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Subject PSYCHOLOGY
Paper No and Title Paper No. 5: Personality Theories

Module No and Title Module No. 37: Self and Identity in Buddhist Tradition

Module Tag PSY_P5_M37

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Learning Outcomes
2. Introduction
3. The Teachings of Buddha
3.1 Dependent Origination
3.2 The Three Characteristics of Existence
4. Self and Identity in Buddhist Tradition
4.1 Lesser and Greater Self
4.2 Obstacles in Growth
4.3 Healthy Factors in Personality Development
4.4. Arhat and Bodhisattva
5. Vasubandhu and the Eight Consciousness
6. The Concept of Emotions in Buddhism
7. The Practice of Zen
7.1 Various forms of Meditation
7.2 Other forms of Zen Practice
8. Enlightenment
9. Implications for Psychotherapy
10. Summary

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1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this module, you shall be able to

 Know about Buddhist view of the human nature.

 Learn about the teachings of Buddha, Vasubandhu and the Eight Consciousness.
 Identify the various practices prevalent in the Zen Buddhism.
 Analyze the implications of Buddhist psychology for psychotherapy.

2. Introduction
Buddhism is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha (which means “one who
is awake”). According to Buddhist doctrine, many Buddhas came before and after Gautama
Buddha, and are still to come. Buddha attributed his realization and attainment of full humanness
to his human capacities. He developed himself into a mature human being, who was content and
complete. The central tenet of Buddhism is that every human being possesses this Buddha-nature.
According to Ramaswami and Sheikh (1989), “The psychology of Buddhism rests on the notions
of the absence of a separate self, impermanence of all things, and the fact of sorrow” (p. 120).

When Buddha achieved enlightenment, he starting preaching about the nature of reality, cause of
human suffering, peace, compassion and road to self-discovery. Buddhist teachings were initially
passed down through oral traditions, and later compiled in written form in three collections or
“baskets”, called Tripitaka. The scriptures constitute the teachings of two main branches of
Buddhism, the Hinayana, or the “small vehicle”, and the Mahayana, or the “great vehicle”. The
Hinayana school, which is represented by the Theravada school today, is dominant in the South-
East parts of Asia, while the Mahayana school is dominant in East Asia, particularly Japan and
China. The Zen school of thought belongs to the latter tradition. Its roots can be traced back to
India. Later it was influenced by the Taoism of China and passed through Korea and Japan, and
from there to the rest of the world.

A primary difference between the Mahayana and

Hinayana traditions is with respect to their ideals
about personal development. The Hinayana tradition
stresses on the renunciation of the worldly pleasures
and preaches about the arhat, whose practitioner
becomes liberated from suffering from practice and
discipline. The Mahayana tradition accepts that
enlightenment can be achieved even by a lay person.
It is based on the ideal of bodhisattva, “a person who
vows to dedicate life to the salvation of all sentient
beings, not accepting full liberation until all others are
free from suffering” (Engler, 2014). There are two
key virtues of Buddhism, wisdom and compassion.
The Hinayana focuses on the former and the
Mahayana focuses on the latter. However, wisdom Fig.1 Gautama Buddha
includes compassion and vice versa.
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3. Teachings of Buddha
3.1 Dependent Origination

About two and a half millennia ago, many philosophical schools of thoughts existed in India with
different positions on human nature. One extreme was the externalist position, where a person’s
soul or atman takes numerous births to become purified and join the Brahma or the Supreme
God. The other extreme is the annihilationist position, which says that a human being gets
completely destroyed at death. The Buddha discovered a middle path between these two
extremes. He called this position dependent origination, which advocates “a life-style that
avoided the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification” (Engler, 2014). Thus, this
position is also called the “Middle Way”.

Dependent origination is a law of causality, which implies that all internal and external events
come into existence due to causes and conditions, which can be internal or external. It believes
that these causes and conditions are necessary for the internal and external events to exist.
Everything in this universe is connected to these events and there is no end to this causal
interconnectedness. These events cannot exist by themselves. For example, for every emotion,
perception, and thought, there are certain necessary conditions without which they would not
have come into existence. Thus, everything occurs dependently, and only when certain necessary
conditions are there. So, A is simultaneously a necessary condition for B to occur, and B being
necessary for A to exist. Katagiri (1988, 1998) calls this “interdependent co-origination”, and
Hahn (1988, 2007) calls this “interbeing”, where things and mental states “inter-are” (Engler,
2014).

