Endocrinology

ENDOCRINOLOGY
Dr. R. Silver Orlee Guttman and Jennifer Shin, chapter editors Christopher Tam, associate editor
DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM . . . 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Complications of Diabetes Treatment of Diabetes Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Hyperglycemic Syndrome Hypoglycemia Syndrome X - Insulin Resistance Syndrome ADRENAL CORTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25 Adrenocorticotropin Hormone (ACTH) Adrenocortical Hormones Tests of Adrenocortical Function Hyperaldosteronism Cushings Syndrome Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) Hirsutism and Virilization Adrenocortical Insufficiency
DYSLIPIDEMIAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Lipoproteins ADRENAL MEDULLA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 Secondary Causes of Hyperlipidemias Pheochromocytoma Approach to Dyslipidemias Treatment of Dyslipidemias MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASIA (MEN) 32 OBESITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 CALCIUM DISORDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32 Calcium Homeostasis PITUITARY GLAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 Hypercalcemia Growth Hormone Hypocalcemia Prolactin METABOLIC BONE DISEASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 Leutinizing Hormone (LH) and Osteoporosis Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Osteomalacia and Rickets Antidiuretic Hormone Renal Osteodystrophy Oxytocin Pagets Disease of Bone Pituitary Pathology Hypopituitarism MALE REPRODUCTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39 THYROID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 ENDOCRINOLOGY Tests of Testicular Function Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Hypogonadism Thyroid Hormones Infertility Tests of Thyroid Function and Structure Erectile Dysfunction Hyperthyroidism Gynecomastia A. Graves Disease B. Subacute Thyroiditis (Thyrotoxic Phase) COMMON MEDICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 C. Toxic Multinodular Goitre D. Postpartum Thyroiditis REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 E. Thyrotoxic Storm Hypothyroidism A. Congenital Hypothyroidism B. Hashimotos Thyroiditis C. Riedels Struma D. Myxedema Coma E. Sick Euthyroid Syndrome (SES) Non-toxic Goitre Thyroid Nodules Thyroid Malignancies
MCCQE 2002 Review Notes
Endocrinology E1
DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

DIABETES MELLITUS (DM)
diagnosis (confirm with the same test on another day)
symptoms of diabetes (polyuria, polydipsia, weight loss, nocturia, polyphagia, blurry vision) PLUS random plasma glucose 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) OR FBS 7.0 mmol/L (126 mg/dL) OR plasma glucose value 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) during two hour OGTT diagnostic testing fasting blood glucose (FBG): best drawn the morning after overnight fast oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): 75 g glucose ingested, then plasma glucose levels measured following 0 and 120 minutes Classification of Diabetes Mellitus (DM) Table 1. Comparison of Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
Type 1 Diabetes Etiology Onset Genetics idiopathic auto-immune usually before age 30 associated with HLA DR3, DR4 and DQ alleles 40% concordance in monozygotic twins completely insulin-deficient Type 2 Diabetes genetically-linked usually after age 40 greater heritability than Type 1 non-HLA-associated 80-100% concordance in monozygotic twins abnormal insulin secretion increased insulin resistance in target tissues, likely due to receptor and post-receptor abnormalities increased hepatic gluconeogenesis obesity family history prior abnormal glucose tolerance hypertension hyperlipidemia gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) higher in black, Aboriginal and Hispanic people
Pathophysiology
Risk Factors
personal history of autoimmune diseases increases likelihood of developing DM e.g. Graves disease, myasthenia gravis, Addisons disease, pernicious anemia highest in Finland rare in Asian, black, Aboriginal and Hispanic people typically normal to wasted insulin required
Population Prevalence
Body Habitus Pharmacological Therapy Circulating Islet Cell Antibodies Other Aspects
typically overweight combination of oral hypoglycemic agents insulin therapy < 10% not prone to ketoacidosis but prone to hyperosmolar coma
50-85% prone to ketoacidosis
Diabetes Secondary to Specific Etiologies genetic Down syndrome, Turners syndrome, Huntingtons disease, genetic defects in -cell function and insulin action diseases of the endocrine/exocrine pancreas pancreatitis, neoplasia, cystic fibrosis (CF), hemochromatosis (bronzed diabetes) endocrinopathies acromegaly, Cushings syndrome, glucagonoma, hyperthyroidism drug-induced -agonists, glucocorticoids, thiazides, phenytoin infections cytomegalovirus (CMV), congenital rubella
E2 Endocrinology
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Gestational Diabetes (GDM) (see Obstetrics Chapter) glucose intolerance that develops during pregnancy incidence 2-4% of all pregnancies risk factors age > 25 member of high-risk ethnic group obesity previous GDM 1 relative with DM previous macrosomic baby (> 4 kg) screening and diagnosis any pregnant woman should be screened between 24 and 28 weeks 50 g glucose challenge test, measuring glucose one hour later if abnormal (7.8 mmol/L; 140 mg/dL), then 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) should be done if any two of the following three values are met or exceeded, a diagnosis of GDM is established fasting glucose 5.3 mmol/L (95 mg/dL) 1 hr value 10.6 mmol/L (190 mg/dL) 2 hr 8.9 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) Fetus maternal hyperglycemia induces hyperinsulinemia in fetus results in macrosomia (insulin acts as a growth factor) GDM: prone to respiratory distress, neonatal hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, hyperbilirubinemia, polycythemia, and prematurity preexisting DM: all of the above plus intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), sacral agenesis, cardiac structural defects Mother increased risk of developing subsequent type 2 DM progression of diabetic retinopathy and nephropathy management preconception care to normalize HbA1c (if preexisting DM) tight glucose control (shown to decrease both fetal and maternal complications) oral hypoglycemics contraindicated insulin to maintain tight glycemic control if diet inadequate fetus must be monitored carefully Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT) diagnosis based on fasting glucose 6.1-6.9 mmol/L (110-125 mg/dL) 2-hour OGTT 7.8-11.1 mmol/L (140-199 mg/dL) 1-5% per year develop DM 50-80% revert to normal glucose tolerance weight loss may improve glucose tolerance associated with progressively greater risk of developing macrovascular complications
COMPLICATIONS OF DIABETES
smoking, high fat diet
the majority of complications involve the vascular system aggravating factors: poor glycemic control, inadequate control of hypertension and cholesterol,
Macroangiopathy accelerated atherosclerosis leading to coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke, pulmonary vascular disease (PVD) most common cause of death in type 2 DM Microangiopathy major chronic complication of type 1 and type 2 DM pathognomonic lesion is basement membrane thickening classically causes retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy can involve many other organs, including heart and skin 1. Retinopathy (see Ophthalmology Chapter) epidemiology present in 50% of patients after 10 years with DM one of the leading causes of blindness in North America types non-proliferative (background) generally no symptoms but may affect macula and impair vision microaneurysms, hard exudates, dot and blot hemorrhages pre-proliferative 10-40% progress to proliferative within one year macular edema, venous shunts and beading, nerve fibre layer microinfarcts (cotton wool spots)
MCCQE 2002 Review Notes Endocrinology E3
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proliferative (see Color Atlas OP13) great risk for loss of vision neovascularization, fibrous scarring, vitreal detachment, retinal detachment presentation asymptomatic to complete loss of vision prevention and management tight glycemic control photocoagulation (eliminates neovascularization) vitrectomy frequent follow-up visits with an ophthalmologist (immediate referral after diagnosis of type 2 DM; in type 1, only after 5 years of DM 2. Nephropathy (see Nephrology Chapter) epidemiology diabetes-induced renal failure is the most common cause of renal failure in North America 20-40% of persons with type 1 DM (after 5-10 years) and 4-20% with type 2 DM have progressive nephropathy presentation initial changes include microalbuminuria, increased glomerular filtration rate (GFR) (up to 140%), enlarged kidneys over 15 years, progresses to cause hypertension, persistent proteinuria (macroalbuminuria), nephrotic syndrome, renal failure prevention and management tight glucose control tight blood pressure control ACE inhibitors (shown to reduce nephropathic complications) and calcium channel blockers (CCB) limit use of nephrotoxic drugs and dyes protein restriction (controversial) 3. Neuropathy (see Neurology Chapter) epidemiology common in both type 1 and type 2 DM pathophysiology metabolic defect thought to be due to increased sorbitol and/or decreased myoinositol (exact mechanisms not understood) types distal symmetric glove and stocking polyneuropathy autonomic dysfunction (e.g. gastroparesis) mononeuropathy (e.g. carpal tunnel syndrome) presentation paresthesias or neuropathic pain motor or sensory deficits (including cranial nerves) orthostatic hypotension impotence voiding difficulties foot ulcers prevention and management tight glucose control anti-depressants (e.g. amitriptyline), capsaicin, and anti-epileptics (e.g. Tegretol, Neurontin) for painful neuropathic syndromes erythromycin and domperidone for gastroparesis foot care education 4. Other Complications skin disease (see Colour Atlas E5) bone and joint disease cataracts
TREATMENT OF DIABETES
Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) (1993) demonstrated a 50-70% decrease
in microvascular complications in type 1 DM in an intensively treated group as compared to a conventionally treated group United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (1998) demonstrated a decrease in diabetes complications in intensively treated group compared to conventionally treated group marked decrease in vascular complications in those with well-controlled blood pressure
E4 Endocrinology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

Diet energy intake to achieve and maintain desirable weight other recommendations as per Canada's Food Guide
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regular physical exercise can improve insulin sensitivity and lower lipid concentrations and blood pressure stop smoking and decrease alcohol consumption
Oral Hypoglycemic Agents (see Table 2) mainly for type 2 DM Table 2. Oral Hypoglycemics
Medication Sulfonylureas glyburide (Diabeta) chlorpropamide (Diabinase) Meglitimides repaglinide (Gluconorm) Biguanides metformin (Glucophage) Mechanism of Action stimulate release of endogenous insulin Side Effects hypoglycemia nausea GI discomfort Contraindications hepatic or renal impairment hypersensitivity, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) hepatic or renal impairment, alcoholism, advanced age liver disease, congestive heart failure (CHF)
Lifestyle
stimulate release of endogenous insulin hypoglycemia (rapid-acting, better post-prandial glucose (less frequent than control) with sulfonylureas) reduce gluconeogenesis, increase glucose lactic acidosis, utilization anorexia, nausea, diarrhea, GI discomfort increase peripheral insulin sensitivity, reduce gluconeogenesis increased TG, weight gain, hepatotoxicity, anemia flatulence, abdominal cramping, diarrhea
Thiazolidinediones rosiglitazone (Avandia) pyoglitazone (Actos) -Glucosidase Inhibitors acarbose (Prandase)
decrease the absorption of carbohydrates (thus decreasing postprandial rise of glucose)
hypersensitivity, DKA, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
Clinical Pearl Sulfonyureas and Meglitimides squeeze endogenous insulin from the pancreas. Biguanides and Thiazolidinediones act primarily in peripheral tissues remote from the pancreas. Insulin (see Table 3 and Figure 1) doses adjusted for individual patient needs to meet target glycemic control administration subcutaneous injections continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion pump IV infusion (regular insulin only) preparations ultra-rapid (Humalog) rapid or regular (R or Toronto) intermediate (N or NPH, L or Lente) long-acting (U or Ultralente) multiple daily injections of different types of insulin usually necessary for optimal glucose control estimate of total daily insulin requirement when starting an adult type 1 diabetes patient on insulin = 0.5 - 0.6 units/kg Table 3. Kinetics of Different Insulins
Insulin Humalog (H) Regular (R) NPH/lente (N) Ultralente Duration very short short intermediate long Onset (hours) 5-10 min 1/2-1 2-4 4-5 Peak (hours) 30-40 min 1-3 6-10 Usual Effective Duration of Action (hours) 2-3 5-7 (dose-dependent; may be longer) 14-18 18-28
Endocrinology E5

