen attached). Saturated fats are more solid at room
temperature, and therefore aren’t as good for you, because more solid fat in your
body will clog passageways more. Unsaturated fat doesn’t do this as much
because the double bonds make it able to bend and take up less space. Most
animal fats are saturated, plant and fish fats are unsaturated. Transfat is a type
of unsaturated fat that isn’t good because of the way the hydrogen is positioned-
less flexible and therefore more solid- this should be very limited.
Fat is very important- if the body doesn’t get enough fat, it will eat from muscles.
2. Phospholipids ??? something about where water can and can’t come
 3. Steroids are the most unusual lipids- characterized by 4 fused rings, which look
like honeycombs. Many hormones and medications are steroids. Cholesterol is
the steroid that converts to these hormones, meds etc. It’s important for the body,
but too much is bad because it builds up plaque in arteries which can block them
and lead to problems.
2/27-Tues
Proteins have many different functions, including enzymes (which speeds up a
process; all enzymes are proteins but not all proteins are enzymes), hormones,
transportation (like hemoglobin), many more functions (see slides)
All proteins are made from a set of 20 amino acids. Polypeptides are a polymer of
amino acids that make up proteins.
A protein has a carboxyl group on one side and an amino group on the other (need to
recognize it, carboxyl group is carbon double bonded to oxygen, amino group is H2N) In
the middle is another group specific to whatever amino acid it is, called the R group.
The amino end is called N-terminus and the carboxyl end is called the C-terminus.

Recall that sugars are linked by covalent bonds called glycosidic linkage. Proteins are
linked by covalent bonds called peptide bonds.
Each protein has a different structure, and structure determines function. All proteins
are 3D. There are 4 types of structures, and each one is more complex than the
previous.
a. Primary- most simple, just a long chain of amino acids (bonded with peptide
bonds through dehydration synthesis, with a carboxyl group and amino group
etc) Just amino acids interacting with each other, includes hormones ex. insulin
b. Secondary- has interactions between amino acids and the folds. 2 types:
1. Alpha helix
2. Beta pleated sheet
c. Tertiary- interactions between the amino acids, folds and the R groups. They
have disulfide bridges (2 sulfurs) that strengthen the bonds
d. Quaternary- this occurs when 2+ polypeptide chains form a macromolecule.
Therefore there are tons of interactions between everything
Protein structure can be affected by certain physical and chemical conditions:
temperature, pH level (if it’s too hot there will be denaturation, loss of structure, this is
what happens in stomach so protein can break down)
Nucleic Acids are made up of nucleotides, and they store, transmit and express
hereditary information. 2 types: DNA and RNA. DNA directs RNA which directs protein.
Nucleotides are made up of 3 things: sugar (in DNA this is deoxyribose, in RNA this is
ribose), a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.
*Just missed like 6 slides- read slides for this cuz I can’t write it any better*

Carbohydrates:
Contains C, H, O, in a CH2O ratio, so glucose is C6H12O6.
In food, there are simple carbs (sugars) and complex carbs (starches and fibers)
Remember, the most simple sugar is monosaccharide, called glucose, 2 monomers are
disaccharide, 3+ is polysaccharide, joined together with glycosidic linkage. We store
polysaccharides in the form of glycogen, plants store it in the form of starch. Hydrolysis
(breaking down) of glycogen releases the glucose when we need sugar.
Most common monosaccharides are glucose/dextrose, fructose, galactose
Glucose- missed the notes on this
Fructose- fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, veggies and honey, tastes the sweetest
which is why “high fructose corn syrup” gets added to a lot of stuff
Galactose- rarely found on its own, usually bonded with glucose to form lactose, which
is the primary sugar in dairy
2/29-Thurs
Disaccharides are two monomers joined together. 3 disaccharides important for human
diet:
1. Sucrose= glucose + fructose. Sucrose is “table sugar”, what we mean when we
say “sugar.” It comes from sugar cane and needs to be refined.
2. Lactose= glucose + galactose. Lactose is the sugar found in milk; human milk
has higher concentration of lactose than cow’s milk so it’s sweeter
3. Maltose= glucose + glucose. Not found naturally, it’s formed when starch is
broken down. It’s fermented in beer.
Polysaccharides (3+) are complex sugar.
Oligosaccharides are a short chain of sugar, 3-10 molecules. Found in small amounts,
mostly in plants- ex. Legumes, wheat, onions. The most common oligosaccharides are
raffinose and stachyose and are found in beans and legumes. The body can’t break
them down, only intestinal bacteria, so in ppl with digestion problems, beans and
legumes cause indigestion.
→That’s why you’re supposed to soak beans before cooking them, so you start
breaking them down in advance
Polysaccharides vary in length and shape; shape determines function, behavior and
how digestible it is. Different types:
Starch is how plants store energy; we store it as glycogen. We need to consume
starch. We get starch from grains, potatoes, yams, rice, corn, legumes etc. In plants,
starch can take two forms, amylose (straight chain) and amylopectin (branched chain).
Our body can digest most starch; the part that can’t be digested is called resistant
starch.
Glycogen is how animals store carbs. It breaks down very quickly after death so most
meat has very little carbs.
Fiber is found in all plant food. It can’t be digested in the human body. Dietary fiber is
carbs found in plants. Functional fiber is isolated carbs that are beneficial to us. Total
fiber is dietary plus functional fiber.
Cellulose gives plant cell walls strength, found in fruits, veggies, wheat.
When we look at nutrition labels, it says what the total carbohydrates are, but also lists
each component separately. You can subtract the fiber from the total to get the real
carbs (ex. Cookie has 28 grams of carbs, 6 grams of fiber, the carbs that the body
actually has to break down is 22 grams)
Hemicellulose includes bran, not sure what it has to do with anything.