The concept of dependent origination helps us to understand existence as a process of change,

which results from infinite causal conditions that are connected to each other in infinite ways, and
where birth and death are not the start or the end. The human soul goes through an endless chain
of births and deaths, wherein the consequences of our action continue to affect our soul even after
this body is destroyed. Although the self or soul cannot continue forever, or it is an independent
and immutable entity, the process through which it goes continues forever. Buddha talked about
the concept of “rebirth”, which is very different from the Vedic concept of reincarnation, in
which the soul inhabits numerous bodies to purify itself. Instead, there is a continuing karmic
process, and not transmigrating souls. Our identity as an individual continues with the effects of
our actions on others and on the world (Varela, 1997).

3.2 The Three Characteristics of Existence

According to Buddha, there are three characteristics of existence: Anicca, Dukkha and Anatta.
Anicca, which means “impermanence”, implies that everything is continuously changing.
Nothing is permanent. For example, a human body continues to grow from a small child to an
adult, and these changes continue well into advance age. This is the true nature of things.
Understanding this impermanence helps the individual to avoid any kind of unrealistic
expectations. Attachment and aversion are of no use, as we cannot hold to anything for long or
claim it forever.

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Dukkha, which roughly means “suffering”, refers to the dissatisfaction and distress that a person
experiences due to too much attachment or aversion. Buddha suggested Four Noble Truths as a
solution to end any kind of dukkha. According to him, if everything exists due to certain causal
conditions, then dukkha ceases when the causal conditions, which are necessary for its very
existence, cease to exist. These Four Noble Truths have been called as “the most important
psychological discovery of all time” (Mosig, 1989). They are as follows:

 Our perception of old age, pain, illness and death; not getting the desired object and being
exposed to something undesirable; and not being able to hold onto something that is dear
to us and not being able to eliminate something unwanted, is the universal dissatisfaction
that characterizes human existence.
 Suffering and dissatisfaction are not caused by their own. They arise from our desire and
craving of things. Suffering arises either when we are attached to the things that we love,
wanting to possess them forever; or when we are aversive to things that we never wanted
in the first place, giving rise to anger, resentment and hate for the way the things are at
present.
 To overcome our “dis-ease”, we must overcome attachment and aversion to the things
which do not hold anything for us, but only self-defeat. For instance, by overcoming the
anxiety of getting old through cognitive processing, one avoids unnecessary
psychological pain. So, to eliminate suffering, we must overcome our craving of things.
 This is possible through the Eight Fold Path. It consists of Right Understanding
(comprehension of how everything is interconnected and temporary, specifically the Four
Nobel Truths); Right Thinking (propagating thoughts of detachment, non-harming and
compassion, which also include thought for the other beings); Right Speech (speaking
only positive and constructive things, otherwise maintaining a “noble silence”, practicing
a speech that is devoid of lies, gossips and slander); Right Action (actions that are meant
to benefit, and not harm other people or oneself); Right Livelihood (abstaining from a
making living from means which involves exploitation of people or animals); Right Effort
(nurturing wholesome thoughts); Right Mindfulness (being fully aware of one’s actions in
the present and their likely consequences); and Right Concentration (discipline the mind
to concentrate to one point through the practice of meditation) (Engler, 2014). The first
component of this solution is related to wisdom, the next three to moral conduct, and the
last three to mental discipline. Wisdom makes us ready to undertake the path, moral
development helps us to get ready for it, and mental discipline helps us to follow it. The
moral aspect of this path is related to the concept of Karma, which “means volitional
action, whether of word, deed, or thought. Every action has effects or consequences that
“rebound.” One could hardly expect to free oneself from suffering while inflicting it on
others” (Engler, 2014).

The third characteristic of existence is Anatta, or “nonself”. According to Rahula (1974, p.51),

“Buddhism stands unique … in denying the existence of a soul, self, or atman. According
to the teaching of the Buddha, the idea of a [personal] self is an imaginary, false belief
which has no corresponding reality, and it produces harmful thoughts of “me” and
“mine,” selfish desire, craving, attachment, hatred, ill-will, conceit, pride, egoism, and

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other defilements, impurities and problems. It is the

source of all the troubles in the world, from personal
conflicts to wars between nations … [T]o this false view can be traced all the evil in the
world”

According to Buddha, suffering is the result of the false impression that there is a separate self or
ego. Everything in this world lacks a soul. Everything is made up of parts or elements, and they
have no actual existence other than being a temporary organization of these elements. There is no
separate self that can exist independently. “What appears to be an ego or self is nothing but an
impermanent gestalt formed by transient elements” (Engler, 2014). A person is a combination of
five elements or skandhas, which are form, feelings, perceptions, impulses, and consciousness. A
person is a temporary arrangement of these five elements. Nothing would be left if we remove the
five elements. The term self or I is used for this temporary gestalt or body. Thus, the concept of
self or soul is an illusion.

