CE3404 Soil Mechanics 01

CE6405 SOIL MECHANICS
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UNIT I SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND COMPACTION
Nature of soil – phase relationships – Soil description and classification for engineering
purposes, their significance – Index properties of soils - BIS Classification system – Soil
compaction – Theory, comparison of laboratory and field compaction methods – Factors
influencing compaction behavior of soils.
Soil Mechanics
‘‘Soil mechanics’’ is the study of the engineering behavior of soil when it is used
either as a construction material or as a foundation material.
This is a relatively young discipline of civil engineering, systematized in its modern form by
Karl Von Terzaghi (1925), who is rightly regarded as the ‘‘Father of Modern Soil
Mechanics’’. An understanding of the principles of mechanics is essential to the study of
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soil mechanics.
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A knowledge and application of the principles of other basic sciences such as physics and
chemistry would also be helpful in the understanding of soil behavior. Further, laboratory
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and field research have contributed in no small measure to the development of soil
mechanics as a discipline.
1.1 Introduction
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The term ‘Soil’ has different meanings in different scientific fields. It has originated from
the Latin word Solum. To an agricultural scientist, it means ‘‘the loose material on the earth’
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crust consisting of disintegrated rock with an admixture of organic matter, which supports
plant life’’. To a geologist, it means the disintegrated rock material which has not been
transported from the place of origin. But, to a civil engineer, the term ‘soil’ means, and the
loose unconsolidated inorganic material on the earth’s crust produced by the disintegration
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of rocks, overlying hard rock with or without organic matter. Foundations of all structures
have to be placed on or in such soil, which is the primary reason for our interest as Civil
Engineers in its engineering behavior.
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Soil may remain at the place of its origin or it may be transported by various natural
agencies. It is said to be ‘residual’ in the earlier situation and ‘transported’ in the latter. The
application of the principles of soil mechanics to the design and construction of foundations
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for various structures is known as ‘‘Foundation Engineering’’. ‘‘Geotechnical Engineering’’

may be considered to include both soil mechanics and foundation engineering.
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In fact, according to Terzaghi, it is difficult to draw a distinct line of demarcation between

soil mechanics and foundation engineering; the latter starts where the former ends.
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1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SOIL MECHANICS

The use of soil for engineering purposes dates back to prehistoric times. Soil was used not
only for foundations but also as construction material for embankments. The knowledge was
empirical in nature and was based on trial and error, and experience.
The hanging gardens of Babylon were supported by huge retaining walls, the construction of
which should have required some knowledge, though empirical, of earth pressures. The
large public buildings, harbours, aqueducts, bridges, roads and sanitary works of Romans
certainly indicate some knowledge of the engineering behaviour of soil. This has been
evident from the
Writings of Vitruvius, the Roman Engineer in the first century, B.C. Mansar and
Viswakarma, in India, wrote books on ‘construction science’ during the medieval period.
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The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy, built between 1174 and 1350 A.D., is a glaring example
of a lack of sufficient knowledge of the behaviour of compressible soil, in those days.
Coulomb, a French Engineer, published his wedge theory of earth pressure in 1776,which is
the first major contribution to the scientific study of soil behaviour. He was the first to
introduce the concept of shearing resistance of the soil as composed of the two
components—cohesion and internal friction. Poncelet, Culmann and Rebhann were the other
men who extended the work of Coulomb. D’ Arcy and Stokes were notable for their laws
for the flow of water through soil and settlement of a solid particle in liquid
medium,respectively. These laws are still valid and play an important role in soil mechanics.
Rankine gave his theory of earth pressure in 1857; he did not consider cohesion, although he
knew of its existence.
Boussinesq, in 1885, gave his theory of stress distribution in an elastic medium under a
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point load on the surface.Mohr, in 1871, gave a graphical representation of the state of stress
at a point, called ‘Mohr’s Circle of Stress’. This has an extensive application in the strength
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theories applicable to soil.Atterberg, a Swedish soil scientist, gave in 1911 the concept of
‘consistency limits’ for a soil. This made possible the understanding of the physical
properties of soil. The Swedish method of slices for slope stability analysis was developed
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by Fellenius in 1926. He was the chairman of the Swedish Geotechnical Commission.
Prandtl gave his theory of plastic equilibrium in 1920 which became the basis for the
development of various theories of bearing capacity. Terzaghi gave his theory of
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consolidation in 1923 which became an important development in soil mechanics. He also
published, in 1925, the first treatise on Soil Mechanics, a term coined by him. (Erd bau
mechanik, in German). Thus, he is regarded as the Father of modern soil mechanics’. Later
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on, R.R. Proctor and A. Casagrande and a host of others were responsible for the
development of the subject as a full-fledged discipline.Fifteen International Conferences
have been held till now under the auspices of the international Society of Soil Mechanics
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and Foundation engineering at Harvard(Massachusetts, U.S.A.) 1936, Rotterdam (The

Netherlands) 1948, Zurich (Switzerland) 1953, London (U.K.) 1957, Paris (France) 1961,
Montreal (Canada) 1965, Mexico city (Mexico) 1969, Moscow (U.S.S.R) 1973, Tokyo
(Japan) 1977, Stockholm (Sweden) 1981, San Francisco (U.S.A.) 1985,and Rio de Janeiro
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(Brazil) 1989. The thirteenth was held in New Delhi in 1994, the fourteenth in Hamburg,
Germany, in 1997 , and the fifteenth in Istanbul, Turkey in 2001. The sixteenth is proposed
to be held in Osaka, Japan, in 2005.
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These conferences have given a big boost to research in the field of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering
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1.3 FIELDS OF APPLICATION OF SOIL MECHANICS

The knowledge of soil mechanics has application in many fields of Civil Engineering.
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1.3.1 Foundations
The loads from any structure have to be ultimately transmitted to a soil through the
foundation for the structure. Thus, the foundation is an important part of a structure, the type
and details of which can be decided upon only with the knowledge and application of the
principles of soil mechanics.
1.3.2 Underground and Earth-retaining Structures

Underground structures such as drainage structures, pipe lines, and tunnels and earth-
retaining structures such as retaining walls and bulkheads can be designed and constructed
only by using the principles of soil mechanics and the concept of ‘soil-structure interaction’.

1.3.3 Pavement Design
Pavement Design may consist of the design of flexible or rigid pavements. Flexible
pavements depend more on the subgrade soil for transmitting the traffic loads. Problems
peculiar to the design of pavements are the effect of repetitive loading, swelling and
shrinkage of sub-soil and frost action. Consideration of these and other factors in the
efficient design of a pavement is a must and one cannot do without the knowledge of soil
mechanics.
1.3.4 Excavations, Embankments and Dams
Excavations require the knowledge of slope stability analysis; deep excavations may need
temporary. Supports‘timbering’ or ‘bracing’, the design of which requires knowledge of soil
mechanics. Likewise the construction of embankments and earth dams where soil itself is
used as the construction material requires a thorough knowledge of the engineering
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behaviour of soil especially in the presence of water. Knowledge of slope stability, effects of
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seepage, consolidation and consequent settlement as well as compaction characteristics for
achieving maximum unit weight of the soil in-situ, is absolutely essential for efficient design
and construction of embankments and earth dams.
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The knowledge of soil mechanics, assuming the soil to be an ideal material elastic, isotropic,
and homogeneous material—coupled with the experimental determination of soil properties,
is helpful in predicting the behaviour of soil in the field. Soil being a particulate and
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heterogeneous material, does not lend itself to simple analysis. Further, the difficulty is
enhanced by the fact that soil strata vary in extent as well as in depth even in a small area. A
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thorough knowledge of soil mechanics is a prerequisite to be a successful foundation

engineer. It is difficult to draw a distinguishing line between Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering; the later starts where the former ends.
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1.4 SOIL FORMATION

Soil is formed by the process of ‘Weathering’ of rocks, that is, disintegration and
decomposition of rocks and minerals at or near the earth’s surface through the actions of
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natural or mechanical and chemical agents into smaller and smaller grains. The factors of
weathering may be atmospheric, such as changes in temperature and pressure; erosion and
transportation by wind, water and glaciers; chemical action such as crystal growth,
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oxidation, hydration, carbonation and leaching by water, especially rainwater, with time.
Obviously, soils formed by mechanical weathering (that is, disintegration of rocks by the
action of wind, water and glaciers) bear a similarity in certain properties to the minerals in
the parent rock, since chemical changes which could destroy their identity do not take place.
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It is to be noted that 95% of the earth’s crust consists of igneous rocks, and only the
remaining 5% consists of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. However, sedimentary rocks
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are present on 80% of the earth’s surface area. Feldspars are the minerals abundantly present
(60%) in igneous rocks. Amphiboles and pyroxenes, quartz and micas come next in that
order. Rocks are altered more by the process of chemical weathering than by mechanical
weathering. In chemical weathering some minerals disappear partially or fully, and new
compounds are formed.
The intensity of weathering depends upon the presence of water and temperature and the
dissolved materials in water. Carbonic acid and oxygen are the most effective dissolved
materials found in water which cause the weathering of rocks. Chemical weathering has the
maximum intensity in humid and tropical climates.
‘Leaching’ is the process whereby water-soluble parts in the soil such as Calcium
Carbonate, are dissolved and washed out from the soil by rainfall or percolating subsurface
water. ‘Laterite’ soil, in which certain areas of Kerala abound, is formed by leaching. Harder
minerals will be more resistant to weathering action, for example, Quartz present in igneous
rocks. But, prolonged chemical action may affect even such relatively stable minerals,
resulting in the formation of secondary products of weathering, such as clay minerals—illite,
kaolinite and montmorillonite. ‘Clay Mineralogy’ has grown into a very complicated and
broad subject (Ref: ‘Clay Mineralogy’ by R.E. Grim).
1.4.1 Residual soils

To remain at the original place
 In Hong Kong areas, the top layer of rock is decomposed into residual soils
due to the warm climate and abundant rainfall .
 Engineering properties of residual soils are different with those of transported
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soils
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The knowledge of "classical" geotechnical engineering is mostly based on behavior of
transported soils. The understanding of residual soils is insufficient in general
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1.4.2 Transported soils
To be moved and deposited to other places.
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The particle sizes of transported soils are selected by the transportation agents such as
streams, wind, etc.
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Interstratifications of silts and clays.

The transported soils can be categorized based on the mode of transportation and deposition
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(six types).
 (1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers.