activity Humalog regular
. . . CONT.
lente and NPH
ultralente
breakfast
lunch
dinner
bed
Figure 1. Duration of Activity of Different Insulins Glucose Monitoring frequent self-monitoring and recording of blood glucose is now standard management hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c or glycosylated hemoglobin) percentage indicates level of plasma glucose over past 3 months extremely useful for monitoring patients long-term diabetes control goal is to maintain HbA1c within 5-8% range (i.e. average blood glucose 5.0-11.0 mmol/L) HbA1c 10% indicates poor control Variable Insulin Dose Schedule (Sliding Scale) patient takes fixed doses of intermediate-acting insulin (N) but varies doses of fast-acting insulin (R or H) based on blood glucose reading at time of dose use baseline R or H dose when in blood glucose target range; add or subtract units when above or below target allows patient to make corrections to avoid long periods of hyper- or hypoglycemia Table 4. Sample Insulin Sliding Scale for Regimen of 3 Daily Injections
Blood Glucose (mmol/L) Breakfast R or H < 3.0 3.1-3.9 target range: 4.0-8.0 8.1-12.0 12.1-17.0 > 17.0 -2 25 -1 12 +1 +2 +3 -1 9 +1 +2 +3 N Insulin (number of units) Supper R or H -2 18 Bed N
Insulin Pump Therapy external, battery-operated pump continuously delivers basal dose of fast-acting insulin through small subcutaneous catheter at meals, patient programs pump to deliver extra insulin bolus basal dose may be increased or decreased based on activity, sleep, etc. advantages: more flexible lifestyle (sleep in, eat / skip meals when desired), better glucose control disadvantages: very expensive, increased risk of DKA if pump inadvertently disconnected, frequent blood glucose testing required
DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS (DKA)

Pathophysiology insulin deficiency combined with increased counter-regulatory hormones i.e. glucagon, cortisol, growth hormone (GH), catecholamines clinically involves two factors: lack of insulin (non-compliance, inadequate dose, initial presentation of DM) and/or precipitant (surgery, infection, emotional stress) unrestricted hepatic glucose production > extreme hyperglycemia lipolysis > free fatty acids (FFA) > ketoacids > acidosis osmotic diuresis causes dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities
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Clinical Features typical patient: young type 1 DM presentation preceded by polyuria and polydipsia level of consciousness (LOC) may be decreased with high serum osmolality (> 330 mOsm/kg) dehydration and ketoacidosis anorexia, nausea, vomiting, fatigue abdominal pain (especially in children) fruity-smelling breath (due to acetone) Kussmauls respirations (rapid deep breathing) Investigations and Laboratory Findings increased blood glucose (BG) (11 mmol/L to > 55 mmol/L), decreased Na, decreased HCO3, increased BUN also measure K+, urine glucose and ketones hyperglycemia and ketonemia ketones in range of 15 mmol/L wide anion gap metabolic acidosis (pH 7.3 and/or HCO3 15) plus possible secondary respiratory alkalosis due to Kussmauls respirations; can also have metabolic alkalosis from vomiting and dehydration Treatment rapid diagnosis and close medical supervision are essential in general, monitor degree of ketoacidosis with anion gap, not blood glucose or ketone level rehydration critical in order to maintain adequate cardiac output and renal function bolus of NS initially followed by high rate NS infusion ~ 400 mEq Na+ is lost in the urine (osmotic diuresis, buffering of ketone acid anions, hyperglucagonemia and hypoinsulinemia leading to direct renal excretion) insulin initial bolus of 5-10 U (or 0.1 U/kg) IV in adults followed by continuous infusion at 5-10 U (or 0.1 U/kg) per hour when blood glucose 15 mmol/L (270 mg/dL) add D5W potassium avoid hypokalemia K+ lost from cells due to insulin deficiency and general catabolic state blood levels do not reflect total body losses which may be 400-500 mEq K+ falls during treatment due to rehydration and insulin action (drives K+ into cells) normal or low K+ level initially indicates severe deficiency and requires cardiac monitoring replace as KCl bicarbonate avoid giving unless life-threatening situation and/or shock treatment of precipitating cause with patient education to prevent further episodes of DKA treat cerebral edema with mannitol Prognosis 2-5% mortality in developed countries serious morbidity and mortality often result from sepsis pulmonary and cardiovascular complications thromboembolic complications cerebral edema
HYPEROSMOLAR NONKETOTIC HYPERGLYCEMIC SYNDROME

Pathophysiology usually complication of type 2 DM profound dehydration resulting from hyperglycemia precipitating events: infection, stroke, myocardial infarction, trauma, drugs (glucocorticoids, immunosuppressives, diuretics), medical procedures (dialysis), burns reduced fluid intake, especially in elderly, bedridden patients Clinical Features extreme hyperglycemia, hyperosmolality, volume depletion and CNS signs Investigations and Lab Findings high urine glucose, negative or low ketones BG often > 55 mmol/L (1,000 mg/dL), but not a good indicator of severity urine negative for ketones; blood ketones reflect only starvation ketosis high serum osmolality electrolytes may show spurious hyponatremia (decrease in 3 mEq/L Na+ for every 10 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) increase in glucose) nonketotic mixed metabolic acidosis may be present due to other acute underlying conditions (sepsis, renal failure, lactic acidosis) MCCQE 2002 Review Notes
Endocrinology E7
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Treatment rehydration with NS to restore intravascular volume, then 1/2 NS identify and treat precipitating cause(s) insulin (0.1 U/kg/hour) may or may not be necessary cerebral edema may result if osmolality is treated too aggressively overall mortality high (> 50%)
HYPOGLYCEMIA
Definition (Whipples Triad) serum glucose below a certain level (see below) PLUS neuroglycopenic symptoms OR adrenergic symptoms (autonomic response) PLUS relief provided by administration of glucose serum glucose at onset of symptoms < 2.5 mmol/L (45 mg/dL) in male patients < 2.2 mmol/L (40 mg/dL) in female patients occurs most often in insulin-treated diabetics, usually due to problems with matching insulin dose to estimated blood glucose levels Clinical Features of Hypoglycemia adrenergic symptoms (typically occur first) palpitations, sweating, anxiety, tremor, tachycardia, hunger neuroglycopenic symptoms dizziness, headache, clouding of vision, mental dullness, fatigue, confusion, seizures, coma Types of Hypoglycemia 1. Postprandial (Reactive) Hypoglycemia occurs 1.5-6 hours after a meal and recovers spontaneously manifested primarily as adrenergic symptoms due to autonomic discharge thought to be over-diagnosed and over-treated etiology alimentary hyperinsulinism post-GI surgery (gastrectomy, pyloroplasty, vagotomy) may also be induced by galactosemia and fructose intolerance treatment frequent, small feeds weight loss 2. Fasting Hypoglycemia imbalance between production of glucose by liver and utilization in peripheral tissues etiology defective gluconeogenesis with inability to maintain glucose concentration if food is withheld hormone deficiencies (hypopituitarism, adrenal insufficiency, inadequate catecholamines or glucagon) enzyme defects substrate deficiency liver disease (cirrhosis, uremia) drugs (ethanol, propranolol, salicylates) excessive utilization of glucose hyperinsulinism (insulinoma, sulfonylurea, exogenous insulin, sepsis) appropriate insulin levels (extrapancreatic tumours) treat underlying cause
SYNDROME X - INSULIN RESISTANCE SYNDROME

postulated syndrome related to insulin resistance
association between hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, hypertension, central obesity, and dyslipidemia (elevated LDL, VLDL and TG and reduced HDL) obesity aggravates extent of insulin resistance complications include atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke and MI
E8 Endocrinology
DYSLIPIDEMIAS
metabolic disorders characterized by elevations of fasting plasma
cholesterol and/or triglycerides (TG), and/or low HDL
LIPOPROTEINS
consist of a lipid core that is surrounded by a shell of water-soluble transport lipids within the body
Table 5. Lipoprotein Physiology
Lipoprotein Exogenous Pathway Chylomicron Endogenous Pathway VLDL LDL HDL Function transports dietary triglycerides from gut to adipose tissue and muscle transports hepatic-synthesized TG from liver to adipose tissue and muscle transports cholesterol from liver to peripheral tissues transports cholesterol from peripheral tissues to liver; acts as reservoir for apolipoproteins
proteins and phospholipids
Table 6. Abnormal Lipid Values in mmol/L (mg/dL)

LDL Mild Moderate Marked 3.4-4.1 (130-160) 4.1-4.9 (160-190) > 4.9 (190) TG 2.3-4.0 (90-155) 4.0-10.0 (155-385) > 10.0 (385) HDL 0.6-0.95 (23-37) < 0.6 (23)
DYSLIPIDEMIAS
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Figure 2. Lipid Pathways

Illustration by Glen Oomen
Endocrinology E9
DYSLIPIDEMIAS
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Table 7. Hyperlipidemias
Hyperlipidemia Lipoproteins Lipid Abnormalities Chol 1. Hypercholesterolemias a) Familial Hypercholesterolemia autosomal dominant IIa 888 TG Other 8LDL defective or absent LDL receptors homozygotes: manifest CAD and other vascular disease in childhood and die young (< 20 yrs.) if untreated heterozygotes: develop CAD, 50% chance of MI by age 30 in men tendonous xanthomata, xanthelasmas, corneal arcus Defect Clinical Outcomes
b) Polygenic Hypercholesterolemia (most common) 2. Hypertriglyceridemias a) Familial Hypertriglyceridemia
IIa
8LDL
few mild asymptomatic until vascular inherited defects disease develops in cholesterol metabolism excessive hepatic TG synthesis 8risk premature atherosclerosis expressed in early adulthood; triad of obesity, hypertriglyceridemia, and hyperinsulinemia (also hyperuricemia) associated with hepatosplenomegaly, lipemia retinalis, eruptive xanthomata, pancreatitis can be asymptomatic CAD and other vascular problems but otherwise asymptomatic palmar or tuberous xanthomata seen can be well until vascular disease develops
IV
888 8VLDL
b) Familial Lipoprotein Lipase Deficiency
I, V
8 defective or absent chylomicrons lipoprotein lipase
3. Combined Disorders a) Familial Combined Hyperlipidemia b) Dysbetalipoproteinemia
IIb
8LDL 8VLDL 8IDL
excessive hepatic synthesis of apolipoprotein B abnormal apoprotein E
III
SECONDARY CAUSES OF HYPERLIPIDEMIAS

