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MODULE 2
MEMORY
Memory can be defined as the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
Human memory involves more than taking information in and storing it in some mental
compartment. In fact, psychologists probing the workings of memory have had to grapple with three
enduring questions:
(1) How does information get into memory?
(2) How is information maintained in memory? and
(3) How is information pulled back out of memory?
These three questions correspond to the three key processes involved in memory: encoding
(getting information in), storage (maintaining it), and retrieval (getting it out).
Encoding involves forming a memory code, or it is the process through which information
is converted into a form that can be entered into memory. For example, when we form a memory
code for a word, we might emphasize how it looks, how it sounds, or what it means. Encoding usually
requires attention.
Storage involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time. Psychologists
have focused much of their memory research on trying to identify just what factors help or hinder
memory storage. But, as the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon shows, information storage isn’t enough to
guarantee that we’ll remember something. We need to be able to get information out of storage.
Retrieval involves recovering information from memory stores. In other words, it is the
process through which information stored in memory is located. Research issues concerned with
retrieval include the study of how people search memory and why some retrieval strategies are more
effective than others.
2.1: INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
According to the information processing model (also called the three-system approach to
memory) that dominated memory research for several decades, there are different memory storage
systems or stages through which information must travel to be remembered (Atkinson & Shiffrin,
1968, 1971). Historically, the approach has been extremely influential in the development of our
understanding of memory, and—although new theories have augmented it— it still provides a useful
framework for understanding how information is recalled.
The information processing model of memory provides a comprehensive framework for
understanding how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved in the human mind. At its core, this
model posits three key stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. During encoding, sensory information
is transformed into a form that the brain can process and store. This information then moves into short-
term memory, where it undergoes further processing and either fades away or gets transferred to long-

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term memory through rehearsal and meaningful connections. Long-term memory serves as a vast
repository for information, categorized into declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit) memory
systems. Retrieval involves accessing stored information when needed, influenced by factors such as
cues, context, and the strength of memory traces. Additionally, this model emphasizes the role of
attention, perception, and rehearsal in shaping memory processes, highlighting the dynamic interplay
between external stimuli and internal cognitive processes. Overall, the information processing model
offers valuable insights into the complex mechanisms underlying human memory function.

2.1.1: Sensory Memory

Sensory memory can be defined as a memory system that retains representations of sensory input
for brief periods of time. Sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form for
a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second.
Actually, there are several types of sensory memories, each related to a different source of
sensory information. For instance, iconic memory reflects information from the visual system. Echoic
memory stores auditory information coming from the ears. In addition, there are corresponding
memories for each of the other senses.
Sensory memory can store information for only a very short time. If information does not pass
into short-term memory, it is lost for good. For instance, iconic memory seems to last less than a second,
and echoic memory typically fades within two or three seconds. However, despite the brief duration of
sensory memory, its precision is high: Sensory memory can store an almost exact replica of each
stimulus to which it is exposed (Darwin, Turvey, & Crowder, 1972; Long & Beaton, 1982; Sams et al.,
1993; Deouell, Parnes, & Pickard, 2006).
2.1.2: Short-term Memory
Short-term memory can be defined as a memory system that holds limited amounts of information
for relatively short periods, for about 10–20 seconds.
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Because the information that is stored briefly in sensory memory consists of representations of
raw sensory stimuli, it is not meaningful to us. If we are to make sense of it and possibly retain it, the
information must be transferred to the next stage of memory: short-term memory. Short-term memory
is the memory store in which information first has meaning, although the maximum length of
retention there is relatively short (Hamilton & Martin, 2007).
The specific amount of information that can be held in short-term memory has been identified
as seven items, or “chunks,” of information, with variations up to plus or minus two chunks. A
chunk is a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory. According
to George Miller (1956), a chunk can be individual letters or numbers, permitting us to hold a seven-
digit phone number (such as 226-4610) in short-term memory.
2.1.3: Working Memory
Working memory can be defined as a set of active, temporary memory stores that actively
manipulate and rehearse information.
When STM is combined with other mental processes, it acts more like a sort of “mental
scratchpad,” or working memory, where we do much of our thinking. That is, working memory briefly
holds the information we need when we are thinking and solving problems (Holmes & Adams, 2006).
Working memory is thought to contain a central executive processor that is involved in
reasoning and decision making. The central executive coordinates three distinct storage-and-rehearsal
systems: the visual store (visuospatial sketchpad), the verbal store (phonological loop), and the
episodic buffer. The visual store specializes in visual and spatial information, whereas the verbal store
holds and manipulates material relating to speech, words, and numbers. The episodic buffer contains
information that represents episodes or events. Working memory permits us to keep information in an
active state briefly so that we can do something with the information.
2.1.4: Long-term Memory
Long-term memory can be defined as a memory system for the retention of large amounts of
information over long periods of time.
Unlike sensory memory and short-term memory, which have very brief storage durations, LTM
can store information indefinitely. In fact, one point of view is that all information stored in long-term
memory is stored there permanently. According to this view, forgetting occurs only because people
sometimes cannot retrieve needed information from LTM.
Long-term memory as having several different components, or memory modules . Each of these
modules represents a separate memory system in the brain.
2.1.4.1: Declarative Memory
Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like.