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 (2) Alluvial soils: transported by running water and deposited along streams.
 (3) Lacustrine soils: formed by deposition in quiet lakes (e.g. soils in Taipei basin).
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(4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas (Hong Kong).
 (5) Aeolian soils: transported and deposited by the wind (e.g. soils in the loess
plateau, China).
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 (6) Colluvial soils: formed by movement of soil from its original place by gravity,
such as during landslide (Hong Kong). (from Das, 1998)
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1.5 Soil Profile

A deposit of soil material, resulting from one or more of the geological processes described
earlier, is subjected to further physical and chemical changes which are brought about by the
climate and other factors prevalent subsequently. Vegetation starts to develop and rainfall
begins the processes of leaching and eluviations of the surface of the soil material.
Gradually, with the passage of geological time profound changes take place in the character
of the soil. These changes bring about the development of ‘soil profile’. Thus, the soil
profile is a natural succession of zones or strata below the ground surface and represents the
alterations in the original soil material which have been brought about by weathering
processes. It may extend to different depths at different places and each stratum may have
varying thickness.
Generally, three distinct strata or horizons occur in a natural soil-profile; this number may
increase to five or more in soils which are very old or in which the weathering processes
have been unusually intense. From top to bottom these horizons are designated as the A-
horizon, the B-horizon and the C-horizon. The A-horizon is rich in humus and organic plant
residue. This is usually eluviated and leached; that is, the ultrafine colloidal material and the
soluble mineral salts are washed out of this horizon by percolating water. It is dark in colour
and its thickness may range from a few centimeters to half a metre. This horizon often
exhibits many undesirable engineering characteristics and is of value only to agricultural soil
scientists.
The B-horizon is sometimes referred to as the zone of accumulation. The material which has
migrated from the A-horizon by leaching and eluviations gets deposited in this zone. There
is a distinct difference of colour between this zone and the dark top soil of the A-horizon.
This soil is very much chemically active at the surface and contains unstable fine-grained
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material. Thus, this is important in highway and airfield construction work and light
structures such as single storey residential buildings, in which the foundations are located
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near the ground surface. The thickness of B-horizon may range from 0.50 to 0.75 m. The
material in the C-horizon is in the same physical and chemical state as it was first deposited
by water, wind or ice in the geological cycle. The thickness of this horizon may range from
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a few centimeters to more than 30 m. The upper region of this horizon is often oxidized to a
considerable extent. It is from this horizon that the bulk of the material is often borrowed for
the construction of large soil structures such as earth dams. Each of these horizons may
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consist of sub-horizons with distinctive physical and chemical characteristics and may be
designated as A1, A2, B1, B2, etc. The transition between horizons and sub-horizons may
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not be sharp but gradual. At a certain place, one or more horizons may be missing in the soil
profile for special reasons.
The morphology or form of a soil is expressed by a complete description of the texture,
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structure, colour and other characteristics of the various horizons, and by their thicknesses
and depths in the soil profile. For these and other details the reader may refer ‘‘Soil
Engineering’ by M.G. Spangler.
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1.6 SOME COMMONLY USED SOIL DESIGNATIONS

The following are some commonly used soil designations, their definitions and basic
properties Bentonite: Decomposed volcanic ash containing a high percentage of clay
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mineral montmorillonite. It exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling.

Black cotton soil. Black soil containing a high percentage of montmorillonite and colloidal
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material: exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling. The name is derived from the fact
that cotton grows well in the black soil.
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Boulder cla: Glacial clay containing all sizes of rock fragments from boulders down to
finely pulverized clay materials. It is also known as ‘Glacial till’.
Calich: Soil conglomerate of gravel, sand and clay cemented by calcium carbonate.
Hard pan: Densely cemented soil which remains hard when wet. Boulder clays or glacial
tills may also be called hard-pan— very difficult to penetrate or excavate.
Laterite: Deep brown soil of cellular structure, easy to excavate but gets hardened on
exposure to air owing to the formation of hydrated iron oxides.
Loam: Mixture of sand, silt and clay size particles approximately in equal proportions;
sometimes contains organic matter. Loess. Uniform wind-blown yellowish brown silt or

silty clay; exhibits cohesion in the dry condition, which is lost on wetting. Near vertical cuts
can be made in the dry condition.
1.6.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Marl: Mixtures of clacareous sands or clays or loam; clay content not more than 75% and
lime content not less than 15%.
Moorum: Gravel mixed with red clay.
Top-soil: Surface material which supports plant life.
Varved clay: Clay and silt of glacial origin, essentially a lacustrine deposit; varve is a term
of Swedish origin meaning thin layer. Thicker silt varves of summer alternate with thinner
clay varves of winter.
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1.7 STRUCTURE OF SOILS
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The ‘structure’ of a soil may be defined as the manner of arrangement and state of
aggregation of soil grains. In a broader sense, consideration of mineralogical composition,
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electrical properties, orientation and shape of soil grains, nature and properties of soil water
and the interaction of soil water and soil grains, also may be included in the study of soil
structure, which is typical for transported or sediments soils. Structural composition of
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sedimented soils influences, many of their important engineering properties such as
permeability, compressibility and shear strength. Hence, a study of the structure of soils is
important.
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The following types of structure are commonly studied:

(a) Single-grained structure
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(b) Honey-comb structure

(c) Flocculent structure
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1.7.1 Single-grained Structure

Single-grained structure is characteristic of coarse-grained soils, with a particle size greater
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than 0.02mm. Gravitational forces predominate the surface forces and hence grain to grain
contact results. The deposition may occur in a loose state, with large voids or in a sense
state, with less of voids.
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1.7.2 Honey-comb Structure

This structure can occur only in fine-grained soils, especially in silt and rock flour. Due to
the relatively smaller size of grains, besides gravitational forces, inter-particle surface forces
also play an important role in the process of settling down. Miniature arches are formed,
which bridge over relatively large void spaces. This results in the formation of a honeycomb
structure, each cell of a honey-comb being made up of numerous individual soil grains.

The structure has a large void space and may carry high loads without a significant volume
change. The structure can be broken down by external disturbances.
1.7.3 Flocculent Structure

This structure is characteristic of fine-grained soils such as clays. Inter-particle forces play
predominant role in the deposition. Mutual repulsion of the particles may be eliminated by
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means of an appropriate chemical; this will result in grains coming closer together to form a
‘floc’. Formation of flocs is ‘flocculation’. But the flocs tend to settle in a honeycomb
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structure, in which in place of each grain, a floc occurs. Thus, grains grouping around void
spaces larger than the grain-size are flocs and flocs grouping around void spaces larger than
even the flocs result in the formation of a ‘flocculent’ structure. Very fine particles or
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particles of colloidal size (< 0.001 mm) may be in a flocculated or dispersed state. The flaky
particles are oriented edge-to-edge or edge-to-face with respect to one another in the case of
a flocculated structure. Flaky particles of clay minerals tend to from a card house structure
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(Lambe, 1953), when flocculated. When inter-particle repulsive forces are brought back into
play either by remoulding or by the transportation process, a more parallel arrangement or
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reorientation of the particles occurs, as shown in Fig. This means more face-to-face contacts
occur for the flaky particles when these are in a dispersed state. In practice, mixed structures
occur, especially in typical marine soils.
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1.8 TEXTURE OF SOILS

The term ‘Texture’ refers to the appearance of the surface of a material, such as a fabric. It is
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used in a similar sense with regard to soils. Texture of a soil is reflected largely by the
particle size, shape, and gradation. The concept of texture of a soil has found some use in the
classification of soils to be dealt with later.
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1.9 MAJOR SOIL DEPOSITS OF INDIA

The soil deposits of India can be broadly classified into the following five types:
1. Black cotton soils, occurring in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, parts
of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. These are expansive in nature. On account of
Fig.Flocculent structure flaky particles and Dispersed structure high swelling and shrinkage
potential these are difficult soils to deal with in foundation design.
2. Marine soils, occurring in a narrow belt all along the coast, especially in the Rann of
Kutch. These are very soft and sometimes contain organic matter, possess low strength and
high compressibility.

3. Desert soils, occurring in Rajasthan. These are deposited by wind and are uniformly
graded.
4. Alluvial soils, occurring in the Indo-Gangetic plain, north of the Vindhyachal ranges.
5. Lateritic soils, occurring in Kerala, South Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa and West
Bengal.
1.9 Phases Relationship
The three constituents are blended together to form a complex material. It is also
known as block diagram. Dry soil and saturated soil is known as two phase diagram.
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Weight
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Wt = Ww + Ws + Wg
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Volume
Vt = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs + Vg
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1.9.1. Volumetric Relationships

i) Void ratio
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It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of solids.

e = Vv/Vs; the void ratio is expressed in decimal.
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ii) Porosity (n) or Percentage of voids

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume.
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n = Vv/V; Porosity is expressed as percentage & it is not exceed 100%.
n = e/1+e; e = n/n-1
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iii) Degree of Saturation (S)

The degree of saturation (s) is the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
voids.
S = Vw/Vv; The degree of saturation is generally as a percentage. It is equal to zero
when the soil is absolutely dry & 100 % when the soil is fully saturated.
iv) Percentage of air voids (na)

It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the total volum, .na = Va/V (it
is represented as(%)

v) Air Content (ac)
It is defined as the ratio of the volume of air to the volume of voids, .ac = Va/Ve,
Air Content is usually expressed as percentage. Air Content and percentage of air voids are
zero when the soil is saturated.(Va=0)
na = Va/V = Va/Vv .Vv/V
na = n.ac
vi) Water content (w)
The water content (w) is defined as the ratio of the mass of water to mass of solids.
w = Mw/Ms. It is also known as moisture content (m); it is expressed as percentage but used
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as a decimal computation.
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1.9.2. Volume Mass Relationships
i) Bulk density (ρ)
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The bulk mass density (ρ) is defined as the total mass (m) per unit total volume (v)
ρ = m/v.It is also known as Bulk mass density, Bulk density, Wet mass density and density.
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It is expressed as / 3, / (or) / 3.
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ii) Dry mass density (ρd)

The dry density (ρd) is defined as the mass of solids per unit total volume.
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iii)Saturated density(ρsat)
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The Saturated density is the bulk mass density of the soil when it is fully saturated.
ρ = /
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iv)Submerged density
When the soil exists below water it is submerged conditions. When a volume of v of soil is
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submerged in water, it displaces an equal volume of water.
v)Density of solids
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Density of solids is equal to the ratio of the mass of solids to the volume of solids. Ρ =
1.9.3. Volume-Weight Relationships

i)Bulk unit weight (γ)
Bulk unit weight is defined as total weight per unit total volume.
γ = ,.The bulk unit weight is also known as the total unit weight (γ ).
It is expressed as / ( ) /

ii) Dry unit weight (γd)
It is defined as the weight of soil solids per unit total volume. γd=
iii) Saturated unit weight

The saturated unit weight is bulk unit weight when the soil is fully saturated. It is defined as
weight of saturated soil solids to the unit total volume.
iv) Submerged unit weight (γ’)

It is defined as the submerged weight per unit of total volume.
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γ′ = ; ′
= −
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v) Unit weight of soil solids (γs)
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The unit weight of solids (γs) is equal to the ratio of the weight of solids to the total volume
of solids. = / ee
1.9.4 Specific gravity of solids (G)
i) The specific gravity of solid particles is defined as the ratio of the mass of a given
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volume of solids to the mass of an equal volume of water @ 4°C. =
The specific gravity of solids for most natural soils is range of 2.65 to 2.80.
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Here = 1000 ( )1 .
ii) Mass specific gravity (or) apparent specific gravity (or) Bulk specific gravity
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It is defined as the ratio of the mass density of the soil to the mass density of water.
=
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iii) Absolute specific gravity (or) True specific gravity

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If all the internal voids of the particles are exclude from the determination the true volume
of solids, then the specific gravity is called as Absolute (or) True specific gravity.
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( )
= .
1.9.5. Density Index (ID)

Relative compactness of natural soil.
It is varies from 0 to 1
−
= .
−
e max = voids ratio in loosest state ;e min = voids ratio in densest state.

e = natural voids ratio of deposits; When the natural state of cohesion less soil in the densest
form e = e min, ID = 1.
Relative Density Density Description

0-15 Very loose
15-35 Loose
35-65 Medium
65-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense
1.9.6 Three phase diagram in terms of Void ratio
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Mass Unit weight
( . ) ( )
i) ρ = i) γ =
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.
ii) ρd = ii) γd =
( ) ( ).
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iii) ρsat = iii) =
( ) ( ).
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iv) ρ’ = iv) γ,=

( ) ( ). ( ) ( ).
v) ρ’ v) γ’ =
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1.9.7 Three phase diagram in terms of Porosity

Mass Unit weight
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i)ρ = ( (1 − ) + ) i) = ( (1 − ) + ).
ii) ρd = . (1 − ) ii) γd = G.γw(1-n)

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iii) ρsat = ( (1 − ) + )) iii) γsat = (G(1-n)+n).γw
iv) ρ’ = ( − 1). (1 − ) iv) γ’ = ( − 1)(1 − ).