1. Hypercholesterolemia diet hypothyroidism renal disease (nephrotic syndrome) liver disease (cholestatic) drugs (cyclosporine) diabetes paraproteinemia 2. Hypertriglyceridemia obesity alcohol diabetes drugs (-blockers without intrinsic sympathetic activity (ISA) birth control pill, hydrochlorothiazide, retinoic acid, glucocorticoid) renal disease (uremia) liver disease (acute hepatitis)
APPROACH TO DYSLIPIDEMIAS
establish presence of coronary artery disease (CAD), peripheral vascular disease (PVD),
cerebrovascular disease (CVD) risk factors outlined below for purpose of risk stratification
History Suggestive of Primary Dyslipidemia marked hyperlipidemia personal and/or family history of premature CAD < 40 yrs and resistance to conventional therapy tendon xanthomas, xanthelasma, eruptive xanthomas, lipemia retinalis, arcus in young person Screening and Investigation increased LDL cholesterol is a major risk factor for atherosclerosis, especially CAD lowering LDL cholesterol associated with decreased CVD risk, and decreased total mortality increased HDL associated with decreased CVD risk
DYSLIPIDEMIAS
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hypertriglyceridemia is an independent risk factor for CAD in people with diabetes and screening recommended for those with
postmenopausal women CAD family history of hyperlipidemia or premature CAD other risk factors (e.g. hypertension, renal failure, obesity, smokers, diabetes) good evidence for both primary and secondary intervention Risk Factors for CAD (see Cardiology Chapter) modified from National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) positive risk factors age: males > 45; females > 55, or premature menopause without hormone replacement therapy family history of CAD: MI or sudden death < age 55 in father or other first-degree male relative, or < age 65 in mother or other first-degree female relative current smoker hypertension (BP > 140/90) or on anti-hypertensive medications low HDL-cholesterol (< 0.90 mmol/L; 35 mg/dL) DM or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) hypertriglyceridemia (> 2.3 mmol/L; 90 mg/dL) abdominal obesity (BMI 27; waist:hip 0.9 in M, 0.8 in F) negative risk factors high HDL-cholesterol Table 8. Risk Stratification for CAD in Individuals with Elevated LDL
CAD Risk Classification Very High High % over 10 years > 40% > 20% Profile clinical macrovascular disease males > 35 postmenopausal females > 3 risk factors or marked hyperlipidemia with no clinical macrovascular disease males > 35 postmenopausal females 2-3 risk factors with no clinical macrovascular disease males < 35 postmenopausal females < 2 other risk factors
Intermediate
10-20%
Low
< 10%
TREATMENT OF DYSLIPIDEMIAS
for clinical guidelines, see Fodor et al., (2000) in the References section for anti-lipidemic agents, see the Common Medications section
Hypercholesterolemia conservative for 4-6 months Phase I diet < 30% calories from fat with < 10% saturated < 300 mg cholesterol/day smoking cessation limit alcohol consumption to 2 drinks/day (especially if elevated TG) aerobic exercise (especially if obese, type 2 DM) e.g. 30-60 minute brisk walk for 4-7 days/week weight loss (especially if BMI > 25, waist circumference > 90 cm for F or > 100 cm for M) change medications where appropriate treat secondary causes hormone replacement therapy (HRT) Table 9. Initiation and Target LDL Level in mmol/L (mg/dL) by Risk Group
Level of Risk Very High High Moderate Low Target LDL < 2.5 (100) < 3.0 (115) < 4.0 (155) < 5.0 (195) Target Total/HDL < 4.0 (155) < 5.0 (195) < 6.0 (230) < 7.0 (270) Target TG < 2.0 (75) < 2.0 (75) < 2.0 (75) < 3.0 (115)
Endocrinology E11
DYSLIPIDEMIAS
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Hypertriglyceridemia conservative measures usually effective; treat after 4-6 months if TG > 10 mmol/L (385 mg/dL) - to prevent pancreatitis mild-moderate elevated TG when very high CAD risk high risk (> 3 RFs) diabetes associated low HDL plus other risk factors combined hyperlipidemia Isolated Low HDL no evidence supporting treatment can justify treatment if very high-risk patient or family history of premature CAD Follow-Up every 4-6 months for lipid profiles and LFTs check CK baseline and again if patient complains of myalgia increase dose and add second agent to achieve target goals
OBESITY
Definitions 20% or greater above ideal body weight (IBW) (Met. Life Ins. tables); 170% of IBW or BMI > 40 is morbid obesity most practical index is BMI (body mass index) = weight/height2 (kg/m2) BMI < 20 or > 27 leads to increased health risk Epidemiology 15-25% of North American adults Possible Risk Factors increasing age genetic - variations in energy expenditure behaviour/lifestyle - diet and exercise secondary causes endocrine: e.g. Cushings syndrome, polycystic ovarian disease (PCOD) drugs: e.g. antidepressants, antiepileptics and antipsychotics hypothalamic injury: trauma, surgical, lesions in ventromedial or paraventricular median nucleus Pathophysiology positive energy balance: energy input > energy output Complications cardiovascular hypertension, CAD, CHF, varicose veins, sudden death from arrhythmia respiratory dyspnea, sleep apnea, pulmonary embolus, infections gastrointestinal gallbladder disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), fatty liver musculoskeletal osteoarthritis endocrine/metabolic impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) to type 2 DM, hyperuricemia, hyperlipidemia PCOD, hirsutism, irregular menses, infertility increased risk of neoplastic diseases endometrial, post-menopausal breast, prostate, colorectal cancers Treatment general recommendations treatment should be based on medical risk safest and best therapy is a comprehensive approach including caloric restriction, increased physical activity and behaviour modification diet caloric restriction with a balanced diet with reduced fat, sugar and alcohol exercise behaviour modification individual or group therapy self-monitoring, stimulus control, stress management, cognitive change, crisis intervention drug therapy serotonergic-appetite suppressants fenfluramine-phentermine (Fen-Phen) were found to cause valvular heart disease and primary pulmonary hypertension (withdrawn) pancreatic lipase inhibitor: orlistat (Xenical) found to be mildly to moderately effective surgical therapy gastroplasty (stomach stapling) is treatment of last resort (controversial) liposuction weight loss is regained by fat accumulation at the same site or elsewhere not advocated if patient has significant medical comorbidities E12 Endocrinology MCCQE 2002 Review Notes
PITUITARY GLAND
Hypothalamic Control of Pituitary trophic and inhibitory factors control the release of pituitary hormones most hormones are primarily under trophic stimulation except prolactin which is primarily under inhibitory control transection of the pituitary stalk (i.e. dissociation of hypothalamus and pituitary) leads to pituitary hypersecretion of prolactin and hyposecretion of all remaining hormones Anterior Pituitary Hormones growth hormone (GH), leutenizing hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticopin hormone (ACTH), prolactin (PRL) Posterior Pituitary (Hypothalamic) Hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin peptides synthesized in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus stored in and released from the posterior pituitary Table 10. The Pituitary Hormones
Hormone PRL Inhibitory Stimulus dopamine D2-receptor agonists (bromocriptine) dexamethasone cortisol Secretory Stimulus dopamine antagonists thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) cortisol releasing hormone (CRH) metyrapone (11--hydroxylase inhibitor) insulin-induced hypoglycemia fever, pain TRH insulin-induced hypoglycemia exercise, REM sleep arginine, clonidine, propranolol, L-dopa growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) GnRH in boluses
ACTH
TSH GH
circulating thyroid hormones glucose challenge somatostatin dopamine agonists insulin like growth factor (IGF)-1 estrogen testosterone continuous GnRH infusion decreased serum osmolality
LH/FSH
ADH
increased serum osmolality hypovolemia stress, fever, pain suckling distention of female genital tract
Oxytocin
EtOH
GROWTH HORMONE (GH)

polypeptide, secreted in bursts
Physiology serum GH undetectable much of the day, suppressed after meals that are high in glucose content, sustained rise during sleep necessary for normal linear growth acts indirectly through serum factors synthesized in liver insulin-like growth factors (IGF) previously known as somatomedins IGF shares some insulin-like actions and thus stimulates growth of bone and cartilage Regulation stimulated by GHRH, sleep, exercise, insulin, hypoglycemia, arginine, L-dopa, propranolol, clonidine inhibited by somatostatin, glucocorticoids, hyperglycemia, hypothyroidism long loop negative feedback by IGF-1 (somatomedin C) Pathology decreased GH not very significant in adults but important in children (see Pediatrics Chapter) treatment: recombinant human growth hormone
PITUITARY GLAND
increased GH
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hypersecretion causes gigantism in children, acromegaly in adults clinically seen as thickened soft tissues (palms, heels), sweating, large bones, coarse features, diabetes, carpal tunnel syndrome, osteoarthritis, hypertension, and increased risk of colon cancer definitive diagnosis: increase in GH with oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) causes pituitary adenomas most common occasionally pituitary adenoma produces both prolactin and GH rarely carcinoid tumours and pancreatic islet tumours make GHRH treatment: surgery, radiation, bromocriptine (dopamine agonist), octreotide (somatostatin analogue)
PROLACTIN (PRL)
polypeptide
Physiology promotes milk production antagonizes sex steroids peripherally Regulation stimulation physiologic: sleep, stress, pregnancy, hypoglycemia, mid-menstrual cycle, breast feeding, TRH, sexual activity pharmacologic: psychotropics (e.g. haloperidol, risperidone), antihypertensives (e.g. reserpine, verapamil), -methyldopa, opiates, high-dose estrogens, metoclopramide, domperidone, cimetidine pathologic various hypothalamic-pituitary causes (e.g. pituitary microadenoma, pituitary stalk transection) primary hypothyroidism (increased TRH) chronic renal failure (secondary to reduced clearance) liver cirrhosis inhibition physiologic: tonic inhibition by dopamine pharmacologic: dopamine agonists (e.g. bromocriptine) Pathology hypoprolactinemia inability to lactate may be the first sign of Sheehans syndrome (postpartum pituitary hemorrhage) (see Obstetrics Chapter) hyperprolactinemia galactorrhea, infertility, hypogonadism (women and men) serum prolactin levels > 300 g/L (300 ng/mL) virtually diagnostic of prolactinoma prolactin-secreting tumours may be induced by estrogens and may grow during pregnancy treatment includes bromocriptine or carbegoline (long-acting dopamine agonist), surgery +/ radiation these tumours are very slow-growing and sometimes require no treatment
LEUTINIZING HORMONE (LH) AND FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)

glycoproteins with same subunit as TSH and hCG possibly secreted by the same cells (gonadotrophs)
Physiology both released in pulsatile fashion, but FSH has a longer half-life (3-4 hours vs. 50 minutes for LH) and thus fluctuates less throughout the day gonadotropins: stimulate gonads (ovaries and testicles) via cAMP in the ovary LH stimulates ovarian theca cells to produce androgens (which are subsequently converted to estrogens in granulosa cells) and induces luteinization in ovarian follicles FSH stimulates growth of granulosa cells in ovarian follicle and controls estrogen formation in the testis LH controls testicular production of testosterone in Leydig cells FSH, together with intra-testicular testosterone, stimulates Sertoli cells tubules to produce sperm Regulation GnRH stimulates both FSH and LH inhibition female: estrogen and progesterone male: testosterone and inhibin
PITUITARY GLAND
. . . CONT.
Pathology secondary hypersecretion in gonadal failure decreased gonadotropins (see Gynecology Chapter) hypogonadism amenorrhea impotence loss of body hair fine skin testicular atrophy failure of pubertal development treated with Pergonal and hCG, or LHRH analogue if fertility desired; otherwise treat with estrogen/testosterone
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