The concept of Anatta empowers the individual by erasing the boundaries that separate the
personal self from the others’ self. The person becomes a part of the whole universe, rather than
an isolated and powerless entity that is fighting against the rest of the world. This leads to the
ultimate realization of a big self, the Self which is boundless. This state of universal oneness or
interconnectedness and realization is called enlightenment. Thus, human beings suffer from self-
delusion, striving to get something which will inevitably be lost one day. So, the cure is to reach a
higher state of enlightenment, wherein the person has eliminated his desires, attachment and
delusions (Ramaswami & Sheikh, 1989). This in turns leads to compassion and feelings of care
for others. As the self and the other are one, hurting or helping the other person means doing the
same to oneself.

The ultimate state of mind is called nirvana in Buddhism, which is described by Engler (2014) as
“not a place like heaven, but a mental state, in which all cravings, desires, and dualistic ideas
have been completely extinguished, through the complete realization of Anicca and Anatta”.
According to Buddha, liberation is meant for everybody and can be achieved by everybody.

4. Personality Development in Buddhist Tradition

4.1 The Lesser and the Greater Self

Although Buddhism still believes in a nonself, it has distinguished between the lesser self and the
greater self. The lesser self is the ego or the consciousness of one’s mind and body. It emphasizes
more on a sense of separateness between the self and the others as well as the on the individual
limitations. It arises from one’s sense of inadequacy of insecurity. Developing a sense of
interconnectedness with the others and the nature helps to transcend this level of consciousness.
The more an individual becomes complete, the more his/her ego diminishes. Although our egos
remain with us forever, we can still control it.

The greater self has been defined as the entire universe. This self can be realized through
embracing every being in this universe. It forms the essential aspect of the experience of
enlightenment. Identification with a greater self does not mean that one must let go of the lesser
self. The idea of attaining nirvana is to transcend one’s ego orientation so that one is no longer
controlled by it.

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4.2 Obstacles in Growth

In Buddhism the primary obstacles to growth are psychological in nature. The three tendencies of
greed, hate and delusion are major roadblocks in the path of growth. They are considered as
“three fires” in Buddhism. Although every individual has all the three qualities, they are
dominated by one more than the others. Also, the balance between these qualities can change
based on the circumstances of the individual.

Greed and hatred are associated with the desire to possess things and unhealthy attachment to
them. They are found in all negative mental states and are combined with delusion. Greed creates
the desire to pursue objects that give us pleasure, and hatred creates the desire to annihilate any
obstacle that stops us from reaching that object. People who are dominated by greed are
charming, polite, courteous, careful, gentle, artistic, skilful, polished, tidy, circumspect workers,
attracted by merits, pretentious, deceitful, vain, covetous, dissatisfied, luscious and frivolous.
People who are dominated by hatred tend to be stiff, rough, careless, tensed, agitated, angry,
malicious, ungrateful, selfish, envious, rude, harsh, hasty, uninterested in objects of beauty and
notice mistakes too much while overlooking merits.

Delusion is perceptual. It is defined as the haziness of judgement that causes the person to
misperceive the nature of object of awareness. It is considered to be basic ignorance and a major
cause of human suffering. It distorts human perception and the person is unable to see an object
clearly, without any biases. Those who are dominated by delusion tend to be inattentive and
sloppy, lazy, obstinate, confused, worried and excitable (Conze, 1985).

At worst, these tendencies can lead to neurosis and psychosis. However, unlike Western thinking,
Buddhism prescribes that psychosis is only a temporary intensification of one of these tendencies.
It is transient like all other physical and mental states. One can overcome all the three tendencies.
For example, greed can be turned into compassion, hate into love and delusion into wisdom. Self-
discipline and ardently following Buddhist principles gives a chance to the individual to confront
and control greed. The Buddhist ideals of compassion and respect for fellow human beings help
to overcome hate. And delusion can be cured through the realization that all things are Buddha, as
everything is a manifestation of the Buddha-nature.

4.3 Healthy Factors in Personality Development

Each unhealthy tendency is opposed by a healthy factor. According to Buddha, we need polar
opposites to counter the unhealthy tendencies. Once an unhealthy tendency has been suppressed
by a positive factor, it cannot arise. Person’s karmas, biological and situational influences as well
as previous state of mind determine his/her predomination with healthy and unhealthy factors,
which may arise as groups of either positives or negatives.

The central healthy factor is insight, which counters delusion. Insight helps the individual to see
the object in its true essence. It helps to bring clarity in our judgement. Delusion and insight
cannot coexist in the mind. A concept related to insight is mindfulness, which brings continued
clarity in the understanding of the objects. The presence of these two factors signals the presence
of other healthy mental states, and are enough to suppress all the unhealthy factors.