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1.9.8 Relationship between the void ratio and the water content
( . ) .
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= (or) =
For fully saturated soil S=1 ,ie w = ; = .
1.9.9 Expression for mass density in terms of water content

Mass Unit weight
( ). ( ) .
i)ρ= ) =
( ) ( ) .
ii)ρsat= ) =

( ) ( )
iii)ρ = ) =
. .
iv) = ) =
v) = ) =
. .
vi)( ) = ) ( )=
1.9.10 Relationship between Dry mass density and percentage

(1 − ) . (1 − )( . )
= ( )
1+ 1+
n
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(1 − ) . (1 − )( . )
= ( )
1+ 1+
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1.10 Water content determination
Water content of soil sample can be determined by the following any one of the methods.
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i)Oven dry method
ii)Torsion Balance method
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iii)Pyconometer method
iv)Sand bath method
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v)Radiation method
1.10.1 Specific gravity determination
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The specific gravity of the particles is determined in the laboratory using the following
methods
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i)Density bottle method

ii)Pyconometer method
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iii)Shrinkage limit method
1.11 Soil Classicification

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Background and Basis of Classification:

The Geotechnical Engineers/Agencies had evolved many soil classification systems, over
the world. The soil classification system developed by Casegrande was subsequently
modified and named as 'Unified Classification’ system. In 1959, Bureau of Indian Standards
adopted the Unified classification system as a standard, which was revised in 1970.
According to BIS classification system, soils are primarily classified based on dominant
particle sizes and its plasticity characteristics. Soil particles mainly consist of following four
size fractions.

1.11.1 Broad classification of soils
1. Coarse-grained soils, with average grain-size greater than 0.075 mm, e.g., gravels and
sands.
2. Fine-grained soils, with average grain-size less than 0.075 mm, e.g., silts and clays.
These exhibit different properties and behavior but certain general conclusions are possible
even with this categorization. For example, fine-grained soils exhibit the property of
‘cohesion’—bonding caused by inter-molecular attraction while coarse-grained soils do not;
thus, the former may be said to be cohesive and the latter non-cohesive or cohesion less.
 Gravel : 80 – 4.75 mm
 Sand : 4.75mm – 0.075mm (75 micron)
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 Silt : 75 – 2 micron
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 Clay : less than 2 micron
Particle size distribution of a soil is determined by a combination of sieving and
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sedimentation analysis as per procedure detailed in IS: 2720 (Part 4) – 1985 and its plasticity
characteristics are determined by Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit as per procedure
detailed in IS:2720 (Part 5) –1985.
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1.11.2 Symbols used in Soil Classification:
Symbols and other soil properties used for soil classification are given below. Brief
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procedure for Classification of soils has been explained in tabular form and Flow Chart.
Plasticity Chart required for classification of fine grained soils has also been given.
Primary Letter Secondary Letter
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G: Gravel W: well-graded
S: Sand P: poorly graded
M: Silt M: with non-plastic fines
C: Clay C: with plastic fines
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P: Peat I : medium plasticity

O: Organic soil L: of low plasticity
H: high plasticity
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1.11.3 Other soil parameters required for soil classification:

Cu : Coefficient of Uniformity = D60 / D10 .
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Cc : Coefficient of Curvature = (D30)2 / (D60 * D10) .

D60, D30 & D10 are particle sizes, below which 60,30 and 10 percent soil particles by
weight are finer than these sizes.
Plasticity Index, PI = Liquid Limit (LL) - Plastic Limit ( PL).
Coarse-grained soils: Soils having fines ( particles of size less than 75 micron) < 50%.
Fine grained soils: Soils having fines more than 50%.

1.11.4 Brief Procedure for soil classification:
Conduct Sieve analysis and Hydrometer analysis on soil sample and plot particle size
gradation curve and determine Cu and Cc.
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Conduct liquid limit and plastic limit test on soil samples as per procedure given fig
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Based on above soil parameters, classification should be done as per procedure explained in
the following table/Flow Chart. The classification should be done in conjunction with the
Plasticity Chart given below.
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Broad categorization of soil type

The classified soil types shall be grouped in four broad categories for the purpose of
planning of works (Blanket thickness requirement as indicated in bracket is for new
constructions. Planning for rehabilitation, if any, is to be done in consultation with RDSO.)
a)Soils type A (not needing blanket):
Rocky beds except those, which are very susceptible to weathering e.g. rocks consisting of
shales and other soft rocks, which become muddy after coming into contact with water.

Well graded Gravel (GW)

Well graded Sand (SW)
Soils conforming to specifications of blanket material.
b)Soils type B (needing 45cm thick blanket):
Poorly graded Gravel (GP) having Uniformity Coefficient more than 2.
Poorly grade Sand (SP) having Uniformity Coefficient more than 2.
Silty Gravel (GM)
Silty Gravel – Clayey Gravel (GM – GC).
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c)Soils type C (needing 60cm thick blanket):
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Clayey Gravel (GC)
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Silty Sand (SM)
Clayey Sand (SC)
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Clayey Silty sand (SM-SC)
Note: The thickness of blanket on above type of soils shall be increased to 1m, if the
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plasticity index exceeds 7.

d)Soils type D (needing 1m thick blanket):
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Silt with low plasticity (ML)

Silty clay of low plasticity (ML-CL)
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Clay of low plasticity (CL)

Silt of medium plasticity (MI)
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Clay of medium plasticity (CI)

Rocks which are very susceptible to weathering
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Soils having fines passing 75 micron sieve between 5 & 12%, i.e. for soils with dual symbol
e.g., GP-GC, SW-SM, etc., thickness of blanket should be provided as per soil of second
symbol (of dual symbol)
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1.12 Sampling tools:

i)Crow bar and pickaxe along with khurpi etc.
ii)Hand carved sampler , chunk sampling
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1.12.1
For Sampling
More Visit Procedure:
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i)Ballast shall be removed up to the bottom of ballast penetration, and/or upto the top of
subgrade i.e., just below the blanket level. (160 cm from CL of track or 20-30 cm away from
the edge of the sleeper)
ii)Disturbed /undisturbed soil sample (min 2.0 kg) shall be collected by excavation or other
means.
iii)The excavation pit shall be at least 100 mm below the bottom of ballast.
iv)Collected soil sample shall be kept in a poly bag with seal, so that, fines are preserved.
v)A slip of location (km/chainage), section, divisions alongwith name of zonal railway shall
be placed in the poly bag.
vi)The excavated pit shall be refilled with local material and be well compacted.
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Testing:
Only two types of tests shall be performed on each sample.
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a) Atterberg limit tests (Liquid Limit and plastic limit).
b) Grain size analysis (Mechanical sieving).
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Atterberg limit tests: IS: 2720 pt V 1985.
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a)Equipment:
i) Mechanical /LL apparatus
ii) Grooving tool, Casagrande, ASTM
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iii) Procelain evaporating dish, 12 to 15cm dia

iv) Spatula
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v) Balance (Physical or electronic)

vi) Oven
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vii) Wash Bottle

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viii) Air tight container, IS Sieve 4254 of a 600 mm x 600mm glass sheet, ix) A soil
sample weighing about 120 g
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b) Procedure:
i) Liquid limit:
 Air dry the soil sample remove the organic matter like tree roots, pieces of bark etc.
 About 270gm of air dried pulverized soil which is already sieved through 425
micron, IS Sieve is taken.
 Water is added with air dried soil to make a paste and ensure uniform distribution of
moisture throughout the soil mass. Clayey soil left to stand for 24 hours.
 A standard groove is made in the soil paste by the grooving tool suitable for the type
of soil.

 The cup is made to fall freely through a height of 1cm by turning e ram at the rate of
two revolutions per second.
 The no. of drops required closing, the grave by about 12mm in the central portion is
noted.
 Determine moisture content of representative slice of soil from the groove and
including the soil flowed.
 With increasing water content, the number of drops required to close the groove shall
not be more than 35 or less than 15.Determine the moisture content in each case.
 A graph is plotted on semi log paper, with no. of drops on log scale as abscissa and
moisture content on natural log scale as ordinate.
 The water content at 25 drops is read from the graph. It is the liquid limit (LL)for
the soil sample. Generally these points lie on a straight line.
ii) Plastic limit:
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 After doing liquid limit test, the leftover soil paste is worked with a spatula on glass
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sheet to drive away a part of moisture content to make it plastic enough to be shaped
into a ball.
 A small mass of the plastic mass is taken of rolled on a glass sheet by pressure of the
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palm into a solid thread 3mm dia until it crumbles.
 These rolls are collected of put into oven for drying for moisture for each test.
 The average content is reported as plastic limit.
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1.13 Index properties

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1.13.1 Particle Size Distribution

First of all, let’s discuss the sieve that is the essential tool to study particle size distribution.
U.S. Standard Sieve Sizes

Sieve Sieve opening (mm)
4 4.75
10 2.00
20 0.850
40 0.425
60 0.250
100 0.150
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200 0.074
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1.13.2 Gradation:
Gradation is a measure of the distribution of a particular soil sample. Larger gradation means
a wider particle size distribution. Well graded Ù poorly sorted (e.g., glacial till) Poorly
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graded Ù well sorted (e.g., beach sand)
The range of grain size distribution is enormous for natural soils. E.g., boulder can be ~1 m
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in diameter, and the colloidal mineral can be as small as 0.00001 mm = 0.01 micron. It has a
tremendous range of 8 orders of magnitude.
Example: If you have a soil sample with a weight of 150 g, after thorough sieving you get
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the following result.
sieve size(mm) W(g) % accum% 100accum%

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4 4.750 30.0 20 20 80
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20 0.850 40.0 26.7 46.7 53.3

60 0.250 50.0 33.3 79 21
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100 0.150 20.0 13.3 92 8

200 0.074 10.0 6.67 98 2
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The last column shows the percentage of material finer than that particular sieve size by
weight.
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There are a number of ways to characterize the particle size distribution of a particular soil
sample.D10:
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D10 represents a grain diameter for which 10% of the sample will be finer than it. Using
another word, 10% of the sample by weight is smaller than diameter D10. It is also called
the effective size and can be used to estimate the permeability.
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Hazen’s approximation (an empirical relation between hydraulic conductivity with grain
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size) k (cm/sec) = 100D10D10

Where D10 is in centimeters.
It is empirical because it is not consistent in dimension (cm/sec vs cm2).
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Uniformity coefficient Cu:

Cu = D60/D10
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Where D60 is the diameter for which 60% of the sample is finer than D60.
The ratio of two characteristic sizes is the uniformity coefficient Cu. Apparently, larger Cu
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means the size distribution is wider and vice versa. Cu = 1 means uniform, all grains are in
the same size, such as the case of dune sands. On the other extreme is the glacial till, for
which its Cu can reach 30.
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from Cu = D60/D10 , then D60 = CuD10

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Coefficient of Curvature Cc
Another shape parameter, as the second moment of grain size distribution curve, is called the
coefficient of curvature, and defined as
Cc = (D30 D30)/ (D10 D60)
A soil is thought to be well graded if the coefficient of curvature Cc between 1 and 3,with
Cu greater than 4 for gravels and 6 for sands.
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1.14 Engineering Properties

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i)Permeability
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ii)Compressibility
iii)Shear strength
1.14.1 Permeability
It indicates the facility with which water can flow through soils. It is required for estimation
of seepage discharge through earth masses.
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1.14.2 Compressibility
It is related with the deformations produced in soils when they are subjected to compressive
load.
1.14.3 Shear Strength
It determines the stability of slope bearing capacity of soils and the earth pressure on
retaining structures.
1.15 Compaction
In construction of highway embankments, earth dams and many other engineering
structures, loose soils must be compacted to improve their strength by increasing their unit
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weight; Compaction - Densification of soil by removing air voids using mechanical
equipment; the degree of compaction is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
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1.15.1 Objectives for Compaction

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Increasing the bearing capacity of foundations;
 Decreasing the undesirable settlement of structures;
 Control undesirable volume changes;
 Reduction in hydraulic conductivity;
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 Increasing the stability of slopes.
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In general, soil densification includes compaction and consolidation.

Compaction is one kind of densification that is realized by rearrangement of soil particles
without outflow of water. It is realized by application of mechanic energy. It does not
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involve fluid flow, but with moisture changing altering.