Carb digestion starts in the mouth with amylase in saliva. Chewing stimulates saliva
production. Very little is broken down in the mouth- only monosaccharides, about 5% of
starch. Carb digestion pauses in the stomach because the pH will denature the enzyme
amylase (because it’s a protein). It continues in the small intestine when the pancreas
secretes amylase. Everything is broken down- disaccharides into monosaccharides etc.
This way, it can be absorbed by villi. 2 ways that they are absorbed:
1. facilitated diffusion (diffusion is natural spreading of molecules from area of
high concentration to low concentration; facilitated diffusion is speeding up this
process with ??) in fructose.
2. Active transport in glucose and galactose
Carbs in the body:
We store glucose in the form of glycogen. Our pancreas regulates glucose levels in
blood by secreting glucagon if we need more sugar and insulin if sugar is too high.
Malfunction of production of insulin is diabetes. Several types of diabetes, see slides.

**MISSED CHAPTER ON PROTEINS, SEE SLIDES**

Lipids:
See mostly slides, read them well

Doesn’t have a specific monomer or polymer that all lipids have (like monosaccharide or
amino acids are monomers) The closest to a monomer is fatty acids- it is a building
block, but not all lipids use fatty acids. The only thing that all lipids have in common is
that they are hydrophobic (don’t dissolve in water)
Largest category of lipids are triglycerides- in food this is “fats and oils”- fat means it’s
solid, oil means it’s liquid at room temp. (Triglycerides are another example of a lipid
monomer)
Triglycerides are made of a glycerol plus 3 fatty acids.
Phospholipids dissolve in both water and fat. How? It has a phosphate head which is
hydrophilic and a fatty acid tail which is hydrophobic, and therefore water can basically
come up to it but not penetrate. Since they’re both hydrophobic and hydrophilic, they
are good emulsifiers (meaning they enable the breakdown of fat in a watery
environment- soap is an example of an emulsifier) Since phospholipids can emulsify,
they are used throughout body to combine and digest water and fats- ex. Bile in the
intestine.
Steroid looks like 4 fused rings. They don’t use fatty acids. Hormones are made of
cholesterol, which is a type of steroid. We need cholesterol in the body to make our
hormones, but too much bad cholesterol causes heart problems. Cholesterol is found in
animal products (meat, egg yolks, part of dairy products, breastmilk)
Hyperlipidemia (“hyper”=a lot, “emia”=in the blood) is a disease in which there’s too
much lipid in the blood. If it’s primary, it’s from the disease itself, probably genetic. If it’s
secondary, it might be from another disease that’s increasing cholesterol or glyceride.
If fat builds up in the blood- athero?, it will cause blockage and therefore heart
problems.
HDL (high density lipoprotein) means it has more protein than lipid in it, and therefore
it’s good for us, the “good cholesterol”- we want a high amount of this. LDL (low density
lipoprotein) means it has less protein than lipid in it, which is bad for us because the fat
is deposited in the blood vessels, the “bad cholesterol”- we want a low amount of this.
Unfortunately, lots of ppl have high LDL and low HDL.
See earlier in notes for saturated fatty acid vs. unsaturated fatty acid. Foods don’t
contain just one or the other- it’s a mix, but some have more of one kind than the other
kind.
Isomers are identical fatty acids with the same number of carbons etc just slightly
different structure. Cis fatty acids means that the hydrogens are on the same side of the
double bond, trans fatty acids means hydrogens are on opposite sides of double bond-
cis is better for us. Most natural unsaturated fat is cis; it’s processed foods that have
trans fat.