also known as vasopressin
octapeptide synthesized in supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus and

secreted down pituitary stalk to posterior lobe of pituitary Physiology major action is via cAMP in renal collecting ducts; alters permeability of membrane to water allows reabsorption of water thereby increasing urine concentration Regulation major secretory stimulus is serum osmotic pressure detected by osmoreceptors in hypothalamus hypovolemia, stress, fever, pain may also stimulate ADH contracted plasma volume is a more potent stimulator of water retention than osmolality change (mediated through renin-angiotensin system) Pathology 1. Diabetes Insipidus (DI) (see Nephrology Chapter) definition: passage of large volumes of dilute urine central vs. nephrogenic central DI: insufficient ADH due to dysfunction of hypothalamic nuclei (e.g. tumours, hydrocephalus, histiocytosis, trauma) nephrogenic DI: collecting tubules in kidneys resistant to ADH (e.g. drugs including lithium, hypercalcemia, hypokalemia) psychogenic polydipsia must be ruled out diagnosis fluid deprivation will differentiate true DI (high urine output persists, urine osmolality < plasma osmolality) from psychogenic DI response to exogenous ADH will distinguish central from nephrogenic DI treatment DDAVP (vasopressin) for total DI DDAVP or chlorpropamide, clofibrate, carbamazepine for partial DI nephrogenic DI treated with solute restriction and thiazides 2. Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH) ADH excess associated with hyponatremia without edema; must rule out other causes of excess ADH e.g. hypovolemic (adrenocortical insufficiency), edematous (hypothyroidism), and hypertensive (renovascular stenosis) states causes malignancy (lung, pancreas, lymphoma) CNS disease (inflammatory, hemorrhage, tumour, Guillain-Barr syndrome) chest disease (TB, pneumonia, empyema) drugs (vincristine, chlorpropamide, cyclophosphamide, carbamazepine, nicotine, morphine) stress (post-surgical) diagnosis euvolemic hyponatremia with inappropriately concentrated urine normal thyroid, adrenal and renal functions treatment treat underlying cause, fluid restriction, demeclocycline (antibiotic with anti-ADH effects)
OXYTOCIN (see Obstetrics and Gynecology Chapters)

and stored in posterior pituitary
a nonapeptide synthesized in paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus

Physiology causes uterine contractions but physiologic role in initiating labour unclear as impairment of oxytocin production does not interfere with normal labour causes breast milk secretion Regulation secretion stimulated by suckling and distention of the female genital tract secretion inhibited by ethanol MCCQE 2002 Review Notes
Endocrinology E15
PITUITARY GLAND
. . . CONT.
PITUITARY PATHOLOGY
Pituitary Adenoma (see Colour Atlas NS18) related to size and location visual field defects (usually bitemporal hemianopsia), oculomotor palsies, increased ICP (may have headaches) skull radiograph: double floor (large sella or erosion), calcification CT and MRI far more sensitive for diagnosis related to destruction of gland hypopituitarism related to increased hormone secretion PRL prolactinoma is most common pituitary tumour galactorrhea GH acromegaly in adults (see Colour Atlas E4), gigantism in children ACTH Cushings disease = Cushings syndrome caused by a pituitary tumour tumours secreting LH, FSH and TSH are rare Craniopharyngioma (see Pediatrics Chapter)
sella turcica appears enlarged on x-ray because pituitary gland is distorted generally eupituitary - no treatment necessary
Pituitary Apoplexy acute hemorrhage/infarction of pituitary tumour sudden severe headache altered LOC ocular symptoms note: ophthalmoplegia with pituitary tumour likely indicates apoplexy since tumour rarely gets big enough to encroach on cranial nerves neurosurgical emergency: acute decompression of pituitary via trans-sphenoidal route Clinical Pearl GH, LH, FSH, TSH, ACTH, PRL A compressive adenoma in the pituitary will impair hormone production in this order (i.e. GH-secreting cells are most sensitive to compression) Mnemonic: Go Look For The Adenoma Please
Empty Sella Syndrome
HYPOPITUITARISM
Etiology Mnemonic: eight Is Invasive: generally primary tumours Infarction: e.g. Sheehans syndrome Infiltrative disease e.g. sarcoidosis, hemochromatosis, histiocytosis Iatrogenic: following surgery or radiation Infectious: e.g. syphilis, TB Injury: severe head trauma Immunologic: autoimmune destruction Idiopathic: familial forms, congenital midline defects Clinical Features typical clinical progression in panhypopituitarism fall in GH, clinically not apparent fall in PRL is variable, but may present as decreased lactation gonadotropin insufficiency then causes erectile dysfunction in men, and amenorrhea or infertility in women TSH deficiency produces clinical hypothyroidism ACTH deficiency leads to adrenal insufficiency Diagnosis by Triple Bolus Test stimulates release of all anterior pituitary hormones in normal individuals rapid sequence IV infusion of insulin, LHRH and TRH insulin > hypoglycemia > increased GH and ACTH LHRH > increased LH and FSH TRH > increased TSH and PRL
E16 Endocrinology
THYROID
THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)

glycoprotein subunit similar to those in FSH, LH, hCG, but all have unique subunits stimulates growth of thyroid and secretion of T4 and T3 via cAMP regulation stimulated by hypothalamic TRH inhibited by circulating T4, intrapituitary T3, opiates, dopamine
THYROID HORMONES
Biochemistry free T4 (0.03%) and free T3 (0.3%) represent the hormonally active fraction the remainder is hormonally inactive, mainly bound to thyroxine binding globulin (TBG) and albumin T3 is more biologically active than T4 some T4 is converted to T3 in peripheral tissues by 5-deiodinase metabolized by most tissues; metabolites reach liver and are excreted in bile Regulation of Thyroid Function extrathyroid stimulation of thyroid by TSH, epinephrine, prostaglandins (cAMP stimulators) intrathyroid (autoregulation) response to iodide - with increasing iodide supply, inhibition of iodide organification occurs, thus decreasing T3 and T4 synthesis (Wolff-Chaikoff effect) varying thyroid sensitivity to TSH in response to iodide availability increased ratio of T3 to T4 in iodide deficiency
TESTS OF THYROID FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE

Circulating Thyroid Hormones total T3 and T4 levels depend on amount of thyroid binding globulin (TBG) TBG increases with: pregnancy, oral contraceptive (OCP) use, acute infectious hepatitis, biliary cirrhosis TBG decreases with: androgens, glucocorticoids, cirrhosis, hyponatremia, phenytoin, ASA, NSAIDS, nephrotic syndrome, severe systemic illness standard assessment of thyroid function includes TSH and if necessary, free T4 and free T3 TSH sensitive TSH (sTSH) is the single best test for assessing thyroid function hyperthyroidism primary: TSH is low and does not rise in response to TRH because of negative feedback from increased levels of circulating T3 and T4 secondary: increased TSH hypothyroidism primary: increased TSH (most sensitive test) because of less negative feedback from T3 and T4 secondary: TSH is low with variable response to TRH depending on the site of the lesion (pituitary or hypothalamic) Iodine Kinetics an index of thyroid function radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) is high in Graves disease and low in subacute thyroiditis Effects of Thyroid Hormones on Peripheral Tissues sex hormone binding globulin (non-specific) liver increases production in hyperthyroidism; decreases production in hypothyroidism pre-ejection period/ left ventricular ejection time is a measure of the effect of thyroid hormones on the heart basal metabolic rate (BMR) Thyroid Assessment (see Otolaryngology Chapter) normal gland size 15-20 g (estimated by palpation) thyroid U/S to detect size of gland, solid vs. cystic nodule fine needle aspiration for cytology thyroid scan (Technetium99) for hot vs. cold nodules to distinguish between three major types of high-uptake hyperthyroidism Graves disease (diffuse uptake) toxic multinodular goiter (multiple discrete areas) solid toxic adenoma (single intense area of uptake) Miscellaneous Tests thyroid antibodies antithyroglobulin antibodies, microsomal antibodies increased in Hashimotos disease TSH receptor antibodies thyroid stimulating immunoglobulin (TSI) or TSAb increased in Graves disease
THYROID
. . . CONT.
plasma thyroglobulin level

used to monitor thyroid carcinoma activity undetectable levels = remission normal or elevated levels = probable, persistent, recurrent, or metastatic disease serum calcitonin not routinely done to investigate most thyroid nodules ordered if suspicious of medullary thyroid carcinoma
HYPERTHYROIDISM
hyperthyroidism: excess production of thyroid hormone thyrotoxicosis: denotes clinical, physiological and biochemical
findings in response to elevated thyroid hormone Table 11. Differential Diagnosis of Hyperthyroidism
Disorder/Disease TSH 1. Graves Disease 2. Toxic Nodular Goitre 3. Toxic Nodule 4. Thyroiditis a) classical subacute thyroiditis b) silent thyroiditis c) post-partum thyroiditis 5. McCune-Albright Syndrome 6. Jod Basedow (iodine-induced) 7. Extra-thyroidal Sources of Thyroid Hormone a) endogenous (struma ovariae, ovarian teratoma metastases from follicular carcinoma) b) exogenous (drugs) 8. Excessive Thyroid Stimulation a) pituitary thyrotrophoma b) pituitary thyroid hormone receptor resistance c)8hCG (e.g. molar pregnancy) decreased decreased decreased decreased Investigations T4/T3 increased increased increased increased Thyroid antibodies TSI Abs none none up to 50% of time RAIU increased increased increased decreased ESR increased in classical SAT Other
decreased decreased
increased increased
none none decreased
decreased
increased
none
decreased
increased increased decreased
increased increased increased
none none none
increased increased increased
Clinical Features GENERAL: fatigue, heat intolerance, irritability, fine tremor CVS: tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, palpitations elderly patients may have only CVS symptoms, commonly new onset atrial fibrillation GI: weight loss with increased appetite, thirst, increased frequency of bowel movements (hyperdefecation) NEUROLOGY: proximal muscle weakness, hypokalemic periodic paralysis (patients of Oriental origin) GU: scant menses, decreased fertility DERMATOLOGY: fine hair, skin moist and warm, vitiligo, soft nails with onycholysis (Plummers nails) MUSCULOSKELETAL (rare): decreased bone mass, hypercalcemia HEMATOLOGY: leukopenia, lymphocytosis, splenomegaly, lymphadenopathy (occasionally in Graves disease)
A. GRAVES DISEASE (see Colour Atlas E2)