Consolidation is another kind of densification with fluid flow away. Consolidation is
primarily for clayey soils. Water is squeezed out from its pores under load.
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CONSOLIDATION COMPACTION
It is a gradual process of reduction of It is a rapid of reduction of volume

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Volume under sustained, static loading. mechanical mean such as rolling ,

tamping , vibration.
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It causes a reduction in volume of a In compaction, the volume of

saturated soil due to squeezing out of partially saturated soil decreases of
water from the soil. air the voids at the unaltered water content
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Is a process which in nature when Is an artificial process which is

saturated soil deposits are subjected to done to increase the density of the
static loads caused by the weight of the soil to improve its properties before
building it is put to any use.
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1.15.2 Compaction Effect

There are 4 control factors affecting the extent of compaction:
 Compaction effort;
 Soil type and gradation;
 Moisture content; and
 Dry unit weight (dry density).
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1.15.3 Effect of Water on Compaction
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In soils, compaction is a function of water content
Water added to the soil during compaction acts as a softening agent on the soil particles
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 Consider 0% moisture - Only compact so much
 Add a little water - compacts better
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 A little more water - a little better compaction

 Even more water – Soil begins to flow
What is better compaction?
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The dry unit weight (γd) increases as the moisture content increases to a point
Beyond a certain moisture content, any increase in moisture content tends to reduce the dry
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unit weight
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1.15.4 Standard Proctor Compaction Test

The standard was originally developed to simulate field compaction in the lab
Purpose:
Find the optimum moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight is attained
ASTM D 698
Equipments;
Standard Proctor; 1/30 ft3 mold
5.5 lb hammer; 12” drop
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3 layers of soil; 25 blows / layer
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Compaction Effort is calculated with the following parameters
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Mold volume = 1/30 cubic foot
Compact in 3 layers
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25blows/layer
5.5 lb hammer
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12" drop
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Compaction Lab Equipment
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Procedure
1. Obtain 10 lbs of soil passing No. 4 sieve
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2. Record the weight of the Proctor mold without the base and the (collar) extension, the
volume of which is 1/30 ft3.
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3. Assemble the compaction apparatus.
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4. Place the soil in the mold in 3 layers and compact using 25 well distributed blows of the
Proctor hammer.
5. Detach the collar without disturbing the soil inside the mold
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6. Remove the base and determine the weight of the mold and compacted soil.
7. Remove the compacted soil from the mold and take a sample (20-30 grams) of soil and
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find the moisture content

8. Place the remainder of the molded soil into the pan, break it down, and thoroughly remix
it with the other soil, plus 100 additional grams of water.
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Zero-air-void unit weight:

At certain water content, what is the unit weight to let no air in the voids
γ ( z.a.v) = γ(zav)
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W
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It is clear that in the above equation, specific gravity of the solid and thewater density are
constant, the zero-air-void density is inversely proportional to water content w. For a given
soil and water content the best possible compaction is represented by the zero-air-voids
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curve. The actual compaction curve will always be below. For dry soils the unit weight
increases as water is added to the soil because the water lubricates the particles making
compaction easier. As more water is added and the water content is larger than the optimum
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value, the void spaces become filled with water so further compaction is not possible
because water is a kind like incompressible fluid. This is illustrated by the shape of the zero-
air-voids curve which decreases as water content increases.
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Compaction Curve
Compaction curve plotted γd vs. w.The peak of the curve is the Maximum Compaction (γd
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max) at Optimum Moisture Content (wopt )
Results
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Plot of dry unit weight vs moisture content

Find γd (max) and w and Plot Zero-Air-Void unit weight (only S=100%)
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1.15.5 Effect of Compaction Energy

With the development of heavy rollers and their uses in field compaction, the Standard
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Proctor Test was modified to better represent field compaction
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As the compaction effort increases,
The maximum dry unit weight of compaction increase; the optimum moisture content
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decreases to some extend Compaction energy per unit volume.
1.15.6 Compaction adopted in the field

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i) Tampers.
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A hand operated tamper consists of block iron, about 3 to 5 Kg mass, attached to a wooden
rod. The tamper is lifted for about 0.30m and dropped on the soil to be compressed.
Mechanical Tampers operated by compressed air or gasoline power.
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ii) Rollers
a) smooth – wheel rollers
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b) pneumatic – tyred rollers

c) Sheep- foot rollers.
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a) Smooth – wheel rollers

Smooth – wheel rollers are useful finishing operations after compaction of fillers and for
compacting granular base causes of highways.
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b) Pnumatic – tyred rollers

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Pneumatic – tyred rollers use compressed air to develop the required inflation pressure.The
roller compactive the soil primarily by kneading action. These rollesrs are effecting for
compacting cohesive as well as cohesion less soils.
c) Sheep – foot rollers
The sheep – foot roller consists of a hollow drum with a large number of small projections
(known as feet) on its surface. The drums are mounted on a steel frame. The drum can fill
with water or ballast increases the mass. The contact pressure is generally between 700 to
4200 KN/m2.
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UNIT II Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in

For More SOIL WATER AND WATER FLOW
Soil water – static pressure in water - Effective stress concepts in soils – capillary stress –
Permeability measurement in the laboratory and field pumping in pumping out tests – factors
influencing permeability of soils – Seepage – introduction to flow nets – Simple problems.
(Sheet pile and weir).
2.1 INTRODUCTION
All soils are permeable materials, water being free to flow through the interconnected pores
between the solid particles. The pressure of the pore water is measured relative to
atmospheric pressure and the level at which the pressure is atmospheric ( i.e. zero) is defined
as the water table (WT) or the phreatic surface. Below the water table the soil is assumed to be
fully saturated, although it is likely that, due to the presence of small volumes of entrapped
air, the degree of saturation will be marginally below 100%.
2.2 SOIL WATER
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Water presence in the voids of soil mass is called soil water. It can be classified in several ways:
2.2.1 Broad classification:
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1. Free water
2. Held water
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a. Structural water b. Adsorbed water c. Capillary water
2.2.2 Classification on phenomenological basis
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1. Ground water
2. Capillary water
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3. Adsorbed water
4. Infiltrated water
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2.2.3 Classification on structural aspect

1. Pore water
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2. Solvate water
3. Adsorbed water
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4. Structural water
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Free water
Water is free to move through a soil mass under the influence of gravity.
Held water
It is the part of water held in the soil pores by some force existing within the pores.
Such water is not free to move under gravitational force.
30 Department of Civil Engineering

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Adsorbed water
Adsorbed water is that water which the soil particles freely adsorb from atmosphere by physical
force of attraction and held by force of adhesion.
Water is the vicinity of soil particles subjected to an attractive force basically consists of two
components.
i) Attraction of bipolar water to be electrical charged soil.
ii) Attraction of dipolar water to the action in the double layer, cation in turn attract to the
particles.
Structural water
It is the water chemically combined in the crystal structure of the soil mineral. Structural water
cannot be separated or removed and also not removed by oven drying at 105-110°c.It can be
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destroyed at higher temperature which will destroy the crystal structure.
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Infiltrated water
Infiltrated water is the portion of surface precipitation which soaks into ground,moving
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downwards through air containing zones.
Pore water
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It is cable of moving under hydrodynamic forces unless restricted in its free movement such as
when entrapped between air bubbles or retention by capillary forces.
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Gravitational and capillary water are the two types of pore water.
Solvate water
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The water which forms a hydration shell around soil grains is solvate water. it is subjected to
polar electrostatic and binding forces.
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Ground water
Subsurface water that fills the voids continuously and is subjected to no force other than gravity
is known as gravitational water.
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2.3 Capillary water

The minute pores of soil serve as capillary tubes through which the moisture rise above the
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ground water table.

Capillary water is the soil moisture located within the interstices and voids of capillary size of
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the soil.
Capillary water is held in the interstices of soil due to capillary forces. Capillary action or
capillarity is the phenomenon of movement of water in the interstices of a soil due to capillary
forces.
The capillary forces depend upon various factors such as surface tension of water, pressure in
water in relation to atmospheric pressure, and the size and conformation of soil pores.

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2.3.1 Contact
For More Visit :moisture.
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Water can also be held by surface tension round the point of contact of two particles (spheres)
capillary water in this form is known as contact moisture (or) contact capillary water.
2.3.2 CAPILLARY RISE
The pores of soil mass may be looked upon as a series of capillary tubes, extending vertically
above water table.
The rise of water in the capillary tubes, or the fine pores of the soil, is due to the existence of
surface tension which pulls the water up against the gravitational force.
The height of capillary rise, above the ground water (or free water) surface depends upon the
diameter of the capillary tube (or fineness of the pores) and the value of the surface tension.
When a capillary tube is inserted in water, the rise of water will take place up to reach the
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equilibrium. At this stage the rise of water in the tube is stopped. At this equilibrium position,
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. π
when the height of rise is hc, the weight of column of water is equal to ( γw)
The weight of water in the tubeis s pp orted by the surface tension of meniscus
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circumference in the tube.
cos
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2.3.3 INFLUENCE OF CLAY MINERALS

Soil undergoes a volume change when the water content cause shrinkage while increase of water
content swelling.
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Large volume changed in clayey soils lead to structural damage. For clayey soils, the degree of
change in volume depends upon factors such as
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i) Type and amount of clay minerals present in the soil.

ii) Specific surface area of clay.
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iii) Structure of soil.

iv) Pore water salt concentration.
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The two fundamental building blocks for clay minerals are

i) Silica tetrahedral unit
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ii)Gibbsite
i) Silica tetrahedral unit
Four oxygen or hydroxyls having a configuration of tetrahedral enclose silicon. It is resembled in
the symbol repressing the oxygen based layer and hydroxyl apex layer.
ii) Gibbsite
Aluminum, iron or magnesium atom is enclosed in six hydroxyls.
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Surface tension
Surface tension of water is the properly which exists in the surface film of water tending to
contract the contained volume in to a form having minimum superficial area possible
= 72.8 0.728 10 20℃
The surface tension of water is double the surface tension of other liquids.
Capillary tension (or) capillary potential
Tensile stress caused in water is called the capillary tension or capillary potential. It is also called
as pressure deficiency or pressure reduction or negative pressure.
= . 4( ) max = ( )
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2.3.4 SOIL SUCTION
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The tensile stress in the meniscus circumferences caused in water is called the capillary tension
or the capillary potential. The capillary tension or capillary potential is the pressure deficiency,
pressure reduction or negative pressure in the pore water (or the pressure below atmospheric) by
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which water is retained in a soil mass. It decreases linearly from a maximum value of hcγw at
the level of the meniscus to zero value at the free water surface.
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The pressure deficiency in the held water is also termed as soil suction or suction pressure.
Soil suction is measured by the height hc in centimeters to which a water column could be drawn
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by suction in a soil mass free from external stress.

