https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.gvkaksha.

app

https://t.me/gvwitmover

https://youtube.com/@Gvwitmover

https://instagram.com/gvwitmover?igshid=ZGUzMzM3NWJiOQ==
 Biology
Life, as we know it, took billions of years to evolve. From the very first precursor of life to the multitude of
multicellular organisms that we see around us today, the most basic unit of all these is the cell.

All About Cells

Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of life. The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke. A
number of cells can work together to form tissues and organs.
➢ Note: The smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometre
in bacteria.
➢ The largest cell measuring 170 mm x 130 mm,
is the egg of an ostrich.
➢ Amoeba acquires its food through endocytosis.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which food releases energy in the mitochondria. Cells absorb glucose
from food and burn it to produce energy.

Structural Organization of Cells

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

Two types of cells – Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells.
1. Prokaryotes cells - Prokaryotic cells are primitive
and lack a well-defined nucleus. cells that have
no defined nucleus. Eg: Bacteria & Blue-green Algae.

2. Eukaryote cells - Eukaryotic cells are more

advanced and have a well-defined nucleus.
cells which have definite nucleus.
Eg: Other than Bacteria & Blue-green Algae.
Cell Structure in Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells have the most well-defined structure. These cells have cell membranes, membrane-bound
cell organelles and a well-defined nucleus. The nucleus has its own membrane called the nuclear membrane.

Cell Membrane
• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell.
• It is made up of a phospholipid bilayer membrane.
• It is selectively permeable in nature.
• The structure of a cell membrane is best described by the fluid mosaic model.

Diffusion
The movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration is
known as diffusion. E.g. carbon dioxide and oxygen move across the cell membrane by diffusion.

Osmosis in Selectively Permeable Membrane

Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis is a selective process since
the membrane does not allow all molecules to pass through it. Water is usually the only free-flowing
molecule across this membrane.

Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions

• Isotonic solutions are those which have the same solute and pH concentration as the surrounding
body fluid or the cytoplasm.
• Hypotonic solutions contain a lesser amount of solute concentration compared to the
surrounding fluid and can force the cell to rupture due to excess input of water into the cell.
• Hypertonic solutions contain a higher concentration of solute compared to the surrounding
fluid and thus push water out of the cell, shrinking it.

Parts of Cells
➢ Cell Walls in Plants
Plant cells are different from animal cells due to the presence of a cell wall. The cell wall is made of
cellulose and gives a rigid structure to the plant cell. It provides structural support to plants. Due to cell
walls, cells of plants, fungi and bacteria can withstand greater changes in surrounding conditions than
animal cells. E.g. Cell wall enables the cells to withstand hypotonic solution without bursting.

Cell Organelles
Eukaryotic cells contain various membrane-bound organelles that carry out various functions in the cell, e.g.
Nucleus, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosomes, etc.

Endocytosis
Endocytosis is the invagination of the cell membrane, followed by pinching off, forming a membrane-bound
vesicle. This is commonly seen in Amoeba.

Nucleus in Cells
The nucleus is the processing unit of the cell. It is a double membrane-bound organelle which contains the
genetic material for inheritance. The nuclear membrane contains pores that allow the transfer of materials
from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The nucleus is the brain of the cell as it controls various functions such
as cell division, reproduction, inheritance, etc. The nucleus contains genetic material, i.e. chromosomes that
contain DNA. DNA carries information for inheritance from parents to offspring. Prokaryotes lack a
well-defined nucleus, and the genetic material is present in a region known as the nucleoid.

Chromosomes
Chromosomes are the genetic material present in the nucleus. It contains DNA with associated
proteins. They are present as threads called chromatin. During the growth phase of the cell, the chromatin
condenses into a much thicker structure called a chromosome. Human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes (46).
• Chromosomes are made up of DNA.
• Segments of DNA in specific patterns are called genes.
• In prokaryotes, DNA floats in the cytoplasm in an area called the nucleoid.
• Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit around uncoiled and as loose shards
called chromation.
• Chromosomes are usually found in pairs.
• Peas only have 12, a dog has 78 chromosomes.
• The number of chromosomes is not related to the intelligence or complexity of the creature.
Nucleolus: It is a dense spherical granule contained within the nucleus. It stores proteins.

Chromatin
Chromatin is a thread-like structure which serves as the genetic material present inside the nucleus of the
cell. It is made up of DNA and protein molecules. DNA contains the hereditary information needed for the
structure and function of the organism.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the fluid found inside the cell. It gives the structure to the cell and houses different
organelles of the cell. Scientists used to call the fluid protoplasm.

Organelles
Organelles are structures present in the cytoplasm of the cell that helps in several functions of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane-bound cell organelle that plays an integral role in the
interpretation of the genetic information present in the nucleus.
Rough ER
Rough ER is the one that has ribosomes on them. The ribosome is made up of nucleic acids and proteins.
They are the site of protein synthesis. The Rough ER is also involved in the modification and folding of
proteins.

Smooth ER
Smooth ER does not have ribosomes and thus is not involved in protein synthesis. They are, however,
involved in lipid metabolism and detoxifying of poisonous molecules.
Ribosomes: It synthesis protein, and Endoplasmic reticulum sent these protein in various part of the cell.
Whereas Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum helps in the manufacture of fats. It a made up of ribonucleic acid.

➢ Functions of these proteins and fats:

• Protein and fat (lipid) help in building the cell membranes. This process is known as
membranes biogenesis.
• Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

Golgi Apparatus
Golgi Apparatus is also called the post office of the cell. They package and transport the proteins across the
cytoplasm. It is another packaging organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum.
functions:
• It is the organelle that builds lysosomes (cells digestion machines).

Lysosomes (suicidal bag):

They are referred to as suicide bags of the cell as they contain potent enzymes that can digest a
cell. Lysosomes also help in defence by attacking a foreign object. It is a kind of waste disposal system of
the cell.

Mitochondria(power house):
Mitochondria are also called the powerhouse of a cell. They generate ATP(adenosine-tri-phosphate) via the
electron transport chain. They also have a DNA called mtDNA, which makes them a semi-autonomous
organelle. Mitochondria can make their own proteins.
• ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell.
• Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA and
ribosomes, therefore mitochondria are able to make their own protein.
• Mitochondria is absent in bacteria and the red blood cells of mammals and higher animals.

Plastids
There are various types of plastids in different cells based on the pigment they contain. The chloroplast is
the plastid where photosynthesis occurs, they contain chlorophyll. Plastids also contain their own DNA and
ribosomes. These are present only in plant cells. Plastids are self-replicating. i.e. they have the power to
divide, as they contain DNA, RNA and ribosomes.
Types of plastids: Some of the other plastids are leucoplast and chromoplast.
➢ Leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids) : Leucoplasts store starch, oil and protein granules.
Chloroplasts contain membranes known as thylakoids embedded in the stroma.

➢ Chromoplast (colour plastids) impart colour flowers and fruits. present in which starch, oils and
protein are stored.

Centrioles: centrioles are concerned with cell division. It initiates cell division.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are large vesicles that hold water or air in them and give structural rigidity to the cell. Vacuoles are
common in plant cells. In animals, the vacuoles are either very small or absent.
Cell Division
Organisms grow and reduce through cell division.
There is the methods of replication mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis: It duplicates its DNA and the two new cells (daughter cells) have the same pieces and generic
code. There are five steps in this process. You should remember the term PMATI. It breaks down to:
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
5. Interphase.
The main theme of meiosis is that there

are two cell division. Mitosis has one division

Comparison between Plant and Animal Cells

Plants cells are different from animal cells structurally. Plant cells have cell walls and chloroplast which are
missing in animal cells. Plants cells also have large vacuoles, which are either very small or missing in
animal cells. The nucleus is present at the centre of the cell in animal cells and at the periphery in plant cells.
 ➢ Some important facts regarding cells:
• Nerve cells in animals are the longest cells.
• Smallest human cell is red blood cell.
• Largest human cell is female ovum.
• The single largest cell in the world is of an ostrich.
• The smallest cells are those of the mycoplasma.
• Every minute about 3 million cells in our body die.
• Sieve tube in plants and the mature mammalian red blood cells do not have a nucleus.
• The red blood cell carries respiratory gases. Sieve cells in plants transport nutrients in
plants.
• The lysosomal enzymes of the sperm cells digest the limiting membranes of the ovum (egg).
Thus the sperm is able to enter the ovum.
• During the transformation of tadpole into frog. The embryonic tissues like gills and tail are
digested by the lysosome.
• Mitochondria contain DNA, hence capable of replication. Matrix is a transparent,
homogenous semi-fluid substance. In its active state. It remains saturated with water.

Introduction to Tissues
Tissues: Tissues are a group of cells that combine together to perform a particular function.
Plant Tissues
Plant tissues are of various types, and they are made up of similar types of cells. They are different from
animal tissues since there are several differences between animal and plant cells. Meristematic tissues and
permanent tissues are the two types of plant tissues.

Animal Tissues
Animal tissues are made up of animal cells. These tissues are usually not rigid since the cells do not have
cell walls.

Plant Tissues
Meristematic tissues:
Meristematic tissues are seen in plants. They are primarily
made up of rapidly dividing cells. They are the growing tissues
of the plant. Meristematic tissues consist of a group of cells
that have the ability to divide. These tissues are small, cuboidal,
densely packed cells which keep dividing to form new cells.
These tissues are capable of stretching, enlarging and
differentiating into other types of tissues as they mature.
Meristematic tissues give rise to permanent tissues.
Meristematic tissues can be of three types depending
on the region where they are present:

a. Apical meristem
Apical meristem is present on the apex of the plant shoot
and root. They are rapidly growing tissues and aid in
increasing the height of the plant.

b. Lateral meristem
Lateral meristem is present on the lateral walls of the stem.
They help in the horizontal growth of the plant and increase the stem girth.

c. Intercalary meristem
Intercalary meristem can be found between the nodes of the stem and the base of the leaf. They help in
branching.

Permanent tissues
Permanent tissues arise from the meristematic tissue and have structural and functional properties.
Permanent tissue can be made up of either living or dead cells. They are specialised to perform a specific
function, e.g. parenchyma, collenchyma, xylem, phloem, etc. Permanent tissues are of two types simple and
complex permanent tissue.They have lost their ability to divide. They have attained their mature form. They
are further classified into two types: Simple and complex permanent tissues.

➢ Simple permanent tissues: These are tissues that are made up of only one type of
cell. They usually have a structural role.

1. Parenchyma- Parenchyma tissues are made up of loosely packed cells with thin cell
walls and large intercellular spaces. They are live cells and help in support and storage. Two
types; Chlorenchyma and Aerenchyma.
These tissues are found in the soft parts
of a plant such as the roots, stems, leaves,
and flowers. The functions of parenchyma
tissues are storage, photosynthesis, and
to help the plant float on water.

2. Collenchyma- Collenchyma tissues are

made up of live cells which have irregularly
thickened corners and thus, have decreased
intercellular spaces. They help in bending
various parts of the plant without breaking.
They are meant to provide mechanical support
to the plant structure in parts such as petiole
of the leaf.
 3. Sclerenchyma- Sclerenchyma tissues make up the hard and stiff parts of the plant.
They are made up of dead, long and narrow cells. They almost have no intercellular space as
the walls are thickened due to the presence of lignin. Their main function is to provide
strength and support to parts of the plant.

➢ Complex permanent tissues: Complex permanent tissues are made by the

combination of different types of cells. These cells work together to perform a specific task. Unlike
simple permanent cells which look the same and are made up of one type of cells, complex
permanent tissues are made up of more than one type of cells. These different types of cells
coordinate to perform a function. Xylem and Phloem are complex permanent tissues and are found in
the vascular bundles in the plants.

Phloem
Phloem is made up of the following components – sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and
phloem fibres. Phloem conducts food in both directions. Among all the components, phloem fibres are the
only dead cells.

Xylem
Xylem is made up of the following components. The vessels and tracheids – help in the conduction of water
and minerals from the soil. Xylem parenchyma helps in food storage, and the xylem fibres provide
mechanical support.
Transportation in plants - performed by two vascular tissues, xylem and phloem
 Vascular Tissues
xylem Phloem

• Present in roots, stems and leaves •Conducting tissue for nutrients from
leaves to other parts of the plant.
• Conducts water and minerals from roots to
other plant parts •Consists of sieve tubes, companion
cells, phloem fibres and phloem
• Tracheids and vessels forms a continuous parenchyma.
system of transportation.
•Translocation occurs in sieve tubes.
• Cells in the roots absorbs ions which helps
in movement of water into the roots.

Xylem Phloem

Cells are dead Cells are alive

Carries water and minerals Carries sugar and amino acids

Upward movement of Flow is in all directions

Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue

Cells divide repeatedly Do not divide

Cells are undifferentiated Cells are fully differentiated

Cells are small and Isodiametric Cells are variable in shape and size

Intercellular spaces are absent Intercellular spaces are present

Vacuoles are absent Vacuoles are present
Cell walls are thin Cell walls maybe thick or thin
Inorganic inclusions are absent Inorganic inclusions are present
 Plant Structure & Functioning
Structure Functions

Leaves • Thin with a large surface area • Short distances for gases to diffuse Large
area for absorption of light.
• Cells contain chlorophyll in chloroplasts. • Leaves are a plant's food factory. They are
the main site of photosynthesis. where
sugars are made from water and carbon
dioxide, using sunlight energy that has
been absorbed by chlorophyll.
Stems • Long and cylindrical. Woody tissues - xylem • Support the leaves, flowers and fruit. Can
and fibres (sclerenchyma)- add strength. bend or resist the wind.
• Contain xylem and phloem (in veins). • Transport water, minerals to leaves and
sugars to roots, flowers, fruit and roots.
Roots • Branch extensively through the soil. • Provide anchorage in the soil.

• Root hairs-provide huge surface area. • Enable absorption of water and nutrients.

• Contain xylem and phloem (in veins) • Enable transport of water and nutrients

• Root tip-area of cell division. • Grow into the soil.

• Root cap-covers the root tip. • Protects and lubricates the growing root.

Animal Tissues
Epithelial Tissues
Epithelial tissues are seen on the outer layer of a body or organ surface. They form the outermost protective
layer of most animals.
(i) On the basis of cell layers
(a) When an epithelium has a single layer of cells it is called a simple epithelium.
(b) Where as a multiple tier of cells are known as stratified epithelium.

(ii) On the basis of simple shape of cells:

✓ Squamous Epithelium: Squamous epithelium forms an extremely thin and flat layer of
tissues. They are semi-permeable and, thus, perfect for gaseous exchange. They are present in the
lining of the oesophagus and the mouth.
✓ Cuboidal Epithelium: As the name suggests,
they are cuboidal in shape and form the lining
of salivary glands and kidney tubules. They provide
mechanical support. They also form glandular
epithelium when they form glands.
 ✓ Columnar Epithelium: These tissues line the
organs which help in absorption and secretion,
such as the lining of the intestines. They are made
up of elongated cells. When cilia are present in
these cells, they form ciliated columnar
epithelium like those present in the respiratory tract.
✓ Stratified Squamous Epithelium: This kind of tissue is formed when multiple layers of
squamous epithelium are arranged in a pattern. Our skin is made up of this kind of tissue.

Muscular Tissue
These tissues make up our muscles which are responsible for almost all the movements that take place in the
body.

• Striated/Skeletal Muscles: All the voluntary movements in our body are carried out by the
striated or skeletal muscles. They are called skeletal because these tissues are mostly attached to the
bones. They are long, cylindrical, unbranched with striations and multinucleated. It attached
primarily to bones. Its main function is to provide the force for locomotion and all other voluntary
movements of the body.

• Unstriated/Smooth Muscles: Almost all involuntary movements in the body are carried out
by the smooth or striated muscles. They are long, smooth, spindle-shaped and uninucleate. We can
find them in places like the alimentary canal and blood vessels.

• Cardiac Muscles: Cardiac muscles make up our entire heart. These muscles are involuntary in
nature and show rhythmic contractions and relaxations. The contraction and relaxation of the heart
muscles help to pump the blood and distribute it to the various parts of the body. Structurally they
may look quite similar to striated muscles, but they are branched, uninucleated and have intercalated
discs.

Connective Tissues
These tissues help in connecting different parts of the body. Examples include blood, bones, cartilages,
tendons, ligaments, areolar tissues and adipose tissues.

Tendon

1. Arelor
Ligament

Bone

2. Adipose Skeletal
Cartilage
 Blood

3. Fluid
Lymph

1. Areolar tissue: It fills spaces inside organs found around muscles, blood vessels and nerves. Its main
function is to joins skin to muscles, support internal organs, help in the repair of tissues. Whereas tendon's
main function is to connect muscles to bones and ligament is connects bones to each other.
2. Adipose tissue: Its occurrence is below skin, between internal organs and in the yellow bone Marrow.
Its main function is to storage of fat and to conserve heat.

3. Skeletal tissue: Bone & cartilage occurrences is in nose, epigotis and in intervertebral disc of mammals.
Its main function is to provide support and flexibility to body part. Whereas bone protects internal delicate
organs provides attachments for muscles, bone marrow makes blood cells.

4. Fluid tissue: Blood & Lymph blood transport 02 nutrients, hormones to tissues and organs. Whereas
leucocytes fight diseases and platelets help in clotting of blood. Lymph transport nutrients into the heart and
it also forms the defense system of the body.

Diversity in Living Organisms

Introduction to Taxonomy

Diversity
• Diversity is the presence of different organisms in the same ecosystem or geographical location.
• Diversity gives a chance for a more balanced ecosystem.

Evolution
• Evolution is the slow process by which organisms change according to their needs to survive the
environment around them.
• Evolution leads to the formation of new organisms and more diversity in the ecosystem.

Charles Darwin
• Charles Darwin was an English biologist and a naturalist.
• He travelled on HMS Beagle to Galapagos Island in South America.
• Using his observation, he proposed the theory of evolution in his book “On the Origin of Species”
in 1859.
• He explained that natural selection is the basic mechanism of evolution.
• His theory of natural selection became the basis for modern evolutionary studies.
 Taxonomy
Taxonomical Hierarchy
Taxonomical hierarchy refers to the classification of living organisms into different groups or taxons.
Kingdom is ranked at the highest level of the hierarchy and species is at the lowest rank, which is the basic
unit of classification.

Hierarchy of Classification
• Organisms are arranged into groups/levels according to their similarities.
• As we go up the hierarchy, the organisms have lesser similarities.

Kingdom
• A kingdom is the highest level of classification which consists of a number of phyla or divisions (in
case of plants) with similar characteristics.
➢ Phylum/Division
• Phylum/Division is a level of classification which consists of a number of classes with similar
characteristics.
➢ Class
• A class is the level of classification which consists of a number of orders with similar characteristics.
➢ Order
• An order is the level of classification which consists of a number of families with similar
characteristics.
➢ Family
• A family is the level of classification which consists of a number of Genus with similar
characteristics.
➢ Genus
• Genus is the level of classification which consists of a number of species with similar characteristics.
➢ Species
• Species is the level of classification which consists of a number of organisms with similar
characteristics and can interbreed to give rise to a fertile offspring.

Nomenclature
Carolus Linnaeus
• Carolus Linnaeus is a Swedish botanist and physician who is also called the ‘Father of taxonomy‘.
• He introduced the Binomial nomenclature and laid the ground rules which paved way for modern
taxonomy.
Binomial Nomenclature
• Binomial Nomenclature was introduced by Linnaeus as a method of naming organisms in taxonomy.
• It consists of two parts.
• The first part is the Genus name which is written in capital.
• The second part is the species name, which is not capitalised.

Five Kingdom Classification

Classification of Kingdom
Storer and Usinger classified animals into following phylums

Character Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Cell wall Non-cellulosic Present in Present Present Absent
some
Nuclear Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Cellular Cellular Multicellular/ Tissue/ Tissue/
organisation loose tissue organ organ/organ
system
Mode of Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
nutrition and and
heterotrophic heterotrophic
Examples Bacteria Amoeba Acholrophyllus, Multicellular Multicellular
archaebacteria Euglena heterotrophic eukaryotic animals
cyanobacteria Dinoflagellates fungi plants
and some
primitive fungi

5 Kingdom classification
• 5 Kingdom classification is the most accepted system of classification given by R.H.Whittaker.
• This classification solved most of the issues in taxonomy related to the placement of bacteria and
fungi.
• The 5 kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

Kingdom Monera
Monera
• All the prokaryotic organisms are placed in this Kingdom.
• Bacteria and their ancient cousin, archaebacteria are the organisms that makeup Kingdom Monera.
• These are prokaryotic, unicellular, autotrophic/heterotrophic organisms.
• Bacteria have a cell wall made up of polysaccharides.

Archaea
• The category in the kingdom Monera which consists of the organisms surviving in extremely hot
conditions.
• They are considered to be the most ancient living organisms present on the planet.

Eubacteria
• Eubacteria is phylum of Monera consists of all the bacteria that survive in a normal environment.
• All the major helpful and pathogenic bacteria we know today fall under this category.

Gram +ve/-ve bacteria

• Some bacteria have a very thick cell wall which makes them take up Gram stain and appear violet.
• There are other bacteria which have a thin cell wall and on Gram staining appear pink.
• Usually, gram +ve bacteria are pathogenic in nature.

Kingdom Protista
Protista
• Kingdom Protista is made up of all the eukaryotic unicellular organisms except yeast.

Protozoan
• Protozoans are the unicellular eukaryotic organisms that come under the Kingdom Protista.
• Examples include paramecium, amoeba, Plasmodium, euglena, leishmania etc.
• In these, all the metabolic activity like digestion, respiration, excretion and reproduction
takes place in unicellular body.
• Respiration and excretion take place through diffusion.
Fungi like Protists
• This kingdom includes unicellular fungi like yeast and moulds.
Plant-like Protists
• Kingdom Protista includes some unicellular algae which are photosynthetic.
 Kingdom Fungi
Fungi
• The organisms of Kingdom Fungi are mostly saprophytic.
• It is the only Kingdom which has the multicellular and unicellular organisms.
• Majority of them have a cell wall made up of chitin.

Kingdom Plantae
Plantae
• All plants and trees we see around us come under this Kingdom.
• All of them are autotrophic with chloroplast in their cell.
• Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
• The plant kingdom is classified into two major divisions as Cryptogams and Phanerogams.