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Greed and hatred are countered by the non-attachment and

non-aversion. These healthy factors bring calmness and peace
in the person by diminishing the feelings of attachment. They cultivate even-mindedness in the
person towards any kind of object. The person comes to weigh the relative advantages and
disadvantages of pursuing an object, and choose the best option for themselves. They allow the
individual to accept things unconditionally, and simultaneously allowing them to make
appropriate changes in their situation.

These healthy factors have both psychological and physical effects on a person. The healthy and
unhealthy factors (tendencies) are mutually inhibiting. However, it is also possible that a single
healthy factor can suppress all the unhealthy factors. For example, nonattachment can suppress
both greed and hatred. Similarly, a single unhealthy factor can inhibit all the healthy factors, for
example, when delusion arises, not a single healthy factor can arise.

4.4 Arhat and Bodhisattva

Both Mahayana and Theravada (Hinayana) school of thought have different conceptions about an
ideal individual. The Mahayana considers a Bodhisattva to be an ideal human being. It literally
means “enlightenment-being”. He is a highly compassionate human-being who has decided to
remain on this Earth until everybody has been free from suffering. To fully comprehend the
principle of selflessness, the Bodhisattva realizes that he or she cannot attain liberation until
others are freed form suffering.

The Theravada school of thought considers Arhat to be a complete being, someone who has
completely detached himself/herself from the comforts and luxuries of having a family and
possessions to become free in all senses from this material world. The word Arhat means “one
who has slain the enemy”, or someone who has become free of all the passions and desires. This
person is an unworldly ascetic, who has been liberated from his pride, self-absorption, contempt
and greed through the process of intensive spiritual training. Thus, he seeks liberation or nirvana
from the elimination of desires and cravings.

5. Vasubandhu and the Eight Consciousness

A number of scholars have written and talked about the Buddhist psychological insights into
human nature. One of them was Vasubandhu, who was a renowned Buddhist scholar, who lived
during 4th century. He gave the Vijnanavada (“path of knowledge”) or Yogacara (“application of
yoga”) school of thought. He also authored the book titled “Abhidharmakosa”, which is one of
the most important books in Buddhist psychology.

Vasubandhu stated that whatever we experience exists in our mental process, that is, our
knowledge of everything that exists around us is in our “mind only”. Although there is an
experience, but there is no subject or atman to have that experience. He talked about Vijana, or
“consciousness”, in his studies, which is one of the five skandhas and is multi-layered, including
both conscious and unconscious aspects.

According to him, there are Eight Consciousness. The first level consists of our basic senses that
help us to respond to the world at the most primary level. These include the consciousness of
hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting and touching. The next level is referred to as manovijnana, or
“thought consciousness”.
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It functions as the integrative ground for all the five basic senses. It works as a sixth sense, which
help us to become aware of the thoughts regarding the five senses. The next level is called the
manas, or “mind”. Here, the higher order cognitive processes are carried out, such as memory,
conception, and evaluation. At this level “we become aware of being aware” (Engler, 2014). But
this creates the delusion of becoming aware of a personal self or “I”, which is the root of all the
psychological problems. Finally comes the last level which is called the alayavijnana, or
“storehouse consciousness”. It can be referred to as “the breeding ground for all the above seven
consciousness”. The “seeds” for all the mental phenomena that we experience and produce are
laid here in this vast ground. The seeds are nurtured by our conscious activities. For example,
engaging in helping or empathetic behaviour will help the seeds of empathy to grow and ripen.
Similarly engaging in anger or hatred will cause the seeds of aggression to grow and we will
experience more anger and hate. This knowledge helps us to nurture and develop positive mental
habits, while cutting off the potential negative and destructive thoughts. This has far-reaching
effects on the life and well-being on individuals. Alayavijnana provides the continuity of the
karmic process, where the seeds of one’s actions continue to travel in an unending chain even
when the subject is destroyed.

These Eight Consciousness are separate or distinct from each other. They work together and
appear as manifestations or functions of the various cognitive process. They are eight
consciousness but ultimately appear as one united force.

Fig.2 The eight consciousness of the Vijnanavada School

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6. The Concept of Emotions in Buddhism

According to Buddhist perspective, emotions arise in response to an attractive or repulsive object.
There is an innate tendency in people to be either inclined towards an object or to move away
from it. This is based on his/her perception of himself/herself as attractive or repulsive. Thus,
individuals are attracted towards the objects that are pleasure seeking, and move away from those
that are repugnant.