The common logarithm of this height (cm) or pressure (g/cm2) is known as the pF value
(Schofield, 1935): pF = log10 (hc)
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Thus, a pF value of 2 represents a soil suction of 100 cm of water or suction pressure and
capillarity of 100 g /cm2.
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Factors affecting soil suction:

1. Particle size of soil
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2. Water content
3. Plasticity index of soil mass
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4. Soil structure
5. History of wetting and drying
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6. Soil density
7. Temperature
8. Angle of contact
9. Dissolved salts in water

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2.4
For Capillarity pressure
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The magnitude of the pressure is the same at all height above the free water surface. The
capillarity pressure transferred from grain to grain called as inter angular or effective pressure.
2.4.1 Capillary action (or) capillarity:
It is the phenomenon of movement of water in the interstices of a soil due to capillary forces. The
capillary forces depend upon various factors depend upon various factors such as surface tension
of water, pressure in water in relation to atmospheric pressure and thee size and conformation of
soil pores.
2.4.2 Contact moisture.
Water can also be held by surface tension round the point of contact of two particles (spheres)
capillary water in this form is known as contact moisture (or) contact capillary water.
2.5 EFFECTIVE STRESS CONCEPTS IN SOIL
At any plane in a soil mass, the total stress or unit pressure σ is the total load per unit area.
This pressure may be due to i) self weight of soil ii) over burden on the soil.
The total pressure consists of two distinct components: inter granular pressure or effective
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pressure and the neutral pressure or pore pressure. Effective pressure σ' is the pressure transmitted
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from particle through their point of contact through the soil mass above the plane.
Such a pressure, also termed as inter granular pressure, is effective in decreasing the voids ratio
of the soil mass and in mobilizing its shear strength. The neutral pressure or the pore water
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pressure or pore pressure is the pressure transmitted through the pore fluid.
Therefore, this pressure is also called neutral pressure (u). Since the total vertical pressure at any
plane is equal to the sum of the effective pressure and pore water pressure we have,
= ′+
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2.5.1 Submerged soil mass:
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2.5.2 Soil mass with surcharge:

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2.5.2 SoilVisit
For More mass with surcharge:
When the water level in the reservoir is corresponding to the flood level (H.F.L), the portion to
the u/s of the dam will be saturated. The water level in the u/s pervious shell will be practically
the same as the H.F>L. Due to capillarity, water will rise through a height hc. If the top of the
core is situated at a height y< hc above the H.F.L, , the capillary forces ill pull the water in
descending part of the earth dam, and will slowly empty it. This process is known as capillary
siphoning.
2.5.4 Formation of meniscus:
When a solid or hollow tube, wet with water is partly inserted vertically in water, the molecules,
due to attraction between the molecules of water and the material, climb the solid surface
forming a curved meniscus adjacent to the walls of the tube or rod.
2.5.5 Saturated soil with capillary fringe:
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Zone of soil strata saturated with capillary water is called capillary fringe.
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2.5.6 Soil Shrinkage Characteristics in Swelling Soils

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Objectives
Understand soil swelling and shrinkage mechanisms, and the development of desiccation cracks;
Distinguish between soils having different magnitude of swelling, as well as the consequences on
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soil structural behaviour; Know methods to characterize soil swell/shrink potential;

Construct soil shrinkage curves, and derive shrinkage indices, as well to apply them to assess soil
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management effects.
2.5.7 Bulking Of Sand:
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As the moisture content of a fixed weight of sand increases, the volume also increases--up to a
point. This is known as "bulking".
Bulking of loose, moist sand in the increase in its volume as compared to dry sand. Bulking is a
well known phenomenon particularly in the trade of aggregate for proportioning of concrete.
This phenomenon has been known since 1892 when it is was investigated by Feret at French
school of Bridges and Roads.
This bulking phenomenon of sand is explained by moisture hulls or films which surround the
sand particles. The contact moisture films, adsorbed to the sand particles by moisture surface
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tension
For Moreforces, tend to cause the sand particles to occupy a larger volume as compared to their
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dry state. Generally bulking of sand increases as the particle size of sand decreases. This is
because of the increase in the specific surface area of the sand. Upon further subsequent increase
in moisture content in sand, when a maximum increase in bulking volume is attained, bulking in
its turn decreases, and upon the inundation of the sand the surface tension forces are neutralized,
and most of the bulking, in such a case vanishes. As a consequence, the sand particles now
rearrange themselves into a denser packing.
Effect of bulking on sand
Bulking of sand in a loose state of packing decreases the bearing capacity of sand considerably.
In compacting sandy soils, low densities are usually achieved because of bulking.
2.6 PERMEABILITY:
Permeability is defined as the property of a porous material which permits the passage or seepage
of water (or other fluids) through its interconnecting voids. A material having continuous voids is
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called permeable. Gravels are highly permeable while stiff clay is the least permeable and hence
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such clay may be termed impermeable for all practical purposes.
The flow of water through soils may either be a laminar flow or a turbulent flow. In laminar
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flow, each fluid particle travels along a definite path which never crosses the path of any other
particle. In turbulent flow, the paths are irregular and twisting, crossing and recrossing at random
(Taylor, 1948).
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In most of the practical flow problems in soil mechanics, the flow is laminar. The study of
seepage of water through soil is important for the following engineering problems :
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1. Determination of rate of settlement of a saturated compressible soil layer.

2. Calculation of seepage through the body of earth dams, and stability of slopes.
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3. Calculation of uplift pressure under hydraulic structures and their safety against piping.
4. Ground water flow towards wells and drainage of soil.
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2.6.1 Coefficient of permeability (or) permeability.

It is defined as the average velocity of flow that will occur through the total cross-sectional are of
soil under unit hydraulic gradient. The coefficient of permeability is denoted as K. It is usually
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expressed as cm/sec (or) m/day (or) feet/day.

Darcy’s Law:
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When the flow is laminar in a saturated soil, the rate of flow or discharge per unit time is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
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= kia.
q = discharge per unit time = =

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A
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cross-sectional area of soil mass, perpendicular to the direction of flow
i = hydraulic gradient
k = Darcy’s coefficient of permeability
v = velocity of flow, or average discharge velocity.If a soil sample of length L and cross-
sectional area A, is subjected to differential head of water, the hydraulic gradient i will be equal
to
1− 2
= .( )
2.6.2 Factors affecting permeability:

1. Grain size
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2. Properties of the pore fluid
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3. Voids ratio of the soil
4. Structural arrangement of the soil particles
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5. Entrapped air and foreign-matter
6. Adsorbed water in clayey soils.
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2.6.3 The coefficient of permeability can be determined by the following methods:
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(a) Laboratory methods

(1) Constant head permeability test.
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(2) Falling head permeability test.

(b) Field methods
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(1) Pumping-out tests.

(2) Pumping-in tests.
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(c) Indirect methods

(1) Computation from grain size or specific surface.
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(2) Horizontal capillarity test

(3) Consolidation test data.
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2.6.4 Constant head permeability test

The co efficient of permeability of a soil sample determined by the constant water pressure. The
test is conducted with a fixed water level. Permeability is measured in cm/sec.

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Co efficient of permeability by constant head method
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= =
ℎ ℎ
Constant head permeability most used for coarse grained soils.
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2.6.5 Falling head permeability test
A Stand pipe of known cross sectional are is fitted over the permeameter and water is allows to
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run down. The water level in the stand pipe constantly falls as water flows.
The head of water on the stand pipe at time intervals is observed and the data used to determine
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the co efficient of permeability.

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( . )( )
= 10 ( )
Falling head permeability test relatively used for less permeable soils.
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2.7 SEEPAGE
When water flows through a saturated soil mass, the total head at any point in the soil mass
Consists of (i) piezometric head or pressure head, (ii) the velocity head, and (iii) the position
Head. The below shown Figure represents the flow of water through a saturated soil sample, of
length L, due to the difference in elevation of free water surface at A and B.

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At the upper point a of the soil specimen, piezometric head is (hw) a - At the lower point b,the
piezometric head is (hw)b- At any intermediate point c, the piezometric head hw isequal to the
height through which the water rises in a piezometric tube inserted at that point.
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The piezometric head is also called the pressure head. A piezometric surface is the linejoining the
water levels in the piezometres. The vertical distance between the piezometric levels at point ‘a’
and ‘b’ is called the initial hydraulic head H under which the flow takes place.The position or
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elevation head at any point is the elevation of that point with respect to any arbitrary datum. The
position head Z is taken positive if it is situated above the datum andnegative if below the datum.
A symbol φ is sometimes used in place of h to represent the hydraulic potential or the potential
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function. However, when φ represents a product of k and h, it is known as the velocity potential.
The loss of head or the dissipation of the hydraulic head per unit distance of flow through the soil
is called the hydraulic gradient i = h/L . By virtue of the viscous friction exerted on water
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flowing through soil pores, an energy transfer is effected between the water and the soil. The
force corresponding to this energy transfer is called the seepage force or seepage pressure. Thus,
seepage pressure is the pressure exerted by water on the soil through which it percolates. It is this
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seepage pressure that is responsible for the phenomenon known as quick sand and is of vital
importance in the stability analysis of earth structures subjected to the action of seepage.
2.7.1 Importance for the study of seepage of water

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Determination of rate of settlement of a saturated compressible soil layer.

Calculation of seepage through the body of earth dams, and stability of slopes.
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Calculation of uplift pressure under hydraulic structure and there safety against piping.
Ground water flow towards well and drainage of soil
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2.7.2 Quick Sand Condition:

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When flow takes place in an upward direction, the seepage pressure also acts in the upward
direction and the effective pressure is reduced. If the seepage pressure becomes equal to the
pressure due to submerged weight of the soil, the effective pressure is reduced to zero. In such a
case, cohesion less soil loses all its shear strength, and the soil particles have a tendency to move
up in the direction of flow. This phenomenon of lifting of soil particles is called quick condition,
boiling condition or quick sand. The hydraulic gradient at such a critical state is called the critical
hydraulic gradient.

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CE6405 Soil Mechanics
For loose deposits of sand or silt, if voids ratio e is taken as 0.67 and G as 2.67, the critical
hydraulic gradient works out to be unity. It should be noted that quick sand is not a type of
sand but a flow condition occurring within a cohesion less soil when its effective pressure
is reduced to zero due to upward flow of water.
2.8 FLOW NET
A flow net for an isometric medium is a network of flow lines and equipotential lines
intersecting at right angles to each other. The path which a particle of water follows in its
course of seepage through a saturated soil mass is called a flow line. Equipotential lines are
lines that intersect the flow lines at right angles. At all points along an equipotential line,
the water would rise in piezometric tubes to the same elevation known as the piezometric
head .
2.8.1 LAPLACE EQUATION:
Laplace equation for two dimensional flows.
Assumption
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1. The saturated porous medium is compressible. The size of the pore space doesn’t change
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with time, regardless of water pressure.
2. The seeping water flows under a hydraulic gradient which is due only to gravity head
loss, or Darcy’s law for flow through porous medium is valid.
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3. There is no change in the degree of saturation in the zone of soil through which water
seeps and quantity of water flowing into any element of volume is equal to the quantity
which flows out in the same length of time.
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4. The hydraulic boundary conditions of any entry and exit are known
5. Water is incompressible. Consider an element of soil of size ∆x, ∆y and of unit thickness
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perpendicular to the plane of the paper Let Vx and Vy be the entry velocity components in
X and Y directions.
Then ( ) + .∆ ( )+ .∆
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The figure represents a section through an impermeable diaphragm extending to a depth

below the horizontal surface of a homogeneous stratum of soil of depth H. It is assumed
that the difference h between the water levels on the two sides of the diaphragm is
constant. The water enters the soil on the upstream side of the diaphragm, flows in a
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downward direction and rises on the downstream side towards the surface. Consider a
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prismatic element P shown shaded in Fig.2.8 which is shown on a larger scale in 2.9. The
element is a parallelepiped with sides’ dx, dy and dz. The x and z directions are as shown
in the figure and the y direction is normal to the section. The velocity v of water which is
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tangential to the stream line can be resolved into components vx and vz in the x and z
directions respectively.
= −( ℎ)/( ) the hydraulic gradient in the horizontal direction.
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= −( ℎ)/( ) the hydraulic gradient in the vertical direction.
kx = hydraulic conductivity in the horizontal direction.

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kz = hydraulic conductivity in the vertical direction.