Cryptogamae
• Cryptogams literally mean ‘plants with hidden reproductive parts’
• Cryptogams are plants that produce spores to reproduce instead of seeds.
• So these plants do not have flowers or fruits.
• Cryptogams are further classified as thallophytes, bryophytes and pteridophytes.
Phanerogamae
• Phanerogams are plants that produce seeds for reproduction.
• Some of them do not produce flowers, while the others produce flowers.
• Phanerogams are further classified as gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Classification of Cryptogamae
➢ Thallophyta
• Thallophyta is the first division of the plant kingdom.
• It consists of red, green and brown algae.
• They don’t have a lot of differentiated structure.
• Examples are Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Ulva and Chara.

➢ Bryophyta
• Bryophyta is the 2nd division of the plant kingdom.
• These are the first plants to have differentiated roots and shoots.
• Examples are Funaria and Marchantia.

➢ Pteridophyta
• Pteridophyta is the 3rd division of the plant kingdom.
• These plants have proper differentiation of roots, stems and leaves.
• Examples of pteridophytes are Marsilea, ferns and horsetails.

Classification of Phanerogamae
➢ Gymnosperms
• Gymnosperm stands for naked seed.
• They are the first phanerogams since they produce seeds, which are not enclosed in a fruit.
• Examples are pines and deodar, cycas, etc.

➢ Angiosperms
• Angiosperm is the last division of the plant kingdom and has what scientist assume, is the most
evolved organism on the planet.
• They bear flowers and fruits, inside which the seeds are found.
 Cotyledons
• Cotyledons are structures present in seeds for nutrition during germination when leaves are not yet
developed.
• Angiosperms either have two cotyledons making them dicots or only one, making them monocots.
Dicots and Monocots
• Angiosperms, the highly evolved plants on the planet Earth, are further classified based on the
number of cotyledons their seeds have.
• When seeds have two cotyledons, they are called dicots.
• Dicots have a tap root system and reticulate venation. Examples: Mango, Pea, Beans, etc.
• If seeds have only one cotyledon, they become monocots.
• Monocots show a fibrous root system and parallel venation.
• Examples: all grains like wheat, maize, rice etc.

Kingdom Animalia
Animalia
• Kingdom Animalia is made up of eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms.
• Mode of nutrition is holozoic and they are either herbivores or carnivores.
• Most animals are motile, they can move independently in search of food, shelter or mate.
• Animals are made up of many organ systems, that aids in performing specific functions that are
necessary for the survival of the organism.
• Most of the animals are bilaterally symmetrical, while primitive animals are asymmetrical and
cnidarians and echinoderms are radially symmetrical.

Porifera
• This phylum consists of the sponges.
• They are mostly marine, very few are freshwater.
• All the animals are sessile (fixed in one place).
• Cells are loosely arranged (cellular grade of the organization).
• Animals are diploblastic with outer ectoderm and inner endoderm held with jelly-like mesoglea.
• Exoskeleton in the form of spicules made up of silica or calcium carbonate.
• Sponges have pores all over the body. Body pores are called Ostia.
• Water from outside enters the body through Ostia and leaves through one large opening called the
osculum.
• These are multicellular animals.
• Their skeleton is made up of minute calcareous or siliceous spicules.
• e.g., Sycon, Sponge etc.
Coelenterata
• These animals are aquatic, mostly marine.
• They are solitary or colonial. Each individual is known as zooid.
• Animals are radially symmetrical.
• Sessile forms are called Polyps and free-living forms are called Medusa
• Cells are organized into tissues (tissue grade of the organization).
• Animals are diploblastic, outer ectoderm and inner endoderm. Mesogloea separates these two layers.
• The body has a single opening called a hypostome surrounded by sensory tentacles.
• Body cavity (coelom) acts as gastrovascular cavity i.e. coelenteron.
• special types of cells called Nematocysts are present for capturing and paralyzing prey, present in
tentacles.
• They have specialised cnidoblast cell to help in catching the food.
• Phenomenon of polymorphism (many forms) and metagenesis (alternation of generation)
are associated with coelentrates.
• Examples: Hydra, Jellyfish, Corals, Obelia, Sea-anemone.
• Hydra has a tendency of regeneration of body organs.

Platyhelminthes
• This phylum consists of the organisms that are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and flattened.
• Organ- system grade of the organization is seen.
• Animals are triploblastic with outer ectoderm, middle mesoderm and inner endoderm.
• Acoelomate i.e No body cavity.
• The digestive system is incomplete or absent.
• Mostly parasites, a few are free living.
• Animals of this phylum have alimentary canal with single opening, anus is absent.
• Excretion takes place by flame cells.
• These are hermaphrodite animals (males are not separated from females).
• Examples: Liver fluke, Tapeworm.

Nemotoda or Phylum–Aschelminthes
• These organisms have bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and cylindrical body.
• Organ system grade of the organization is seen.
• Pseudocoelom is present.
• Have a tubular digestive system with openings at both the ends.
• They are endoparasites.
• Mouth is provided with hooks and suckers.
• Their alimentary canal is complete in which mouth and anus both are present.
 • There is no circulatory and respiratory system but nervous system is developed. Excretion
takes place through protonephridia.
• They are unisexual.
• Most forms are parasitic but some are free living in soil and water.
• Examples: Ascaris, hookworm, filarial worm, Threadworm etc.
• Threadworm is found mainly in the anus of child. Due to which children feel itching and
often vomits. Some children urinate on the bed at night.

Annelida
• These organisms have bilateral symmetry and triploblastic.
• They are mostly aquatic, few are terrestrial.
• These are the first organism to have a true coelom.
• Coelome is compartmentalized by intersegmental septa.
• Body long and metamerically segmented (segmentation from outside and inside of the body).
• Alimentary canal is well-developed.
• These are the first to have proper organ systems.
• Nervous system is normal and blood (called haemolymph) is red (iron rich haemoglobin).
• Their blood flows in closed vessels.
• Like in earthworm, there are five pairs of blood vessels called as heart.
• They respire through skin, in some animals respiration takes place through coelom.
• Excretion by nephridia.
• They move through setae made up of chitin.
• Examples: leech, Nereis earthworm, etc.

Arthropoda
• This is the largest phylum with 80% of all known living animals.
• Animals with jointed appendages (in Greek Arthron: jointed, poda: legs).
• The body has three segments/regions as head, thorax and abdomen.
• Body is covered by an exoskeleton made of chitin.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical and have an open circulatory system.
• Compound eyes are present
• Circulatory system is open type. Cockroach’s heart has 13 chambers.
• Trachea or book lungs, body surface are respiratory organs.
• Examples: insects, scorpions, spiders, millipedes, centipedes, crabs, lobsters, Cockroach,
Prawn, Bug, Fly, Mosquito, Bees, etc.
• Insects generally have six feets and four wings.
• Ant is a social animal which reflects division of labour.
• Termite is also a social animal which lives in colony.
Mollusca
• They are bilaterally symmetrical, with a reduced coelomic cavity and little segmentation.
• They have an open circulatory system and kidney like organs for excretion.
• Body is soft and usually enclosed in a shell. The shell may be external or internal.
• They show the presence of Foot, Mantle and Mantle cavity.
• Their alimentary canal is well- developed.
• Respiration takes place through gills or ctenidia. Blood is colourless.
• Excretion takes place through kidneys.
• Examples: pearl oysters, bivalves, sepia, octopus(Devil-fish),, snail, slug, Pila, Aplysia (Sea
rabbit), Doris (Sea lemon), Sepia (Cuttle-fish).
• Eyes of octopus are similar to chordate eyes.

Echinodermata
• They are spiny-skinned and free-living, exclusively marine.
• The animals are usually pentamerous.
• They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
• They have a water-driven tube system for moving forward.
• All the animals in this group are marine. They have water vascular system. Brain is not
developed in nervous system.
• They have a special capacity of regeneration.
• These are the only invertebrate animals which contain proper bone like structures
(ossicles).
• Examples: starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber, sea lily, etc.

Hemichordates
• Hemichordata is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
• In addition to these, they have a notochord that runs along the back of the animal and separates the
nervous tissue from the gut.
• They are marine animals and bridge non-chordates to chordates.
• Porifera to Echinodermata are non-chordates/invertebrates.
• Example: Balanoglossus, also called acorn worm.
Chordata/Vertebrata
• Presence of dorsal, tubular, hollow nerve cord.
• Presence of notochord.
• Presence of pharyngeal gill slits.
• Presence of post-anal tail.
• Bilaterally symmetrical body.
• Presence of three germ layers.
• Organ-system level of organization.
• Presence of ventral heart and hepatic portal system.
• Presence of well-developed endocrine glands
• Except for a few primitive forms, the animals have a vertebral column instead of a notochord. These
animals are called vertebrates.

Pisces
• Class Pisces include all bony and cartilaginous fishes.
• They are exclusively aquatic.
• Body is streamlined with paired and unpaired fins.
• These are aquatic animals cold-blooded vertebrates.
• Heart is two-chambered.
• Lateral line system is well developed.
• Respiration takes place through gills.
• Examples: Sharks, Rays, Rohu, Mrigal, Green carp, Trygon, Scoliodon, Torpedo, etc

Amphibia(First land vertebrates)

• Amphibians live both, on land and in water and lay their eggs in water.
• Respiration is through gills in the larval stage and through the lungs in adults.
• They are cold-blooded animals.
• They have a three-chambered heart.
• Respiration takes place through gills, skin and lungs.
• Examples: frog, toads, salamander, Necturus, Icthyophis ,etc

Reptilia(First true land vertebrates)

• These are the first completely land animals.
• These are crawling animals.
• The skeleton is completely flexible.
• Reptiles are cold-blooded and breathe through their lungs.
 • They have a three-chambered heart (except crocodile -- Four chambered) and lay eggs with tough
coverings.
• Body is covered with scales, scutes or hard plates.
• Examples: snakes, crocodiles, turtles, lizards, Tortoise, Sphenodon etc.
• Cobra is the only snake which makes nests.
• Heloderma is the only poisonous lizard.
• Sea snake is also called Hydrophis belcheri. It is the world’s most poisonous snake.
Aves (Aerial Vertebrates Birds)
• All birds belong to this class.
• They are warm-blooded, have a four-chambered heart and breathe through lungs.
• They have their forelimbs modified into wings which help in flight.
• Jaws are modified into beaks.
• Birds have no teeth, beak helps in feeding.
• Bones are hollow and most of them are fused to reduce body weight.
• An exoskeleton is in the form of feathers.
• They have a single ovary and pneumatic bones. e.g., Crow, Peacock, Parrot etc.
• Flightless birds are Kiwi and Emu.
• Largest bird is Ostrich.
• Smallest bird is Humming bird.
• Largest zoo in India is Alipur (Kolkata) and the largest zoo of the world is Cruiser
National Park in South Africa.

Mammalia
• They are warm-blooded, breath through their lungs and have a four-chambered heart.
• Presence of hair on their body, sweat and oil glands are exclusive characters of mammals.
• Presence of pinna i.e external ear is also seen only in mammals.
• They also have mammary glands to feed their young ones.
• They usually give birth to live young ones.
• Tooth comes twice in these animal (diphyodont).
• There is no nucleus in their red blood cells (except in camel and llama).
• External ear is present.
• Examples of mammals: humans, cattle, whales, horses, bats, rats, etc
• Mammalia is divided into three sub-classes
• Prototheria It lays eggs, e.g., Echidna.
• Metatheria It bears the immature child, e.g., Kangaroo.
• Eutheria It bears the well developed child, e.g., Humans.
• They give birth to young ones, but Echidna and Platypus are the egg laying mammals.
 Introduction
All living organisms have certain common characteristics such as breathing, growing, requiring nutrition,
producing offspring, responding to stimuli, etc. that distinguish them from non-living things. There are
certain vital processes that maintain homeostasis and proper functioning of the body, they are called life
processes. These processes continue to occur even when we are sleeping or not performing any action.
These processes are essential for all living organisms including plants and animals. These life processes are
nutrition, photosynthesis, transportation, metabolism, respiration, reproduction and excretion.
In this chapter, we will learn about the details of these processes occurring in plants, animals and human
beings in particular.

Life
Earth happens to be the only known planet having a life. There are beings who live, die and become part of
nature again. The living organism can be differentiated from the inanimate entities on various parameters of
life processes.

Life Process
• The maintenance of living organisms is essential even if they are moving, resting or even sleeping.
• The processes which together perform the function of maintenance of ‘life’ are called as life
processes.
• Nutrition, respiration, circulation, and excretion are examples of essential life processes.
• In unicellular organisms, all these processes are carried out by a single cell.

Nutrition
The process of acquiring food that is needed for nourishment and sustenance of the organism is
called nutrition.

• There are two main modes of nutrition, autotrophic and heterotrophic.

• Autotrophic nutrition is present in plants, algae and some bacteria. Organisms produce their own
food using light energy or chemical energy by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, respectively.
• Heterotrophic nutrition is present in bacteria, fungi and animals. They derive energy from organic
compounds. Such as animals eating plants or other animals for food.
• Heterotrophic nutrition has subtypes such as holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition.

Autotrophic Nutrition
If an organism can nourish itself by making its own food using sunlight or chemicals such mode of
nutrition is called as autotrophic nutrition.

• Plants photosynthesize (use light energy) and are called photoautotrophs.

• Few bacteria use chemicals to derive energy and are called chemoautotrophs.
 Photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis is an important process by which food is formed.
• The plants make food using sunlight and water, which provides nourishment to other organism and
themselves.
• Chlorophyll present in the green parts absorbs light energy.
• This light energy is used to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.
• Hydrogen is then used to reduce carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, typically glucose.
• Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis and stomata to facilitate intake of carbon dioxide.
The overall reaction occurring in photosynthesis is as follows:

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O11 + 6O2

Stomata
• Stomata are pores on the leaves that help in the exchange of gases.
• They are mostly found on the underside of the leaf.
• Each stoma is guarded by guard cells, which control the opening and closing of the pore.
• The water content of the guard cells is responsible for their function.

Saprophytic Nutrition
Some organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter. This mode of nutrition is called saprophytic
nutrition.

• The food is partially digested outside the body and then it is absorbed.
• E.g. Fungi are saprophytes.

Parasitic Nutrition
Some organisms feed at the expense of another organism and in turn cause harm. This is called the
parasitic mode of nutrition.

• These parasites live on the body or in the body of a host organism and derive the nutrients directly
from the body of the host.
• E.g. Leech is an ectoparasite while Ascaris is an endoparasite. Cuscuta is a parasitic plant.

Nutrition in Amoeba
• Amoeba feeds by holozoic mode of nutrition.
• It engulfs the food particle using pseudopodia, the process is called phagocytosis.
• The engulfed food gets enclosed in a food vacuole.
• As the food vacuole passes through the cytoplasm, digestion, absorption and assimilation take place.
• When the food vacuole opens to outside, the egestion of undigested food takes place.
Nutrition in Paramoecium
• Paramoecium also exhibits holozoic nutrition.
• However, they have cilia that help them to engulf the food through the oral groove.
• A food vacuole is created enclosing the food.
• It moves through the cytoplasm, the process is called cyclosis.
• Food digested in the food vacuole is absorbed by the cytoplasm.
• Undigested food is given out to a tiny pore called anal pore or cytopyge.

Nutrition in Humans
• Humans are omnivores, they can eat plant-based food as well as animal-based food.
• Being more complex, humans have a very complicated nutrition system.
• The digestive system has an alimentary canal and associated digestive glands, which together
function to nourish the body.
• There are five stages in human nutrition; Ingestion, Digestion, Absorption, Assimilation and
Egestion.
• Four stages i.e. ingestion, digestion, absorption and egestion take place in the alimentary canal
while assimilation of food takes place in the whole body.

Five stages of Food Process

➢ Ingestion to Intake Food

➢ Digestion Food Digest here

➢ Absorption Body absorbs Vitamins, Minerals from Food

➢ Assimilation Converts Nutrition’s into Energy

➢ Egestion Waste Excrete

Alimentary Canal
• The alimentary canal in humans is a long tube of varying diameter.
• It starts with the mouth and ends with the anus.
• Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine are the parts of the alimentary canal.
Mouth
• It is the opening of the alimentary canal and helps in the ingestion of food.
• The buccal cavity which is present behind the mouth is also commonly referred to as the mouth.
• The buccal cavity has teeth and a tongue.
• The set of teeth helps in the mastication of food.
• The tongue has taste buds on it and thus helps in tasting the food.
• The salivary glands open also in the buccal cavity and pour saliva which initiates the process of
digestion.

Teeth
• Teeth are the hard structures present in the buccal cavity.
• They help us to cut, shear and masticate the food we eat.
• The vertical section of a tooth shows four layers enamel, dentine, cement and dental pulp.
• Enamel is the outermost, shiny, highly mineralized and the hardest part of the human body.
• Dentine makes the bulk of the tooth and contains 70% inorganic salts.
• Cement is present at the lining of a tooth and bony socket.
• The dental pulp is the central soft part of a tooth and contains nerve endings, blood and lymph
vessels along with connective tissue.
• There are four types of teeth in humans, Incisors, canines, molars and premolars, each with a
specific function.
• Incisors cut the food, canines tear the food while molars and premolars crush it.
• The dental formula in adult humans is 2:1:2:3.

Oesophagus & Stomach

Oesophagus
• The swallowed food passes into the oesophagus.
• It is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, with a sphincter (valve/opening) at each end.
• Its function is to transport food and fluid, after being swallowed, from the mouth to the stomach.
• Food is pushed down by peristaltic movements.

Stomach
• The stomach is a thick-walled bag-like structure.
• It receives food from the oesophagus at one end and opens into the small intestine at the other end.
• The inner lining of the stomach secretes mucous, hydrochloric acid and digestive juices.
• Food is churned into a semi-solid mass in the stomach and is called chyme.
• Enzymes present in the gastric juice break down the food.
• Hydrochloric acid helps in the partial digestion of proteins and also kills harmful bacteria.
• The mucus secreted by the wall of the stomach resists the action of HCl on itself.
Small Intestine
• The small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary canal, about 20 feet long in humans.
• It has regions, duodenum, the region which follows the stomach, jejunum is the middle part and the
ileum is the later region which continues further into the large intestine.
• The internal surface of the small intestine is folded into finger-like projections called villi.
• A common pancreatic duct from the pancreas and liver opens into the duodenum.
• Most of the chemical digestion and absorption take place in the small intestine.

Large Intestine
• The large intestine in humans is about 5 feet long.
• It has two regions, colon ( about 1.5 m) and rectum (10 cm in length in the adult).
• The region of large intestine after ileum is called colon while the last part is called the rectum.
• Colon has three regions as, ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon.
• At the base of the ascending colon, a small finger-like out-growth is seen and is called an appendix.
• It houses many useful bacteria required for digestion of food.
• Rectum opens to outside by anus.
• The anus has internal and external anal sphincters.
Peristalsis
A constant wave-like movement of the alimentary canal right from the oesophagus to the small intestine is
called as peristalsis.

• Muscles present in the wall of the alimentary canal are responsible for peristalsis.
• This movement helps to push the food through the alimentary canal.

Digestive Glands
• Several glands produce digestive juices that help in digestion of the food.
• Salivary glands, Gastric glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas are few to name.
• Salivary glands secrete saliva which initiates digestion in the mouth itself.
• Gastric glands present in the wall of the stomach secrete hydrochloric acid and enzyme pepsin.
• The liver secretes bile which is stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps in digestion of fats.
• The pancreas secretes many digestive enzymes and its secretion is called as pancreatic juice.
• Enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase, amylase are present in the pancreatic juice.

Pancreas
• The pancreas is a long, flat gland present behind the stomach in humans.
• It is one of the major digestive glands and is of mixed nature i.e. endocrine as well as exocrine.
• As an endocrine organ, it secretes two hormones called insulin and glucagon which maintain the
blood sugar level.
• As an exocrine gland, it secretes pancreatic juice which is nothing but a mixture of many digestive
enzymes.
• The digestive enzymes secreted by the pancreas include trypsin and chymotrypsin and proteases
which digest proteins.
• It also includes amylase which digests the starch content of the food.
• Pancreatic lipases are the pancreatic enzymes that help in digestion of fats.

Holozoic Nutrition
The mode of nutrition in which animals take their food as a whole is called as holozoic nutrition.
In holozoic nutrition, food passes through five steps as ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion.

Physiology of Digestion
• Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the buccal cavity where teeth masticate the food, saliva
gets mixed and it turns into a bolus.
• Digestion of starch starts in the buccal cavity itself, with the action of salivary amylase present in the
saliva.
 • Salivary amylase converts starch into maltose.
• In the stomach, the churning of food takes place due to the muscular contraction and relaxation of its
wall. It breaks down the food into simpler substances.
• Digestion of proteins starts in the stomach with the action of pepsin. Proteins are broken down into
smaller fragments called peptide by the action of pepsin.
• The bolus after mixing with gastric juice, turn into a fine soluble form known as the chyme.
• Chyme enters into the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of
various enzymes present in the pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice.
• The digested food is completely absorbed by the villi and microvilli of the small intestine.
• Undigested food then enters into the large intestine.
• The colon is responsible for absorption of water and salts whereas rectum stores the undigested food
temporarily before defaecation.

Digestive System in Other Animals

• Digestive systems in different animals vary in structure and function.
• The structure of the digestive system depends on the food habits of the animal.
• Alimentary canal in herbivores is long as the cellulose content of their plant-based diet takes a long
time to digest.
• On the other hand, the alimentary canal of carnivorous animals is comparatively shorter because
meat gets digested faster.

Anatomy of Digestive Tract

• The alimentary canal in humans is approximately 30 feet (9m) long. It is also called
the gastrointestinal tract.
• It starts with the mouth and ends in the anus.
• Between these two openings, the alimentary canal is a tube of varying diameter.
• Oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (divided into three regions duodenum, jejunum and ileum)
and large intestine(having two regions colon and rectum) are the parts of the alimentary canal.
• Salivary glands, pancreas and liver act as major digestive glands.
• Glands present in the wall of the stomach and small intestine also contribute to the digestion of food.

Role of HCl
• Hydrochloric acid in the stomach is secreted by the gastric glands present in its wall.
• the pH of the gastric acid is usually between 1.5 to 3.5
• This acid serves the following functions:
1. Converts inactive pepsinogen and pro-rennin into active pepsin and rennin respectively.
2. Provides an acidic medium for protein digestion.
3. Kills bacteria entered through food and prevents infection.
4. Prevents putrefaction of food in the stomach.
 • A thick layer of mucus secreted by the mucous glands of the stomach prevents itself from the action
of gastric acid.
• Excess acid damages gastric mucosa and causes gastric and duodenal ulcers.