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Declarative memory is memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and facts, such as
“a bike has two wheels.” Declarative memory is further subdivided into semantic memory and episodic
memory.
• Semantic Memory
Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules
of logic that are used to deduce other facts.
Semantic memory is memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well
as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts. Because of semantic
memory, we remember that the ZIP code for Kollam is 691001, that Mumbai is on the Arabian
Sea, and that memoree is the incorrect spelling of memory . Thus, semantic memory is
somewhat like a mental almanac of facts (Nyberg & Tulving, 1996; Tulving, 2002).
• Episodic Memory
Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.
Episodic memory is memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.
For example, recall of learning to ride a bike, our first competition, or arranging a surprise
birthday party for our brother is based on episodic memories. Episodic memories relate to
particular contexts. For example, remembering when and how we learned that 2 x 2 = 4
would be an episodic memory; the fact itself (that 2 x 2 = 4) is a semantic memory.
2.1.4.2: Procedural Memory
Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball; sometimes referred to
as nondeclarative memory.
Procedural memory (or nondeclarative memory) refers to memory for skills and habits, such as
how to ride a bike or hit a baseball. Information about things is stored in declarative memory;
information about how to do things is stored in procedural memory (Feldhusen, 2006; Brown &
Robertson, 2007; Bauer, 2008). Episodic memories can be surprisingly detailed.
2.2: FORGETTING
Most forgetting tends to occur immediately after memorization. Herman Ebbinghaus (1885)
famously tested his memory at various
intervals after learning. To be sure he
would not be swayed by prior learning,
he memorized nonsense syllables. These
are meaningless three-letter words such
as CEF, WOL, and GEX. The
importance of using meaningless words
is shown by the fact that VEL, FAB, and
Compiled by Dr Sijin K. S., Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Fatima Mata National College, Kollam
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DUZ are no longer used on memory tests. People who recognize these words as detergent names find
them very easy to remember. This is another reminder that relating new information to what you already
know can improve memory.
By waiting various lengths of time before testing himself, Ebbinghaus plotted a curve of
forgetting. This graph shows the amount of information remembered after varying lengths of time.
Notice that forgetting is rapid at first and is then followed by a slow decline (Hintzman, 2005).
2.2.1: Measures of Forgetting
To study forgetting empirically, psychologists need to be able to measure it precisely. Measures
of forgetting inevitably measure retention as well. Retention refers to the proportion of material retained
(remembered). In studies of forgetting, the results may be reported in terms of the amount forgotten or
the amount retained. In these studies, the retention interval is the length of time between the
presentation of materials to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting. The three principal
methods used to measure forgetting are recall, recognition, and relearning (Lockhart, 1992).
2.2.1.1: Recall
A recall measure of retention requires persons to reproduce information on their own without
any cues.
2.2.1.2: Recognition
A recognition measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned information
from an array of options.
Subjects not only have cues to work with, they have the answers right in front of them. In
educational testing, essay questions and fill-in-the blanks questions are recall measures of retention.
Multiple-choice, true-false, and matching questions are recognition measures.
2.2.1.3: Relearning
A relearning measure of retention requires a subject to memorize information a second time to
determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before.
Subjects’ savings scores provide an estimate of their retention. Relearning measures can detect
retention that is overlooked by recognition tests (Crowder & Greene, 2000).
2.2.2: Causes of Forgetting
The possible causes of forgetting are
2.2.2.1: Ineffective Encoding
Even when memory codes are formed for new information, subsequent forgetting may be the
result of ineffective or inappropriate encoding (Brown & Craik, 2000). The research on levels of
processing shows that some approaches to encoding lead to more forgetting than others (Craik &
Tulving, 1975).
2.2.2.2: Decay
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Instead of focusing on encoding, decay theory attributes forgetting to the impermanence of

memory storage. Decay theory proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with
time. The implicit assumption is that decay occurs in the physiological mechanisms responsible for
memories. According to decay theory, the mere passage of time produces forgetting. Evidence suggests
that decay does contribute to the loss of information from the sensory and short-term memory stores.
2.2.2.3: Interference
Interference theory proposes that people forget information because of competition from
other material.
Interference is assumed to be greatest when intervening material is most similar to the test
material. Decreasing the similarity should reduce interference and cause less forgetting.
There are two kinds of interference: retroactive and proactive (Jacoby, Hessels, & Bopp,
2001). Retroactive interference occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously
learned information.
Retroactive interference occurs
between the original learning and
the retest on that learning, during
the retention interval. In contrast,
proactive interference occurs
when previously learned
information interferes with the
retention of new information.
Proactive interference is rooted in
learning that comes before
exposure to the test material.
2.2.2.4: Retrieval Failure
People often remember things that they were unable to recall at an earlier time. This
phenomenon may be obvious only during struggles with the tip-of-the tongue phenomenon, but it
happens frequently. In fact, a great deal of forgetting may be due to breakdowns in the process of
retrieval.
2.2.2.5: Motivated Forgetting
Sigmund Freud (1901) came up with an entirely different explanation for retrieval failures.
Freud asserted that people often keep embarrassing, unpleasant, or painful memories buried in their
unconscious.