These pleasant and painful feelings are reactions to sensations (de Silva, 2007). “When we make
a judgment in terms of hedonic tone of these affective reactions, there are excited in us certain
dispositions to possess the object (greed), to destroy it (hatred), to flee from it (fear), to get
obsessed and worried over it (anxiety), and so on” (de Silva, 2007). Our reactions to incoming
stimuli are based on our attitudes towards the stimuli, which are based on our past experiences
and personality traits. These reactions may not always be conscious, but may work on deep-
seated tendencies, called anusaya. Pleasant feelings cause attachment to objects, which in turn
rouses the latent feelings of greed; while the painful feelings cause latent feelings of anger and
hatred. Similarly, the emotions of pride, elation, etc., can be explained in terms of similar
anusaya.

The emotions are motivated by six roots, which are grouped into two categories, wholesome and
unwholesome. The wholesome roots are non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion; the
unwholesome roots are greed, hatred and delusion. Greed makes the person to act on his/her
approach desires in the form of drive for self-preservation and sensuous pursuits; hatred causes
avoidance desires in the person in the form of drive for annihilation and aggressive tendencies.
Non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion are considered to be ethically desirable emotions.
According to Nyanaponika Maha Thera, non-greed entails surrender and liberality; while non-
hatred entails geniality, tenderness and tolerance. Likewise, non-delusion entails the knowledge
that motivate these emotions. Thus, non-greed and non-hatred are emotional motives for good
thought or good action, while delusion is a rational motive for it. Non-greed and non-hatred form
the motive for positive emotions, while non-delusion serves as the motive for the reasons to
engage in ethical behaviour.

Buddhist psychology extensively talks about the emotions of fear, anger, grief and guilt, as well
as the four sublime states of loving-compassion, kindness, sympathetic joy, and equanimity.
These emotions form the basis of Buddhist ethics, aesthetics and social theory. The first group of
emotions are harmful in nature and are result of one’s strong desires and attachment to objects.
They can degrade the human mental and physical functioning by clouding the judgement and
reasoning of the person. The second group of emotions entail emotional warmth and genuine
concern for others, and help in the elimination of any hatred or fear. They form the basis of
healthy functioning of the individuals, groups and communities.

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7. Practice of Zen
The practice of Zen is a systematic process of training the mind in a disciplined manner, which
allows us to attain the realization of enlightenment. Zen is a school of Mahayana Buddhism
which claims to represent the purest essence of Buddhist teachings. The origins of Zen can be
traced back to the Siddharth Gautama (563 BCE- 483 BCE). The Zen, like all other Eastern
psychologies, does not consider the mind and body as separate, but they are considered to be
“intimately interconnected, to the point that one could more properly refer to a “body-mind” than
to a body and a mind” (Engler, 2014).

7.1 Various forms of Meditation

The widely practiced form of Zen is Zazen, which is the sitting meditation. Here the individual
sits in a cross legged position on the firm ground and, maintain a straight and precise physical
posture for specific period of time. This posture signifies the oneness of mind and body. The
position in Zazen is of immense importance. It is referred to as the “full lotus”, with the left foot
on right thigh and right foot on the left thigh and the head, neck, spine is in straight vertical line.
The position signifies and expresses the oneness, rather than duality of mind and body. This is
the hallmark of proper Zen practice, as it helps to maintain the mental and the physical balance,
due to harmonization of the mind with the bodily process. “The state of consciousness that exists
when one sits in the correct posture is, itself, enlightenment” (Engler, 2014).

The harmonization of the mind is attained by focusing on one’s breathing pattern. Any thoughts,
images that occur during the process of meditation are to be dismissed as hallucinations or makyo.
The aim here to focus on the present, “right here and right now”. The practice of Zazen is
important for purification of our mind. Just as we always take bath to clean ourselves of the dirt
and dust; similarly, this practice helps us to let go of our past regrets and tension and worries of
future.

In Rinzai School of Zen Buddhism, the means of teaching zazen is the usage of Koans. A koan
refers to a public document. It consists of set of statements or questions or anecdotes, which are
paradoxical in nature, has no logical or rational solution as long as the student tries look for an
answer using the perspective of duality. However, the statement is absolutely clear to an
individual who is enlightened, and perceives the statement form the realm of absolute nonduality.
Koan is usually written by an enlightened teacher. These are given to students and, they are
interviewed (interview is called sanzen) individually as they asked to express their understanding
of the koan. The answers are rejected if they are wrong, and the students are sent back to
meditation till the time they arrive at “breakthrough, transcending dualistic thinking” of the koan.
Once they have arrived at the solution, they are given another koan, the process is repeated
several times. Example of a koan statement would be “What was your face before your parents
were born?” and “What is the sound of one hand clapping?” (Engler, 2014).