Salivary Glands
• Salivary glands are the exocrine glands that secrete saliva and through a system of ducts, it is poured
into the mouth.
• In humans, three major pairs of salivary glands are present, parotid, submandibular and
sublingual.
• In healthy individuals between 0.5 to 1.5 litres of saliva is produced per day.
• Saliva serves the following functions in the oral cavity:
1. It lubricates and protects the soft and hard tissues of the oral cavity
2. It also gives protection from dental caries
3. Saliva prevents microbial growth in the oral cavity.
4. Saliva can encourage soft tissue repair by decreasing clotting time and increasing wound
contraction
5. Saliva contains the enzyme amylase that hydrolyses starch into maltose and dextrin.
Hence saliva allows digestion to occur before the food reaches the stomach
6. Saliva acts as a solvent in which solid particles can dissolve in and enter the taste buds
located on the tongue.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
When an organism depends on others for food, such a mode of nutrition is called as a heterotrophic
mode of nutrition.
• These organisms depend on autotrophs for their nutritional requirements.
• E.g. Animals which eat plants as their food are called herbivores.
• Animals which eat other animals as their food are called carnivores.
• Holozoic, saprophytic and parasitic nutrition are all types of heterotrophic nutrition.

Glandular Epithelium
• Many small glands present in the inner layer of the stomach and intestine take part in the digestion of
food.
• These glands are present in the epithelial lining of the stomach and intestine.
• The glands present in different regions of the stomach are called gastric glands.
• They are responsible for the secretion of mucus, hydrochloric acid and enzymes like pepsinogen.
• The glands present in the epithelial lining of the small intestine and large intestine are called
intestinal glands.
• Glands of the small intestine are responsible for the secretion of intestinal juice also called succus
entericus.
• Intestinal juice contains hormones, digestive enzymes, alkaline mucus, and substances to
neutralize hydrochloric acid coming from the stomach.
• Intestinal juice completes the digestion started by the pancreatic juice.
• Glands of the large intestine are associated with the absorption of water and electrolytes.
Villi and Micro Villi
• Complete digestion and absorption of food take place in the small intestine.
• Pancreatic juice coming from the pancreas, bile from the liver and intestinal juice secreted by the
intestinal glands complete the digestion of food material.
• All the digested nutrients are absorbed by the long finger-like projections present in the ileum of the
small intestine.
• These small finger-like projections of the inner wall of intestine are called as villi (singular: villus).
• Each villus has its cell membrane of the lumen side again folded into microscopic processes, called
microvilli.
• Villi increase the internal surface area of the intestinal walls making available a greater surface area
for absorption.
• Digested nutrients pass into the semipermeable villi through diffusion.
• Villi also help in chemical digestion of food by secreting digestive enzymes.

Liver
• The liver is the largest and major digestive gland of humans
• Liver, in humans, is located in the upper right-hand portion of the abdomen.
• This organ is dark reddish-brown in colour due to an extensive blood supply.
• Some of the important functions of the liver are as follows:
1. It secretes bile that helps in digestion.
2. It filters the blood coming from the digestive tract before passing it to the rest of the body.
3. It detoxifies various metabolites and antidote.
4. The liver makes proteins important for blood clotting and other functions.
5. It stores and releases glucose as needed.
6. It processes haemoglobin, from the dead and worn out RBCs, for the iron content (the
liver stores iron).
7. Conversion of harmful ammonia to urea takes place in the liver.

Digestive Juices
• Pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice (succus entericus) are collectively called digestive
juices.
• A common duct from digestive glands pours the secretions into the duodenum.
• Chyme enters the small intestine where complete digestion takes place due to the action of various
enzymes.
• In the duodenum, the acidity of chyme is turned to alkalinity by the action of bile coming from the
liver. This is necessary for pancreatic enzyme action.
• Bile also emulsifies the fats into smaller globules.
• Pancreatic and intestinal amylases break down carbohydrates into glucose.
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin are the proteases responsible for the breakdown of proteins finally into
amino acids.
• Lipase is the enzyme which acts on the emulsified fats and breaks them down into glycerol and fatty
acids.
Water Absorption in Large Intestine
• The large intestine is not involved in the digestion of food or absorption of nutrients.
• The major function of the large intestine is to absorb water from the remaining indigestible food
matter and make the stool solid.
• The large intestine also helps in the absorption of vitamins made by bacteria that normally live in the
large intestine.
• The innermost layer of the large intestine also acts as a barrier and protects from microbial infections
and invasions.
• Rectum stores the undigested food temporarily until defecation.

Heart

➢ The heart is a muscular organ in most animals, which pumps blood through the blood vessels of the
circulatory system. Blood provides the body with oxygen and nutrients, as well as assists in the removal of
metabolic wastes. In humans, the heart is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the
chest.
➢ In humans, other mammals, and birds, the heart is divided into four chambers

• Upper left
• Right atria
• Lower left
 • Right ventricles.

Commonly the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left
counterparts as the left heart. Fish, in contrast, have two chambers, an atrium and a ventricle, while
reptiles have three chambers. In a healthy heart blood flows one way through the heart due to heart
valves, which prevent backflow. The heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also
contains a small amount of fluid. The wall of the heart is made up of three layers: epicardium,
myocardium, and endocardium.

➢ The heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pace making cells in the sinoatrial node.
These generate a current that causes contraction of the heart, traveling through the atrioventricular node
and along the conduction system of the heart. The heart receives blood low in oxygen from the systemic
circulation, which enters the right atrium from the superior and interior venae cava and passes to the right
ventricle. From here it is pumped into the pulmonary circulation, through the lungs where it receives oxygen
and gives off carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left
ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta to the systemic circulation-where the oxygen is used and
metabolized to carbon dioxide. The heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. Exercise
temporarily increases the rate, but lowers resting heart rate in the long term, and is good for heart health.

➢ Pericardium Shield: protect Heart from fraction of Surrounding Structure.

➢ Cardiac Septum: divides Heart into two Parts Left & Right.

➢ Pulmonary Artery: remove Deoxygenated Blood (Impure Blood)

From Heart.

➢ Pulmonary Aorta: remove Oxygenated Blood (Pure Blood)

From Heart.
➢ Oxygenated Blood: having High O2 & Low CO2.
➢ Deoxygenated Blood: having High CO2 & Low O2.
 Lymph
• Lymph is yellow fluid flows only in one direction from tissue towards heart.
• Lymphocytes present in lymph helps to prevent the body from diseases by killing harmful bacteria.
It helps in healing the wounds.
• The Pulmonary Artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
• The veins have valves that prevent backflow of blood.

Skeleton
➢ The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. At birth, new born has more than 300 bones.
➢ The human skeleton performs six major functions Support, movement, protection, production of
blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
➢ The main bones of the human skeleton:
• The Skull: Cranium, Mandible & Maxilla
• Shoulder girdle: clavicle and Supula
• Arm: Humerus, Radius and Ulna
• Hand: Carpals, Metacarpals and Phalanges
• Chest: Sternum and Ribs
• Spine: Cervical area (top 7 vertebrae)

• Thoracic (next 12), Lumbar (bottom 5 vertebrae), Sacrum (5 fussed bones) and Coccyx (the
tiny bit at the bottom of the spine).
• Pelvic girdle: llium, Pubis and Ischium
• Leg: Femur, Tibia and Fibula
• Ankle: Talus and Calcaneus
• Foot: Tarsals, Metatarsal: and Phalanges
 BONES
➢ Bones are formed by the ossification of Cartilage. Calcium is needed for strong bone growth.
➢ A Joint is the point where two or more bones meet. There are three main types of joints as given
below:
• Fibrous (immoveable)
• Cartilaginous [partially moveable)
• Synovial (freely moveable joint).
➢ Tendon Joins the muscles and bones.

➢ Ligament: joins bone to bone. Ligaments are made up of yellow fibres.

➢ The skeletal system in adult body is made up of 206 bones.

❖ Structure of bones
➢ The skeleton makes up about 30-40% of an adults body mass.
➢ The skeleton's mass is made up of non-living bone matrix and many tiny bone Cells.
➢ Roughly half of the bone matrix's mass is water, while the other half is collagen protein and solid
crystals of calcium carbonate and Calcium phosphate.
➢ Living bone cells are found on the edges of bones and in small cavities inside of the bone matrix.
➢ The bone cell allow bones to:
(1) grow and develop
(2) Be repaired following an injury or daily wear
(3) Be broken down to release their stored minerals.
➢ Long bones: eg. Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Metatarsals and Phalanges
➢ Short bones: eg, Carpal bones of wrist and Tarsal bones of foot.
➢ Flat bones: eg. Frontal, Parietal and Occipital bones of the Cranium.
➢ Irregular bones: eg. Vertebrae, Sacrum and Coccyx of the spine as well as the sphenoid,
ethmoid and zygomatic bones of the skull.
➢ Sesamoid bones: eg. Patella and Pisiform bane of carpals.
➢ Red Bone Marrow produces red & white blood cells in a process known as haematopoiesis.
➢ Red bone marrow is found in the hollow space inside of bones known the medullary cavity. The
amount of red bone marrow drops off at the end of puberty, replaced by yellow bone marrow is
used to store energy in the form lipids.
➢ Bone cells also release Osteocalcin, a hormone that helps regulate blood sugar and fat deposition.
 Respiration
Introduction to Respiration
• Respiration broadly means the exchange of gases.
• Animals and plants have different means of exchange of gases.
• At a cellular level, respiration means the burning of the food at the for generating the energy needed
for other life processes.
• Cellular respiration may take place in the presence or absence of oxygen.

Respiration in Humans
• The human respiratory system is more complex and involves breathing, exchange of gases and
cellular respiration.
• A well defined respiratory system helps breathing and exchange of gases.
• Breathing involves the inhalation of oxygen and exhalation of carbon dioxide.
• The gaseous exchange takes place in the lungs and oxygen is supplied to all cells of the body.
• Cellular respiration takes place in each and every cell.

Respiratory System
• The human respiratory system involves the nose, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx,
trachea/windpipe, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
• Bronchioles and alveoli are enclosed in a pair of lungs.
• The rib cage, muscles associated with the rib cage and diaphragm, all help in inhalation and
exhalation of gases.
• Exchange of gases takes place between an alveolar surface and surrounding blood vessels.
• Alveoli provide a large surface area for exchange of gases.

Physiology of Respiration
• Breathing in humans is facilitated by the action of internal intercostal and external intercostal
muscles attached to the ribs and the diaphragm.
• When the dome-shaped diaphragm contracts and becomes flattened and the rib cage is expanded due
to the action of intercostal muscles, the volume of the lungs increases, pressure there drops down and
the air from outside gushes in. This is inhalation.
• To exhale, the diaphragm relaxes, becomes dome-shaped again, chest cavity contracts due to the
action of intercostal muscles, the volume inside the lungs decreases, pressure increases and the air is
forced out of the lungs.
• Inhaled air increases the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli, so oxygen simply diffuses into the
surrounding blood vessels.
 • Blood coming from cells has more concentration of carbon dioxide than outside air and thus carbon
dioxide simply diffuses out of the blood vessels into the alveoli.
• Thus, breathing takes place due to the combined action of intercostal muscles and diaphragm while
the exchange of gases takes place due to simple diffusion.

Inhalation and Exhalation

• The process of taking in air rich in oxygen is called inhalation.
• Similarly, the process of giving out air rich in carbon dioxide is called exhalation.
• One breath comprises one inhalation and one exhalation.
• A person breathes several times in a day.
• The number of times a person breathes in one minute is termed as his/her breathing rate.

Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from high concentration area to the low concentration area
without spending any energy.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is set of metabolic reactions occurring inside the cells to convert biochemical
energy obtained from the food into a chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

• Metabolism refers to a set of chemical reactions carried out for maintaining the living state of the
cells in an organism. These can be divided into two categories:
• Catabolism – the process of breaking molecules to obtain energy.
• Anabolism – the process of synthesizing all compounds required by the cells.
• Therefore, respiration is a catabolic process, which breaks large molecules into smaller ones,
releasing energy to fuel cellular activities.
• Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron transport chain are the important processes of the cellular
respiration.

Aerobic Respiration
Aerobic respiration is a process in which the food i.e. glucose is converted into energy in the
presence of oxygen.

• The general equation of aerobic respiration as a whole is as given below-

Glucose + oxygen ⇒ Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy

• This type of respiration takes place in animals, plants and other living organisms.
Respiration in Lower Animals
• Lower animals lack a sophisticated respiratory system like lungs, alveoli etc.
• Respiration in them takes place by simple exchange mechanisms.
• Animals like earthworms take in gases through their skin.
• Fishes have gills for gaseous exchange.
• Insects have a tracheal system, which is a network of tubes, through which air circulates and gaseous
exchange takes place.
• Frogs breathe through their skin when in water and through their lungs when on land.

Respiration in Muscles
• Respiration in muscles can be anaerobic when there is not enough oxygen.
• Glucose gets broken down into carbon dioxide and lactic acid.
• This results in the accumulation of lactic acid that makes the muscles sore.
• This type of anaerobic respiration is also known as lactic acid fermentation.

ATP
• It is the energy currency of the cell.
• ATP stands for Adenosine Tri-Phosphate.
• This molecule is created as a result reactions like photosynthesis, respiration etc.
• The three phosphate bonds present in the molecule are high-energy bonds and when they are broken,
a large amount of energy is released.
• Such released energy is then used for other metabolic reactions.

Respiration in Plants
• Unlike animals and humans, plants do not have any specialized structures for gaseous exchange
• They have stomata (present in leaves) and lenticels (present in stems) which are involved in the
exchange of gases.
• Compared to animals, plant roots, stems, and leaves respire at a very lower rate.

Transpiration
• Transpiration is a biological process in which water is lost in the form of water vapour from the
aerial parts of the plants.
• This process occurs mainly through the stomata where the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) occurs.
• Transpiration helps in the transportation of water from roots to upper parts of plants and this is
explained by ‘transpirational pull theory’.
• Loss of water, especially from leaves, acts as a straw effect and pulls water upwards from roots.
 • Transpiration also acts as an excretory mechanism in plants as it helps to get rid of excess water.

Why Do We Need Lungs

• In unicellular organisms like an amoeba exchange of gases takes place through a general body
surface by osmosis.
• In lower animals like an earthworm, the gaseous exchange takes place through their moist skin.
• The requirement for oxygen is sufficiently met in these ways.
• But as the animal starts becoming more and more complex, for example, humans, the requirement of
oxygen cannot be met alone by diffusion.
• Moreover, diffusion will not be able to supply oxygen to the deep-seated cells.
• This difficulty has led to the evolution of a more complex mechanism of gaseous exchange and that
is the development of lungs.
• The alveoli present in the lungs provide a large surface area required for the necessary gas
exchange.

Transportation in Human Beings

Transportation
• All living organisms need a few necessary components like air, water, and food for their survival.
• On a regular basis, animals ensure these elements by breathing, drinking and eating.
• The required elements are transported to their body cells and tissues by a transportation system.
• In plants, the vascular tissue is responsible for transporting the substances.

Transportation in Humans
• Transportation in humans is done by the circulatory system.
• The circulatory system in humans mainly consists of blood, blood vessels and the heart.
• It is responsible for the supply of oxygen, and nutrients, and the removal of carbon dioxide and other
excretory products.
• It also helps to fight infections.

Heart
• The muscular organ which is located near the chest slightly towards the left in the thoracic region.
• The heart is the main pumping organ of the body.
• The human heart is divided into four chambers which are involved in the transportation of
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
 • The upper two chambers are called atria whereas the lower two chambers are called as ventricles.

• The flow of blood through the heart is as follows:

Blood Vessels
• Blood vessels carry blood throughout the body.
• There three types of blood vessels; arteries, veins and blood capillaries.
• Arteries carry oxygenated blood and veins carry deoxygenated blood.
• Gaseous exchange takes place between blood and cells at capillaries.

Blood Pressure
The pressure exerted by the blood when it flows through the blood vessels is called blood pressure.

• There are two different variants of blood pressure; systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
• The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is filling with blood is
called diastolic pressure. It constitutes the minimum pressure on arteries.
• The normal range of diastolic blood pressure should be 60 – 80 mm Hg.
• The pressure exerted on the walls of arteries when the heart is pumping the blood is
called systolic pressure. It constitutes the maximum pressure applied to the arteries.
• The normal range of systolic blood pressure should be 90 – 120 mm Hg.

Bleeding
• Bleeding occurs when the blood vessels rupture.
• Bleeding is stopped by the platelets that help in the clotting of blood at the site of the injury.
• Blood Clotting is the process of forming a clot in order to prevent excess loss of blood from the
body.
• It is a gel-like mass which is formed by the platelets and a fibre-like protein in the blood.

Double Circulation
• In the human body, blood circulates through the heart twice.
• Once it goes through the heart during pulmonary circulation and second time during systemic
circulation.
• Hence, circulation in human beings is called double circulation.
 Blood (Fluid Connective Tissue)
Blood is a body fluid in humans and other animals that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen
to the cells and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. In vertebrates, it is composed of
blood cells suspended in blood plasma.

❖ Blood
• Blood in Body: 5-6 Litre (5040 ml.)
• Blood Made in: Liver (Baby 2-3 years)
Bone Marrow: (Adult)

➢ Blood Cells + Plasma = Blood

➢Blood - Fibrin= Serum

➢Blood consists of

1. Plasma (Liquid)
2. Corpuscles (Solid)
a. RBC (Erythrocyte)
b. WBC (Leukocyte)
c. Platelets (Thrombolytic)
 Plasma (Liquid)
➢ Blood plasma Consists of:
• Water 90%
• Plasma Proteins 6-8 %
• Electrolytes (Nar & 0) 1%

➢ Proteins in Plasma:
• Fibrin & Thrombin: To help in Blood Clotting.
• Heparin: To help in Anticlotting of Blood inside the body (for circulation of Blood)
➢ Other components:
• Nutrients (eg. Glucose and amino acids)
• Hormones (eg Cortisol, thyroxine)
• Wastes (e.g. Urea)
• Blood gases (e.g. CO₂, 02)

Corpuscles (Solid)
• RBC (Erythrocyte-44%)
• Nucleolus Absent
• Life: 120 Days
• Haemoglobin in Bowl - 270 Million Haemoglobin
• Red Colour- Fe (Iron)
• Example- Octopus (Heamocyanin contains Copper -Blue colour) & Cockroach- Absence of
Haemoglobin results into White colour.
• 4-5.5 million per mm cube
• Haemoglobin: 12-16 gm Per 100ml.
• Camel & Llama RBC has Nucleus.

• WBC (Leukocyte-1%)
• Life: 3-4 Days
• WBCs work as Antibody (Immunity Boost)
• Made in: Bone Marrow
• It contains Nucleolus
• WBCs is made up of 5 types of cells as given below:
➢ Disease Related to RBC & WBC
• Anaemia: Less RBC
• Polycythemia: High RBC
• Lenkopenia: Less WBC
• Leukaemia: High WBC
• Universal Donor Group: O-
• Universal Receiver Group: AB+
 Specific WBC Function Deferential%

Neutrophil General phagocytosis: acute 54-62%

bacterial infections

Eosinophil Kills parasites, allergic condition 1-3%

Basophil Release heparin and histamine <1%

Monocyte Phagocytosis of large particles in 3-9%

typhoid, malaria

Lymphocyte Produce antibody 25-33%

• Platelets (1%)
• Platelets are tiny blood cells that help your body form clots to stop bleeding. If one of your blood
vessels gets damaged, it sends out signals to the platelets. The platelets then rush to the site of
damage. they form a plug (clot) to fix the damage.
• Dengue: because of low Platelets.

Blood Group

Antigen Antibody

Blood Group Antigen Antibody Receive Donate

A A B A, O A, AB
B B A B, O B, AB
AB AB O A, B, AB, O AB
O O AB O A, B, AB, O
 Transportation in Plants
Transportation in Plants
• Transportation is a vital process in plants.
• The process involves the transportation of water and necessary nutrients to all parts of the plant for
its survival.
• Food and water transportation takes place separately in plants.
• Xylem transports water and phloem transports food.

Phloem
• The phloem is responsible for translocation of nutrients and sugar like carbohydrates, produced by
the leaves to areas of the plant that are metabolically active.
• Sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem fibres, and phloem parenchyma cells are the components of
this tissue
• The flow of material through phloem is bidirectional.

Translocation
• Transport of food in the plant through phloem via a process such as mass flow is called
as translocation.
• Photosynthates i.e. sugars and organic molecules such as amino acids, organic acids, proteins and
inorganic solutes like potassium, magnesium, nitrate, calcium, sulfur and iron from source tissues
(mature leaves) to the sink cells (areas of growth and storage) are transported through the phloem.
• Material like sucrose is loaded from leaves to phloem using the energy of ATP.
• Such a transfer increases the osmotic pressure causing the movement of water from nearby cells into
phloem tissue and the material gets transported through the phloem.
• The same pressure is also responsible for the transfer of substances from phloem to tissues where
food is required.
• Thus the bulk flow of material through phloem takes place in response to an osmotically generated
pressure difference.

Xylem
• Xylem tissue transports water in plants from root to all other parts of the plant.
• Xylem tissue is made up tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma.
• The flow of water and minerals through xylem is always unidirectional.
Root Pressure
• Conduction of water through the xylem, from roots to upper parts of plants, is due to many forces
acting together.
• One of the forces responsible for this is root pressure.
• Root pressure is osmotic pressure within the cells of a root system that causes sap to rise through a
plant stem to the leaves.
• Root pressure helps in the initial transport of water up the roots.

Transport of Water
• Water is absorbed by the roots and is transported by xylem to the upper parts of the plant.
Imbibition, osmosis, root pressure and transpiration are the forces that contribute towards the upward
movement of water, even in the tallest plants.

• Imbibition is a process in which water is absorbed by the solids. E.g. seeds take up water when
soaked.
• Osmosis is a process where water moves from the area of its lower concentration to the area of its
higher concentration.
• At the roots, the cells take up ions by an active process and this results in the difference of
concentration of these ions.
• It leads to movement of water, in the root cells, by osmosis.
• This creates a continuous column of water that gets pushed upwards. This is root pressure.
• Transpiration contributes to the upward movement of water by creating a staw effect.
• It pulls the water column upwards as there is a continuous loss of water from leaves.
• All these forces act together for water transport through the xylem

Excretion in Humans
Excretion
Excretion is the process of removal of metabolic waste material and other non-useful substances.