If we assume that the water and soil are perfectly incompressible, and the flow is steady,
then
the quantity of water that enters the element must be equal to the quantity that leaves it.
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The quantity of water that enters the side ab=vxdzdy

The quantity of water that leaves the side cd = vx +(∂vx/ ∂x )dx dy dz
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The quantity of water that enters the side bc = vzdxdy

The quantity of water that leaves the side ad = vz+ (∂vz/∂z)dz dxdy
Therefore, we have the equation,
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+ =( )+ . ( )+ .
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ℎ ℎ
+ = 0 = −( ) = −( )( )
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ℎ ( ℎ)
+ =0
If the soil is homogeneous kx= kz, then the laplace equation,
²
²
+ =0
2.8.2 Flow net Construction:

The graphical method of flow net construction, first given by Forchheimer (1930), is
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based on trial sketching. The hydraulic boundary conditions have a great effect on the
general shape of the flow net, and hence must be examined before sketching is started
The flow net can be plotted by trial and error by observing the following properties of
flow net and by following the practical suggestions given by A. Casagrande.
2.8.3 Properties of flow net.
The flow lines and equipotential lines meet at right angles to one another.
The fields are approximately squares, so that a circle can be drawn touching all the
four sides of the square.
The quantity of water flowing through each flow channel is the same. Simiary, the
same potential drop occur between two successive equipotential lines.
Smaller the dimensions of the field, greater will be the hydraulic gradient and velocity
of flow through it.
In a homogeneous soil, every transition in the shape of the curves is smooth, being
either elliptical or parabolic in shape.
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2.8.4 Hints to draw flow net:
Use every opportunity to study the appearance of well constructed flow nets. When
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the picture is sufficiently absorbed in your mind, try to draw the same flow net
without looking at the available solution ; repeat this until you are able to sketch this
flow net in a satisfactory manner.
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Four or five flow channels are usually sufficient for the first attempts ; the use of too
many flow channels may distract the attention from essential features.
Always watch the appearance of the entire flow net. Do not try to adjust details before
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the entire flow net is approximately correct.
The beginner usually makes the mistake of drawing too sharp transitions between
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straight and curved sections of flow lines or equipotential lines. Keep in mind that all
transitions are smooth, of elliptical or parabolic shape. The size of the squares in each
channel will change gradually.
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2.8.5 FLOW NET FOR VARIOUS WATER RETAINING STRUCTURES

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2.8.6 Flow net can be utilized for the following purposes:

Determination of seepage,
Determination of hydrostatic pressure,
Determination of seepage pressure,
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Determination of exit gradient
i. Determination of seepage
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The portion between any two successive flow lines is at flow channel. The portion
enclosed two successive equipotential lines and successive flow lines are known as field.
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Let b and l be the width and length of the field.
∆ h = head drop through the field
∆ q = discharge passing through the flow channel
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H = Total hydraulic head causing flow = difference between upstream and downstream
weeds.
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ii.Determination of hydrostatic pressure.

The hydrostatic pressure at any point within the soil mass is given by u = h wγw
Where, u = hydrostatic pressure
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hw = Piezometric head.
The hydrostatic pressure in terms of piezometric head hw is calculated from the
following relation.
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h w = h- z
iii.Determination of seepage pressure
The hydraulic potential h at any point located after N potential drops, each of value ∆h is
given by b ∆H = ∆h’
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The seepage pressure of any point the hydraulic potential or the balance hydraulic head
multiplied by the unit
Weight of water, Ps hγw .∆Hh
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The pressure acts in the direction flow

iv.Determination of exit gradient.
The exit gradient is the hydraulic gradient of the downstream end of the flow line where
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the percolating water leaves the soil mass and emerges into free water at the
downstream.The exit gradient can be calculated from the following expression, in
which ∆h represents the potential drop and l the average length of last field in the flow
net all the exit end.
∆
=
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UNIT IIISTRESS DISTRIBUTION AND SETTLEMENT

Stress distribution- soil media – Boussinesq theory - Use of Newmarks influence char
Components of settlement–– immediate and consolidation settlement – Terzaghi‟s
one dimensional consolidation theory – computation of rate of Settlement. - √t and log
t methods– e-log p relationship – Factors influencing compression behaviour of soils.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
A soil can be visualized as a skeleton of solid particles enclosing continuous voids which
contain water and/or air. For the range of stresses usually encountered in practice the
individual solid particles and water can be considered incompressible; air, on the other
hand, is highly compressible. The volume of the soil skeleton as a whole can change due
to rearrangement of the soil particles into newpositions, mainlyby rolling and sliding,
with a corresponding change in the forces acting between particles. The actual
compressibility of the soil skeleton will depend on the structural arrangement of the solid
particles. In a fully saturated soil, since water is considered to be incompressible, a
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reduction in volume is possible only if some of the water can escape from the voids. In a
dry or a partially saturated soil a reduction in volume is always possible due to
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compression of the air in the voids, provided there is scope for particle rearrangement.
Shear stress can be resisted only by the skeleton of solid particles, by means of forces
developed at the interparticle contacts. Normal stress may be resisted by the soil skeleton
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through an increase in the interparticle forces. If the soil is fully saturated, the water
filling the voids can also withstand normal stress by an increase in pressure.
3.1.1 THE PRINCIPLE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS
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The importance of the forces transmitted through the soil skeleton from particle to
particle was recognized in 1923 when Terzaghi presented the principle of effective
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stress, an intuitive relationship based on experimental data. The principle applies only to
fully saturated soils and relates the following three stresses:
1.The total normal stress ( ) on a plane within the soil mass, being the force per unit area
transmitted in a normal direction across the plane, imagining the soil to be a solid
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(single-phase) material;
2 the pore water pressure (u), being the pressure of the water filling the void space
between the solid particles;
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3 the effective normal stress ( ) on the plane, representing the stress transmitted
through the soil skeleton only.
The relationship is:
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The principle can be represented by the following physical model. Consider a ‘plane XX
in a fully saturated soil, passing through points of interparticle contact only, as shown in
Figure. The wavy plane XX is really indistinguishable from a true plane on the mass
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scale due to the relatively small size of individual soil particles. A normal force P applied
over an area A may be resisted partly by interparticle forces and partly by the pressure in
the pore water. The interparticle forces are very random in both magnitude and direction
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throughout the soil mass but at every point of contact on the wavy plane may be split
into components normal and tangential to the direction
of the true plane to which XX approximates; the normal
and tangential components are N’ and T, respectively.
Then, the effective normal stress is interpreted as the
sum of all the components N’ within the area A, divided
by the area A, i.e.
The total normal stress is given by

If point contact is assumed between the particles, the pore water pressure will act on
the plane over the entire area A.
Then, for equilibrium in the direction normal to XX
′ ℰ ′
= ℰ + =
ie = ′ +
The pore water pressure which acts equally in every direction will act on the entire
surface of any Particle but is assumed not to change the volume of the particle; also,
the pore water pressure does not
cause particles to be pressed together. The error involved in assuming point contact
between particles is negligible in soils, the total contact area normally being between 1
and 3% of the cross-sectional area A. It should be understood that N’does not represent
the true contact stress between two particles, which would be the random but very
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much higher stress N’, where a is the actual contact area between the particles.
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3.1.2 Effective vertical stress due to self-weight of soil
Consider a soil mass having a horizontal surface and with the water table at surface
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level. The total vertical stress (i.e. the total normal stress on a horizontal plane) at
depth z is equal to the weight of all material (solids þ water) per unit area above that
=
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The pore water pressure at any depth will be hydrostatic since the void space between
the solid particles is continuous, so at depth z = Hence, from Equation is the
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effective vertical stress at depth z will be

= ( − ) = ′ ℎ ′
ℎ ℎ ℎ .
3.1.3 RESPONSE OF EFFECTIVE STRESS TO A CHANGE IN TOTAL

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STRESS
As an illustration of how effective stress responds to a change in total stress, consider
the case of a fully saturated soil subject to an increase in total vertical stress and in
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which the lateral strain is zero, volume change being entirely due to deformation of the
soil in the vertical direction. This condition may be assumed in practice when there is a
change in total vertical stress over an area which is large compared with the thickness
of the soil layer in question. It is assumed initially that the pore water pressure is
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constant at a value governed by a constant position of the water table. This initial value
is called the static pore water pressure (us). When the total vertical stress is increased,
the solid particles immediately try to take up new positions closer together. However,
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if water is incompressible and the soil is laterally confined, no such particle

rearrangement, and therefore no increase in the inter particle forces,is possible unless
some of the pore water can escape. Since the pore water is resisting the particle
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rearrangement the pore water pressure is increased above the static value immediately
theincrease in total stress takes place.The increase in pore water pressure will be equal
to the increase in total vertical stress, i.e. the increase in total vertical stress is carried
entirely by the pore water. Note that if the lateral strain were not zero some degree of
particle rearrangement would be possible, resulting in an immediate increase in
effective vertical stress and the increase in pore water pressure would be less than the
increase in total vertical stress. The increase in pore water pressure causes a pressure
gradient, resulting in a transient flow of pore water towards a free-draining boundary
of the soil layer. This flow or drainage will continue until the pore water pressure again
becomes equal to the value governed by the position of the water table.
The component of pore water pressure above the static value is known as the excess
pore water pressure (ue). It is possible, however, that the position of the water table
will have changed during the time necessary for drainage to take place, i.e. the datum
against which excess pore water pressure is measured will have changed.
For In
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such : www.LearnEngineering.in
cases the excess pore waterpressure should be expressed with reference to the
static value governed by the new water table position. At any time during drainage the
overall pore water pressure (u) is equal to the sum of the static and excess components,
i.e.
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3.2.1 Vertical Concentration Load
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3.3 Vertical Stress: Uniformly Distributed Circular Load Vertical Stress:

Uniformly Distributed Circular Load
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3.3.1 Vertical Stress: Uniformly Distributed Circular Load

Rigid Plate on half Space
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3.3.2 Vertical Stress: Rectangular Area
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3.3.3 Vertical Stress: Rectangular Area

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3.4 Pressure Bulb
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3.5 New mark’s chart
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UNIT IV SHEAR STRENGTH
Shear strength of cohesive and cohesionless soils – Mohr – Coulomb failure theory
Measurement of shear strength, direct shear – Triaxial compression, UCC and Vane shear
tests – Pore pressure parameters – cyclic mobility – Liquefaction.
4.1 Necessity of Studying Shear Strength of Soils:
Soil failure usually occurs in the form of “shearing” along internal surface within the
soil.Thus, structural strength is primarily a function of shear strength.
4.2 Shear Strength:
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The strength of a material is the greatest stress it can sustain
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The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of the soil
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If the soil fails, the structure founded on it can collapse
Thus shear strength is “The capacity of a material to resist the internal and external
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forces which slide past each other”
4.2.1 Significance of Shear Strength:

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Engineers must understand the nature of shearing resistance in order to analyze soil
stability problems such as;
Bearing capacity
Slope stability
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Lateral earth pressure on earth-retaining structures

Pavement
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Shear Failure under Transcona Grain Elevator, Canada

Foundation Load (Oct. 18, 1913) - Typical Example of
Shear
Failure of foundation
soil

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Failure of a house due to Shear failure of foundation soil
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Thus shear strength of soil is “The capacity of a soil to resist the internal and external
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forces which slide past each other”
4.2.2 Shear Strength in Soils:

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The shear strength of a soil is its resistance to shearing stresses.

It is a measure of the soil resistance to deformation by continuous displacement of its
individual soil particles.
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Shear strength in soils depends primarily on interactions between particles.

Shear failure occurs when the stresses between the particles are such that they slide or roll
past each other
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4.2.3 Components of shear strength of soils

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Soil derives its shear strength from two sources:

– Cohesion between particles (stress independent component)
 Cementation between sand grains
 Electrostatic attraction between clay particles
– Frictional resistance and interlocking between particles (stress dependent
component)

4.3 Cohesion:
it is the force of attraction between the particles binding them together. cohesion is present
in clays and silts but is normally absent in sands and gravels.Cohesion (C), is a measure of
the forces that cement particles of soils
Angle of response
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Angle of Repose determined by: rin
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 Particle size (higher for large particles)
 Particle shape (higher for angular shapes)
 Shear strength (higher for higher shear strength)
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4.4 Stresses:
Gravity generates stresses (force per unit area) in the ground at different points. Stress on
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a plane at a given point is viewed in terms of two components:

4.4.1 Normal stress (σ): acts normal to the plane and tends to compress soil
grains towards each other (volume change)
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4.4.2 Shear stress (τ): acts tangential to the plane and tends to slide grains relative to each
other (distortion and ultimately sliding failure)
4.4.3 Factors Influencing Shear Strength:
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The shearing strength is affected by:
 Soil composition: mineralogy, grain size and grain size distribution, shape of
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particles, pore fluid type and content, ions on grain and in pore fluid.
 Initial state: State can be describe by terms such as: loose, dense, over-
consolidated, normally consolidated, stiff, soft, etc.
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 Structure: Refers to the arrangement of particles within the soil mass; the
manner in which the particles are packed or distributed. Features such as layers,
voids, pockets, cementation, etc, are part of the structure.
4.4.4Formulation of Shear Strength of Soil:
 In reality, a complete shear strength formulation would account for all previously
stated factors.
 Soil behavior is quite complex due to the possible variables stated.