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The tendency to forget things one doesn’t want to think about is called motivated forgetting, or
to use Freud’s terminology, repression. In Freudian theory, repression refers to keeping distressing
thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.
2.2.2.6: Cue Dependent Memory
Cue-dependent memory refers to the phenomenon where specific cues or triggers can help recall
information that might otherwise be forgotten. These cues can be external, such as a particular smell,
sound, or place, or internal, like a thought or emotion. The presence of these cues at the time of encoding
(when the memory is formed) and at the time of retrieval (when the memory is recalled) can
significantly enhance memory performance. If the memory cue is absent during retrieval, it will lead
to forgetting.
2.2.2.7: State-Dependent Memory
State-dependent memory refers to the improved recall of information when an individual is in
the same physiological or psychological state as when the memory was encoded. This includes
emotional states, levels of consciousness, and even certain chemical states induced by substances. If
the memory cue is absent during retrieval, it will lead to forgetting.

2.3: MEMORY ENHANCEMENT STRATEGIES

Memory enhancement strategies are classified into encoding strategies and retrieval
strategies.
2.3.1: Encoding Strategies
One way to improve your memory is to be sure to fully encode information. That way you can
avoid forgetting due to encoding failure. Here are some steps you can take to become a better encoder:
2.3.1.1: Rehearsal
The more you rehearse (mentally review) information as you read, the better you will remember
it. But remember that maintenance rehearsal alone is not very effective. Elaborative encoding, in which
you look for connections to existing knowledge, is far better.
2.3.1.2: Selection
If you boil down the paragraphs in most textbooks to one or two important terms or ideas, your
memory chores will be more manageable. Practice very selective marking in your texts and use
marginal notes to further summarize ideas. Most students mark their texts too much instead of too little.
If everything is underlined, you haven’t been selective. And, very likely, you didn’t pay much attention
in the first place (Peterson, 1992).
2.3.1.3: Organization
Organizing class notes and summarizing chapters can be quite helpful (Hettich, 2005). You may
even want to summarize your summaries, so that the overall network of ideas becomes clearer and

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simpler. Summaries improve memory by encouraging better encoding of information (Hadwin, Kirby,
& Woodhouse, 1999).
2.3.1.4: Whole Vs Part Learning
Generally, it is better to practice whole packages of information rather than smaller parts (whole
learning). This is especially true for fairly short, organized information.
2.3.1.5: Serial Position
Whenever you must learn something in order, be aware of the serial position effect. As you will
recall, this is the tendency to make the most errors in remembering the middle of a list. If you are
introduced to a long line of people, the names you are likely to forget will be those in the middle, so
you should make an extra effort to attend to them. You should also give extra practice to the middle of
a list, poem, or speech. Try to break long lists of information into short sub-lists, and make the middle
sub-lists the shortest of all.
2.3.1.6: Cues
The best memory cues (stimuli that aid retrieval) are those that were present during encoding
(Anderson, 2005). For example, students in one study had the daunting task of trying to recall a list of
600 words. As they read the list (which they did not know they would be tested on), the students gave
three other words closely related in meaning to each listed word. In a test given later, the words each
student supplied were used as cues to jog memory. The students recalled an astounding 90 percent of
the original word list (Mantyla, 1986).
2.3.1.7: Over Learning
Numerous studies have shown that memory is greatly improved when you overlearn or continue
to study beyond bare mastery. After you have learned material well enough to remember it once without
error, you should continue studying. Overlearning is your best insurance against going blank on a test
because of being nervous.
2.3.2: Retrieval Strategies
Here are some strategies which will be helpful to avoid retrieval failure.
2.3.2.1: Recitation
A prime way to provide feedback for yourself while studying is recitation. If you are going to
remember something, eventually you will have to retrieve it. Recitation refers to summarizing aloud
while you are learning. Recitation forces you to practice retrieving information. When you are reading
a text, you should stop frequently and try to remember what you have just read by restating it in your
own words.
2.3.2.2: Review
If you have spaced your practice and overlearned, retrieval practice in the form of review will
be like icing on your study cake. Reviewing shortly before an exam cuts down the time during which
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you must remember details that may be important for the test. When reviewing, hold the amount of
new information you try to memorize to a minimum. It may be realistic to take what you have actually
learned and add a little more to it at the last minute by cramming.

2.4: REFERENCES
Baron, R.A. (2004). Psychology, (5th ed.). New Delhi: Pearson Education.
Coon, D., & Mitterer, J.O. (2007). Introduction to psychology: Gateways to mind and behavior, (11th
ed.). New Delhi: Thomson Wadsworth.
Feldman, R. S. (2011) Understanding psychology. New York: Tata McGraw Hill.
Myers, D. G., & DeWall, C. N. (2015). Psychology. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Weiten, W. (2016). Psychology: Themes and Variations. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Compiled by Dr Sijin K. S., Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Fatima Mata National College, Kollam