• Organisms like animals have an advanced and specialized system for excretion.
• But plants lack a well-developed excretory system like that in animals.
• They do not have special organs for excretion and thus excretion in plants is not so complex.

Excretion in Unicellular Organisms

• In unicellular organisms such as amoeba and bacteria, the waste product is removed by simple
diffusion through the general body surface.
 • Unicellular organisms like the amoeba, and paramecium excrete excess through tiny organelles
called contractile vacuoles.
• Undigested food in unicellular animals is excreted when the food vacuole merges with the general
body surface and opens to the outside.

Excretory System of Humans

• The excretory system in humans includes
o a pair of kidneys,
o a pair of ureters,
o a urinary bladder and
o urethra.
• It produces urine as a waste product.

Kidneys
• Paired kidneys are the main excretory organs of the body.
• They are basically the filtration units of the human body.
• Each kidney is made up of many tiny filtration units called nephrons.
• Kidneys perform crucial functions like:
1. Filtering waste materials, medications, and toxic substances from the blood.
2. Regulation of osmolarity i.e. fluid balance of the body.
3. Regulation of ion concentration in the body.
4. Regulation of pH.
5. Regulation of extracellular fluid volume.
6. Secreting hormones that help produce red blood cells, promote bone health, and regulate
blood pressure

Nephron
Nephrons are the structural and functional unit of kidney.

• Each kidney has millions of nephrons and it forms the basic structural and functional unit of the
kidney.
• Each nephron has two parts: Malpighian body and renal tubule.
• Malpighian body is made up of cup-like structure called Bowman’s capsule which encloses a bunch
of capillaries called glomerulus.
• They together filter waste materials along with many useful substances.
• Renal tubule has regions called proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle and distal convoluted
tubule.
• These regions absorb back useful substances into the blood and also filter remaining waste
substances.
• The output from nephrons is called urine.
Haemodialysis
o When the kidneys fail, it results in a lot of complications and to compensate this situation a
technology called dialysis has been developed.
o It uses a machine filter called a dialyzer or artificial kidney.
o This is to remove excess water and salt, to balance other electrolytes in the body and remove
waste products of metabolism.
o Blood from the body is removed and flowed through a series of tubes made up of a
semipermeable membrane.

o A dialysate flows on the other side of the membrane, which draws impurities through the
membrane.

Excretion in Plants
• The cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and other metabolic reactions produce a lot of excretory
products in plants.
• Carbon dioxide, excess water produced during respiration and nitrogenous compounds produced
during protein metabolism are the major excretory products in plants.
• Plants produce two gaseous waste products i.e. oxygen during photosynthesis and carbon dioxide
during respiration.
• Excretion of gaseous waste in plants takes place through stomatal pores on leaves.
• Oxygen released during photosynthesis is used for respiration while carbon dioxide released during
respiration is used for photosynthesis.
• Excess water is excreted by transpiration.
• Organic by-products generated by the plant are stored in different forms in different parts.
• The gums, oils, latex, resins, etc. are some waste products stored in plant parts like barks, stems,
leaves, etc.
• Eventually, plants shed off these parts.
• Few examples of the excretory products of plants are oil produced from orange, eucalyptus, jasmine,
latex from the rubber tree, papaya tree, and gums from acacia.
• Sometimes plants even excrete into the soil
 Introduction
The human body is a complex machine performing tons of functions and processes to maintain and sustain
life. Explore how the body controls its movements and coordinates its actions with other parts of the body
and the environment by exploring notes for Class 10 Chapter 7 Control and Coordination.

The Nervous System

Movement in organisms
The ability of organisms to move certain body parts is movement.
When they move from one place to another, it is called locomotion.
Organisms show movements in response to stimuli.

Introduction to control & coordination

• Organisms move in response to various kinds of stimuli like light, heat, nutrients/food, etc.
• All the activities in animals are controlled and coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems.
• Hormones are chemical messengers, which assist the nervous system in carrying out various
functions. They are secreted by endocrine glands.
• Hormones in plants coordinate the movements.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neuron
Neuron is the structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

• Each neuron has three main parts: dendrites,

cyton/soma/cell body and axon.

• Dendrites receive impulses from other neurons.

• Cyton/soma processes the impulse.
• Axon transmits the impulse, either to another neuron

or to muscles/glands, etc.

• Axon may be myelinated or non-myelinated.

• The impulse transmission is faster in myelinated neurons.
 Central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. Functions of different parts of
the brain are:

• The cerebrum is responsible for reasoning, logic, emotions, speech, memory, visual processing,
recognition of auditory and taste stimuli, etc.
• Cerebellum regulates and coordinates body movements, posture and balance.
• Pons relays signals from the hindbrain to the forebrain.
• Medulla Oblongata controls all involuntary movements like vomiting, sneezing, yawning,
heartbeat, breathing, blood pressure, etc.
• Medulla oblongata continues as the spinal cord which runs through the vertebral column and it
controls reflex actions.

❖ Drugs that act on Nervous System

➢ Caffeine inhibits the release at neurotransmitters by blocking the action of adenosine.
➢ Nicotine in Tobacco enhances the Acetylcholine and act as stimulant.
➢ Thorazine drugs affect cognitive or thinking processes.
➢ Amphetamines are similar to noradrenaline and stimulate the release at nor adrenaline and
dopamine in brain.
➢ Cocaine blocks the uptake of dopamine thus leads to hallucinations.
➢ Methamphetamine acts similarly as cocaine.
➢ Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) acts on neurotransmitter serotonin.
➢ Depressent effects are seen with tranquillizers like barbiturates and benzodiazepines. These acts by
action of the inhibitory transmitter GABA.
❖ Diseases of Nervous System
1. Huntington's chorea
2. Dementia
3. Alzheimer disease (memory loss);
4. Parkinson's disease (involves tremors of the limbs and difficulty in maintaining
balance along with muscle, rigidity due to lack of dopamine);
5. Epilepsy
6. Cerebral palsy
7. Depression (ack of serotonin/ nor epinephrine);
8. Schizophrenia
9. Phobias
Peripheral nervous system
• The nerves coming out from the brain and the spinal cord constitute the peripheral nervous system
(PNS).
• There are 12 cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves in humans.

Somatic nervous system

• It forms a part of the PNS.
• The nerves of PNS that control the voluntary actions of the body form the somatic nervous system.

Autonomic nervous system

• All the nerves of the PNS that control the involuntary actions in the body form the autonomic
nervous system. E.g. respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, digestion, etc. are regulated by the
autonomic nervous system.
• Two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
system.
• The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for intense physical activity and is often referred
to as the fight-or-flight response, while the parasympathetic nervous system has almost the exact
opposite effect and relaxes the body and inhibits or slows many high-energy functions.

Reflex action
Reflex action is a sudden, involuntary reaction of the body in response to stimuli.

Reflex arc
• It is the path followed by an electrical impulse during a reflex action.
• The impulse travels from the receptor organ to the spinal cord/brain. It is processed there and the
information is brought back to the concerned muscle to carry out the action.
• Thus, the receptor organ, sensory/afferent neuron, interneuron, motor/efferent neuron and effector
organ are the components of a reflex arc.

Protection of CNS
The brain is protected by 3 main layers –

• The bony skull (cranium)

• The cerebrospinal fluid
• The meninges (Dura mater, Arachnoid and Pia mater).
 BRAIN
Human Brain: The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord
makes up the central nervous system. The brain consists of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum.

TYPES OF BRAIN

1. Fore Brain

2. Mid Brain

3. Hind Brain

FOREBRAIN
1. Cerebrum
2. Thalamus
3. Limbic System (Hypothalamus)

➢ Cerebrum: is the largest part of the brain and is composed of Ispothalamus right and left hemispheres. It
performs higher functions:
• Interpreting touch
• Vision and hearing
• Speech
• Reasoning (Intelligence)
• Emotions Learning
• Control of movement
➢ Thalamus Functions: It carries sensory information to from the body to Cerebrum & Limbic System
➢ Limbic System: Between Cerebrum & Thalamus

• Functioning: Hunger
• Thirst
• Fear
• Anger
• Sexual Responses
➢ Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain. It's located at the base of the brain,
near the pituitary gland. While it's very small, the hypothalamus plays a crucial role in many important
functions, including: releasing hormones, regulating body temperature.
• Hormones connected to system is the part of same Nerve.

Mid Brain
➢ Position: Between Hindbrain & Forebrain
➢ Functioning: 1. Controlling of Reflex Moments
2. Controlling of Hearing Reflexes

Hindbrain
➢ Position: Backside of Brain
Parts: 1. Cerebellum
2. Pons
3. Medulla
➢ Functioning:
1. Cerebellum: Balance of Body, Voluntary Moments
2. Pons: Controls Sleep, Breathing Pattern
3. Medulla: Its controls automatic action like Breathing, Blood Circulation, Heart Rate, Swallowing

Facts about the human brain

▪ The human brain is the largest brain of all vertebrates relative to body size.
▪ It weighs about 3.3 lbs. (1.5 kilograms).
▪ The average male has a brain volume of 1,274 cubic centimetres. The average female brain has a volume of
1,131 cm3.
▪ The brain makes up about 2 percent of a human's body weight. The cerebrum makes up 85 percent of the
brain's weight.
▪ It contains about 86 billion nerve cells (neurons) the "grey matter"
▪ It contains billions of nerve fibres (axons and dendrites) - the "white matter."
▪ These neurons are connected by trillions of connections, or synapses.
▪ Smallest part of Brain: Mid Brain
▪ Hind Brain responsible Blood Circulation of the Body.
 Plant Hormones and Movements
Plant hormones
Control and coordination in plants are carried out by hormones.

Plant Function
Hormone
Auxin Helps in Growth of Plant Tissue

Cytokinin Promotes Cell division, delays ageing of cells

Gibberellins Helps in the growth of stems, initiates seed germination, promotes

flowering, cell division and seed growth after germination

Abscisic acid Inhibits growth and causes wilting of leaves, promotes dormancy of
buds and seeds

Ethylene This is a gaseous hormone which causes the ripening of fruits

Growth independent movements

The movements which are not growth related are called nastic movements. These movements occur
in response to environmental stimuli but the direction of response is not dependent on the direction
of the stimulus.

• The movement in the touch-me-not plant is thigmonastic movement (movement in response to touch).

Growth-related movements in plants

The movements which are growth related are called tropic movements. These movements occur in
response to environmental stimuli and the direction of the response is dependent on the direction of
the stimulus.
Examples:

• Phototropic movement (light-dependent)

• Geotropic movement (gravity-dependent)
• Chemotropic movement (chemical-dependent)
• Hydrotropic movement (water-dependent)
• Thigmotropic movement (touch dependent)
 ➢ Geotropism
Movement of plant parts in response to earth’s gravitational force is known as
geotropism/gravitropism.

• Towards gravity – positive geotropism

• Away from gravity – negative geotropism
• The root grows towards gravity and shoot grows away from gravity

➢ Phototropism
Movement of plant parts in response to light is known as phototropism.

• Towards light- positive phototropism

• Away from light – negative phototropism
• Stems move towards light and roots move away from light

➢ Hydrotropism
Movement of plant parts in response to water or moisture.

• Towards water-- positive hydrotropism

• Away from water – negative hydrotropism
• Again, root movement in search of water is positive hydrotropism
• E.g. movement of roots towards high humidity level

➢ Chemotropism
Movement of plant parts in response to chemical stimuli is known as chemotropism.

• Towards chemical – positive chemotropism

• Away from chemical – negative chemotropism
• The growth of pollen tube towards the ovule is positive chemotropism

➢ Thigmotropism
Movement of plant parts in response to touch is called as thigmotropism.

• Towards touch – Positive thigmotropism

• Away from touch – negative thigmotropism
• Movement of tendrils around the support is positive thigmotropism
 The Endocrine System
Exocrine glands
Exocrine glands are glands that discharge secretions by means of ducts, which open onto an
epithelial surface.
Endocrine glands
Endocrine glands are the ductless glands which secrete hormones into the bloodstream in humans.
The endocrine glands present in the human body are the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, pancreas, ovary
(female), testis (male), etc. Let us now learn more about each of the glands below.

Pituitary gland
• It is a pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain.
• It is the master gland as it controls the secretions of all the other endocrine glands.
• It also secretes Growth Hormone (GH). Under-secretion of GH causes Dwarfism and over-
secretion causes Gigantism in children and ‘Acromegaly’ in adults.

Thyroid gland
• It is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the throat.
• It secretes the hormone ‘Thyroxine’ which regulates the metabolism of the body.
• Iodine is required to synthesize thyroxine in the body.
• In the case of iodine deficiency, under-secretion of thyroxine leads to goitre.

Pancreas
• It is a leaf-like gland present behind the stomach in the abdomen.
• It is an endocrine as well an exocrine gland.
• As an endocrine gland, it manufactures two hormones – Insulin and glucagon. Both these hormones
act antagonistically and regulate the sugar level in the blood.
• As an exocrine gland, it secretes enzymes to break down the proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and
nucleic acids in food.
• An insufficient amount of insulin from the pancreas leads to diabetes.

Adrenal gland
• Occurs in pairs above each kidney.
• It decreases in size with age.
• Secrets the hormone adrenaline which helps in flight and fight response.
• Also secretes nor adrenaline
Gonads
• Gonads are the gamete-producing organs – testes in males and ovaries in females.
• The testes produce the male hormone testosterone and the ovaries produce the female hormones
oestrogen and progesterone.
• Testosterone and oestrogen help in producing gametes and are responsible for the sexual
characteristics of males and females respectively.
• Progesterone is the pregnancy hormone.

Other endocrine organs

• The other endocrine organs include the hypothalamus, parathyroid, pineal and thymus glands.

Introduction
All living organisms multiply or reproduce and produce offspring of a similar kind. Reproduction is an
essential process for the existence of a species and the continuation of life.
Here, in this chapter, we will learn about how different unicellular and multicellular organisms such as
bacteria, algae, plants, animals and human beings reproduce. What are the different reproductive structures
and modes of reproduction such as cell division, vegetative reproduction, asexual reproduction, and sexual
reproduction.

Reproduction
Reproduction is the process by which all organisms multiply in number and increase their population.

Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction that involves only one organism. A single organism
reproduces two or multiple organisms on its own. This is seen in all unicellular organisms, some
multicellular organisms and a few plants.

Sexual reproduction
The mode of reproduction that involves two individuals; one male and one female. They produce sex cells or
gametes which fuse to form a new organism.

Asexual Reproduction
➢ Fission
• Fission is an asexual reproduction that is common in most of the unicellular organisms.
• When the fission results in two daughter cells, it is binary fission (e.g. paramecium).
• When fission results in many daughter cells, it is called multiple fission (e.g. Plasmodium).
• Planes of fission may be different for different organisms.
 ➢ Budding
• Budding is a type of asexual reproduction in which a small cyst-like structure is formed on the
parent’s body, which gives rise to a new individual.
• Bud may remain attached to the parent (yeast) or may separate and become a new individual (hydra).

➢Regeneration and fragmentation

• Regeneration is the process of growing back the lost organ or body part by the organism (e.g. lizard).
• Fragmentation is the process by which an organism gets fragmented into smaller pieces and each
piece grows into a whole new organism.
• E.g. Planaria, Hydra

• Fragmentation and Regeneration in Hydra

➢ Spore formation
Organisms such as fungi make spores that can grow into complete new individuals when dispersed from
their fruiting body. Spores are produced inside sporangia. They are covered by a thick outer layer that
protects them in adverse conditions. When spores get suitable environmental conditions they germinate and
begin to grow.

➢ Vegetative propagation
• This is a type of asexual reproduction seen in plants.
• The vegetative part of the plant, like leaves, stem, roots, gives rise to a new plant.
• Vegetative propagation can be artificial or natural.
• Natural vegetative propagation happens through leaves (e.g. bryophyllum), stem (e.g. turmeric,
ginger), runners/stolon (e.g.grass runners, strawberry), bulbs ( e.g. onion, lily), etc.
• Artificial methods include cutting, grafting, layering and plant tissue culture.

Sexual Reproduction
Types of Cell division
Two types of cell division are seen in eukaryotic organisms:

Mitosis

• Takes place in somatic cells

• Maintains the chromosome number
• Produces two, diploid daughter cells
• Required for asexual reproduction, development and growth, cell replacement and regeneration
Meiosis

• Takes place in sex cells

• Reduces the number of chromosomes by half
• Produces four haploid daughter cells
• Required for sexual reproduction, i.e gamete formation

The Reproductive System

In humans, there is a remarkable difference in the male and female reproductive systems. Testes are the
main reproductive structure in males where sperms (male gametes) are produced and ovum (female gamete)
is produced inside the ovary. Let us now learn in detail about male and female reproductive systems in
humans.

Male reproductive system

• The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.
• They produce the male sex cells called sperms and

also produce the male sex hormone testosterone.

Male main reproductive organs

• The main reproductive organ in males is a pair of testes.

• They are present in scrotal sacs outside the body and contain seminiferous tubules as the structural
and functional unit.
• Male sex cells, sperms, are produced by seminiferous tubules and mature in the epididymis.
• Leydig cells or interstitial cells present in between the seminiferous tubules secrete hormone
testosterone.

Male accessory reproductive organs

• Several accessory reproductive organs aid in the reproductive process.
• The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles are glands of the reproductive system which make semen
and nourish the sperm.
• Penis, having urethra passing through it, is called copulatory organ.

Male Ducts
• In males, the vas deferens and the urethra are the main ducts.
• A single vas deferens carries sperms from respective testis up to the urethra.
• The urethra acts as a common passage for semen and urine.
 Reproductive No Function
Organ
Testes 2 Produce sperm and testosterone
Sperm duct 2 Conduct the sperm from the testes to urethra
Seminal vesicles 2 Secrete seminal plasma
Epididymis 2 Temporarily store sperm and provides
mobility
Urethra 1 Conduct urine and sperms.

Prostate gland 2 Secrete an alkaline fluid to neutralise the acidity

of urethra and make the sperm more active

Cowper’s gland 2 Secrete an alkaline white lubricating fluid

Penis (have rich 2 Pass urine and deposit sperm in female genital
blood supply) tract

Female reproductive system

The human female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of fallopian tubes/oviducts and
the accessory organs such as the uterus and the vagina.

Female main reproductive organ

• The main reproductive organ in a female is a pair of ovaries.
• They produce the female sex cells called eggs or ova and also produce female sex hormones called
estrogen and progesterone.

Female accessory reproductive organ

• Uterus, oviducts, and vagina are the accessory reproductive organs in human females.
• The uterus is the site of fetal development and the vagina receives sperm from the male.
• Ovum is carried from ovaries to the uterus through a pair of oviducts.
 Menstrual Cycle
Menstruation
• Menstruation is the cyclic event of the release of the ovum from the ovary and its removal from
the body when fertilization does not happen.
• During menstruation, the blood-rich endometrium of the uterus also breaks down while the ovum is
removed from the body.
• Two pituitary hormones, LH and FSH, and two ovarian hormones, estrogen and progesterone, all
have their roles in menstruation.
• In humans, the cycle repeats every 28 days.

Fertilization
Human reproduction
Humans reproduce sexually. The male produces sperms
and the female produces eggs. When the sperm fuses
with the egg, it forms a zygote that gives
rise to a new progeny.

Reproductive No Function Performed

Organ
Ovaries 2 To produce ova and hormones.
Oviducts 2 To move the ovum towards uterus.
Uterus 1 To provide space for developing child

Vagina 1 To receive the sperms.

Contraceptive Methods
➢ Reproductive health
Reproductive health deals with the prevention of STDs and unwanted pregnancy. Understanding the
reproductive system is also a part of reproductive health awareness.

➢ Contraceptives
• Contraceptives are devices that prevent unwanted pregnancy and help avoid STDs.
• Contraceptives can be of various types such as mechanical barriers, hormonal/chemical methods,
surgical methods, etc.
➢ Coitus Interruptus
• It is a very unreliable contraceptive method where the coitus is stopped before the male ejaculates
inside the female reproductive tracts.

➢ Rhythm Method
• Another unreliable method of contraception is where coitus is avoided when the female is fertile and
the chances of fertilization are very high.

➢ Condoms
• One of the most effective methods of contraception.
• A mechanical barrier that stops the semen from entering the female tract preventing pregnancy.
• It also avoids the possibility of contracting STDs.

➢ Diaphragms
• Diaphragms are barriers that can be added inside the female reproductive tracts.
• They stop the entry of semen inside the female tract and thus prevent pregnancy.

➢ Contraceptive Pills
• Contraceptive pills are chemical methods of contraception.
• They change the level of hormones in the body that prevents the release of the ovum from the
ovaries.

➢ Emergency Pill
• Emergency pills are those pills which can be taken after coitus to avoid pregnancy.
• They quickly change the level of hormones in the body and prevent a successful implantation even if
the egg gets fertilized.

➢ IUD
• IUD stands for Intrauterine Device.
• They can be used for a couple of years.
• It is a device that is inserted into the uterus, changing its shape and preventing successful
implantation of the zygote.

➢ Sterilization
• Sterilization is a surgical method of going permanently sterile.
• This can be done in both males and females.
• In males, it is called vasectomy and in females, it is called tubal ligation.
 Reproduction in Plants
Plants reproduce by both, asexual and sexual methods. Vegetative propagation is a type of asexual
reproduction in plants. Let’s learn now about sexual reproduction in plants.

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

• Sexual reproduction in plants happens through flowers.
• Essential whorls of the flowers such as androecium and gynoecium help in the sexual reproduction
of plants.

Non-essential parts of flowers

• The typical structure of flowers contains essential whorls and non-essential whorls.
• Sepals and Petals are called non-essential whorls as they do not directly take part in reproduction.
• Sepals protect the inner delicate whorl during bud condition and also perform photosynthesis if they
are green in colour.
• Petals, when they are coloured, attract insects for pollination.

Essential whorls of flowers

• Androecium and gynoecium are called as essential/reproductive whorls of a flower.
• Androecium produces pollen grains containing male gametes and gynoecium produces ovules which
are female gametes.
• Bisexual flowers contain both the whorls while unisexual flowers contain either of them.
• Each individual member of androecium is called a stamen and consists of anther and filament.
• Anther produces haploid pollen grains.
• Each individual member of gynoecium is called pistil and consists of stigma, style and ovary.

Pollination
The process of transfer of pollen grains from anthers to the stigma of a flower is known as
pollination.

• It is required for fertilization.