4.5 The
For More Visit Mohr Failure Criterion:
Mohr presented in 1900 a theory of rupture of materials that was the result of a
combination of both normal and shear stresses. The shear stress at failure is thus a function
of normal stress and the Mohr circle is tangential to the functional relationship given by
Coulomb
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Charles Mohr
The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion:
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This theory states that: “a material fails because of a critical combination of normal stress
and shear stress, and not from their either maximum normal or shear stress alone”
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This equation is known as the Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion.

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4.5 Laboratory
For More determination of
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The shear strength parameters for a particular soil can be determined by means of
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laboratory tests on specimens taken from representative samples of the in-situ soil.
Great care and judgment are required in the sampling operation and in the storage and
handling of samples prior to testing, especially in the case of undisturbed samples where
the object is to preserve the in-situ structure and water content of the soil. In the case of
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clays, test specimens may be obtained from tube or block samples, the latter normally
being subjected to the least disturbance. Swelling of a clay specimen will occur due to the
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release of the in-situ total stresses. Shear strength test procedure is detailed in BS 1377
(Parts 7 and 8) [7].
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The specimen is confined in a metal box (known as the shear box) of square or circular
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cross-section split horizontally at mid-height, a small clearance being maintained between

the two halves of the box. Porous plates are placed below and on top of the specimen if it
is fully or partially saturated to allow free drainage: if the specimen is dry, solid metal
plates may be used. The essential features of the apparatus are shown diagrammatically in
Figure. A vertical force (N) is applied to the specimen through a loading plate and shear
stress is gradually applied on a horizontal plane by causing the two halves of the box to
move relative to each other, the shear force (T) being measured together with the
corresponding shear displacement (l). Normally, the change in thickness (h) of the
specimen is also measured. If the initial thickness of the specimen is h0 then the shear
strain can be represented by l/hr and the volumetric strain (v) by h/h. A number of
specimens of the soil are tested, each under a different vertical force, and the value of
shear stress at failure is plotted against the normal stress for each test. The shear strength
parameters are then obtained from the best line fitting the plotted points.
The Visit
For More test :suffers from several disadvantages,
www.LearnEngineering.in the main one being that drainage conditions
cannot be controlled. As pore water pressure cannot be measured, only the total normal
stress can be determined, although this is equal to the effective normal stress if the pore
water pressure is zero. Only an approximation to the state of pure shear is produced in the
specimen and shear stress on the failure plane is not uniform, failure occurring
progressively from the edges towards the centre of the specimen. The area under the shear
and vertical loads does not remain constant throughout the test. The advantages of the test
are its simplicity and, in the case of sands, the ease of specimen preparation.
4.6 The triaxial test
This is the most widely used shear strength test and is suitable for all types of soil. The
test has the advantages that drainage conditions can be controlled, enabling saturated soils
of low permeability to be consolidated, if required, as part of the test procedure, and pore
water pressure measurements can be made. A cylindrical specimen, generally having a
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length/diameter ratio of 2, is used in the test and is stressed under conditions of axial
symmetry in the manner shown in Figure. Typical specimen diameters are 38 and 100
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mm. The main features of the apparatus are shown in Figure. The circular base has a
central pedestal on which the specimen is placed, there being access through the pedestal
for drainage and for the measurement of pore water pressure. A Perspex cylinder, sealed
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between a ring and the circular cell top, forms the body of the cell. The cell top has a
central bush through which the loading ram passes. The cylinder and cell top clamp
onto the base, a seal being made by means of an O-ring.
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triaxial apparatus
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Triaxial test
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The specimen is placed on either a porous or a solid disc on the pedestal of the
apparatus. A loading cap is placed on top of the specimen and the specimen is then sealed
in a rubber membrane, O-rings under tension being used to seal the membrane to the
pedestal and the loading cap. In the case of sands, the specimen must be prepared in a
rubber membrane inside a rigid former which fits around the pedestal. A small
negative pressure is applied to the pore water to maintain the stability of the specimen
while the former is removed prior to the application of the all-round pressure. A
connection may also be made through the loading cap to the top of the specimen, a
flexible plastic tube leading from the loading cap to the base of the cell; this connection is
normally used for the application of back pressure (as described later in this section).
Both the top of the loading cap and the lower end of the loading ram have coned
seating, the load being transmitted through a steel ball. The specimen is subjected to an
all-round fluid pressure in the cell, consolidation is allowed to take place, if appropriate,

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the axial stress is gradually increased by the application of compressive load
through the ram until failure of the specimen takes place, usually on a diagonal plane. The
load is measured by means of a load ring or by a load transducer fitted either inside or
outside the cell. The system for applying the all-round pressure must be capable of
compensating for pressure changes due to cell leakage or specimen volume change.
In the triaxial test, consolidation takes place under equal increments of total stress normal
to the end and circumferential surfaces of the specimen. Lateral strain in the specimen is
not equal to zero during consolidation under these conditions (unlike in the odometer test,
as described in Section). Dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place due to
drainage through the porous disc at the bottom (or top) of the specimen. The drainage
connection leads to an external burette, enabling the volume of water expelled from the
specimen to be measured. The datum for excess pore water pressure is therefore
atmospheric pressure, assuming that the water level in the burette is at the same height as
the centre of the specimen. Filter paper drains, in contact with the end porous disc, are
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some-times placed around the circumference of the specimen; both vertical and radial
drainage then take place and the rate of dissipation of excess pore water pressure is
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increased.
The all-round pressure is taken to be the minor principal stress and the sum of the all-
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round pressure and the applied axial stress as the major principal stress, on the basis that
there are no shear stresses on the surfaces of the specimen. The applied axial stress is thus
referred to as the principal stress difference (also known as the deviator stress). The
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intermediate principal stress is equal to the minor principal stress; therefore, the stress
conditions at failure can be represented by a Mohr circle. If a number of specimens are
tested, each under a different value of all-round pressure, the failure envelope can be
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drawn and the shear strength parameters for the soil determined. In calculating the
principal stress difference, the fact that the average cross-sectional area (A) of the
specimen does not remain constant throughout the test must be taken into account. If the
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original cross-sectional area of the specimen is A’ and the original volume is V’

then, if the volume of the specimen decreases during the test.
4.6.1 Pore water pressure measurement

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The pore water pressure in a triaxial specimen can be measured, enabling the results to be
expressed in terms of effective stress; conditions of no flow either out of or into the
specimen must be maintained, otherwise the correct pressure will be modified. Pore water
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pressure is normally measured by means of an electronic pressure transducer.A change in

pressure produces a small deflection of the transducer diaphragm, the corresponding
strain being calibrated against pressure. The connection between the specimen and the
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transducer must be filled with de-aired water (produced by boiling water in a near
vacuum) and the system should undergo negligible volume change under pressure. If the
specimen is partially saturated a fine porous ceramic disc must be sealed into the pedestal
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of the cell if the correct pore water pressure is to be measured. Depending on the pore size
of the ceramic, only pore water can flow through the disc, provided the difference
between the pore air and pore water pressures is below a certain value known as the
air entry value of the disc. Under undrained conditions the ceramic disc will remain fully
saturated with water, provided the air entry value is high enough, and enabling the correct
pore water pressure to be measured. The use of a coarse porous disc, as normally used for
a fully saturated soil, would result in the measurement of the pore air pressure in a
partially saturated soil.
4.7 Types of test
Many variations of test procedure are possible with the triaxial apparatus but the three
principal types of test are as follows:

4.7.1VisitUnconsolidated–Undrained.
For More : www.LearnEngineering.in The specimen is subjected to a specified
all-round pressure and then the principal stress difference is applied immediately, with
no drainage being permitted at any stage of the test.
4.7.2 Consolidated–Undrained: Drainage of the specimen is permitted under a
specified all-round pressure until consolidation is complete; the principal stress
difference is then applied with no drainage being permitted. Pore water pressure
measurements may be made during the undrained part of the test.
4.7.3 Drained: Drainage of the specimen is permitted under a specified all
round pressure until consolidation is complete; with drainage still being permitted, the
principal stress difference is then applied at a rate slow enough to ensure that the excess
pore water pressure is maintained at zero.
Shear strength parameters determined by means of the above test procedures are relevant
only in situations where the field drainage conditions correspond to the test conditions.
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The shear strength of a soil under undrained conditions is different from that under
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drained conditions. The undrained strength can be expressed in terms of total stress in the
case of fully saturated soils of low permeability, the shear strength parameters being
denoted by cu and u .The drained strength is expressed in terms of the effective stress
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parameters cu and .
The vital consideration in practice is the rate at which the changes in total stress (due to
construction operations) are applied in relation to the rate of dissipation of excess pore
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water pressure, which in turn is related to the permeability of the soil. Undrained
conditions apply if there has been no significant dissipation during the period of total
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stress change; this would be the case in soils of low permeability such as clays
immediately after the completion of construction. Drained conditions apply in situations
where the excess pore water pressure is zero; this would be the case in soils of low
permeability after consolidation is complete and would represent the situation a long time,
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perhaps many years, after the completion of construction. The drained condition would
also be relevant if the rate of dissipation were to keep pace with the rate of change of total
stress; this would be the case in soils of high permeability such as sands. The drained
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condition is therefore relevant for sands both immediately after construction and in the
long term. Only if there were extremely rapid changes in total stress (e.g. as the result of
an explosion or an earthquake) would the undrained condition be relevant for a sand. In
some situations, partially drained conditions may apply at the end of construction, perhaps
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due to a very long construction period or to the soil in question being of intermediate
permeability. In such cases the excess pore water pressure would have to be estimated
and the shear strength would then be calculated in terms of effective stress.
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4.8 The vane shear test

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This test is used for the in-situ determination of the undrained strength of intact, fully
saturated clays; the test is not suitable for other types of soil. In particular, this test is very
suitable for soft clays, the shear strength of which may be significantly altered by the
sampling process and subsequent handling. Generally, this test is only used in clays
having undrained strengths less than 100 kN/m2. This test may not give reliable results if
the clay contains sand or silt laminations. Details of the test are given in BS 1377 (Part 9).
The equipment consists of a Stainless steel vane (Figure) of four thin rectangular blades,
carried on the end of

a high-tensile steel rod; the rod is enclosed by a sleeve packed with grease. The length of
the vane is equal to twice its overall width, typical dimensions being 150 mm by 75 mm
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and 100 mm by 50 mm. preferably the diameter of the rod should not exceed 12.5 mm.
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The vane and rod are pushed into the clay below the bottom of a borehole to a depth of at
least three times the borehole diameter; if care is taken this can be done without
appreciable disturbance of the clay. Steady bearings are used to keep the rod and
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sleeve central in the borehole casing. The test can also be carried out in soft clays,
without a borehole, by direct penetration of the vane from ground level; in this case a
shoe is required to protect the vane during penetration.
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Torque is applied gradually to the upper end of the rod by means of suitable
equipment until the clay fails in shear due to rotation of the vane. Shear failure takes
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place over the surface and ends of a cylinder having a diameter equal to the overall width
of the vane. The rate of rotation of the vane should be within the range of 6–12 per
minute. The shear strength is calculated from the expression
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where T is the torque at failure, d the overall vane

width and h the vane length. However, the shear strength over the cylindrical vertical
surface may be different from that over the two horizontal end surfaces, as a result of
anisotropy. The shear strength is normally determined at intervals over the depth of
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interest. If, after the initial test, the vane is rotated rapidly through several revolutions the
clay will become remoulded and the shear strength in this condition could then be
determined if required. Small, hand-operated vane testers are also available for use in
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exposed clay strata.