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The Soto School of Zen practices shikantaza to teach zazen, which is just simply sitting and not
trying to realize anything. The effects of this practice are allowed to take place without being too
much sought after. A Soto teacher may also use kaon as focal point of the teisho. It is “a “dharma
talk” offered by a master to his students to enhance their understanding” (Engler, 2014). Kaon is
seen as miniature version of life problems, which has no logical resolution and understanding,
just like life, which cannot be reduced to the categories construed by a dualistic thinking.

The other form of Zen practice includes Kinhin. It refers to a slow walk that is performed, when
the person might be tired by sitting in the same cross-legged position. It normalizes the blood
circulation. In walking meditation, the person walks alone or in a group while maintaining the
mindfulness and concentration. The attention is on the number of steps and the manner of
walking and the pattern of breathing.

7.2 Other forms of Zen Practice

The next form is the Gathas. These are short versus, that help to focus attention solely on the task
which is being performed. This makes every task important and sacred activity, and also
improves our efficiency and ability to perform the task as we are fully concentrating on it.
Another form of Zen practice is called the Gassho. It consists of putting hands together, joining
the palm of one hand to another. Here one hand signifies ourselves and the other one stand for the
person or the entire universe. This symbolizes the integration of the self with the other. When one
does this, he or she becomes aware that everything is interconnected and united (Engler, 2014).
This position is symbolic of nonduality. Chanting is also a part of Zen. When we chant, we focus
only on the sound, experiencing the power of the sound of chanting sutras. Other forms of Zen
practice include bowing, playing the shakuhachi, writing haikus, learning calligraphy and flower
arranging, tea ceremony and martial arts (such as karate, aikido, swordsmanship and archery).
However, these forms of Zen expression are superfluous, and the only form of Zen practice that is
indispensable is the zazen. At last, it is important to find a master to learn the correct practice of
Zen, who himself has mastered the truth that he has learnt, no matter how deep it is. According to
Engler (2014), “Only a teacher who has received “Dharma transmission”—in other words, whose
experience has been verified and authenticated by an enlightened master— is in a position to
verify and authenticate the awakening of others.”

A large number of studies have been done on Zen Buddhism. The studies have majorly focused
on the physiological responses, which occur as a result of the practice or during the practice. For
instance, the respiratory rate has found to be typically slow during zazen. It is 4 to 6 breaths per
minute in-comparisons to 18 to 20 breaths per minute. The EEG records have shown the
predominance of alpha and beta brain waves. There is a marked decrease in the consumption of
oxygen and a lower metabolic rate, in people who practice Zen. (Hirai, 1989). The psychological
benefits of the Zen practice are increased awareness of self, better health and wellbeing of the
person and an increased ability to deal with stressful situations. Such practices enhance the
internal control than the external control. The balance between the mind and body is maintained
through the unity of both these entities.

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8. Enlightenment
One Buddhist term that is highly associated with enlightenment is nirvana. As already stated it is
a state of mind wherein all the cravings and desires have extinguished. It is achieved though self-
discipline, meditation and realization of the states of impermanence and selfless Self. Nirvana
also means extinction of all kinds of concepts and preconceived notions, which prevent us from
fully experiencing the reality. Thus, mindfulness based meditation helps to remove these
concepts, and its ultimate goal is to reach nirvana.

Enlightenment, in Zen, is called “satori”. Enlightenment or satori can simply be defined as the act
of awakening one’s own true self. It is a highest state of awareness. It is not something that can be
expressed in words but something which experienced by the individual. Dogen Zenji (1200–
1253), interpreted “the Buddha’s statement that everyone has the Buddha-nature as everyone is
the Buddha nature”. This means that Buddha nature is not be looked for outside or inside of a
person, as “it is the absolute universal reality.” When we become aware of this fact and work in
order to attain realization of the universal self, then in this process we become enlightened.

Okumura (1985) wrote, “Satori is nothing but being aware of, or being alert in, whatever activity
you are doing right now, right here. Any activity is not a step, means, or preparation for other
things, but rather should be done for its own sake, being accomplished in each moment.”

All the activities of an enlightened individual are autotelic in nature, i.e., they purposeful in itself.
This concept is considered similar to Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of “flow” (1985, 1990). It
explains that when we are doing any activity, we come so engrossed in it that we become a part of
it. We do not see it as separate from us, as we are so much immersed into it. Thus when “an
enlightened person eats, that person just eats, when resting, just rests” (Engler, 2014). The
awakened individuals to not discriminate between various activities as they all are important and
essential in their own right. When we give full attention to the activity which we are doing, then
we are in flow of it and we are able to enjoy and savor each moment of it (making the best of
each moment). Thus we are able to enjoy are life to the fullest.