• Pollination has two types, self-pollination (autogamy) and cross-pollination (allogamy).
• In self-pollination, the transfer of pollen grains takes place from anthers to the stigma of the same
flower or another flower of the same plant.
• In cross-pollination, pollens are transferred from anthers to the stigma of another flower.
• Many pollinating agents play their roles in cross-pollination. Examples: water, wind, insects, birds,
bats, etc.
Fertilization
Fusion of male and female gametes is known as fertilization.

• In flowering plants after pollination, the pollens germinate on the stigma surface of pistil and
generate two male nuclei.
• Ovule has egg cell and two polar nuclei.
• One male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei and forms triploid endosperm.
• Another male nucleus fuses with the egg cell and forms the zygote that gives rise to the embryo and
future plant.
• After fertilization, ovary becomes fruit and ovules turn into seeds. All other parts wither away.

Introduction
Environment refers to the surrounding of an organism where it thrives. It constitutes both living and non-
living things, i.e. physical, chemical and biotic factors. Here, in this chapter, we will learn about various
components of the environment, their interactions and how our activities affect the environment.

Ecosystem
The ecosystem comprises all the biotic and abiotic factors interacting with one another in a given area.
Biotic components include all living organisms such as plants, animals, microorganisms and humans, etc.
and abiotic components include sunlight, temperature, air, wind, rainfall, soil and minerals, etc. E.g. pond
ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, etc.

Mode of nutrition in animals and plants

Autotrophic and Heterotrophic are the two modes of nutrition in living organisms. Plants and some bacteria
are autotrophic as they make their own food. Animals, fungi and some bacteria are heterotrophic as they
derive their food from other organisms.

Saprophytes and decomposers

Saprophytes feed on dead and decaying material, e.g. fungi and microorganisms. They absorb nutrients from
dead and decaying plants and animal parts. Decomposers break down the organic matter or waste material
and release nutrients into the soil. For example, bacteria, worms, slugs, and snails. They are considered
extremely important in soil biology. They break down the complex organic matter into simpler substances
that are taken up by the plants for various metabolic activities.

Abiotic components
Non-living chemical and physical components of the environment like the soil, air, water, temperature, etc.

Biotic components
Living organisms of the environment like plants, animals, microbes and fungi.
Trophic levels
It refers to the various levels in a food web as per the flow of energy. The different trophic levels are –

• Producers (T1)
• Primary consumers (herbivores-T2)
• Secondary consumers (primary carnivores -T2)
• Tertiary consumers(Sec carnivores -T3)
• Quaternary consumers (Ter. carnivores T4)
• Decomposers

Pyramid of trophic levels

• Is a graphical representation.
• Can be the pyramid of numbers, the pyramid of biomass or the pyramid of energy.
• All the pyramids start with producers.
a) Pyramid of numbers: gives the number of organisms present at each trophic level.
It can be upright or inverted.
b) Pyramid of biomass: gives the biomass of each trophic level and could be upright or
inverted.
c) Pyramid of energy: is always upright as it shows the flow of energy from one trophic
level to the next trophic level.

Law of conservation of energy

• Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it transforms from one form to another.
• In biological systems, it gets passed from one organism to another across trophic levels.

Energy flow
• Transfer of energy from one trophic level to another depicting its direction and amount.
• Can be represented by the pyramid of energy.
• In any food chain, only 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to another.

Food chain
A series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food.

Food web
• Is formed by interconnections of different food chains.
• Is a graphical representation of ‘Who eats Whom’ in an ecosystem.
Characteristics of ecosystem
• Includes the summary of trophic levels.
• Their energy flow and pyramids.

Environment
• Includes all living and nonliving things.
• Unlike ecosystems, there need not be any necessary interaction between them.

Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of harmful materials (pollutants) into the environment. Pollution can be due to
natural causes such as volcanic eruptions, forest fires, etc. or due to human activities, such as carbon
emission, industrial runoff, etc.

➢ Air pollution
Introduction of pollutants, organic molecules, or other hazardous substances into the earth’s atmosphere.
Sources:
a) Natural – forest fire, dust storms, and volcanic activity
b) Man-made – power plants, homes, industries, oil refineries, and transportation

Ozone layer depletion

The ozone layer protects the earth from the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation. CFCs released into the
atmosphere react chemically with ozone molecules and are depleting the layer.

Garbage management
• Involves all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final
disposal.
• Ensures environmental best practices are followed along with proper monitoring and regulation.
Steps involved:
1. Segregation of waste
2. Collection
3. Transport
4. Treatment
5. Processing & Recycling
6. Disposal

Biodegradable waste
• Waste is derived from plants or animals.
• Decomposed into the soil by a natural agent such as weather, water, air, heat, micro-organisms, etc.

Biodegradation
Decomposition of garbage or waste material by living organisms or biological processes.
 HUMAN EYE

➢ The human eye is an organ which react to light and pressure and differentiate between about 10
million colours. The eye is composed of the anterior segment and posterior segment.

➢ The anterior segment is made up of the Cornea, Iris and Lens.

➢ The cornea is transparent and more curved, comprised of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the
outer white shell called the sclera.
➢ The eye is made up of three layers or coats. The outermost layer (fibrous tunic) is composed of the
Cornea and Sclera.
➢ The middle layer (vascular tunic or uvea) consists of the Choroid, Ciliary Body, Pigmented
Epithelium and Iris.
➢ The innermost layer is the Retina, which gets its oxygenation from the blood vessels of the
choroid and retinal vessels.

➢ Sclera is a tough and thick white sheath that protects the inner parts of the eye.

➢ Conjunctiva is a thin transparent membrane that is spread across the sclera. It keeps
the eyes moist and clear by secreting small amount of mucus and tears.

➢ Cornea is the transparent layer of skin that is spread over the pupil and the iris. The function of
the Cornea is to refract the light that enters the eyes
➢ Iris is coloured, pigmented part of the eye. It controls the amount of light that enters the eye by
changing the size of the pupil.
➢ Pupil is small opening located at the middle of the Iris. It allows light to come in.
➢ Lens: Transparent structure inside the eye that focuses light rays onto the retina
➢ Retina is light sensitive tissue that lines the back of the eye, it contains millions of photo receptors
(Rads and Cones) that detect dim and coloured lights and convert light rays into electrical impulses
that are transmitted to the brain via Optic Nerve. The image formed on the retina is real and
inverted.
➢ Rods are highly sensitive to dim light, e.g. Owl's eyes contains rad only, Cones are sensitive to
bright light e.g., Hens eyes contains cones only.
➢ Aqueous humour is a watery fluid that is present in the area between the lens and the cornea. It is
responsible for the nourishment of both the lens and the cornea.
➢ Vitreous humour is a transparent semi solid. jelly like substances that fills the interior of the eyes.
Its role is to maintain the shape of the eye and refraction of light before it reaches the retina.
➢ Optic nerve located at the end of the eyes behind the retina. The Optic nerve is responsible for
carrying all the nerve impulses from the photoreceptors to the brain, without which vision would
not be possible.
➢ Macula: Small central area in the retina that contains special light sensitive cells and allow us to see
fine details clearly.
❖ Defects of the Eye
➢ Myopia (near sightedness) is a defect of vision in which far objects or distant objects appear
blurred but near objects are seen clearly because image is focussed Infront of the retina.
➢ Myopia can be corrected by using concave lens that helps to focus the image on the retina.
➢ Hypertropia (farsightedness) is a defect of vision in which there is difficulty with near vision
but far objects can seen clearly because image is focussed behind the retina.
➢ Hypertropia can be corrected by using Convex lens.
➢ Astigmatism is a defect of vision in which the leil, is warped, causing images not to focus
properly or the retina. Cylindrical glasses can correct this defect.
➢ Cataracts is clouding of the lens, which prevent a clear, sharp Image being produced clouding
results in blurred vision.
➢ Glaucoma is a disease caused by Increased Intraocular Pressure (IOP) usually resulting from a
malfunction to the eye's drainage system. (or can cause irreversible damage to the optic nerve and
retinal fibres to permanent loss of vision).
 The Ear

➢ Ear are meant for both balancing and hearing is controlled by auditory area of temporal lobe of
cerebral cortex.
➢ Mammalian ear is made up of three parts i.e, external, middle and inner ear.
➢ External ear includes a Pinna or Auricle (Cartilage covered by skin placed on opposite sides of the
head), Auditory canal or ear canal, and Tympanic membrane ear drum).
➢ The external ear collects sounds. Sound travels through the Auditory canal, a short tube that ends
at the Ear drum.
➢ Middle ear includes Ear drum, Tympanic cavity and Ear ossicles 3 tiny bones are Malleus (Hammer),
Incus (Anvil) and Stapes (Stirrup).
➢ Stapes is the smallest bone in the body.
➢ The Cochlea is filled with fluid and contains the Organ of Corti (a structure that contains thousands
of specialised sensory hair cells with projections called cilia). The vibrations transmitted from the
middle ear cause tiny waves to form in the inner ear fluid, which make the cilia vibrate. The hair
cells then convert these vibrations into nerve impulse or signals which are sent through the
Auditory Nerve to the brain where they are interpreted as sound, The round window (fenestra
cochlea) is a membrane that connects the cochlea to the middle ear, it helps dampen the vibrations
in the cochlea.
 BIOMOLECULES
Vitamin Information
Vitamin Vitamin Chemical Year of Food Source Solubility Deficient Disease Overdose
Name Discovery Disease
Vitamin A Retinol, Retinal & Cod Liver Oil Fat Night Blindness, Hypervitami--
Four Carotenoids 1913 Hyperkeratosis, nosis A
including Beta keratomalacia
Carotene.
Vitamin B1 Thiamine 1910 Rice Bran Water Beriberi, Wernic- Drowsiness
Kekorsakoff
Syndrome
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin 1920 Meat, Eggs Water Ariboflavinosis

Vitamin B3 Niacin, 1936 Meat, Eggs & Water Pellagra Liver Damage
Niacinamide Grains

Vitamin B5 Pantothenic 1931 Meat, Grains, Water Paraesthesia Diarrhoea,

Acid In many foods Nausea &
heartburn
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine, 1934 Meat, Dairy Water Anemia peripheral Nerve damage
Pyridoxamine, products Neuropathy
Pyridoxal
Vitamin B7 Biotin 1931 Meat, Eggs, Water Dermatitis,
Dairy products Enteritis

Vitamin B9 Folic Acid, Folinic 1941 Leafy Green Water Megaloblast & May mask
Acid Vegetables Deficiency during Symptoms of
pregnancy B12 Deficiency
Vitamin B12 Cyanocobalamin& 1926 Eggs, Animal Water Megaloblastic Acme- like
Methylcobalamin Products anemia Rash

Vitamin C Ascorbic Acid 1920 Citrus, Fresh Water Scurvy Vitamin C

Foods Megadosage

Vitamin D Cholecalciferol 1920 Cod Liver oil Fat Rickets & Hyper-
Osteomalacia vitaminosis D

Vitamin E Tocopherols, 1922 Wheat Germ oil, Fat Mild Hemolytic Increased the
Tocotrienols Unrefined Anemia in infants chances of Heart
Vegetable oil Failure
Vitamin K Phylloquinone, 1931 Leafy Green Fat Bleeding diathesis Increases
Manaquinones Vegetables coagulation in
Patients
Bio molecules are the substances that are essential for a living being to perform the basic
functions, e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fats), nucleic acids and vitamins.

Carbohydrate
• It was believed that these are the organic compounds which have carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen in the ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 but starch and some others are exceptions. So this definition
has been changed. According to modern definition, these are the Polyhydroxy, Aldehydes
and Ketones or their derivatives.
• These are the source of energy and about 50-75% energy is obtained by the oxidation of
carbohydrates.
• The main end product of carbohydrate digestion is glucose, which is called blood sugar. It
oxidises to give energy along with CO2 and H O2.
• 1 gm glucose provides about 17 kJ energy or 4.2 kcal energy.
• Carbohydrates are better fuel as compared to proteins and fats as they readily decompose to
give energy.
• Main sources of carbohydrates are wheat, maize, rice, potato etc.

The carbohydrates are categorised into following three types:

Monosaccharides
• These are simple sugars, which cannot be hydrolysed further, e.g., ribose, glucose,
fructose, galactose etc.
• In human beings, blood glucose level is 100-120 mg/mL. Extra glucose, if any, is converted
into glycogen in the liver by a process called glycogenesis.
• D-fructose is the sweetest of all sugars and is found in fruit juice, honey etc.

Oligosaccharides
• They release 2-10 monosaccharides on hydrolysis, like disaccharides, e.g. sucrose,
lactose maltose etc and trisaccharides, like raffinose etc.
• Sucrose is also called invert sugar. It gives glucose and fructose when subjected to
hydrolysis.

Polysaccharides
• They release more than ten monosaccharides on hydrolysis. These are non-sugars, i.e., do
not have sweet taste, e.g., cellulose, glycogen and starch.
• Cellulose is found in plant cell wall and is digested by ruminants (like cow, goat, buffalo, etc),
but not by carnivorous or omnivorous animals like human beings. Thus, it acts as roughage in
case of human beings.
Function of Carbohydrates
 • Carbohydrates provide energy, that acts as reserve food, help in the synthesis of nucleic acid
and form exoskeleton of animals. Excessive intake of carbohydrate results in digestive
problems and obesity.

Proteins
These are found in all living cells. These are the compounds of carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S). These form 15% part of human body. Snake venom,
ricin of castor and bacterial toxins are proteinaceous in nature. Main sources of protein are
groundnuts, soyabean, pulses, fish etc.

Function of Proteins
• These are important for the growth and repair of the body (75% of our body is protein only).
However, in the deficiency of carbohydrates, these acts as the source of energy. Protein also
control the development of genetic characters.
• Deficiency of protein causes Kwashiorkor (a disease in which hands and legs of children
get slimmed and the stomach comes out) and Marasmus (a disease in which muscles of
children are loosened). Kwashiorkor occurs in children between 1 to 5 years of age and
marasmus in children below 1 year.

Lipids (Fats)
• These are also the compounds of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
• Chemically, these are the ester of glycerol and fatty acids. These are present in cytoplasm,
cell wall etc.
• The main source of fats are ghee, butter, almond, cheese, egg yolk, meat, soyabean etc.
• Fats are digested by enzymes called lipases in the small intestine. Generally, at 20°C, these
are in solid state but if their state is liquid at this temperature, these are termed as oils.
• Fatty acids are of two types- Saturated and Unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids are found in
coconut oil and palm oil, while unsaturated fatty acids are found in fish oil and vegetable oil.
• Excess of saturated fats raises the level of blood cholesterol and may cause arteriosclerosis.
This may lead to heart attack.

Function of Lipids
The main functions of lipids are
• These provide twice the energy than that from carbohydrates.
• These remain under the skin and prevents the loss of heat from the body.
Malnutrition Effects
• Deficiency of fat results in dryskin and weight loss.
• If fat is in excess, the body gets fatty and result in several heart diseases and high blood
pressure.
• The skin fat, in case of whales and seals, forms a thick layer called the blubber. It acts as
reserve food and also maintains the body temperature.
 Vitamin
• It was first discovered by FG Hopkin. However, the term vitamin was coined by C Funk.
• Vitamin is an organic compound, which cannot be synthesised in sufficient quantities by an
organism and must be obtained from the diet.
• They provide no calories, they only regulate chemical reactions occurring in the metabolism
of the body.
These are divided into two groups
1. Fat soluble vitamin, viz. vitamin- A, D, E and K.

2. Water soluble vitamin, viz. vitamin-B and C.

• Vitamin-B12 contains cobalt. Vitamin-D is synthesised in our skin by the action of
ultraviolet rays of the sunlight. Vitamin-K is synthesised in our colon by the bacteria.
• Water soluble vitamins normally do not show hypervitaminosis (this disease occurs due to
excess intake of vitamins) as excess of these vitamins is normally excreted through urine.
• In balanced diet, all the important nutrients (like carbohydrate, protein, fats, vitamins etc.)
are available in sufficient quantity.
SYSTEMS OF HUMAN BODY

Integumentary System
The human skin (integumentary) is composed of a minimum of three major layers of tissue, the
epidermis, dermis and hypodermis.

Epidermis
The top layer of skin is made up of epithelial cells and does not contain blood vessels.

Dermis
● It gives elasticity to the integument, allowing stretching and conferring flexibility, while also
resisting distortions, wrinkling and sagging.
● Nails grow 1 mm per week on an average.
● Protein, keratin stiffens epidermal tissue to form finger nails.

Hypodermis
● It is made up of adipose tissue.
It performs several important functions
1. Protect against invasion by infectious organisms.
2. Protect the body from dehydration.
3. Maintain homeostasis.
4. Act as a receptor for touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold.
5. Protect the body against sunburns by secreting melanin.
 6. Generate vitamin-D through exposure to ultraviolet light.
7. Store water, fat, glucose and vitamin-D.

Animal Nutrition and Digestion

Animals are not able to synthesise their own food, therefore they obtain it from outside
environment for their nutritional requirements.

Mineral Nutrients
● These are metals, non-metals and their salts other than the four
elements—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen and constitute about 4% of total body weight.
● Milk, eggs, meat, fruit, food, vegetables etc are the sources of minerals.
Minerals are of two types
1. Macronutrients These are required in large amount, e.g., calcium (Ca),
phosphorus (P), potassium (K) etc.
2. Micronutrients These are required in very small amount (less than 1 g), e.g.,
iodine (I), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) etc.

Mineral Major Food Source Uses Deficiency Disease

Macronutrients
Calcium (Ca) Milk, cheese, bread Muscle contraction, Tetany and rickets
and vegetables nerve action, blood
clotting and the
formation of bone.
Phosphorus (P) Cheese, eggs, pea Bone and tooth Tetany and rickets
nuts and most foods formation, energy
transfer from foods,
DNA, RNA and ATP
formation.
Sulphur (S) Dairy products, meat, Formation of thiamine, Disturbed protein
eggs and broccoli keratin and metabolism
coenzymes
Potassium (K) Potatoes, meat and Muscle contraction, Nervous disorder,
chocolate. nerve action, active poor muscles leading
transport to paralysis.
Sodium (Na) Any salted food, meat, Muscle contraction, Nervous, depression,
eggs and milk. nerve action and muscular cramps, pH
active transport. disbalance

Chlorine (Cl) Salted food and Anion/cation balance Loss of appetite

seafood. and gastric acid muscle cramps.
formation
 Magnesium (Mg) Meat, chocolate and Formation of bone, Irregularity of
green vegetable formation of metabolism.
coenzymes in cell
respiration.

Micronutrients
(Trace Elements)
Iron (Fe) Liver, kidney, red Formation of Anaemia and low
meat, cocoa powder haemoglobin immunity
and water cress myoglobin and
cytochromes
Fluorine (F) Water supplies, tea, Resistance to tooth Weak teeth (if present
sea food, meat, liver decay in
and beans excess causes
mottling of
(teeth)
Zinc (Zn) Meat, liver and beans Enzyme activation Anaemia, retarted
and carbon dioxide growth, weak
transport immunity and fertilty
Copper (Cu) Liver, meat and fish Enzyme, melanin and Anaemia, weak blood
haemoglobin vessels and
formation connective tissues.
lodine (I) Seafood, iodised salt Thyroxine production Goitre
and fish

Manganese (Mn) Tea, nuts, spices and Bone development Irregular growth of
cereals and enzyme activation bones and connective
tissues
Chromium (Cr) Meat and cereals Uptake of glucose Irregular metabolism

Cobalt (Co) Meat and yeast Synthesis of vitamin- Anaemia

B12, formation of red
blood cells

Water
About 70% of the human body consists of water. Two-third of water exists inside
cells, the other one-third is outside the cells in tissue fluid and blood plasma. It is essential for
digestion, transportation, excretion and to regulate body temperature.
Many factors affects the health of human body. One of them is adulteration.
Food Adulteration
Addition of undesirable, cheap and harmful substances in the food is called food adulteration.
Indian Standards Institution (ISI) Mark and mark (Agricultural marketing) are given by the Bureau
of Indian Standards after testing the purity and quality of material and food respectively.
Food Item/Stuff Adulterant
Milk, curd and cheese Water and urea
Sweets Saccharin, harmful colour
Ghee Vanaspati and animal fats
Cereals Stones, sand and grit
Dhania powder Powdered horse dung
Haldi powder Lead chromate
Pulses Metanil yellow
Edible oils Argemone oil
Black pepper Papaya seed

DISEASES
It is a condition of the body or its part in which functions are disturbed. The diseases
may be broadly classified into two types, i.e., congenital and acquired.

Congenital Diseases
These are anatomical or physiological abnormalities present from birth.
They may be caused by
• A single gene mutation (alkaptonuria, phenylketonuria, albinism, sickle-
cell anaemia, haemophilia and colour blindness).
• Chromosomal aberrations (Down’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome and
Turner’s syndrome).
• Environmental factors (cleft palate and harelip). Unlike the gene and
chromosome induced congenital defects, environmentally caused abnormalities
are not transmitted to the children.

Acquired Diseases
These diseases develop after birth. They are further of two types, i.e.,
communicable and non-communicable.
1. Communicable (infectious) diseases are caused by pathogenic micro-
organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites or fungi; the diseases can be
spread, directly or indirectly, from one person to another. Infectious diseases, are
also known as transmissible diseases.
2. Non-communicable (non- infectious) diseases are not passed by
organisms among people, but come from genetic or lifestyle factors.
 COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
These are the diseases which may pass or carried from on human or animal to other.
Communicable diseases are illness caused by germs such as bacteria, viruses and
spread by an infected person, animals or object to other persons.

Viral Diseases
Viruses are parasitic and causes a number of diseases.

Bird Flu(H5N1)
Bird flu (Avian influenza) is a disease caused by an influenza virus-A, that primarily
affect birds.
The following persons may be on higher risk for developing the bird flu
• Farmers and others, who work with poultry.
• Travellers, visiting affected countries.
• Those who have touched an infected bird.
• Those who eat raw or undercooked poultry meat, eggs from infected birds.

Symptoms
Fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches and eye infection (conjunctivitis).

Treatment
Treatment with the antiviral medication oseltamivir (tamiflu) or zanamivir (relenza) may make
the disease less severe. Oseltamivir may also be prescribed for persons, who live in the
same house as those diagnosed with avian flu.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)

It is a serious form of pneumonia. It is caused by a virus that was first identified in
2003. Infection with the SARS virus causes acute respiratory distress (severe
breathing difficulty) and sometimes death.

Symptoms
Cough usually starts 2-3 days after other symptoms like Fever, headache and
muscle aches.