4.9 Special tests
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In practice, there are very few problems in which a state of axial symmetry exists as in the
triaxial test. In practical states of stress the intermediate principal stress is not usually
equal to the minor principal stress and the principal stress directions can undergo
rotation as the failure condition is approached. A common condition is that of plane strain
in which the strain in the direction of the intermediate principal stress is zero due to
restraint imposed by virtue of the length of the structure in question. In the triaxial test,
consolidation proceeds under equal all-round pressure (i.e. isotropic
consolidation)whereas in-situ consolidation takes place under anisotropic stress
conditions.
Tests of a more complex nature, generally employing adaptions of triaxial equipment,
have been devised to simulate the more complex states of stress encountered in practice
but these are used principally in research. The plane strain test uses a prismatic
specimen
For More in which strain in one
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maintained at zero throughout the test by means of two rigid side plates tied together. The
all-round pressure is the minor principal stress and the sum of the applied axial
stress and the all-round pressure the major principal stress. A more sophisticated
test, also using a prismatic specimen, enables the values of all three principal
stresses to be controlled independently, two side pressure bags or jacks being used to
apply the intermediate principal stress. Independent control of the three principal
stresses can also be achieved by means of tests on soil specimens in the form of hollow
cylinders in which different values of external and internal fluid pressure can be applied in
addition to axial stress. Torsion applied to the hollow cylinders results in the rotation of
the principal stress directions. Because of its relative simplicity it seems likely that the
triaxial test will continue to be the main test for the determination of shear strength
characteristics. If considered necessary, corrections can be applied to the results of
triaxial tests to obtain the characteristics under more complex states of stress.
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4.9.1 SHEAR STRENGTH OF SANDS
The shear strength characteristics of a sand can be determined from the results
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of either direct shear tests or drained triaxial tests, only the drained strength of a
sand normally being relevant in practice. The characteristics of dry and saturated
sands are the same, provided there is zero excess pore water pressure in the case of
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saturated sands. Typical curves relating shear stress and shear strain for initially dense
and loose sand specimens in direct shear tests are shown in Figure. Similar curves are
obtained relating principal stress difference and axial strain in drained triaxial
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compression tests.
In a dense sand there is a considerable degree of interlocking between particles. Before
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shear failure can take place, this interlocking must be overcome in addition to the
frictional resistance at the points of contact. In general, the degree of
interlocking is greatest in the case of very dense, well-graded sands consisting of
angular particles. The characteristic stress–strain curve for an initially dense sand
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shows a peak stress at a relatively low strain and thereafter, as interlocking is

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Progressively
For More overcome, the stress
decreases with increasing strain. The reduction in the
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degree of interlocking produces an increase in the volume of the specimen during
shearing as characterized by the relationship, shown in Figure , between
volumetric strain and shear strain in the direct shear test.
4.10 Liquefaction
Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which loose saturated sand loses a large percentage of its
shear strength and develops characteristics similar to those of a liquid. It is usually
induced by cyclic loading of relatively high frequency, resulting in undrained conditions
in the sand. Cyclic loading may be caused, for example, by vibrations from machinery
and, more seriously, by earth tremors.
Loose sand tends to compact under cyclic loading. The decrease in volume causes an
increase in pore water pressure which cannot dissipate under undrained conditions.
Indeed, there may be a cumulative increase in pore water pressure under successive cycles
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of loading. If the pore water pressure becomes equal to the maximum total stress
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component, normally the overburden pressure, the value of effective stress will be zero,
i.e. inter particle forces will be zero, and the sand will exist in a liquid state with
negligible shear strength. Even if the effective stress does not fall to zero the reduction in
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shear strength may be sufficient to cause failure.
Liquefaction may develop at any depth in a sand deposit where a critical combination of
in-situ density and cyclic deformation occurs. The higher the void ratio of the sand and the
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lower the confining pressure the more readily liquefaction will occur. The larger the
strains produced by the cyclic loading the lower the number of cycles required for
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liquefaction.
4.10.1 PORE PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS
Pore pressure coefficients are used to express the response of pore water pressure to
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changes in total stress under undrained conditions and enable the initial value of excess
pore water pressure to be determined. Values of the coefficients may be determined in
the laboratory and can be used to predict pore water pressures in the field under
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similar stress conditions.

Increment of isotropic stress
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Consider an element of soil, of volume V and porosity n, in equilibrium under total

principal stresses ∆ 1∆ 2, ∆ 3, as shown in Figure, the pore pressure being uo. The
element is subjected to equal increases in total stress ∆ 3 in each direction, resulting
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in an immediate increase u3 in pore pressure.

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CE 6405 SOIL MECHANICS

UNIT V SLOPE STABILITY
Slope failure mechanisms – Types - infinite slopes – finite slopes – Total stress analysis
for saturated clay – Fellenius method - Friction circle method – Use of stability number -
slope protection measures.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Gravitational and seepage forces tend to cause instability in natural slopes, in slopes
formed by excavation and in the slopes of embankments. The most important types of
slope failure are illustrated in Figure. In rotational slips the shape of the failure surface in
section may be a circular arc or a non-circular curve. In general, circular slips are
associated with homogeneous, isotropic soil conditions and non-circular slips with non-
homogeneous conditions. Translational and compound slips occur where the form of the
failure surface is influenced by the presence of an adjacent stratum of significantly
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different strength, most of the failure surface being likely to pass through the stratum of
lower shear strength. The form of the surface would also be influenced by the presence of
g.i
discontinuities such as fissures and pre-existing slips. Translational slips tend to occur
where the adjacent stratum is at a relatively shallow depth below the surface of the slope,
the failure surface tending to be plane and roughly parallel to the slope. Compound slips
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usually occur where the adjacent stratum is at greater depth, the failure surface
consisting of curved and plane sections. In most cases, slope stability can be
considered as a two-dimensional problem, conditions of plane strain being assumed.
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Design resisting moment. Characteristic values of shear strength parameters c’ and tan
′ should be divided by factors 1.60 and 1.25, respectively. (However, the value of c’ is
zero if the critical-state strength is used.) The characteristic value of parameter cu should
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be divided by 1.40. A factor of unity is appropriate for the self-weight of the soil and for
pore water pressures. However, variable loads on the soil surface adjacent to the slope
should be multiplied by a factor of 1.30.
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The following limit states should be considered as appropriate:

1 Loss of overall stability due to slip failure.
2 Bearing resistance failure below embankments.
3 Internal erosion due to high hydraulic gradients and/or poor compaction.
4 Failure as a result of surface erosion.
5 Failure due to hydraulic uplift.
6 Excessive soil deformation resulting in structural damage to, or loss of service- ability
of, adjacent structures, highways or services.

5.2 ANALYSIS FOR THE CASE OF ∅ =
This analysis, in terms of total stress, covers the case of fully saturated clay under
undrained conditions, i.e. for the condition immediately after construction. Only moment
equilibrium is considered in the analysis. In section, the potential failure surface is
assumed to be a circular arc. A trial failure surface (centre O, radius r and length La) is
shown in Figure. Potential instability is due to the total weight of the soil mass (W per unit
length) above the failure surface. For equilibrium the shear strength which must be
mobilized along the failure surface is expressed as
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g.i
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where F is the factor of safety with respect to shear strength. Equating moments about O
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The moments of any additional forces must be taken into account. In the event of a
tension crack developing, the arc length La is shortened and a hydrostatic force will act
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normal to the crack if it fills with water. It is necessary to analyze the slope for a number
of trial failure surfaces in order that the minimum factor of safety can be determined.
Based on the principle of geometric similarity, Taylor [19] published stability coefficients
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for the analysis of homogeneous slopes in terms of total stress. For a slope of height H the
stability coefficient (Ns) for the failure surface along which the factor of safety is a
minimum is
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= .
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Example
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This is the factor of safety for the trial failure surface selected and is not necessarily the
minimum factor of safety. The minimum factor of safety can be estimated by using
Equation. From Figure = 45° and assuming that D is large, the value of Ns is 0.18.
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Then
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Using the limit state method the characteristic value of undrained strength (cuk) is
divided by a partial factor of 1.4. Thus the design value of the parameter (cud) is 65/1.40
i.e. 46 kN/m2, hence
Design disturbing moment per


Design resisting moment per
The design disturbing moment is less than the design resisting moment; therefore the
overall stability limit state is satisfied.
5.2 THE METHOD OF SLICES
In this method the potential failure surface, in section, is again assumed to be a circular
arc with centre O and radius r. The soil mass (ABCD) above a trial failure surface
n
g.i
rin
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(AC) is divided by vertical planes into a series of slices of width b, as shown in
Figure 9.5. The base of each slice is assumed to be a straight line. For any slice the
inclination of the base to the horizontal is and the height, measured on the centre- line,
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is h. The analysis is based on the use of a lumped factor of safety (F), defined as the ratio
of the available shear strength ( ) to the shear strength (Tm) which must be mobilized
to maintain a condition of limiting equilibrium, i.e.
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The factor of safety is taken to be the same for each slice, implying that there must be
mutual support between slices, i.e. forces must act between the slices.
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The forces (per unit dimension normal to the section) acting on a slice are:
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82

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CE6405 SOIL MECHANICS

For More Visit : www.LearnEngineering.in

for various structures is known as ‘‘Foundation Engineering’’. ‘‘Geotechnical Engineering’’

In fact, according to Terzaghi, it is difficult to draw a distinct line of demarcation between

1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF SOIL MECHANICS

and Foundation engineering at Harvard(Massachusetts, U.S.A.) 1936, Rotterdam (The

1.3 FIELDS OF APPLICATION OF SOIL MECHANICS

1.3.2 Underground and Earth-retaining Structures

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thorough knowledge of soil mechanics is a prerequisite to be a successful foundation

1.4 SOIL FORMATION

1.4.1 Residual soils

 Engineering properties of residual soils are different with those of transported

Interstratifications of silts and clays.

 (1) Glacial soils: formed by transportation and deposition of glaciers.

(4) Marine soils: formed by deposition in the seas (Hong Kong).

1.5 Soil Profile

1.6 SOME COMMONLY USED SOIL DESIGNATIONS

mineral montmorillonite. It exhibits high degree of shrinkage and swelling.

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1.6.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

The following types of structure are commonly studied:

(b) Honey-comb structure

1.7.1 Single-grained Structure

1.7.2 Honey-comb Structure

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1.7.3 Flocculent Structure

1.8 TEXTURE OF SOILS

1.9 MAJOR SOIL DEPOSITS OF INDIA

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1.9.1. Volumetric Relationships

It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of solids.

ii) Porosity (n) or Percentage of voids

n = Vv/V; Porosity is expressed as percentage & it is not exceed 100%.

iii) Degree of Saturation (S)

iv) Percentage of air voids (na)

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ii) Dry mass density (ρd)

submerged in water, it displaces an equal volume of water.

1.9.3. Volume-Weight Relationships

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iii) Saturated unit weight

iv) Submerged unit weight (γ’)

volume of solids to the mass of an equal volume of water @ 4°C. =

iii) Absolute specific gravity (or) True specific gravity

1.9.5. Density Index (ID)

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Relative Density Density Description

85-100 Very dense

1.9.6 Three phase diagram in terms of Void ratio

iv) ρ’ = iv) γ,=

1.9.7 Three phase diagram in terms of Porosity

ii) ρd = . (1 − ) ii) γd = G.γw(1-n)

iii) ρsat = ( (1 − ) + )) iii) γsat = (G(1-n)+n).γw

iv) ρ’ = ( − 1). (1 − ) iv) γ’ = ( − 1)(1 − ).

For fully saturated soil S=1 ,ie w = ; = .

1.9.9 Expression for mass density in terms of water content

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1.9.10 Relationship between Dry mass density and percentage

i)Density bottle method