“Zen is the art of losing the self (the ego) in the everyday flow of autotelic activities” (Okumura,
2000). It important to be noted that, the satori has to be experience by the student themselves, the
master can only show the correct path, but it has to be travelled by the student to attain
enlightenment. Another important thing to be noted is Enlightenment is not the end of Zen
practice. The Practitioners, who once seek enlightenment, have to help others to attain it too, as it
is their duty to illuminate the human kind.

9. Implications for Psychotherapy

The psychotherapeutic applications of the Buddhist psychology have been examined by a number
of authors (Engler, 2014). Like all other Eastern school of psychological thoughts, it aims to
make the individual functioning more efficient and individual lifestyle more positively healthy.
Unlike Western psychotherapy which is more concerned with positing these changes in people

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suffering from mental, emotional or behavioural problems, the

Buddhist psychology is concerned with every individual, be it
healthy or unhealthy. It believes that human suffering is caused by the false idea that there is a
separate self, which “results in cravings, grasping, clinging, greed, selfishness, hatred, fear,
feelings of alienation, loneliness, helplessness, and anxiety, which afflict those who are ‘healthy’
as well as ‘unhealthy’.” (Engler, 2014).

Western psychotherapy aims to strengthen the so-called personal “self”, which is seen as separate
from the others’ self. However, Buddhist psychology warns against this notion of self, which it
considers to be the root cause of human suffering. It aims to establish a feeling of
interconnectedness in the individual, a feeling of a nonself or a selfless Self that is one with the
self of the other people. This is what liberates the individual from dukkha. While understanding
the idea of interconnectedness and the state of nothingness, the person must also experience the
reality in a relative sense through the individual identity or the gestalt body. The integration of
these two levels of awareness is important for the healthy functioning of an individual. Thus, an
individual must realize that though their relative world is made up of their personal identities, but
at the same time they must maintain a bigger awareness that their self does not actually exists and
this body is temporary. This larger awareness guides the individual to become compassionate and
to eliminate any unnecessary worries about the temporary events, which form the momentary
contents of their experience (Mosig, 2006).

These different conception of the self in the Western and Buddhist psychology have different
implications for psychotherapy. However, with the current meeting of the East and the West,
there have been significant developments in the field of psychotherapy; one of them being the
introduction of several Eastern methods of treatment in the West. In addition to this,
psychotherapists have discovered the therapeutic value of meditation. In contrast to the widely
popular “talking cures” of the West, mediation is a “quiet therapy”. The idea of mindfulness is the
central aspect of Buddhist meditation, wherein the, for example, the awareness of one’s emotions
(such as, sadness and anger) are used to channelize energies in constructive ways (Hahn, 1991).
Mediation and Mindfulness go hand in hand. Meditation helps to bring an inner calmness and
heightened awareness in the individual, while mindfulness helps him/her to meditate with a calm
awareness. A mindfulness based meditation is very effective in treating anxiety and fear as well
as help in stress reduction.

A number of systems of treatment are based on the concept of silent mediation. For example,
Japanese psychiatrist Shoma Morita developed the Morita Therapy. The method consists of
isolated bed rest, followed by periods of light and then heavier manual work. After this, patients
are retrained to join the normal life. During this period, patients keep a diary that is annotated by
the therapist. The treatment lasts for forty to sixty days. The method requires the patient to accept
their feeling and to take full onus of their actions. Then, they train to develop a degree of
“immovable mind”, that is, they learn to behave in ways without paying attention to the feelings
that are arising their minds so that those feelings have no power over them. Thus, instead of
removing the symptoms, the person learns to stop reacting to any kind of stimuli and comes to
accept their impermanent nature. It is highly successful therapy for anxiety disorders (Morita,
1998). According Rhymer (1988), the success rate of this therapy is over 90 per cent, when
significant improvement and cures are combined.

Another example of a therapy based on the idea of silent meditation is the Naiken therapy. It is
an introspective therapy that focuses on the development of a sense of responsibility in the patient

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along with obligation. It is based on the Buddhist principle of

dependent origination as well as the Confucian ethics of
societal and familial responsibility. For instance, the patient may be asked to sit in a meditative
state, and record all the things the person’s mother has done for him/her. On the following day,
the patient may be asked to record all the things that he/she has done for their mother. The same
process is repeated for the other people in the person’s life. Thus, the idea is to help the patient
develop a deeper insight into the imbalanced nature of their relationships and a desire to repay the
significant others with the care and support (Reynolds, 1980).