E18 Endocrinology
triad of hyperthyroidism with diffuse goiter, ophthalmopathy, dermopathy (need not appear together)
THYROID
. . . CONT.
Epidemiology relatively common, occurs at any age with peak in 3rd and 4th decade runs in families F>M association with HLA B8 and DR3 may be associated with other autoimmune disorders in family (e.g. pernicious anemia, Hashimotos disease) Etiology and Pathogenesis autoimmune disorder due to a defect in T-suppressor cells B-lymphocytes produce thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) directed against TSH receptor that mediate thyroid stimulation cause of ophthalmopathy uncertain antibodies against extraocular muscle antigens (fibroblasts implicated) with lymphocytic infiltration glycosaminoglycan deposition dermopathy may be related to cutaneous glycosaminoglycan deposition pretibial myxedema (see Colour Atlas E3) Additional Clinical Features diffuse goiter +/ bruit ophthalmopathy: proptosis, lid lag, lid retraction, diplopia, characteristic stare, conjunctival injection dermopathy (rare): pretibial myxedema (thickening of dermis) acropachy: clubbing and thickening of distal phalanges Diagnosis increased free T4 (and/or increased T3) positive for TSI TRH stimulation test (flat TSH response) is diagnostic if sTSH and free T4 are inconclusive
propylthiouracil (PTU) or methimazole (MMI)

inhibit thyroid hormone synthesis major side effects: rash, hepatitis and agranulocytosis symptomatic treatment with -adrenergic antagonists thyroid ablation with radioactive 131I if PTU or MMI trial does not produce disease remission subtotal thyroidectomy (indicated rarely for large goitres) risks include hypoparathyroidism and vocal cord palsy both MMI and 131I are contraindicated in pregnancy 1/3 of cases achieve long-term remission on drug therapy alone small goitre and recent onset are good indicators for long-term remission with medical therapy high incidence of hypothyroidism after 131I, requiring lifelong thyroid hormone replacement ophthalmopathy: prevent drying high dose prednisone in severe cases orbital radiation, surgical decompression note that PTU or MMI may worsen ophthalmopathy
Treatment
B. SUBACUTE THYROIDITIS (Thyrotoxic Phase)

acute inflammation of the thyroid, probably viral in origin, characterized by giant cells and lymphocytes often preceded by upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) disruption of thyroid follicles by inflammatory process results in the release of stored hormone
Clinical Features begins with fever, malaise, soreness in neck gland becomes enlarged two forms painful (DeQuervains) thyroid, ears, jaw and occiput painless (Silent) usually transient thyrotoxicosis with a subsequent hypothyroidism phase due to depletion of stored hormone, finally resolving in a euthyroid state over a period of months Etiology and Pathogenesis
Laboratory elevated T4, T3 radioactive iodine uptake (RAIU) markedly reduced marked elevation of ESR in painful variety only as disease progresses, values consistent with hypothyroidism may appear; rise in RAIU reflects gland recovery
Treatment ASA can be used for painful form (increases peripheral conversion) prednisone may be required for severe pain, fever, or malaise -adrenergic blockade is usually effective in reversing most of the hypermetabolic and cardiac symptoms if symptomatically hypothyroid may treat short-term with thyroxine
THYROID
. . . CONT.
Prognosis full recovery in most cases, but permanent hypothyroidism in 10% of painless thyroiditis
C. TOXIC MULTINODULAR GOITRE
autonomous thyroid hormone production, may arise from a nodule in a nontoxic multinodular goitre may be singular or multiple multinodular goitre also known as Plummers Disease
Clinical Features goitre with adenomatous changes occurs more frequently in elderly people atrial fibrillation is a common presentation in the elderly Diagnosis thyroid scan with increased uptake in nodule(s), and suppression of the remainder of the gland Treatment initiate therapy with antithyroid medications to attain euthyroid state in order to avoid radiation thyroiditis then use high dose radioactive iodine to ablate tissue over weeks propranolol often necessary for symptomatic treatment prior to definitive therapy (works by blocking the peripheral action of T3 and T4)
D. POSTPARTUM THYROIDITIS

a type of painless thyroiditis autoimmune-mediated occurs in 5-10% of postpartum mothers, one-third of whom develops symptoms typical presentation includes thyrotoxicosis 2-3 months postpartum with a hypothyroid phase at 4-8 months; usually resolves spontaneously without need for supplementation may be mistakenly diagnosed as postpartum depression may recur with subsequent pregnancies treat as per painless subacute thyroiditis
E. THYROTOXIC STORM
a severe state of uncontrolled hyperthyroidism, extreme fever,

Differential Diagnosis sepsis pheochromocytoma malignant hyperthermia Clinical Features hyperthyroidism hyperthermia, often with dry skin arrhythmia > congestive heart failure , pulmonary edema mental status changes ranging from delirium to coma Laboratory Findings increased T3, T4, undetectable TSH +/ anemia, leukocytosis, hypercalcemia, elevated LFTs
often precipitated by infection, trauma, or surgery in hyperthyroid patient
tachycardia, vomiting, diarrhea, vascular collapse and confusion
Treatment initiate prompt therapy; dont wait for confirmation from lab fluid and electrolyte maintenance, vasopressors as indicated cooling blanket, acetaminophen for pyrexia inderal (decreases peripheral conversion of T4 to T3) but watch for CHF high dose PTU iodide (NaI, KI, Lugols solution) to inhibit release of thyroid hormone dexamethasone to block peripheral conversion and to lower body temperature treat precipitant Prognosis 50% mortality rate
HYPOTHYROIDISM
Epidemiology 2-3% of general population F:M = 10:1 10-20% of women over age 50 have subclinical hypothyroidism (normal T4, TSH mildly elevated)
THYROID
. . . CONT.
Differential Diagnosis primary thyroid disease (90%) iatrogenic: post-ablative (131I or surgical thyroidectomy) autoimmune: Hashimotos thyroiditis hypothyroid phase of subacute thyroiditis drugs: goitrogens (iodine), PTU, MMI, lithium infiltrative disease (progressive systemic sclerosis, amyloid) iodine deficiency congenital (1/4,000 births) pituitary hypothyroidism insufficiency of pituitary TSH hypothalamic hypothyroidism decreased TRH from hypothalamus (rare) peripheral tissue resistance to thyroid hormone rare Clinical Features GENERAL: fatigue, cold intolerance, slowing of mental and physical performance, hoarseness, enlarged tongue CVS: slow pulse, generalized atherosclerosis (increased serum cholesterol and triglycerides), pericardial effusion GI: anorexia, weight gain, constipation, poor appetite NEUROLOGY: paresthesia, slow speech, muscle cramps, delay in relaxation phase of deep tendon reflexes (hung reflexes) GU: menorrhagia, amenorrhea, anovulatory cycles DERMATOLOGY: puffiness of face, periorbital edema, cool, dry and rough skin, hair dry and coarse, eyebrows thinned (lateral 1/3) HEMATOLOGY: anemia Laboratory sensitive TSH (sTSH) is the most sensitive test for primary hypothyroidism must measure TSH to rule out secondary or tertiary causes Treatment L-thyroxine (dose range usually 0.05 to 0.2 mg/day) elderly patients and those with CAD: start at 0.025 mg daily and increase gradually monitor sTSH at the optimal replacement dosage, TSH is in the middle of its normal range; can also monitor free T4, particularly in pituitary hypothyroidism
A. CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM (see Pediatrics Chapter) B. HASHIMOTOS THYROIDITIS

two variants
goitrous: presents with a euthyroid or hypothyroid goitre atrophic: presents initially with hypothyroid state and atrophic gland
Etiology and Epidemiology defect in clone of T-suppressors leads to cell-mediated destruction of thyroid follicles B-lymphocytes produce antithyroglobulin antibody and antithyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO or antimicrosomal antibody) associated with HLA B8 and DR3, and other autoimmune diseases (e.g. Sjgrens syndrome, SLE, RA, pernicious anemia, adrenal insufficiency) more common in females of middle age and is the most common cause of sporadic goiter in children
goitrous variant usually presents with a rubbery goitre and euthyroidism, atrophic variant patients are hypothyroid from the start association with thyroid lymphoma thyroid function test reveals hypothyroidism, or a euthyroid state with a compensatory increase antimicrosomal and anti-thyroglobulin antibodies
in TSH; followed by decreased free T4 and eventually decreased free T3 Treatment if hypothyroid, replace with L-thyroxine if euthyroid, also treat with L-thyroxine if significant anti-thyroid antibody present Laboratory Findings then hypothyroidism becomes evident
Clinical Features
C. RIEDELS STRUMA
rare type of chronic thyroiditis fibrotic inflammatory process that extends from the thyroid into surrounding tissues
Endocrinology E21
THYROID
. . . CONT.
Clinical Features ill-defined, firm mass with possible compressive symptoms of dysphagia, stridor, hoarseness, pain chief importance is differentiation from malignancy Treatment surgical wedge resection of the isthmus (to prevent tracheal compression)
D. MYXEDEMA COMA
most severe complication of hypothyroidism generally seen in patients with longstanding unrecognized hypothyroidism
and associated with a precipitating event (infection, surgery, MI, CHF) Clinical Features hypothyroidism, stupor, hypoventilation, hypothermia, bradycardia, hypertension Laboratory Findings decreased T3 and T4, increased TSH, decreased glucose check ACTH and cortisol for evidence of adrenal insufficiency Treatment ABCs no active re-warming, but avoid cooling NG tube (since ileus often present) corticosteroids (due to the possibility of concomitant adrenal insufficiency) L-thyroxine 0.2-0.5 mg IV loading dose, then 0.1 mg IV OD until oral therapy tolerated treat precipitant monitor in ICU setting
E. SICK EUTHYROID SYNDROME (SES)

not due to intrinsic thyroid or pituitary disease the abnormalities in SES include alterations in
of thyroid hormones
serious illness, trauma, or stress can induce changes in circulating levels
peripheral transport and metabolism of thyroid hormone regulation of TSH secretion thyroid function itself several variants exist normal-T4 variant characterized by low T3, normal T4 proposed mechanism involves inhibition of peripheral 5 monodeiodination of T4 to T3 differentiated from primary hypothyroidism by a normal TSH low-T4 variant characterized by low T3, low T4 low T4 likely due to inhibited T4 binding to serum proteins and accelerated metabolic clearance differentiated from primary hypothyroidism with normal or low TSH poorer prognosis treat the underlying disease thyroid hormone replacement worsens the outcome
NON-TOXIC GOITRE
generalized enlargement of the thyroid gland in a euthyroid individual appearance of a goitre is more likely during adolescence, pregnancy,
that does not result from inflammatory or neoplastic processes and lactation because of increased thyroid hormone requirements early stages: goitre is usually diffuse later stages: multinodular nontoxic goitre with nodule, cyst formation and areas of ischemia, hemorrhage, and fibrosis
Etiology iodine deficiency or excess goitrogens: brassica vegetables (turnip, cassava) drugs: iodine, lithium, para-aminosalicylic acid any disorder of hormone synthesis with compensatory growth peripheral resistance to thyroid hormone Complications compression of neck structures, causing stridor, dysphagia, pain, and hoarseness multinodular goitre may become autonomous leading to toxic multinodular goitre and hyperthyroidism
THYROID
. . . CONT.
Treatment remove goitrogens suppression with L-thyroxine may be effective in any TSH-dependent goitre surgery may be necessary for severe compressive symptoms
THYROID NODULES (see Otolaryngology Chapter)
clearly defined discrete mass, separated from the thyroid parenchyma