Treatment
Antibiotics to treat bacteria that cause pneumonia, Antiviral medications. High
doses of steroids to reduce swelling in the lungs. Oxygen, breathing support
(mechanical ventilation) or chest therapy.

Hepatitis
Hepatitis is a swelling and inflammation of the liver. It is not a condition, but is often
used to refer a viral infection of the liver.
Hepatitis can be caused by:
 • Immune cells in the body attacking the liver and causing autoimmune hepatitis
Infections from viruses (such as hepatitis-A, B or C), bacteria or parasites.
Liver damage from alcohol, poisonous mushrooms or other poisons.
• Medications, such as an overdose of acetaminophen, can cause harm or death
also.

Symptoms
Abdominal pain or distention. Breasts development in males. Dark urine and pale or
clay coloured stools. Fatigue, general itching, fever, usually low-grade jaundice
(yellowing of the skin or eyes) and loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and weight
loss.

AIDS
Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune
system caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). AIDS was first
recognised by the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in 1981.

HIV Infection
AIDS is a condition caused by HIV infection. The condition gradually destroys the
immune system, which makes it harder for the body to fight infections.

Transmission
HIV can be spread by the following
• Through sexual contact i.e. oral, vaginal and anal sex.
• Through blood transfusions, accidental needle sticks or needle sharing.
• From mother to child: A pregnant woman can transmit virus to her foetus through
their shared blood circulation or a nursing mother can pass it to her baby through
breast’s milk.

Test for AIDS

• Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay/ Enzyme Immuno Assay
(ELISA/EIA)
• Radio Immuno Precipitation Assay/ Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Assay
(RIP/IFA)
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
• Western Blot Confirmatory Test.
 NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
There are various kinds of non-communicable diseases, which affect the health of
human beings. Some of the common non- communicable diseases are

Diabetes
Diabetes is a long-term condition caused by too much glucose (sugar) in the blood. There
are two main types of diabetes

Type 1
Diabetes occurs when the body doesn’t produce enough insulin to function properly or
the body’s cells don’t react to insulin. This is known as insulin resistance.

Type 2
Diabetes is far more common than type 1 diabetes, which occurs when the body doesn’t
produce any insulin at all.

Symptoms
Symptoms common to both types of diabetes include
I. Feeling very thirsty.
II. Urinating frequently, particularly at night.
III. Feeling very tired.
IV. Weight loss and loss of muscle bulk.

Cancer
It is uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. Some diseases cause
emergence of tumours in body. These are called neoplastic diseases. This includes
from a minor role to a lethal cancer.

Causes of Cancer
• Cancer is induced by physical, chemical and biological factors or agents. These
are called carcinogens or cancer causing agents. Ionising radiations such as X-rays,
and non-ionising radiations such as ultraviolet (UV) damage the DNA leading to
neoplastic transformation.
• Tobacco smoke contains chemical carcinogens that causes lung cancer.
Viruses also cause cancer. These are called oncogenic viruses as they have
genes called viral oncogenes.

Cancer Detection and Diagnosis

Leukaemia or blood cancer can be detected based on biopsy and
histopathological studies of the tissue and blood and bone marrow tests for
increased cell counts. Cancers of internal organs are detected using techniques such
as Radiography Computed Tomography (RCT) and Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI).
Cancer Therapy
• Cryo Surgery It is the technique of using extreme rapid cooling that freeze tissues, thereby destroy them.
Rapid cooling to temperature below freezing point produces irreversible cell damage and cell death occurs at 20°C
to 90°C.
• Proton Therapy It is a type of particle therapy, which uses a beam of protons to irradiate diseased tissue,
most often in the treatment of cancer.
• Radiation Therapy Radiation therapy is a cancer treatment. Its goal is to kill cancer cells and shrink
tumours.
• Stem Cell Transplantation Stem cell transplants can be an effective treatment for people with certain
forms of cancer, such as leukaemia and lymphoma.
• Peripheral Blood Stem Cell Transplantation (PBSCT) It is also called peripheral stem
cell support. This procedure restore stem cells that has been destroyed by high doses of chemotherapy.

Heart Diseases
Some heart diseases are as follow

Angina Pectoris
Human with angina, experience pain in the centre of the chest. The chest can feel
constricted and tight, but the pain can also be oppressive, as if something is crushing
your chest. Pain starts in the centre of the chest behind the breast bone (sternum) or
on the left side of the front of the chest. It can spread out to other parts of your body like
your arms and stomach.

Myocardial Infarction
• It is commonly known as heart attack, results from the interruption of blood
supply to a part of the heart, causing heart cells to die.
• This is most commonly due to occlusion (blockage) of a coronary artery
following the rupture of a vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque, which is an
unstable collection of lipids (cholesterol and fatty acids) and white blood cells
(especially macrophages) in the wall of an artery.
• The result is ischemia (restriction in blood supply) and ensuing oxygen, if left
untreated for a sufficient period of time, can cause damage or death (infarction)
of heart muscle tissue (myocardium).

Heart Arrest
• It occurs when the heart is unable to provide sufficient pump action to distribute
blood flow to meet the needs of the body. Heart arrest can cause a number of
symptoms including shortness of breath, leg swelling and exercise intolerance.
• The condition is diagnosed with echocardiography and blood tests. Treatment
commonly consists of lifestyle measures such as smoking cessation, light
 exercise including breathing protocols, decreased salt intake and other dietary
changes and medications.

Arthritis
• It affects the musculoskeletal system, specifically the joints. It is the main cause
of disability among people over 55 years of age in industrialised countries.
• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) It is a long-term disease that leads to inflammation
of the joints and surrounding tissues. It can also affect other organs.

Osteoarthritis
It is a joint inflammation that results from cartilage degeneration. It can be caused by
ageing, heredity and injury from trauma or disease. The most common symptom of
osteoarthritis is pain in the affected joint(s) after repetitive use.

Gout
Gout is a kind of arthritis. It can cause an attack of sudden burning pain, stiffness and
swelling in a joint, usually a big toe. These attacks can happen over and over unless
gout is treated. Overtime, they can harm your joints, tendons and other tissues. Gout is
most common in men.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases

• Gonorrhoea It is caused by bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Anyone who
has any type of sexual contact can catch gonorrhoea. The infection can be
spread by contact with the mouth, vagina, penis or anus.

• Syphilis It is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the spirochete

bacterium Treponema pallidum sub-species pallidum. The primary route of
transmission is through sexual contact; it may also be transmitted from mother
to foetus during pregnancy or at birth, resulting in congenital syphilis.

• Genital herpes It is a Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) caused by the

Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV).

• Trichomoniasis It is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the parasite

Trichomonas vaginalis.

Mental Disorder
A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological pattern or anomali, potentially
reflected in behaviour, that is generally associated with distress or disability and which is
not considered part of normal development of a person’s culture. This may be
associated with particular regions or functions of the brain or rest of the nervous
system, often in a social context.
Alzheimer’s Disease
It is a progressive mental deterioration that can occur in middle or old age, due to
generalised degeneration of the brain. It is the commonest cause of premature senility.

DRUGS
A drug is a substance, which when taken in, alters the body functions. Repeated use of
drugs particularly for obtaining quick pleasure is called drug abuse.

Some Simple Drugs

Below are the types of simple drugs.

Analgesic (Pain Killers)

These drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous system; they
include paracetamol (acetaminophen), the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, narcotic drugs such as morphine, synthetic drugs
with narcotic properties such as tramadol and various others.

Anaesthetic
An anaesthetic is used to temporarily reduce or take away sensation, usually so that
painful procedures or surgery can be performed.
There are two types of anaesthetics
• General which make the patient unconscious.
• Local which numb the part of the body that would otherwise feel pain.

Antibiotics (Bactericidal)
These are powerful medicines that fight bacterial infections. When used properly,
antibiotics can save lives. They either kill bacteria or stop them for reproducing.

Antihistamines
These are medicines that can be used to relieve severe itching and help in breaking
histamine cycle. It leads to thickening and weeping of the skin and generally makes the
eczema worse and more likely to become infected because scratching breaks the skin.

Tranquiliser
It is a drug that induces tranquility in an individual. The minor tranquilisers induce a
feeling of calm and relaxation. Depending on the medication and dosage, this can
range from feeling of mild euphoria to states of drowsiness, confusion and lightedness.

Sedative
It is a substance that induces sedation by reducing irritability or excitement. At higher
doses it may result in slurred speech, staggering gait, poor judgment and slow,
uncertain reflexes.
Doses of sedatives such as benzodiazepines, when used as a hypnotic induce sleep,
tend to be higher than amounts used to relieve anxiety, whereas only low doses are
needed to provide a peaceful and calming sedative effect.

Narcotic
It is originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with any sleep-
inducing properties.

Antipyretics (Temperature Reduction)

These are drugs or herbs that reduce fever. Antipyretics cause the hypothalamus to
over ride an interleukin-induced increase in temperature. The body then works to
lower the temperature, resulting in a reduction of fever. Bacteria of cholera and TB was
discovered by Robert Koch

Disorders Hormone Quantity Gland

Dwarfism GH Deficiency Pituitary
Gigantism GH Excess Pituitary
Acromegaly GH Excess Pituitary
Simmond’s disease GH Deficiency Pituitary
Diabetes insipidus ADH Deficiency Pituitary
Cretinism Thyroxine Deficiency Thyroid
Simple goitre Thyroxine Deficiency Thyroid
Myxoedema Thyroxine Deficiency Thyroid
Exophthalmic goitre Thyroxine Excess Thyroid
Tetani Parathyroid Deficiency Parathyroid
Plummer’s disease Thyroxine Deficiency
Addison’s disease Mineralocorticoids Deficiency Adrenal cortex
(aldosterone) and
glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Crohn’s disease Mineralocorticoids Excess Adrenal cortex
Cushing disease Corticosteroid Excess Adrenal cortex

◆
.
Disease Pathogen Affected Symptom
Organ
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Lungs Repeated coughing, high fever.
tuberculosis
Diphtheria Corynebacterium Respiratory Difficulty in respiration (mainly in
diphtheriae tract child of age 2-5 yrs).
Whooping cough Bacillus pertussis Respiratory Continuous coughing.
or pertussis system

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine Vomiting, acute diarrhoea, mus-

cular cramps, dehydration etc.
Leprosy or leprae Chronic Ulcers, nodules, scaly scabs
Hansen’s Mycobacterium infection of skin (the infected part of the body

disease and nerve becomes senseless).

Tetanus (lock jaw) Clostridium tetani Central Painful contraction of neck and
nervous jaw muscles followed by
system paralysis of thoracic muscles.
Pneumonia Diplococcus Lungs Sudden chill, chest pain, cough,
pneumoniae high and fever.
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Intestine High fever, diarrhoea and
headache
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Skin and —
intestine
Plague Pasteurella, Blood disease High fever, weakness and

(i) Bubonic Yersinia pestis haemorrhage which turn black.

plague
(ii) Pneumonic ’’ Lungs Haemorrhage of bronchi, lungs.
plaque
(iii) Septicemic ,, Anaemia, fever, chills leading to
plague death with in two days.

Gonorrhoea Neisseria Urinary tract Swelling in urinary tract

(sexual disease) gonorrhoea
Disease Pathogen Affected Symptom
Part
Measles (Rubella Rubella virus Whole body Loss of appetite, reddish eruption on
disease) the body.
Chicken pox Varicella virus Whole body High fever, reddish eruption on body.
Small pox Variola virus Whole body Light fever, eruption of blood on body
Polio or Polio virus Throat, Fever, backbone and intestine wall
poliomyelitis backbone cells are destroyed. It leads to
and nerve paralysis.
Influenza (flu) Influenza virus Whole body Inflammation of upper respiratory tract,
nose throat and eyes.
Rabies(hydropho RNA virus Nervous Encephalitis, fear of water, high fever,
bia) called rabies system headache, spasm of throat and chest
virus leading to death.
Hepatitis Hepatitis virus Liver Loss of appetite, nausea, whitish stool
(Epidemic and jaundice.
Jaundice) Hepatitis-A virus Not fatal
(i) Hepatitis-A Hepatitis-B Fatal
(ii) Hepatitis-B virus
Dengue fever RNA containing Whole body High fever, backache, headache,
dengue virus particularly, retro-orbital pain behind the eye ball.
head, eyes
and joints
AIDS (Acquired HIV (Human White blood Weak immune system.
Immuno Immuno cells
Deficiency Deficiency
Syndrome) Virus)
Herpes Herpes virus Skin Swelling of skin.
Ebola virus Ebola Whole body Fatal hemorrhagic fever, liver and
disease Virus(filovirus) kidney disfunction vomiting, headache.
Swine influenza H1N1 flu virus Whole Headache, tiredness, sore throat,
(flu) body Vomiting, breathing problems.
 (muscles)

Disease Pathogen Vector Parts Affected and

(Causative Symptoms
agent)
Pyorrhoea Entamoeba None, infection by Bleeding of gums.
gingivalis lip kissing.
African Trypanosoma Tse-tse fly( Blood and nervous tissue.
trypanosomiasis gambienes Glossina palpalis) Man feels sleepy, may cause
death.
Amoebic Entamoeba None, Infection by Colon (intestine). Develop
dysentery(Amoebi histolytica contamination. loose motion with blood, pain
asis) in abdomen
Diarrhoea Giardia None, infection by Digestive system causes
contamination loose motions, vomitting.
Kala azar or Leishmania Sand Spleen and liver enlarge and
dumdum fever donovani flies(Phlebotomus) high fever develops.
Filaria or Wuchereria bancrofti Culex mosquito Swelling of legs, testes and
elephantiasis other body parts.
Malaria Plasmodium sp. Female Anopheles Periodical attacks of high
mosquito fever, pain in joints
accompanied by chill, heavy
perspiration and fast pulse.

Disease Pathogen (fungi) Symptoms

Asthma or Aspergillus fumigatus Obstruction in the functioning of lungs.
aspergillosis
Athlete’s foot Tinea pedis Skin disease, cracking of feet.
Scabies Acarus scabiei Skin itching and white spot on the skin.
Ringworm Tricophyton Verrucosum Round red spot on skin.
Baldness Tinea capitis Hair fall.
 Test Disease Test Disease
Ames test Carcinogenecity Widal test Typhoid
Dick test Scarlet fever Wayson stain test Plague
Montoux test Tuberculosis Tourniquet test Dengue fever
Rose-Waaler Rheumatoid fever ELISA test AIDS
test
Wassermann Syphilis
test

Vaccination
• It is the process of artificial introduction of germs or the germ substance called antigen
into the body for developing resistance to a particular disease. The material
introduced into the body is called vaccine.
• A vaccine is a dead or weakened microbes. They are unable to produce disease as they
are less in number but they stimulate the body to produce antibodies.
• World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1974 officially launched a global vaccination
programme to protect children from six fatal diseases. Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus,
polio, TB (Tuberculosis) and measles. It was launched in India in 1985.
• BCG (Bacillus Calmette Guerin) vaccine is given to protect against TB (Tuberculosis).
• DPT (diphtheria, Pertussis and Tetanus) vaccine is given to babies within first 6 weeks
of their birth.
Age Vaccination Dose
8-24 ◼ DPT ◼ Booster dose
months
◼ Polio (oral) ◼ Booster dose
◼ Cholera vaccine (can be repeated ◼ One
every year before summer)
5-6 years ◼ DT (Bivalent vaccine against ◼ Booster dose
diphtheria and tetanus)
◼ TAB (vaccine against Salmonella typhi, ◼ Two doses at intervals of 1-2 months
S. paratyphi A and S paratyphi B) or
Typhoid Paratyphoid vaccine
10 years ◼ Tetanus, TAB (typhoid) ◼ Booster dose
16 years ◼ Tetanus, TAB ◼ Booster dose
 HUMAN GENETIC DISODERS
The important human genetic disorders can be categorized as follows:

Disorder Chromosome Effect

Complement
Down’s Trisomy 21 (extra Short stature, epicanthus, small round head, protruding
syndrome chromosome lower lip, flattened nasal bridge, mental retardation, short
number) life, daffiness.
Edward’s Trisomy 18 (extra Long but narrow skull, small face, short digits, webbed
syndrome chromosome neck, corneal opacity, mental retardation.
number)
Cri-du-chat Deletion is short arm Microcephaly, encrusted distance between eyes, moon
syndrome of chromosome 5 face, severe mental deficiency, cat like cry of neonate.
Patau’s Trisomy 13 (extra Left plate and lip, polydactyl, mental retardation, anomalies
syndrome chromosome in dermal pattern, heart viscera and genitalia.
number)

GENETICS
It is the study of heredity and variations. The term ‘Genetics’ was coined by W
Bateson in 1905. Gregor Johann Mondel (commonly called Father of Genetics)
proposed three laws
a) Law of Dominance It states that crossing of plant with red and white flower
produced plants only with red flower i.e., dominant trait appear and recessive
disappeared.
b) Law of Segregation It states that allele of a gene separate during gamete
formation. It is also called law of purity of genetics or law of splitting of hybrids. It
gives 3 : 1 ratio in F2 generation.
c) Law of Independent Assortment It states that two or more genes assort
independently during inheritance. It gives 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio in F2 generation.
Linkage is an exception to this law.
• Test Cross The cross between heterozygous F1 and homozygous recessive
is called test cross. In test cross, the monohybrid ratio is 1 : 1 and dihybrid ratio
is 1:1:1:1.
• Back Cross The cross between heterozygous F1 hybrid and homozygous
dominant allele is called back cross.
Some Important Genetic Terms
• Phenotype It is the physical appearance of an individual.
• Genotype It is the entire genetic complement of an individual organism.
• Alleles The two individual genes in a particular gene pair that occupies same
locus (position) on homologous pair of chromosome.
• Dominant and Recessive Traits (inherited character) The traits may be
dominant or recessive depending upon the fact that on crossing the individuals
(which are homozygous for a particular trait of same character the trait which
appears in the F1 generation is called dominant and the other one is recessive.
• Hybrid An offspring, which is obtained from a cross between two genetically
different parents.
• Linkage The phenomenon of genic inheritance in which genes of a particular
chromosome show their tendency to inherit together, i.e., tendency to retain their
parental combination even in the offsprings is known as linkage.
• Mutation It is a sudden change of a gene (gene mutation) or chromosome
(chromosomal mutation) from one form to another, which are passed to the
daughter cells.
• Heteroploidy It is the variation in chromosome number.
• Pleiotropy It occurs when one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits.

Name Chromosomes Effect

Complement
Turner’s 44+XO (45) Phenotypically female, sterile due to
syndrome undifferentiated gonads, webbed neck, low
posterior hair line increased carrying angle of
elbow, short stature.
Noonan’s 44+ YO (45) Phenotypically male, short stature, webbed
syndrome neck, drooping upper eyelid, little development
of gonads.
Super males 44+XYY (45) Male, tall, excess testosterone secretions,
subnormal intelligence.
Super females 44+XXX(47) Female, mental retardation, low fertility but
44+XXXX(48) genitalia normal.
Klinefelter’s 44+XXY(47) Male tall with long legs, some with
syndrome 44+XXYY(48) gynecomastia, small testes, azospermia,
infertile, increased excretion of gonadotropin.
Disorder Dominant/ Autosomal/ Symptoms Effect
recessive Sex-linked
Phenylketonur Recessive Autosomal Failure of brain to Defective form of
ia (chromosome 12) develop infancy enzyme phenyl
mental retardation. alanine hydroxylase.
Sickle-cell Recessive Autosomal Aggregation of Abnormal
anaemia (chromosome 11) erythrocytes, more haemoglobin in
rapid destruction of RBCs
erythrocytes leading to
anaemia.
Haemophilia Recessive Sex-linked Failure of blood to Defective form of
A/B (X-chromosome) clot. blood clotting factor
VIII/IX.
Colour Recessive Sex-linked Failure to discriminate Defect in either red
blindness (X-chromosome) between red and or/and green cones.
green colour.
Huntington’s Dominant Autosomal Gradual degeneration Production of an
disease (chromosome 4) of brain tissue in inhibitor of brain cell
middle ages. metabolism.
Cystic fibrosis Recessive Autosomal Mucus clogging in Failure of chloride
(chromosome 7) lungs, liver and ion transport
pancreas anomalies. mechanism.
 Vitamins
• Vitamin C was the first vitamin to be produced by a fermentation process using
Acetobacter, a wild bacterium.
• Bacteria used for industrial production of vitamin-B12 are propionibacterium
shermanii, P. freundenreichii and Pseudomonas denitrificans.
• Vitamin-B2 (Riboflavin) is synthesised by many micro-organisms including
bacteria, yeasts and fungi. The fungus, Ashbya gossypii is used for the
microbial production of vitamin-B2.