10. Summary
 Buddhism is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha. It is divided into
two main branches of Buddhism, the Hinayana, or the “small vehicle”, and the
Mahayana, or the “great vehicle”. Its roots can be traced back to the India, later it was
influenced by the Taoism of China and passed through Korea and Japan, from there to the
rest of the world.
 Dependent origination is a law of causality, which implies that all internal and external
events come into existence due to causes and conditions, which can be internal or
external. It believes that these causes and conditions are necessary for the internal and
external events to exist. Everything in this universe is connected to these events and there
is no end to these causal interconnectedness. These events cannot exist by themselves.
 According to Buddha, there are three characteristics of existence: Anicca, Dukkha and
Anatta. Anicca, which means “impermanence”, implies that everything is continuously
changing. Nothing is permanent. Dukkha, which roughly means “suffering”, refers to the
dissatisfaction and distress that a person experiences due to too much attachment or
aversion. Buddha suggested Four Noble Truths as a solution to end any kind of dukkha.
The third characteristic of existence is Anatta, or “nonself”, which states that there is no
such thing as a soul and a person is a temporary combination of five elements or
skandhas, which are form, feelings, perceptions, impulses, and consciousness.
 Buddhism distinguishes between a lesser (ego) and a greater self. Also, it talks about
three obstacles in the path of growth-greed, hatred and delusion. To counter these
unhealthy factors, there exist positive factors, like insight, mindfulness, nonattachment
and non-aversion, which affect both mind and body. The Mahayana and Hinayana hold
conceptions about an ideal human being. Mahayana calls this person Bodhisattva
(someone who has delayed his own liberation for the sake of others), and Hinayana calls
him as Arhat (someone who has renounced everything to free himself from this world).
 According to Vasubandhu, a renowned Buddhist scholar, there are Eight Consciousness.
The first level consists of our basic senses that help us to respond to the world at the most
primary level. These include the Consciousness of hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting and
touching. The next level is referred to as manovijnana, or “thought consciousness”. It
functions as the integrative ground for all the five basic senses. The next level is called
the manas, or “mind”. Here, the higher order cognitive processes are carried out, such as
memory, conception, and evaluation. Finally comes the last level which is called the
alayavijnana, or “storehouse consciousness”. The “seeds” for all the mental phenomena
that we experience and produce are laid here in this vast ground. The seeds are nurtured
by our conscious activities.
 The Buddhist psychology sees emotions as parts of our personality that interfere with our
spiritual development and they need to be eliminated. They are considered to be
unwholesome and undesirable states of mind. According to Buddhist perspective,

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emotions arise in response to an attractive or repulsive

object. There is an innate tendency in people to be
either inclined towards an object or to move away from it. This is based on his/her
perception of himself/herself as attractive or repulsive.
 The practice of Zen is a systematic process of training the mind in a disciplined manner,
which allows us to attain the realization of enlightenment. Zen is a school of Mahayana
Buddhism which claims to represent the purest essence of Buddhist teachings. The
origins of Zen can be traced back to the Siddharth Gautama. The widely practiced form
of Zen is Zazen, which is the sitting meditation. In Rinzai School of Zen Buddhism, the
means of teaching zazen is the usage of Koans, a public document. The Soto School of
Zen practices shikantaza to teach zazen, which is just simply sitting and not trying to
realize anything. The other forms of Zen practice includes Kinhin (a slow walk), Gathas
(short versus), Gassho (putting hands together, joining the palm of one hand to another),
chanting, bowing, playing the shakuhachi, writing haikus, learning calligraphy and flower
arranging, tea ceremony and martial arts (such as karate, aikido, swordsmanship and
archery). The only form of Zen practice that is indispensable is the zazen. At last, it is
important to find a master to learn the correct practice of Zen.
 One Buddhist term that is highly associated with enlightenment is nirvana. As already
stated it is a state of mid wherein all the cravings and desires have extinguished.
Enlightenment, in Zen, is called “satori”. Enlightenment or satori can simply be defined
as the act of awakening one’s own true self. It is a highest sate of awareness. It is not
something that can be expressed in words but something which experienced by the
individual.
 The psychotherapeutic applications of the Buddhist psychology have been examined by a
number of authors. Like all other Eastern school of psychological thoughts, it aims to
make the individual functioning more efficient and individual lifestyle more positively
healthy. Unlike Western psychotherapy which is more concerned with positing these
changes in people suffering from mental, emotional or behavioural problems, the
Buddhist psychology is concerned with every individual, be it healthy or unhealthy.

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MODULE No. 37: Self and Identity in Buddhist Tradition