Etiology benign tumours (e.g. follicular adenoma) thyroid malignancy hyperplastic area in a multinodular goitre cyst: true thyroid cyst, area of cystic degeneration in a multinodular goitre Investigations fine needle aspiration (FNA) useful only if positive for malignancy (specific, not sensitive) thyroid function tests thyroid scan 15-20% of cold nodules (minimal 131I uptake into nodule) are malignant, very low malignant potential if warm or hot (significant 131I uptake into nodule)
TSH Detectable Fine Needle Aspiration Biopsy (FNA) Benign trial of L-thyroxine suppression x 6mos smaller observe larger surgery smaller observe unchanged repeat FNA larger surgery Inconclusive repeat FNA Malignant surgery adjuvant therapy Undetectable - observe if euthyroid - RAI or surgery if hyperthyroid
still inconclusive: trial of L-thyroxine suppression
Figure 3. Workup of Thyroid Nodule
THYROID MALIGNANCIES
Risk Factors history head or neck irradiation especially during childhood (e.g. acne therapy) family history (especially of medullary carcinoma) rapid growth (and failure to shrink on L-thyroxine) onset < 30 years of age male gender (thyroid nodules more common in females, malignancy more common in males) compressive symptoms (e.g. pain, dysphagia, stridor, hoarseness) cervical lymphadenopathy nodule in patient with Hashimotos (must rule out lymphoma) physical examination solitary nodule hardness and irregularity of nodule surrounding tissue involvement regional lymphadenopathy investigations fine needle aspiration (see Figure 3)
THYROID
. . . CONT.
Classification 1. Papillary Carcinoma (50-70%) well-differentiated seen more commonly in younger patients may be induced by radiation multicentric, some follicular components histologically usually metastasizes to regional lymph nodes first lifespan not affected if confined to one lobe and < 2 cm remember the Ps: Papillary, Popular, Psammoma, Palpable nodes, Positive Prognosis, Positive 131I uptake
well-differentiated but more aggressive than papillary not associated with radiation exposure tends to be angioinvasive, spreading to lung, bones and distant most important prognostic factor is invasion, not primary tumour size Hurtle cell cancer: aggressive variant of follicular cancer, frequent remember the Fs: Follicular, Far away mets (blood), Female,
FNA biopsy not diagnostic, Favourable prognosis 3. Anaplastic Carcinoma (10%) occurs most commonly in elderly patients rapidly progressive poor prognosis 4. Medullary Carcinoma (1-2%) high familial aggregation, associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) IIa or IIb may produce calcitonin, prostaglandins, ACTH, serotonin, kallikrein, bradykinin these substances can be used as tumour markers worse prognosis than papillary or follicular cancer need to screen asymptomatic relatives inappropriate rise in calcitonin with the administration of calcium and pentagastrin remember the Ms: Medullary, MEN IIa, or IIb, aMyloid, Median node dissection 5. Lymphoma (< 1%) seen in the context of a nodule or an enlarging goitre in a patient with Hashimotos thyroiditis Treatment lobectomy for small, well-differentiated papillary carcinoma with no evidence of aggressive behaviour or metastases near-total thyroidectomy for large tumours with marked angioinvasion or capsular invasion nodal dissection required only if nodes present generally follow with large dose of ablative radioactive iodine for large, well-differentiated tumours thyroid malignancies may be dependent on TSH and may regress with L-thyroxine suppression follow thyroglobulin (papillary, follicular), calcitonin (medullary) inappropriate serum thyroglobulin level post surgery/ablation may indicate metastases total body 131I scan will identify metastases treatment by high dose radioactive iodine pulmonary metastases sites without lymph node involvement
2. Follicular Carcinoma (10-15%)
E24 Endocrinology
ADRENAL CORTEX
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN HORMONE (ACTH)
, and MSH, -endorphin, and lipotropin as well as ACTH
polypeptide part of long prohormone (pro-opiomelanocorticotropin, POMC) which contains secretion from pituitary is both pulsatile and diurnally varied, peaking at 0200-0400 hours, stimulates growth of adrenal cortex and secretion of its hormones via cAMP may have some melanocyte stimulating activity
stimulates glucocorticoids, androgens and, to a limited extent, mineralocorticoids lowest at 1800-2400 hours Physiology
Regulation primary control by CRH from hypothalamus feedback inhibition by cortisol on pituitary, hypothalamus and CNS; also regulated by sleep-wake cycle and stress (pyrogens, surgery, hypoglycemia, exercise, severe emotional trauma)
ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES
all derived from cholesterol (see Figure 4)
mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) from zona glomerulosa (outermost layer = salt) glucocorticoids (cortisol) from zona fasciculata (middle layer = sugar) androgens from zona reticularis (innermost layer = sex)
cholesterol pregnenolone 2 progesterone 3* 1 1 17-OH-pregnenolone 2 17-OH-progesterone 3* 11-deoxycortisol 4 cortisol Glucocorticoids (zona fasciculata) 2 3--dehydrogenase 5 8 17--dehydrogenase 18-hydroxylase DHEA-S 2 androstenedione 5 testosterone 6 7
11-deoxycorticosterone 4 corticosterone 8 aldosterone Mineralocorticoids (zona glomerulosa) 1 4 7 17-hydroxylase 11-hydroxylase 5--reductase
estradiol dihydrotestosterone Sex Steroids (zona reticularis) 3 6 21-hydroxylase aromatase
*most common enzyme defect
Figure 4. Pathways of Major Steroid Synthesis in the Adrenal Gland and Their Enzymes Aldosterone regulates extracellular fluid (ECF) volume through Na+ retention and K+ excretion (by stimulation of distal tubule Na+/K+ ATPase) aldosterone regulated principally by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (see Figure 5) negative feedback to juxtaglomerular apparatus by long loop (aldosterone via volume expansion) and short loop (angiotensin II via peripheral vasoconstriction)
Endocrinology E25
ADRENAL CORTEX
. . . CONT. volume expansion increased arterial pressure dopamine renal Na+ retention
volume depletion decreased arterial pressure decreased Na+ delivery to macula densa PGs, ADH sympathetic stimulation stimulation of JGA Renin Angiotensinogen Angiotensin I ACE
inhibition of JGA
Angiotensin II* (with negative feedback to inhibit JGA) renal Na+ retention, K+ excretion
Aldosterone release Arteriolar vascoconstriction Promotion of ADH release JGA - juxtaglomerular apparatus
ACE - angiotensin converting enzyme
Figure 5. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone Axis Glucocorticoids secretion regulated by diurnal variation of ACTH (higher in a.m. than p.m., with peak around 0200 hours) inhibition of both ACTH and CRH release (negative feedback) stress (e.g. fever, pain, hypoglycemia), in addition to stimulating ACTH release, directly stimulates CRH release, over-riding diurnal variation and negative feedback 10% free in plasma, 90% bound to transcortin (inactive) physiologic effects stimulate hepatic glucose production (gluconeogenesis) increase insulin resistance in peripheral tissues increase protein catabolism stimulate leukocytosis and lymphopenia inhibit bone formation; stimulate bone resorption inhibit fibroblasts, causing collagen and connective tissue loss suppress inflammation; impair cell-mediated immunity regulate extracellular fluid volume; promote renal solute-free water clearance Androgens principal adrenal androgens are dihydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione and 11-hydroxyandrostenedione peak concentrations in puberty proportion of total androgens (adrenal to gonadal) increases in old age primarily responsible for adrenarche (pubic and axillary hair) adrenal androgen formation is regulated by ACTH (not LH)
TESTS OF ADRENOCORTICAL FUNCTION

Plasma Cortisol has diurnal variation; therefore, random measurements are of little value response to stimulation or suppression is more informative 24 Hour Urinary Free Cortisol correlates well with secretory rates good screening test for adrenal hyperfunction Serum ACTH high in primary adrenal insufficiency low in secondary adrenal insufficiency
the main adrenal androgen

Cosyntropin Stimulation Test cosyntropin is an ACTH analogue for diagnosing adrenal insufficiency
Serum DHEA-S
ADRENAL CORTEX
. . . CONT.
Short Cosyntropin Stimulation Test 25 U of cosyntropin IM, measure serum cortisol at baseline and at 60 minutes POSITIVE response: increase in plasma cortisol level by > 200 nmol/L and an absolute level of > 500 nmol/L (rules out primary adrenal insufficiency) NEGATIVE response: may be due to lack of stimulation > proceed to long cosyntropin test Long Cosyntropin Stimulation Test to determine primary vs. secondary adrenal insufficiency 25 U of synthetic ACTH infused for 8 hours on 3 consecutive days, cortisol measured qa.m. POSITIVE response rules out primary but not necessarily secondary adrenal insufficiency NEGATIVE response rules in primary adrenal insufficiency Metyrapone Test one of best tests of integrity of pituitary-adrenal axis, but rarely used useful in diagnosing suspected secondary adrenal insufficiency 750 mg PO q4h x 24 h; measure serum cortisol, 11-deoxycortisol, and ACTH blocks 11-hydroxylase, the final step of cortisol synthesis, causing elevated level of the cortisol precursor, 11-deoxycortisol and decreased serum cortisol levels normal response is reduced cortisol, elevated 11-deoxycortisol and elevated ACTH (response of pituitary to decreased cortisol) Dexamethasone (DXM) Suppression Tests gold standard to determine presence and etiology of hypercortisolism principle: DXM suppresses pituitary ACTH, so plasma cortisol should be lowered by negative feedback if HPA axis is normal if 24 hour urinary free cortisol (screening test) is positive, begin with low-dose DST to confirm diagnosis low dose DST: 0.5 mg DXM q6h for 48 hours, then 24 hour urinary free cortisol twice following this, measure ACTH; if undetectable, proceed to high-dose DST (8X higher dose than above) to confirm diagnosis of adrenal Cushings if ACTH normal or increased, proceed to a CRF stimulation test via inferior petrosal sinus sampling to distinguish Cushings disease from ectopic Cushings syndrome
HYPERALDOSTERONISM
state of hypersecretion of the mineralocorticoid aldosterone