Biotechnologies in Human Health

• Monoclonal antibodies are made outside the body by the hybrid cell cultures
known as hybridomas.
• Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies that are identical because they were
produced by one type of immune cell and are all clones of a single parent cell.
• A biochip is a discrete collection of gene fragments on a stamp-sized chip that
can be used to screen for the presence of particular gene variants.
• Biochips allow rapid screening of gene profiles, a tool that promises to have a
revolutionary impact on medicine and society.
• Biochips can help in identifying precise forms of cancer.
• Gene therapy is the treatment of disease by replacing, altering or
supplementing a gene whose absence or abnormality is responsible for the
disease. Gene therapy is unique as it employs the genetic material,
• i.e. DNA, itself as the means of treatment.
• DNA finger printing is the technique, in which the banding pattern of DNA
fragments is compared and can be used in many species, including human, to
indicate relativity. (used for rape victim, paternity, other criminals).
• Human insulin or humulin is the first genetically engineered pharmaceutical
product, developed by Eli Lilly and company in 1982.
• Genentech, a California-based company, have produced human growth
hormone (hGH) from genetically engineered bacteria.
• Somatostatin is the first polypeptide, which was expressed in E coli as a part
of the fusion peptide.
• BST or Bovine Somatotropin is produced in a large quantity from milk
production in cows.
• In 1997, a transgenic cow ‘Rosie’ produced human alpha-lactalbumin protein
enriched milk (2.4 grams per litre).
• It is possible to cure phenylketonuria disease by using recombinant DNA
techniques in early period of pregnancy.
• Urokinase is involved in dissolution of blood clots. It has been synthesised in
huge quantity by using genetically engineered bacteria with urokinase genes.
 Antibiotics Source Action
Penicillin Penicillium chrysogenum, P Tonsilitis, Sore Throat, Gonorrhea,
notatum + Phenyl Acetic Rheumatic Fever, some Pneumonia
Acid types
Griseofulvin Penicillium griseofulvum Antifungal, especially for Ringworm
Nystatin Streptomyces noursei Antifungal for Candidiasis and
overgrowth of Intestinal Fungi during
excessive antibiotic treatment.
Hamycin Streptomyces pimprina Antifungal Antibiotic
Fumagillin Aspergillus fumigatus Broad spectrum antibacterial
especially against Salmonella and
Shigella.
Bacitracin Bacillus licheniformis Syphilis, Lymphonema or Reticulosis.
Streptomycin Streptomyces griseus Meningitis, Pneumonia, Tuberculosis
and Local Infection. Toxic in some,
through eighth cranial nerve.
Chloramphenic Streptomyces venezuelae, Typhoid, Typhus, Whooping cough,
ol
Chloromycetin S. lavendulae Atypical Pneumonia, Bacterial Urinary
Infections.
Tetracyclines/ Streptomyces aureofaciens Viral pneumonia, Osteomyelitis,
Aureomycin Whooping Cough. Eye infections.
Oxytetracycline Chlorotetracycline Intestinal and Urinary Infections
/
Terramycin Hydrogenation Streptomyces (Spirochaetes, Rickettsia, Viruses)
rimosus
Erythromycin Streptomyces erythreus (= Typhoid, Common Pneumonia,
S. erythraeus) Diphtheria, Whooping Cough etc.
Gentamycin Micromonospora purpurea Effective against Gram (+) bacteria
Polymixin Bacillus polymyxa Antifungal
 AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is derived from Latin words Ager and Cultura. Ager means land or field
and Cultura means cultivation. Therefore, the term Agriculture means cultivation of
land, i.e., the science and art of producing crops and livestock for economic purposes.
It was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilisation, whereby farming
of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of
civilisation.

AGRONOMY
The branch of agriculture that deals with field crop production and soil management.
Agronomists generally work with crops that are grown on a large scale (e.g., small
grains) and that require relatively little management. Agronomic experiments focus on
a variety of factors relating to crop plants, including yield, diseases, cultivation and
sensitivity to factors such as climate and soil.

Cropping Pattern
Crop Rotation
It is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in
sequential seasons. It confers various benefits to the soil.
Crop rotation also mitigates the build-up of pathogens and pests that often occurs, when
one species is continuously cropped and can also improve soil structure and fertility by
alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants.

Intensive Cropping
It refers to efficient use of water, nutrients and tillage. The interdependence of and
synergies among water, nutrients and energy in regard to increasing crop performance is
generally preferred.

Zero Tillage
It is a way of growing crops from year to year without disturbing the soil through tillage.
No-till is an agricultural technique, which
increases the amount of water and organic
matter (nutrients) in the soil and decreases erosion. It increases the amount and variety
of life in and on the soil.
It has two distnctive features
• Sole Cropping It is to cultivate a pure variety of crop.
• Monoculture Planting a sole crop in a field regularly but harvest it single in a
year.

Companion Planting/Cropping
It is the planting of different crops in proximity on the theory that they assist each other
in nutrient uptake, pest control, pollination and other factors necessary in increasing
crop productivity.
Intercropping
It is the practice of growing two or more crops in proximity. It is particularly
important not to have crops competing with each other for physical space, nutrients,
water or sunlight.
The most common goal of intercropping is to produce a greater yield on a given piece
of land by making use of resources that would otherwise not be utilised by a single
crop.

Multiple Cropping
It is the practice of growing two or more crops in the same space during a single
growing season.
It can take the form of double-cropping, in which a second crop is planted after the
first has been harvested or relay cropping, in which the second crop is started amidst the
first crop before it has been harvested.

Farming System
Mixed Farming
It is one in which crop production is combined with the rearing of livestock. The livestock
enterprises are complementary to crop production, so as to provide a balance and
productive system of farming.

Ranching
It is the practice of raising the grazing livestock such as cattles, sheep or poultry. The
area is known as ranch and the practice is called ranching. The ranching and
cowboy tradition originated in Spain. During the Reconquista in middle ages the
Spanish nobles got huge lands on grants.

Terrace Farming
It is a piece of sloped land, which has been landscaped in such a way that, the practice of
farming can be easily carried out.
Generally, this type of farming is done in the mountain regions along the slope. The
land is cutout along the slope and terraces are made. This system is more common in
North-Eastern hilly tracts of India.

Truck Farming
(Marketing Gardening)
It is a horticultural practice of growing fruits, vegetables, etc., on commercial basis, in
trucks for direct delivery to big restaurants, hotels and motels. This technique was
evolved by the english speaking farmers, who referred them as truck farms in 19th
century.
Organic Farming
Organic agriculture means a process of developing a viable and sustainable
agroecosystem. It is an agricultural practice that relies on crop rotation, green
manure, compost and biological pest control.
Organic farming uses fertilisers and pesticides but strictly limits the use of synthetic
fertilisers, pesticides, plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics,
food additives and genetically modified organisms.

Blanching
In it, the young shoots of a plant are covered to exclude light to prevent photosynthesis,
which would produce chlorophyll and thus, remain pale in colour. Blanched vegetables
have a more delicate flavour and texture than unblanched.
SEED SCIENCE
• It is a basic and most important input of agriculture. A good quality seed is one,
which is free from adulterants, diseased or insect-pest infestations, which hinder or
reduce the quality of a seed.
• The era of hybridisation of seeds started after 1930. The hybrid seeds are the cross
breeded seeds, which are artificially developed so as to have the desirable
characters. While developing a hybrid seed, it goes through the various
developmental stages.

These are
• Nuclear Seed It is initial pure seed of an improved variety available with the
breeder.
• Breeder’s Seed It is the seed obtained from the progeny (generation) of
nucleus seed.
• Foundation Seed The breeder seeds grown on State Government farms and
agriculture universities under scientific observations and check.
• Registered Seed The seeds grown from nucleus, breeder’s and foundation
seeds.
• Certified Seed The seeds certified before release as a new variety having all
the desirable characters.

Synthetic and Composite Seed Varieties

• Synthetic variety: It is a variety developed by selecting a number of inbred lines
with good General Combinig Ability (GCA). Synthetic varieties can be
developed by using clones or inbreeds, e.g., ICMS 7703.
• Composite variety: It is a variety that is developed by mixing of seeds of
various outstanding inbred lines, which have similar characteristics. So, the
exact reconstitution of composite variety is not possible, e.g., Sona, Shakti,
African tall etc.
Hybrid Seed
• It is produced by cross-pollinated plants. In hybrid seed production, the crosses
are specific and controlled. The advantage of growing hybrid seed compared to
inbred lines comes from heterosis.
• To produce hybrid seed, elite inbred varieties are crossed with well-
documented and consistent phenotypes (such as yield) and the resulting hybrid
seed is collected.

Artificial Seed
It is encapsulated plant propagule (somatic embryo/shoot bud) in a suitable matrix,
containing substances like nutrients, growth regulators, herbicides, insecticides,
fungicides and mycorrhizae, which will allow and help it to grow into a complete
plantlet.

Genetically Modified Seeds

It is that they have been altered or modified, through biotechnology to have their genetic
structure changed. This is usually accomplished by either adding or taking away genes
of the original.

Terminator Seed
The term Terminator seeds as it applies to the area of agriculture can be defined as a
descriptive term used by some for seeds that have been genetically engineered to
produce a crop whose first generation produces sterile seeds, thus preventing a second
generation from being grown from seeds saved from the first.

Traitor Technology
In this technology, to make the induced gene active, certain chemicals are used.
Many Multi National Corporations (MNCs) are trying to bring this in India and
environmentalists are opposing it.

Crop Diversification
It is intended to give a wider choice in the production of a variety of crops in a given
area so as to expand production related activities on various crops and also to lessen
risk. Crop diversification in India is generally viewed as a shift from traditionally
grown less remunerative crops to more remunerative crops.

AGROFORESTRY
It is an integrated approach of using the interactive benefits from combining trees and
shrubs with crops and/or livestock. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies to
create more diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems. A
narrow definition of agroforestry is trees on farms.
Vermicomposting
It is a method of using worms to transform organic waste into a nutrient-rich fertiliser. It is
a healthy and clean way to eliminate wastes going into our landfills, which improves the
environment. Vermicomposting is inexpensive and only takes two to three months to
produce results.

Plant Preservation
Like other organisms plants can also be infected with the disease. All these disease
causing agents are called Pests. Main causative agents are virus, bacteria and fungi.
As for example, wheat is infected with rust and smut. In paddy, generally blast is
found, which is spread by Gandhi bug. In cotton, bollworm causes disease.
Keeping fruits and vegetables fresh for a longer period without hampering its physical
and chemical properties, is called fruits and vegetables preservation. Essential
Commodities Act, 1955 has Part-3 for its revelation.

Methods of Preservation
Various methods of preservation are

Low Temperature
Microbes become inactive at low temperature. We can keep them in freezer.

Pasteurisation
It is a mild heating treatment at temperatures up to 100°C (which is the boiling point of
water at elevations up to 300 metres above sea level). This method causes only a slight
decrease in taste and nutritional value. Pasteurised products therefore spoil faster than
sterilised products.

Canning
There are two primary methods of canning A hot water bath and pressure canning
which ever method you use, be sure to use jars with lids made specifically for that
technique. Glass canning jars, which are reusable, come in various sizes (most are
single pints or quarts), so choose one that best suits your canning needs.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

It is an ecological approach to agricultural pest control that integrates
pesticides/herbicides into a management system incorporating a range of practices for
economic control of a pest. An IPM system is designed around six basic components

Acceptable Pest Levels

• The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM programmes first work to
establish acceptable pest levels, called action thresholds and apply controls if
those thresholds are crossed. IPM holds that wiping out an entire pest population
is often impossible and the attempt can be expensive and environmentally unsafe.
 • These thresholds are pest and site specific, meaning that it may be acceptable at
one site to have a weed such as white clover, but at another site it may not be
acceptable.
• By allowing a pest population to survive at a reasonable threshold, selection
pressure is reduced. This stops the pest gaining resistance to chemicals produced
by the plant or applied to the crops. By not killing all the pests there are some un-
resistant pests left that will dilute any resistant genes that appear.

Preventive Cultural Practices

Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions and maintaining healthy crops is the
first line of defence, together with plant quarantine and cultural techniques such as crop
sanitation (e.g., removal of diseased plants to prevent spread of infection).

Monitoring
Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM. Observation is broken into two steps, first
inspection and second, identification. Visual inspection, insect and spore traps and
other measurement methods and monitoring tools are used to monitor pest levels.
Since, insects are cold-blooded, their physical development is dependent on the
temperature of their environment. Many insects have had their development cycles
modelled in terms of degree days. Monitor the degree days of an environment to
determine when is the optimal time for a specific insect’s outbreak.

Responsible Pesticide Use

Synthetic pesticides are generally used as required and often only at specific times in a pest life cycle.

Locust Control and Research

On seeing the grave situation of locust attack, a warning centre as, locust warning
organisation has been created, at Jodhpur. It has locust surveillance and monitoring
through 5 circle offices and 23 outposts.

Mechanical Controls
They include simple hand-picking, erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming
and tillage to disrupt breeding.

Biological Controls
The main focus for biological control is on promoting beneficial insects that eat target
pests. Biological insecticides, derived from naturally occurring microorganisms (e.g.,
Bt, entomopa-thogenic fungi and entomo- pathogenic nematodes).
 Animal Husbandry
The rearing of animals for specific purposes is called domestication and such animals
are called domestic animals. Domestication of animals started during the hunting and
gathering phase of human civilisation.

BUFFALOES
Bubalus bubalis is its scientific name. Generally, it is assumed that India is place of its
origin. There are two types breeds of buffaloes

Exotic or Marshy
These are generally found in Myanmar, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand,
Singapore, Indonesia, China. These are used for cart mainly. Its breeds are
Jerangi, Kuhzestani, Ongole, Sinhala, Manofi, Suinue and Walede.

Aquatic or Indian
These are heavy or light weighted and generally preferred to stay in water. It has low
heat-tolerancce capacity.
These are again categorised into two types

Heavy Weight Buffaloes

It includes three breeds
• Jaffrabadi Its place of origin is supposed to be at Junagarh, Kutch and
Jamnagar of Gujarat. It gives 15-18 L milk per day. Its milk contains 7-9% fat.
• Murrah It found generally in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
etc. It generally gives about 25 L milk per day.
• Nili Ravi It is found mainly in Ferozpur of Punjab. Horns are small, white
spots on mouth and head. Gives on an average 1500-1800 L milk per year.

Light Weight Bufffaloes

It includes following breeds
• Bhadawari It is generally found in Etawah, Agra, Gwalior and surrounding areas.
It gives 4.5 L milk per day. 12-14% fat is found in its milk. Male buffaloes are
used as load carrying cattle.
• Mehsana It is found in Mehsana, Sabar Kantha, Palanpur and Banaskatha. It
gives 8-9 L milk per day. 8-13% fat is present in its milk. It is considered as a
hybrid of Murrah and Surti breeds.
• Surti It found in Gujarat, South-West part, Anand, Nadiad and Vadodara. It
gives on an average 1700 L milk per year. 8-12% fat is available in its milk.
• Nagpuri or Ellichpuri It found in Nagpur, Akola and Amrawati. It gives on
an average 1000-1200 L milk per year. 7-8% fat is present in its milk.
• Tarai It found in Tarai belt of Ramnagar, Tanakpur. It gives about 900-1200 L
milk in a year.
• Manda It found in the boundary of Mondosa and Parlakimedi mountain. Male is
used for carrying heavy loads.
 • Toda It found on the Nilgiri mountain in Tamil Nadu. It gives about 4-8 L milk
per day.

COWS
Scientific name of cow is Bos indicus and Bos taurus. In India, 30 varieties of cows
are present. Rearing of cow and bull is preferred in India. 16% of the world cow and bull
are present in India.

Varieties of Cows
Some varieties of cows are as follows

Humped Indian Breeds

These are high milk-yielding and their calves are not used for agricultural purposes.
Following are its important breeds
• Sahiwal Actually found in Mont- Gomari in Pakistan. In India, it is found in
Punjab, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. It gives around 2150
L milk in a year. 4-6% is content of fat in its milk.
• Red Sindhi Found in Allahabad, Guwahati, Bengaluru. It gives around
5440 L milk in a year.
• Gir Generally found in Junagarh, Kathiawad, Mumbai, Pune, Ahmedabad,
Hyderabad. Oxen are very strong. It gives 1746 L milk on an average. Fat
content is 4-5% in its milk.
• Deoni Similar to Gir breed. It gives 1600-1650 L milk in a year. Fat content
is 4-5% in its milk.

Dual Purpose Breeds

These breeds give more milk along with its calf is very useful in ploughing. Following
are its breeds
• Haryana It found in Rohtak, Haryana. It give 1000-1100 L milk in a year.
Maximum milk yielding capacity is 3178 kg/yr Calf is best for ploughing
activities.
• Nimari It mainly found in Khargaun. Oxen are very strong.
• Tharparkar It mainly found in Kutch, Marwar and in Northern Mumbai. It is also
known as Thari. Its average milk yielding capacity is 1474 kg.

Load Carrying Breeds

• Nageri Main place of origin is believed to be Rajasthan. Now maximum found in
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. Famous for fast walk and heavy load.
• Malvi Main place of origin is Uttar Pradesh, now also found in Madhya
Pradesh and in Rajasthan.
• Amritmahal It found in Mysore of Karnataka. These breeds are fast running
and quick.
• Gangatiri Main place of origin is Uttar Pradesh. These are very useful for
agricultural practices.
 • Siri It basically a hilly breed. Found in Darjeeling and Sikkim. Used in carrying
heavy loads.

Without Humped Cows (Exotic Breeds)

Milk Yielding Breeds
• Jersey Its colour is almond and body is, spotted, milk yielding capacity is 4500
L per year 5% fat content in its milk.
• Brown Swiss It mainly found in Switzerland. It gives 5200 L milk in a year.
Fat content is 4%.

SHEEP
There are many breeds of sheep (Ovis aries) in our country. Today sheeps are raised in
all parts of the world. Sheep provides us with wool, skin and mutton. A sheep lives for
about 13 years.

Exotic Breeds of Sheep

• Merino This is the main representative of the Merino breed in Australia and is
found in extremely high number throughout New South Wales, Queensland,
Victoria and Western Australia.
• South Devon The South Devon is a longwool and meat breed which originated
in South Devon and Cornwall in England. They are of the English Longwool
type and are similar to Devon Longwoolled but are larger. Both sexes are polled
and are naturally hornless.
• Lincoln It is found in England and it is useful for wool and meat.
• Corriedale It is mainly found in New Zealand and Australia. It is useful for wool
and meat.
• Romney Marshy The Romney Marshy are found in England. Romney wool
has the finest fibre diameter of all the longwool breeds. These are mainly used
for wool production.

Shearing of Wool
It is essential to promote the health of sheep. The removal of hairs (wool) from the
recommended periods for shearing of wool are winter (February-March) and rainy
(August- September) season when rich grazing ground is available.
The sheeps are washed properly before the removal of hairs. The manufacture of
wool from sheep hairs is a complicated process consisting of cleaning, drying,
bleaching, dyeing, spining and twisting.

GOAT
There are many breeds of goat (Capra capra) in our country. Goat provide us milk,
meat, skin and hair. The fine soft wool called Pashmina is the underfur of Kashmir
and Tibet goats.
Noori
World’s first Pashmina goat clone, produced in Kashmir has been named Noori and
Arabic word referring to light. Funded by world bank, the clone project was a jointy
worked on Skaust and Nari Karnal.
The clone has come as good news for fine fibre producing Pashmina goats, which
are only spotted at an altitude of 14,000 feet in Ladakh.

Asom Hilly Breeds

These are smaller dwarf breeds of goats found in the hilly tract of Asom and other
Eastern states.

PIGS
• It is also called hog or swine and is an omnivorous, non-ruminant, gregarious
mammal of genus Sus.
• All breeds of pigs have descended from the European wild boar Sus scrofa or a
crossbreed of this and the Asiatic species,
• S. indicus. The care and management of pigs is called piggery.
• Pigs are the most prolific breeders and quick growers among the domestic
animals.
• A group of 10 sows (female hog) and one boar may produce over 160 piglets in a
year.
• Pigs are most useful domestic animals, especially of lower classes of society. They
are most economical source of meat and animal fat.

CAMELS
The camel is a large, horn less, ruminant mammal of genus Camelus. It is popularly
called the ship of the desert because of its great travelling power in a desert.
It is a valuable beast carrying burden in hot desert and semi-desert regions as it can live
on minimum food and water when travelling with load. There are two types of camels
1. Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius) With a single hump, short hair and
found in North Africa to India. It does not occur in wild form.
2. Turkish or Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) With two humps, long
hair and found in Gobi desert of Central Asia. It occurs in wild form also.
 Scientific Names of Fruits
Fruit Scientific Name

Mango Mangifera India

Orange Citrus aurantium

Apple Pyrus Malus

Banana Musa Paradisiaca

Guava Psidium Guajava

Water Melon Citrullus Lanatus

Sweet Potato Ipomoea Batatas

Scientific Names of Vegetables

Vegetables Scientific Names
Potato Solanum Tuberosum

Tomato Lycopersicum Esculentum

Ginger Zingiber Officinale

Onion Allium Cepa

Turmeric Curcuma Longa

Capsicum Capsicum annuum

Lemon Citrus Limon

Black pepper Piper Nigrum

Carrot Daucus Carota

Coriander Coriandrum Sativum

 Scientific Names of Plants
Plants Scientific Names

Tulsi Ocimum Santurum

Neem Azadirachta Indica

Rose Rosa

Tea Camellia Sinensis

Tobacco Nicotiana Tabacum

Cotton Gossypium

Peepal Ficus Religiosa Linn

Bamboo Bambusoideae

Saffron Crocus sativus

Sugar Cane Saccharum

Maize Zea Mays

 Scientific Names of Animals
Animal Scientific Names
Frog Anura / Rana Hexadactylus

Dog Canis Familaris

Cobra Naja Naja

Cat Felis catus

Camel Camelus Dromedarius

Bird Aves

Cockroach Blattodea

King Cobra Ophiophagus Hannah

Mosquito Culicidae

Fox Vulpes Vulpes

Python Python Molurus

Cow Bos Taurus

Nilgai Boselaphus Tragocamelus

Lion Panthera Leo

Pig Sus

Sparrow Passeridae

Honey Bee Apis

Tiger Panthera Tiger

Sheep Ovis Aries

Peacock Pavo Cristatus

Animal Scientific Names
House Fly Musca Domestica

Zebra Equus Quagga

Monkey Cercopithecidae

Rat Rattus Rattus

Lizard Lacertilia

Butterfly RhopaloCera

Horse Equus Caballus

Cheetah Acinonyx Jubatus

Sea Snake Hydro Phiinae

Snake Serpentes

Giraffe Giraffa

Rabbit Oryctolagus Cuniculus

Elephant Elephantidie

Fish Vertebrata

Eagle Accipitridae
 PH Value of Elements
Element PH Value

Pure water 7

Vinegar 2.5-3.4

Wine 2.8-3.8

Milk 6.4-6.6

Ocean water 8.4

Saliva 6.5-7.5

Urine 4.8-8.4

Blood 7.4
Lemon juice 2.2-2.4

Glasses & their Use

Glass Usage
Flint Glass Camera, Lens

Pyrex Glass Testing labs, kitchen pots

Soda Glass Tube light

Crown Glass Electric Bulb

Crooks Glass Spectacles

Potash Glass Spectacles, Kitchen Pots

Mild Glass Test Tube, Wine Glass

 Scientific Studies of Different Fields
Field Study
Study of coins Numismatic

Study of Sound Acoustics

Study of Insect moth Entomology

Study of Birds Ornithology

Study of Silk Insect Sericulture

Study of Honey Bee Apiculture

Study of Fruits Production Horticulture

Study of Fisheries Pisciculture

Study of Fungus Mycology

Study of Algae(shaiwal) Fycology

Study of Flowers Anthology

Study of Fruits Pomology

Study of Fishes Ichthyology

Study of Snakes OPhyology

Study of Trees Dendrology

Study of Lizards Sorology

Study of Serum Serology

Substance used for Glass Colour

Cuprous Oxide Red
Cupric Oxide Peacock Blue
Potassium Dichromate Greenish Yellow
Ferrous Oxide Green
Ferric Oxide Brown
Manganese Oxide Pink
Cobalt Oxide Blue
Gold Chloride Ruby
Cadmium yellow
➢ Diseases Caused by Virus
Disease Virus Name Spread by
Yellow Fever Flavi Virus By Mosquito bite- Aedesaegypti

HIV Aids Human Immunodeficiency Virus Sexual Contact

ELISA Test
Nipah Virus Nipah Virus Exposure to Bat & Pig

Ebola Ebola Virus Infected by Animal Bite

Zika Zika Virus Aedes Mosquito

Japanese Encephalitis Japanese Encephalitis Virus By Mosquito Bites

Polio Polio Virus Contagious Viral Infection due

to poor Sanitation
Covid-19 Corona Virus By contact
RTPCR Test

➢ Diseases Caused by Bacteria

Disease Name Caused by Spread by
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium Tuberculosis In Contact With Infected Person

Pneumonia Streptococcus Pneumoniae In Contact With Infected Person

having Cough
Cholera Vibrio Cholerae Contaminated Water
Poor sanitation
Typhoid Salmonella Typhi Contaminated Food & Water

Leprosy Mycobacterium Laprae In Contact With Infected Person

➢ Diseases Caused by Fungi
Disease Name Caused by Spread by
Ring Worms Skin Contact Humans

Rust of wheat Air/ Seeds Wheat & other crops

Athletiz Foot -- --

Maclura Foot -- --

➢ Diseases Caused by Protozoa

Disease Name Caused by Spread by
Kala-Azar SandFlies Humans

Malaria Female Anopheles Humans

Mosquito
Dysentery -- --

Sleeping-Sickness Tsetse Fly Humans

Okra(Ladies Finger) Insects Okra Plant

Anthrax Contact With infected Meat Most Animals including Humans

Cholera Water/Food Humans

Citrus Canker Air Citrus Fruit Plants

 Latest Previous Year Questions
Graduation Level Questions- Phase 9
➢ The exaggerated response of the immune system to certain antigens present in the environment is called
allergy.
➢ Euglena does NOT figure among the Five Kingdom Classification proposed by RH Whittaker (1969.
➢ Malaria is NOT a disease caused by bacteria.
➢ Rotenone is an example of a natural pesticide.
➢ Amphibians' eyes are without eyelids is NOT a characteristic of Amphibia class of animals.
➢ Ascariasis, a disease is caused due to Common round worms helminths is known to be pathogenic to man.
➢ Different species of Plasmodium (a tiny protozoan) are responsible for different types of malaria, of these,
malignant malaria is the most serious is caused by plasmodium falciparum.
➢ Abiotic factor is the term used for a non-living part of an ecosystem that shapes its environment.