One end of a fatty acid is the carboxyl group, called the carboxyl end. The other end is
called the omega end. The double bond closest to the omega end determines that its
classification is. We count carbons from the omega end, so a fatty acid with a double
bond at 9 carbons away from the omega end is called omega-9. This is also the case
with omega-6 and omega-3.
Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that our body can’t produce and we must get from
our diet. Omega-3 and omega-6 are examples of this. Very rare to be deficient in this.
Omega-9 and saturated fat are “nonessential fatty acids” because our body can
synthesize (make) them itself (even though they are essential for the body)
Lipid digestion and absorption can’t happen in the mouth or stomach because those are
watery environments. Most of lipid digestion takes place in the small intestine because
of the emulsifiers there (though chewing and peristalsis help) Bile is made in liver,
comes through common bile duct into small intestine to secrete the bile in order to
emulsify the fats. Different hormones signal to the gallbladder and pancreas to secrete
their juices.
Malabsorption syndrome- a person has a hard time absorbing something, in this case
lipids. Lots of problems- see slides. Person might have a hard time with fat-soluble
vitamins so there’ll be deficiencies of those.

**SEE SLIDES FOR NOTES ON ALCOHOL AND MOST OF METABOLSIM***

Metabolism is the sum total of all the reactions in the body

Catabolism is breaking things down and releasing energy
Anabolism is building things and using energy
Carbohydrate metabolism:
4 steps:
1. Glycolysis- breakdown of carbon, from 6 carbon molecule, to 2 3 carbon
molecules of pyruvate. We “invest” 2 molecules of ATP, and end up with 4, so we
really gained 2 molecules of ATP. Can be done without oxygen, unlike next 3
steps, which must be done in mitochondria, and if there’s no oxygen,
fermentation will take place instead.
2. Something
3. Krebs cycle/citric acid cycle- more breakdown of pyruvate, so there is a release
carbon dioxide and produce 2 molecules of ATP, which isn’t so much, not enough
to sustain metabolic processes
4. Electron transport train reactions
The ATP given off by glycolysis and krebs cycle is not enough to sustain metabolic
processes, so most ATP comes from electron transport chains- it produces 26-28 ATP.
Therefore, cellular respiration produces 30-32 ATP per molecule of glucose altogether
(2 from glycolysis + 2 from krebs cycle + 26-28 from electron transport chains = 30-32)
When glucose isn’t needed immediately, it’s stored as glycogen in the liver. The process
of storing glucose is glycogenesis (the genesis, building, of glucose) and is generated
by insulin. The process of breaking down glucose is called glycogenolysis, and is
stimulated by glucagon.
Glucose can be formed from other sources, like proteins and lipids. This process is
called gluconeogenesis (glucose + new + building), and can be stimulated by any
hormone that raises blood sugar, like cortisol and glucagon.
Glucose easily enter cell membrane beasuse theythey are polar.

Lipid metabolism:
Because lipids are nonpolar, and blood is mostly water, lipids must be carried by
lipoproteins
4 classes of lipoproteins: (see slides)
1. Chylomicrons
2. Very low density lipoproteins
3. Low density lipoproteins (bad cholesterol)
4. High density lipoproteins (good cholesterol)
Lipids can be oxidized to produce ATP; if they’re not needed, they’re stored
Lipid catabolism/lipolysis is breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol (or
glucose, in gluconeogenesis)
Lipid anabolism/lipogenesis is buildup of fats

Protein metabolism:
Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which are oxidized to produce ATP or
synthesized for new proteins.
Protein catabolism is breakdown of proteins, into amino acids or glucose (which would
be gluconeogenesis)
Protein anabolism is building amino acids- building DNA, RNA etc.

Regulation of metabolism depends on hormones. See slides.

During fasting and starvation, the body makes metabolic changes.
Fasting is going without food for a few hours, a day, a few days
Starvation is having no food/inadequate food for weeks or months
To maintain homeostasis, rate of heat loss needs to equal rate of heat production
BMR (basal metabolic rate) is how we’re doing metabolically
We shiver in winter and sweat in summer to maintain heat homeostasis

Energy and Weight Management:

Energy is the capacity to do work and change. It is never created or destroyed, just
transferred. Ex. humans do human respiration, getting resources from plants who do
photosynthesis
4 calories per gram carbs and protein, 9 calories per gram fat, 7 calories per gram
alcohol
How do we know how much food to eat?
Internal cues- feelings hungry/full, hormones that regulate this
External cues- senses, time of day
Hunger is physical, appetite is psychological- a person can physically feel hungry, but
has no appetite to eat, or not be hungry but you’re “in the mood” of a snack
Hormones control our desire to eat