1. Primary Hyperaldosteronism diagnostic criteria: diastolic hypertension without edema decreased renin and increased aldosterone secretion both unresponsive to increases in volume aldosterone-producing adrenal adenoma (Conns syndrome) idiopathic bilateral adrenal hyperplasia adrenal carcinoma (rare) Clinical Features hypertension uncontrolled by standard therapy hypokalemia OFF diuretics other symptoms may include polyuria, polydipsia, nocturia fatigue, weakness, paresthesias headaches Laboratory Findings hypokalemia high normal Na+ metabolic alkalosis high 24 hour urinary or plasma aldosterone low random plasma renin Treatment medical: spironolactone (aldosterone antagonist) or amiloride surgical: removal of adenoma is curative 2. Secondary Hyperaldosteronism increase in aldosterone in response to activation of renin-angiotensin system overproduction of renin (e.g. primary reninism from renin-producing tumour - rare) secondary hyperreninism - due to hypoperfusion of kidneys (e.g. renal artery stenosis), or edematous states (CHF, liver cirrhosis), where arterial hypovolemia and/or hypotension is stimulus for aldosterone secretion Bartters syndrome - severe secondary hyperaldosteronism without edema or hypertension (due to JGA hyperplasia)
ADRENAL CORTEX
. . . CONT.
CUSHINGS SYNDROME
results from chronic glucocorticoid excess (endogenous or exogenous sources) endogenous Cushings syndrome is due to increased cortisol production by the adrenal gland
Etiology ACTH-dependent: bilateral adrenal hyperplasia and hypersecretion due to ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma (Cushings disease) ectopic ACTH-secreting tumour (e.g. small cell lung carcinoma, bronchial carcinoid) ACTH-independent long-term use of exogenous glucocorticoids (most common cause of Cushings syndrome) primary adrenocortical tumours: adenoma and carcinoma (uncommon) bilateral adrenal nodular hyperplasia Clinical Features (see Figure 6, see Colour Atlas E1) general truncal (centripetal) obesity, thin extremities, supraclavicular fat pads, posterior cervical fat (buffalo hump), moon facies hypertension skin thin skin, facial plethora, hirsutism in women, wide purple striae, acne, easy bruising, poor wound healing, mucocutaneous candidiasis musculoskeletal osteoporosis, pathologic fractures, avascular necrosis (AVN) proximal muscle weakness (more prominent in lower limbs) neuropsychiatric emotional lability, depression, euphoria, frank psychosis gonadal dysfunction oligomenorrhea / amenorrhea in women, decreased libido / impotence in men metabolic glucose intolerance (frank diabetes less common), hyperlipidemia, polyuria, nephrocalcinosis ectopic ACTH production hyperpigmentation, hypertension, hypokalemic metabolic alkalosis, weight loss, weakness (typical features of Cushings syndrome usually absent)
CONT.
buffalo hump
red cheeks, acne, moon face
purple striae
osteoporosis avascular necrosis
large abdomen
thin arms and legs easy bruising poor wound healing
Figure 6. Cushings Syndrome

Illustration by Marisa Bonofiglio
E28 Endocrinology
ADRENAL CORTEX
. . . CONT.
clinical features suspicious for hypercortisolism 24 hour urinary free cortisol normal no Cushings syndrome < 4X increase low dose DST to confirm diagnosis > 4X increase diagnosis of Cushings syndrome established
measure ACTH ACTH increased MRI pituitary, inferior petrosal sinus sampling with CRF stimulation test DST = DXM suppression test ACTH decreased CT adrenal, confirmatory high-dose DST
Figure 7. Hypercortisolism: Algorithm for Diagnosis Treatment pituitary transsphenoidal resection, with glucocorticoid supplement peri- and post-operatively irradiation: only 50% effective, with significant risk of hypopituitarism adrenal adenoma: unilateral adrenalectomy (curative) carcinoma: palliative (frequent metastases, very poor prognosis) adjunctive chemotherapy often not useful ectopic ACTH tumour - usually bronchogenic cancer (a paraneoplastic syndrome) chemotherapy/radiation for primary tumour agents blocking adrenal steroid synthesis: metyrapone or ketoconazole poor prognosis
CONGENITAL ADRENAL HYPERPLASIA (CAH) (see Pediatrics Chapter)

Pathophysiology autosomal recessive pattern of transmission, leading to enzyme defects, which can range from partial to total 21-hydroxylase (21-OH) deficiency is the most common form (95%) (see Figure 4) results in decreased cortisol and aldosterone with shunting toward adrenal androgen pathway deficiency of cortisol leads to elevated ACTH, which increases levels of unaffected steroids and causes bilateral adrenal hyperplasia
Late-Onset 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency allelic variant of classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency mild enzymatic defect manifests during or after puberty: signs of androgenization (hirsutism and acne) and amenorrhea or oligomenorrhea consider in women with unexplained hirsutism and menstrual abnormalities diagnosis increased plasma 17-OH-progesterone after ACTH stimulation test treatment dexamethasone, spironolactone (anti-androgen) mineralocorticoid replacement is not needed
HIRSUTISM AND VIRILIZATION

virilization
both terms refer to states of androgen excess hirsutism

hirsutism, frontal balding clitoral enlargement deepening of voice acne increase in musculature defeminization amenorrhea decreased breast size MCCQE 2002 Review Notes
male pattern of hair growth in women: back, chest, upper abdomen
Endocrinology E29
ADRENAL CORTEX
. . . CONT.
Etiology constitutional most common family history, ethnic background medications androgen-mediated: ACTH, anabolic steroids, androgens, progestational agents non-androgen mediated (hypertrichosis): phenytoin, diazoxide, cyclosporine, minoxidil ovarian polycystic ovarian disease (PCOD) (see Gynecology Chapter) tumours adrenal congenital hyperplasia (CAH, late-onset CAH) tumours Cushings disease - high ACTH Investigations increased testosterone DHEA-S as measure of adrenal androgen production increased LH/FSH, seen commonly in PCOD as ratio > 2.5 Treatment cosmetic therapy discontinue causative medications oral contraceptives low dose glucocorticoid spironolactone - acts as peripheral androgen antagonist cyproterone acetate - blocks androgen receptor binding; being increasingly used in combination with estradiol (Diane-35)
ADRENOCORTICAL INSUFFICIENCY
Primary (Addisons Disease) rare form of adrenal pathology most cases are idiopathic likely autoimmune destruction of adrenals (50% of patients have circulating adrenal antibodies) high association with other autoimmune diseases (e.g. chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, type 1 DM, vitiligo, pernicious anemia) metastatic tumour - second commonest cause hemorrhagic infarction - coagulopathy in adults or Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome in children (meningococcal or Pseudomonas septicemia) adrenalectomy granulomatous disease (e.g. TB, sarcoidosis) infection - particularly AIDS
inadequate pituitary ACTH secretion multiple etiologies (see Hypopituitarism section), including withdrawal of
exogenous steroids that have suppressed pituitary ACTH production
Secondary
both primary and secondary
Clinical Features
weakness and fatigue postural hypotension weight loss, anorexia, nausea/vomiting, diarrhea abdominal, muscle, and joint pain primary hyperpigmentation of skin and mucous membranes (e.g. palmar creases and buccal mucosa) dehydration, salt craving secondary usually more chronic than primary pallor, normal K+ and hydration acute adrenal crisis unable to secrete increased cortisol, ACTH in response to stress (e.g. infection, dehydration, surgery) hypovolemic shock, fever, extreme weakness, decreased LOC, nausea / vomiting, hypoglycemia
E30 Endocrinology
ADRENAL CORTEX
. . . CONT.
Laboratory Findings hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, elevated BUN/creatinine chronic anemia (normochromic, normocytic) primary low cortisol unresponsive to exogenous ACTH high ACTH adrenal antibodies if autoimmune etiology secondary low cortisol, low ACTH usually normal K+, BUN/creatinine Treatment acute condition - can be life-threatening IV NS or D5W/NS in large volumes hydrocortisone 100 mg IV q6-8h for 24h, then gradual tapering identify and correct precipitating factor maintenance cortisone acetate 25 mg PO qa.m. and 12.5 mg qp.m. Florinef (synthetic mineralocorticoid) 0.05-0.2 mg PO daily if mineralocorticoid deficient increase dose of steroid in times of illness or for surgery
ADRENAL MEDULLA
Catecholamine Metabolism catecholamines synthesized from tyrosine in postganglionic sympathetic nerves and chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla predominant adrenal catecholamine = epinephrine (adrenaline) predominant peripheral catecholamine = norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA
Pathophysiology rare tumour arising from chromaffin cells of the sympathetic system most commonly a single tumour of adrenal medulla 10% extra-adrenal, 10% multiple tumours, 10% malignant, 10% familial tumour not innervated but via unknown mechanism, able to synthesize and release catecholamines cases sporadic or part of MEN (see Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia section) rare cause of hypertension (< 0.1% of all hypertensives) curable if recognized and properly treated, but fatal if not Clinical Features symptoms often paroxysmal, may be triggered by stress, exertion, certain foods hallmark is paroxysmal or sustained HTN (sustained HTN more common, present between attacks in 60% of patients) classic triad: pounding headache, palpitations, diaphoresis others: tremor, anxiety, chest or abdominal pain, nausea / vomiting Lab Findings increased urinary catecholamines usually sufficient to confirmdiagnosis elevated plasma epinephrine unsuppressed by clonidine (central -adrenergic) positive adrenal CT scan meta-iodo-benzoguanidine (MIBG) uptake by tumour site during scan; useful to locate tumour for surgery Treatment adequate pre-operative preparation -blockade - PO phenoxybenzamine (pre-op), IV phentolamine (peri-operative) -blockade - propranolol volume restoration with vigorous salt-loading surgical removal of tumour with careful pre-operative and post-operative ICU monitoring rescreen urine one month post-operatively
Endocrinology E31
MULTIPLE ENDOCRINE NEOPLASM (MEN)