Higher Secondary Level- Phase 9

• Plasmodium Parasites are responsible for Malaria in Humans.
• Plants & Animals communities living together in similar climatic conditions are called Biome.
• Pedagogy related to study Soils as a collection of natural bodies.
• Vitamin D made in the Kidneys
• Herpetology is the branch of Zoology that deals with the study of Amphibians & Reptiles.
• Albumin Proteins is found in Plasma.
• Phylum Echinodermata is group of animals are Marine & characterised by a spiny skin.
• Ozone depletion from the atmosphere becomes the reason for causing of Skin Cancer.
• The natural aging of a lake by nutrient enrichment of its water is called Eutrophication.
• Elephantiasis, also known as Lymphatic Filariasis, is caused by Parasitic Worms.
• Allergy also known as Hypersensitivity, is used to describe a condition in which the human body has an
exaggerated response to a substance (e.g- Food & Drug)
• Mental Barriers is not a Barrier under innate immunity.
• Monera &Bacteria are included in kingdom.
• Autotrophs or the Producers is at the first trophic level of the food chain.
• The naked-seeded plants are called Gymnosperms.
• Malaria is caused by the Plasmodium Protozoa.

Latest Matriculation Level Questions

• Respiratory failure is a condition in which your blood doesn’t have enough Oxygen or has too much Carbon
dioxide.
• Herpetologist Deepak Veerappan has a Snake named after him which is known as “Xylophis Deepaki”
• Redworms need moist Surroundings for their survival.
• Mosaic is a viral Disease that affects Plants.
• Human red Blood cells are formed mainly in the Bone Marrow.
• The canopy Layer is the Primary layer of the rainforest & forms a roof over the two remaining Layers.
• Honey is composed of water & two types of Sugars: Fructose & Glucose.
• The inability to utilise voluntary motor abilities effectively in all the aspects of life from play to structured
skilled tasks is known as Dyspraxia.,
• Vegetative, Sexual & Asexual are three processes of reproduction in plants. All of them are adopted by
algae.
• Queen Honey Bee is not a Hermaphrodite.
• Vitamin K dependent Carboxylase is found in the liver.
• 3 Hydrogen Atoms are in a molecule of Phosphoric Acid.
• During the process of respiration in plants, Oxygen is not released as a product.
• Crayfish & Ticks are classified into Crustacean & Arachnida, respectively.
• Roots that grow out from the tree trunk & which helps to support the tree are called Buttress Root.
• Elephantiasis Disease in which there is chronic inflammation of the organs, is caused by Wuchereria.
• Ciliate, or ciliophoran are the member of Protozoa.
• The most unique characteristic of animals of the Mammalia class is the presence of Mammary glands.
• Common cold is caused by the Rhino Virus.
• Typhoid Fever could be confirmed by Widal Test.
• Octopus is an example of the Phylum Mollusca.

SSC CGL 2020 all Questions

• Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney.
• Carbon and energy requirements of an autotrophic organism are fulfilled by Photosynthesis.
• Two arteries are there in an umbilical cord.
• Lymph is a light clear fluid made up of white blood cells that attack harmful bacteria in the blood.
• Viscose fibre is obtained from cellulose.
• Malaria diseases is caused by a parasite.
• Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin.
• Bones of the body is associated with the rickets disorder.
• Arboriculture is a practice of establishing and managing individual trees generally for amenity purposes.
• Mycology is a branch of biology that studies fungi.
• Chlorophyceae is also called "green algae”.
• Stomach organs secretes hydrochloric acid that helps our body in killing pathogenic bacteria.
• Termite is another name for 'white ant'.
• Totipotency is the ability of a single cell to produce a fertile, adult individual.
• Melatonin encodes proteins in cells to prevent virus entry.
• Yeast ingredient is called the sugar eating fungus'.
• The vertebrae are a part of Spinal cord body systems in humans.
• Mangifera indica is the botanical name of mango.
• Supply of food to plant parts does NOT figure among the main functions of the root system of a plant.
• Breathing root is NOT a storage root.
• The colour of an emerald is generally green.
• Sigmund Freud is the founder of the field of psychoanalysis.
• Diphtheria diseases is caused by bacteria.
• Venation is the pattern of veins in the blade of a leaf.
• The scientific study of birds is called ornithology
• Wandering Albatross is the largest sea bird with the longest wingspan.
• Cytoplasm includes glycogen, poly-β-hydroxybutyrate granules, sulphur granules and gas vesicles.
• Collagen is a type of protein.
• Glucagon, a peptide hormone, is produced by the pancreas.
• Kala-azar disease is caused by protozoa.
• Xylem is the water transporting tissue in plants.
• Spider webs are made up of Silk ,a natural fibre made up of protein.
• Homeostasis is the call the property of an organism of self-regulation and the tendency to maintain a steady
state within an external environment which is liable to change.
• Plague is disease caused by a virus.
• Eardrum behaves like a stretched rubber sheet.
• The liver is affected and skin and eyes tum yellow due to the deposit of bile pigments. Jaundice is the
digestive disorders is described here.
• Kiwi is a flightless bird.
• A watershed is a natural geo-hydrological unit of land, which collects water and drains it through a common
point by a system of streams
• Coral is a sessile animal, that relies upon its relationship with plants like algae to build the largest structures
of biological origin on earth.
• The scientific study of dreams is called oneirology.

Latest NTPC Previous Year Questions of all Phases

• Chicken Pox is caused by a Virus.
• Large intestine is not a part of the circulatory System.
• Carl Linnaeus is the father of Taxonomy.
• Photosphere is the Glowing Surface of the sun.
• Lichen is an organism which monitors Air Pollution.
• Fire Blight disease related with Apple.
• Excessive Curvature of eye lens leads to Myopia.
• Malawi launched the first malaria Vaccine to immune chidren on the occasion of world malaria Day.
• AB+ is considered as the Universal Recipient.
• Bile is secreted by the Liver.
• Typhoid is caused by the Bacteria.
• Beriberi is caused due to deficiency of vitamin B1.
• Marchantia Plants belongs to Bryophyta.
• Spinal Cord is composed of nerve fibres that transmit impulses to & from the brain.
• Green plant is not an abiotic component.
• Metazoa is classified under kingdom animalia.
• Botanical name of Banyan Tree is Ficus Benghalensis.
• Robert Hooke discovered Cell.
• The cause of Hepatitis A is a Virus.
• Taxol is extracted from Yew Plant.
• Adipose Tissue is the fat-storing Tissue in our body.
• Mucus protects the inner lining of the stomach from the action of acid, under normal conditions.
• Autotrophs use simple food material obtained from inorganic sources in the form of carbon dioxide & water.
• Dendrite part of a neuron is information required.
• Small bead-like structures inside the ovary of flowers is called Ovules.
• Xylem is the main tissue that transports water in a plant from its roots to its leaves.
• Saliva helps in food digestion.
• Zoological name of the Housefly is Musca Domestica.
• The smallest unit of the life capable of independent existence is CELL.
• High Blood Pressure is an example of non-infectious disease.
• Sarpagandha medicinal plant can be used to Trear Blood Pressure.
• Litumus solution is derived from lichen.
• Carbon dioxide gas needed for photosynthesis .
• Ribosomes makes protein .
• Ozone protects the earth from ultra violet rays.
• female anopheles mosquitos a transmitter of malaria.
• 206 number of bones are present ion human body.
• Scientific name of touch me not mimosa pudica
• When there is a lack of oxygen in our muscle cells ‘the breakdown of pyruvate take place and it converted
into lactic acid & Energy.
• Each kidney has a large no. of filtration units called nephrons.
• Protochordata is not a group of plants.
• Eating food spoilt by microorganisms is most likely to cause food poisioning.
• Blood is type of Connective tissue.
• Sugarcane plants are one of the most efficient convertors of Sunlight into chemical energy.
• Vitamin K activates proteins & calcium essential for Blood Clotting.
• Redwood is the tallest Tree in the world.
• Ethology describes the biological study of Animal Behaviour.
• Marsilea Plants has hidden reproductive organs.
• Fermentation is the process converting sugar into Alcohol.
• The inner lining of the small intestine has numerous finger like structures are called Villi.
• In human beings, Haemoglobin has a high affinity of Oxygen.
• Crescograph is an instrument used for measuring growth in plants.
• In a plant, the seed contains the embryo which develops into a seedling under appropriate conditions. This
process is called Germination.
• Theophrastus is the father of Botany.
• Gymnosperms plant groups bear naked seeds.
• Iodine is essential for the synthesis of Thyroxine.
• Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. They help to keep the cell clean by digesting any
foreign materials as well as worn-out cell organelles.
• Pituitary Gland, which hangs by a thin stalk from the Hypothalamus, is called the master gland of the human
body.
• Haemoglobin present in human blood that carries oxygen from our lungs to all parts of the body.
• Kidney failure is treated periodically on a kidney machine. The process is called as Haemodialysis.
• Nettle is a plant which grows in the wild & has stinging hair on its leaves which cause painful stings when
touched accidently.
• Fructose is responsible for Sweetening in Fruits.
• Lymph Fluid carries absorbed fat from intestine & drains excess fluid from extra cellular space back into the
blood.
• Geomorphology is the study of Landforms & their Evolution.
• HCl is produce from the human’s Stomach.
• Ingestion> Digestion> Absorption> Egestion is the correct sequence of steps in digestive system.
• Near-Sightedness in Humans is called Myopia.
• Ornithology is the study of the Birds.
• Green plants & certain Bacteria manufacture their own food acc. To Autotropic Nutrition Process.
• Humming Bird is that bird that can fly Backwards.
• The movement of a sunflower facing the sun is called Phototropism.
• Pituitary Gland is responsible for Dwarfism in Humans.
• Leishmania Unicellular Organism causes Kala-Azar.
• Human Growth Hormone is secreted by Pituitary Gland
• Andaman teal is an example of Endemic Species.
• Epigraphy- study of Inscriptions.
• C. Linnaeus gave the term ‘Homo Sapiens’
• Triticum Aestivum is the botanical name of Common Wheat.
• In human beings, Excretory products in the form of soluble nitrogen compounds are removed by the
Nephrons in the kidneys.
• The book which keeps a record of all the endangered animals & plants is Red Data Book.
• Liver is the largest Gland of the body.
• Cochlea is not the part of the Eye.
• The Jelly like substance between the nucleus & cell membrane is called Cytoplasm.
• Hyla is also known as Tree Frog.
• Auxin is a Plant Hormone.
• Hip Bone is formed by the fusing of the illium, ischium & the Pubis.
• Plastids are only present in Plant cells.
• Insulin is an animal Hormone.
• Protozoa causes Kala-Azar.
• Parenchyma & Collenchyma are the types of Simple Permanent Tissues.
• Trojan Horse is a form of Virus Attack.
• When respiration takes place even in absence of Oxygen, is called Anaerobic Respiration.
• Blood has a fluid matrix called Plasma, in which RBCs, WBCs & Platelets are suspended.
• Tuberculosis is not caused by a Virus.
• Ligament part of the Muscular System attaches Bone to Bone.
• Estrogen is a major Female Sex Hormone.
• Edward Jenner invented the Small pox vaccine.
• Global Warming can be attributed to ‘Arctic Greening’.
• Synovial Fluid is the lubricating fluid found between the two bones at a moveable joint.
• Rods & cone cells are found in Eyes.
• Rana Tigrina is the Scientific name of Asian Frog.
• Brassica Campestris is the botanical name of Field Mustard.
• Feline is the generic name given to members of the Cat family.
• Non-Clotting of blood occurs because deficiency of Vitamin K.
• AB+ is considered as universal Recipient.
• Humans cannot digest Cellulose.
• Chlorofluorocarbons responsible for the depletion of the Ozone Layer.
• Respiratory System is not found in Nematodes.
• Cytoplasm is a jelly like fluid is found between Nucleus & Cell Membrane.
• After Digestion Proteins are converted into Amino Acids.
• Pseudopodia are finger-like extensions on Amoeba.
• Iron is a micronutrient for crop Plants.
• The ultimate source of energy in plants is Sunlight.
• The release of Adrenaline Hormone causes simultaneous increase in heartbeat & breathing rate.
• Heart & Brain are the two main organs in the human body where the magnetic field produced is significant.
• Carbohydrates are stored in the form of starch which serves as an internal energy reseve to be used as &
when required by the plant.
• Penicillium is a fungi.
• HIV leads to Aids.
• The ephedra plant is grouped under Gymnosperm.
• Pollen in polluted air causes Hay Fever.
• Iodine is essential for the synthesis of Thyroxine.
• Deficiency of Vitamin A causes the night Blindness.
• Redwood is the tallest tree Species in the world.
• Entomophily Pollination occurs with the help of Insects.
• The energy Currency of the cell is called as ATP.
• Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its
external environment.
• Bamboo flowering causes an increase in the population of rats.
• Funaria is not a Thallophyte.
• Spirogyra is the plant body not differentiated into root, stem & leaves.
• Cytology is the study of Cell.
• Goiter is not an eye condition disease.
• Carolus Linnaeus is the father of binomial nomenclature of all species of living things.
• Genus level of classification of organisms comes between “Family & Species”
• Cinchona is the plant from the anti-malarial drug Quinine is extracted.
• Xylem Tissue part of a plant is responsible for transporting water from the roots of the plant to the rest of
the plant.
• Annelida is not a vertebrate class.
• Nomophobia is fear of being out of cellular phone contact.
• Stem is the edible part of a potato plant.
• Chlorophyll is the pigment that gives plant their Green Colour.
• The fungus Puccinia graminis Causes Black rust in wheat.
• All the involuntary actions, including Blood Pressure, Salivation & Vomiting are controlled by the Medulla.
• In Human beings, the complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins & fats take Place in Small intestine.
• Gastric glands produce the enzyme Pepsin during digestion, which digests proteins.
• Gustatory receptors are responsible for detecting Taste.
• Petabyte is the largest unit of memory.
• Plants having no vascular system known as Bryophytes.
• Synapse is the point at which a nervous impulse passes from one neuron to another.
• Anthrax is a disease caused by Bacteria.
• Pepsin used for the conversion of proteins into a peptide.
• Megaloblastic anaemia is caused by the deficiency of Vitamin B9.
• Sunlight natural resource is an inexhaustible Resource.
• Green plants is a biotic factor of an ecosystem.
• In human body, Salts are transported by Plasma.
• ‘Touch me not’ plant belongs to Mimosaceae.
• Mangifera indica is the scientific name of Mango.
• Eugenics is the branch of science that aims at improving the genetic quality of human population.
• Anxiety is a tranquilizer normally administered.
• For treatment of Heart disease Arjuna Tree Primarily used.
• Gibberella Fujikuroi pathogen causes ‘Bakane’(foolish seedling) disease in rice seedlings.
• The red panda eats Bamboo leaves.
• Synovial Fluid is found between the two bones at a moveable joint.
• Vitamin A has three active forms: Retinal, Retinol & retinoic Acid.
• AIDS- Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
• Function of Insulin in body- It regulates how the body uses & stores Glucose & fat.
• Renal Artery carries blood from the heart to the Kidneys.
• Enzymes is a Biological catalysts.
• Trachea is not a part of the alimentary canal of the human body.
• Anthocyanins Pigments are responsible to determine the colours of fruits & Vegetables.
• Oxytocin Hormones stimulates uterine contractions & dilation of the cervix.
• Carbon dioxide, water & Sunlight are required for Photosynthesis.
• XX Chromosome lead to the birth of a girl child.
• Common Name of E300- Vitamin C.
• Arthropod Phyla of animals have jointed legs.
• Corals are marine invertebrates with in the class Anthozoa of the Phylum Cnidaria.
• Karl Landsteiner discovered Blood Groups.
• A complete set of Nuclear DNA in an Organism is called Genome.
• Oxygen is not a green house gas.
• The petiole is a part of a Tree.
• Sweet Revolution related to production of Honey.
• Deodar Plants belong to Gymnosperms.
• Diffusion is a process by Oxygen can move across the plasma membrane.
• Meristematic Tissue is not an animal Tissue.
• The animals that can eat Plants & animals are called as Omnivores.
• Carl Linnaeus is the father of modern Botany.
• Penicillium is a Saprophytic Fungus.
• Pisum Sativum is the scientific name of Green Pea.
• Saprophytic Nutrition is in the organism takes in nutrients form from dead & Decaying Matters.
• Rayon is an example of manmade Fibre.
• The members of phylum Echinodermata are exclusively free-living marine animals.
• The smallest Blood vessel is called Capillary.
• Light betters the eye through the Cornea.
• The branch-like structure of neurons is called Dendrite.
• The system of scientific naming organism was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus.
• Glycogen is the storage form of Carbohydrates in the body.
• Knee joint is the largest joint in the human body.
• Vitamin K activates proteins & calcium essential blood clotting.
• Leech belongs to the Phylum Annelida.
• Patients Suffering from Diabetes Disease can donate Eyes.
• Vitamin B1- is the water-soluble vitamin.
• Chloroplasts cell Organelle utilizes light energy during Photosynthesis.
• Sleeping Sickness is caused by Tsetse Fly.
• Pavo cristatus is the scientific name of Peacock.
• Pepper is not a good Preservative for pickles.
• Plant cell walls are composed of Cellulose.
• Melanin Pigments is mainly responsible for the colour of our hair, skin & Eyes.
• Pituitary Gland is an endocrine Gland in the Human Body.
• Lysosome Organelles helps to keep the clean by digesting any foreign material as well as worn out cell
organelles.
• Shearing is the process of removing the fleece of the sheep along with a thin layer of skin.
• In Cockroaches, respiration occurs through the Spiracles.
• Golgi Apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying & packaging proteins & lipids into Vesicles.
• Asthma is a disorder of the Respiratory System in the human body.
• Plague is not caused by Water Pollution.
• Pancreas gland produces the insulin Hormone.

CGL 2022 PYQ’s

• Octopus has more than one heart.
• Possess only pitted thickenings is a characteristic of fibres in relation to plant anatomy.
• Acoustic is called study of sound.
• Entomology is called study of insects.
• Organisms belonging to the phylum Platyhelminthes are also called Flatworms.
• Ferrum is the latin name for Iron.
• Man belongs to the family of Hominidae.
• Epilepsy is a disorder resulting in abnormal electrical discharges from the brain cells causing
seizures.
• Pomology is called the study of food.
• Drosera is a carnivorous plant.
• Intercellular spaces are present is a characteristic of permanent tissue.
• Camellia sinensis is a plant that produce Tea.
• Ozone is a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms.
• Hot water can be pollutant if it comes from A power plant, An industry.
• In the context of the spread of germs by faecal matter, Fungi is not figure in F-Diagram.
• Five eyes does Bee have.
• Aerobic refers to an environment in which oxygen is readily available.
• Capsaicinoids, carotenoids, phenolics and vitamins are dominant chemicals in Chilli.
• Cholera is caused by Drinking contaminated water.
• Colloidal System- such as gum, starch, proteins, cellulose, agar and gelatine- when placed in water,
will absorb a large amount of water and swell up. These substances are called Imbibants.
• Peribem is the middle layer in the root apical meristem that gives rise to the cortex.
• Limulus is not a type of mosquito.
• Water Fluoridation is necessary to prevent tooth decay which is the controlled adjustment of
fluoride to public water supply.
• Fructose and glucose are the examples of monosaccharides.
• According to WHO Hygiene refers to Conditions and practices that help to maintain health and
prevent the spread of diseases.
• Blight is a type of plant disease.
• Plant is not abiotic.
• Scorpion is an example of Arthropod.
• The numerical taxonomy of plants is based on all observable characteristics.
• Pneumatophores are specialised roots in Hydrophytes.
• At least a half of carbon dioxide fixation on earth is carried out by algae through photosynthesis.
• Petiole is not a part of a flower.
• Beri beri cannot be prevented by Vaccination.
• Acorn is the nut of an oak Tree.
• Notochord is present in chordates.