neoplastic syndromes involving multiple endocrine glands tumours of neuroectodermal origin APUD (amine precursor uptake and autosomal dominant inheritance with considerable variability in genetic screening methods becoming more available
Table 12. MEN Classification
Type I Wermers syndrome Chromosome Implicated 11 1. Pituitary 2. Parathyroid 3. Pancreas Tissues Involved Clinical Features syndrome can evolve over 30-40 years ant. pituitary adenomas, often non-secreting but may secrete GH and PRL primary hyperparathyroidism from hyperplasia pancreatic islet cell tumours gastrinoma (peptic ulcers) insulinomas (hypoglycemia) VIPomas (secretory diarrhea) medullary thyroid cancer primary hyperparathyroidism from hyperplasia pheochromocytoma medullary thyroid cancer pheochromocytoma other: mucosal neuromas, Marfanoid features
decarboxylation) cells
penetrance and in specific tumour incidences among kindred
IIa Sipples syndrome IIb
10
1. Thyroid 2. Parathyroid 3. Adrenal medulla 1. Thyroid 2. Adrenal medulla
10
CALCIUM DISORDERS
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS 2+
serum Ca is about 50% protein bound (mostly albumin) and not exchangeable alterations in protein content of the blood for any number of reasons normal total serum Ca2+ range is 2.25-2.62 mmol/L (9.0-10.5 mg/dL) to correct for changes in albumin:
may affect the total serum Ca2+ without altering the ionized form
corrected Ca2+ (mmol/L) = measured Ca2+ + 0.25(40-albumin) 10 ionic Ca2+ levels are maintained within narrow limits (1.15-1.31 mmol/L; 4.6-5.25 mg/dL) sources of ECF Ca2+: diet, resorption from bone loss of Ca2+ from ECF space via: GI losses, renal excretion, deposition in bone matrix regulated mainly by two factors: parathyroid hormone (PTH) and Vitamin D actions mainly on three organs: GI tract, bone, and kidney
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) secretion increased by low serum Ca2+ and inhibited by low serum Mg not influenced directly by PO4 (except by PO4 effect on the ionic calcium levels) major actions increased osteoclast activity > increased Ca2+ and increased PO4 increased renal tubular Ca2+ (and Mg) reabsorption inhibits renal tubular reabsorption of PO4 (and HCO3) increased 1--hydroxylase activity > vitamin D > increased Ca2+ and PO4 absorption from gut NET EFFECT: increased serum Ca2+ > increased vit D, decreased PO4 Vitamin D necessary for Ca2+ and PO4 absorption from GI tract cholecalciferol formed in the skin by the action of UV light converted to 25(OH)-vit D by the liver converted to 1,25(OH)2-vit D in the kidney production of 1,25(OH)2-vit D is enhanced by PTH and low PO4 levels if a PTH deficiency exists, metabolism is shunted into the production of 24,25- or 25,26(OH)2-vit D (relatively inert) major actions increased Ca2+ and PO4 absorption from gut increased bone resorption increased osteoclasts increased renal Ca2+ reabsorption NET EFFECT: increased serum Ca2+ and PO4
CALCIUM DISORDERS
. . . CONT.
Calcitonin polypeptide secreted by thyroid C cells secretion enhanced by Ca2+, GI hormones, pentagastrin major actions decreased osteoclastic bone resorption increased renal PO4 and Na+ clearance ACUTE NET EFFECT: decreased serum Ca2+ when given in pharmacologic doses Magnesium major intracellular divalent cation Ca2+ is resorbed from the kidney with Mg, and thus Ca2+ balance is difficult to maintain in Mg deficiency Phosphorus found in all tissues and necessary for most biochemical processes as well as bone formation Table 13. Summary of Effects
Hormone Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Net Effect increased Ca2+ increased vit D decreased PO4 increased Ca2+ increased PO4 decreased Ca2+
Vitamin D Calcitonin (in pharmacologic doses)
HYPERCALCEMIA
Definition total corrected serum Ca2+ > 2.62 mmol/L (10.5 mg/dL) OR ionized Ca2+ > 1.35 mmol/L (5.4 mg/dL) a medical emergency volume depletion arrhythmias Pathophysiology increased bone resorption increased gastrointestinal absorption decreased renal excretion Clinical Features symptoms dependent on the absolute Ca2+ value and the rate of its rise (may be asymptomatic) Table 14. Symptoms of Hypercalcemia
Cardiovascular hypertension 8digoxin toxicity arrhythmia 9QT interval Gastrointestinal anorexia nausea (groans) vomiting PUD pancreatitis Renal polyuria polydipsia nephrogenic DI nephrolithiasis (stones) renal failure Neurologic hypotonia hyporeflexia myopathy paresis MSK bone pain (bones) Psychiatric cognitive changes increased alertness psychosis (moans)
Clinical Pearl The symptoms and signs of hypercalcemia include: Bones, Stones, psychosis-based Moans, and abdominal Groans
Differential Diagnosis Clinical Pearl > 90% of hypercalcemia is caused by either parathyroid disease or malignancy.
Endocrinology E33
CALCIUM DISORDERS
. . . CONT.
1. Parathyroid Disease primary hyperparathyroidism major cause of hypercalcemia PTH hypersecretion causes increase in Ca2+ and bone metabolism/turnover while decreasing PO4 includes solitary adenoma (most common, 81%), hyperplasia (15%), carcinoma (4%), MEN I and IIa presentation: 50% asymptomatic, renal calculi, neuromuscular disease, decreased bone density and associated consequences investigations: serum Ca2+, PO4, PTH, diagnostic imaging for renal calculi and osteopenia treatment: continued surveillance vs. surgery secondary hyperparathyroidism associated with renal failure - due to reduced Vit D synthesis, associated with malabsorption 2. Malignancy solid tumours bone metastases (e.g. breast): mediated by osteoclast activating factor (OAF) and various cytokines humoral mediation of hypercalcemia (e.g lung and renal cell carcinoma): secondary to production of PTH-related peptides (PTHrp) hematological malignancy (e.g. multiple myeloma, lymphoma, leukemia) 3. Vitamin D-Related vitamin D intoxication granulomatous diseases (e.g. sarcoidosis) 4. High Bone Turnover hyperthyroidism Paget's disease vitamin A excess 5. Renal Failure milk-alkali syndrome (hypercalcemia with alkalosis and renal failure) aluminum intoxication tertiary hyperparathyroidism persistent increase in PTH after correction of secondary hyperparathyroidism (seen in renal transplant patients) 6. Drugs thiazides lithium calcium carbonate theophylline 7. Familial Hypocalciuric Hypercalcemia autosomal dominant mutation in Ca2+ sensing receptor gene leads to abnormal sensing of Ca2+ by parathyroid glands and renal tubules (inappropriate secretion of PTH and excessive tubal reabsorption of Ca2+) Treatment of Hypercalcemia treatment depends on the Ca2+ level and the symptoms treat acute, symptomatic hypercalcemia aggressively rehydration and calciuresis IV NS infusion (usually requires 4-5 L of fluid) only after adequately rehydrated, promote calciuresis with a loop diuretic, i.e. furosemide bisphosphonates treatment of choice inhibit osteoclast activity indicated in malignancy-related hypercalcemia pamidronate is most commonly used IV route since poorly absorbed from the GI tract several days until full effect but effect is long-lasting mithramycin effective when patient can not tolerate large fluid load (dangerous - hematotoxic and hepatotoxic) calcitonin inhibits osteoclastic bone resorption and promotes renal excretion of calcium acts rapidly but often transient response combination of calcitonin and steroids may prolong reduction in calcium tachyphylaxis may occur steroids anti-tumour effects useful in vitamin D-related hypercalcemia (including sarcoidosis) and hematogenous malignancies (myeloma, lymphoma) slow to act (5-10 days); need high dose prostaglandin inhibitors surgical treatment if indicated avoid immobilization
CALCIUM DISORDERS
HYPOCALCEMIA
. . . CONT.
Definition total corrected serum Ca2+ < 2.25 mmol/L (9.0 mg/dL) Clinical Features most characteristic symptom is tetany differential diagnosis of tetany metabolic alkalosis (with hyperventilation) hypokalemia hypomagnesemia Table 15. Signs and Symptoms of Hypocalcemia
Acute Hypocalcemia paresthesias hyperreflexia tetany laryngospasm (with stridor) confusion Chvosteks sign (tap CN VII) Trousseaus sign (carpal spasm) Chronic Hypocalcemia CNS: lethargy, seizures, psychosis, basal ganglia calcification extrapyramidal effects, papilledema, pseudotumour cerebri CVS: prolonged QT interval GI: malabsorption, diarrhea Skin: dry, scaling, alopecia, brittle and fissured nails, moniliasis, abnormal dentition Ocular: cataracts, papilledema
Differential Diagnosis 1. Deficient PTH Action results in decreased bone resorption decreased intestinal Ca2+ absorption increased renal Ca2+ excretion iatrogenic hypoparathyroidism post-thyroidectomy/131I ablation idiopathic/autoimmune hypoparathyroidism congenital (DiGeorge syndrome) - dysgenesis of thymus and parathyroid glands acquired (polyglandular autoimmune disease - hypoparathyroidism adrenal insufficiency gonadal failure hypothyroidism and rarely hypopituitarism, diabetes insipidis, type 1 DM) hemochromatosis pseudohypoparathyroidism PTH resistance secondary to Gs protein deficiency severe hypomagnesemia normally low Mg level stimulates PTH secretion, but chronic hypomagnesemia is paradoxically associated with impaired PTH secretion low Mg levels also impair peripheral responsiveness to PTH 2. Deficient Vitamin D Action decreased intestinal absorption vitamin D deficiency receptor defect (vitamin D-dependent rickets type II) hydroxylation defects congenital: type I rickets acquired: chronic renal failure (CRF), hepatic failure 3. Renal Disease most common cause of hypocalcemia; increased loss of Ca2+ chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, acute renal failure 4. Drugs phosphate calcitonin aminoglycosides antineoplastic drugs (cisplatin, mithramycin) loop diuretics 5. Alcoholism 6. Acute Pancreatitis saponification of Ca2+ by lipids
CALCIUM DISORDERS
. . . CONT.
7. Pregnancy low total Ca2+ (due to hypoalbuminemia) but normal ionized level
correct underlying disorder acute/severe hypocalcemia
Treatment of Hypocalcemia
calcium gluconate (generally requires continuous infusion) goal is to raise Ca2+ to low normal range (2.0-2.1 mmol/L) to prevent symptoms but allow maximum stimulation of PTH if PTH recovery not expected, requires long-term therapy with vitamin D and calcium do not correct hypocalcemia if it is suspected to be a transient response
METABOLIC BONE DISEASE

OSTEOPOROSIS
Definition an age-related condition characterized by decreased bone mass and microarchitectural deterioration of bone tissue with a consequent increase in bone fragility and susceptibility to bone fracture Pathophysiology bone resorption > bone formation/remodelling Risk Factors low peak bone mass small Caucasian or Asian female family history estrogen-related bone mass early menopause oophorectomy amenorrhea advanced age secondary to medical disease other diet, smoking, alcohol, caffeine minimal weight-bearing physical activity Classification 1. Primary Osteoporosis usually in women, within 20 years after menopause affects mainly trabecular bone 2. Secondary Osteoporosis endocrinopathies hyperparathyroidism hyperthyroidism premature menopause diabetes acromegaly malignancy multiple myeloma gastrointestinal disease malabsorption liver disease drugs steroids phenytoin chronic heparin other rheumatoid arthritis renal disease poor nutrition immobilization Clinical Features commonly asymptomatic pain, especially backache collapsed vertebrae > height loss fractures hip, vertebrae, humerus, and wrists most common Dowagers hump = collapse fracture of vertebral bodies in mid-dorsal region
E36 Endocrinology
. . . CONT.
Investigations laboratory usually normal serum Ca2+, PO4, alkaline phosphatase densitometry single-energy x-ray absorptiometry, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (most useful), quantitative CT, ultrasonography lumbar spine and views of femur compared to controls 1-2.5 SD = osteopenia > 2.5 SD = osteoporosis Treatment not very satisfactory prevention and lifestyle modification safety measures to prevent falls weight-bearing exercises vitamin D with Ca2+ supplementation limits to smoking and alcohol use measures to decrease further bone loss/bone resorption postmenopausal estrogen replacement Ca2+ supplementation (1,000-1,500 mg/day for postmenopausal women) bisphosphonates - inhibitors of osteoclast binding calcitonin - osteoclast receptor binding thiazide diuretics (for hypercalcuria) combination therapy (synergistic): estrogen + bisphosphonate measures to increase bone mass fluoride - stimulates osteoblasts for bone formation parathyroid hormone
OSTEOMALACIA AND RICKETS

Definitions abnormal concentration of ions leads to higher proportion of osteoid (unmineralized) tissue disease prior to epiphyseal closure (in childhood) = rickets disease after epiphyseal closure (in adulthood) = osteomalacia Etiology vitamin disorders decreased availability of vitamin D insufficient sunlight exposure nutritional deficiency malabsorption hydroxylation defects nephrotic syndrome liver disease chronic renal failure anticonvulsant therapy mineral deficiencies Ca2+ deficiency PO4 deficiency decreased GI absorption increased renal loss disorders of bone matrix inhibitors of mineralization aluminum bisphosphonates Table 16. Clinical Presentations of Rickets and Osteomalacia
Rickets skeletal deformities, bowlegs fracture susceptibililty weakness and hypotonia disturbed growth rachitic rosary (prominent costochondral junctions) Harrisons groove (indentation of lower ribs) hypocalcemia Osteomalacia not as dramatic diffuse skeletal pain bone tenderness fractures gait disturbances proximal muscle weakness
Endocrinology E37
. . . CONT.
Investigations laboratory decreased serum Ca2+ decreased serum phosphorus increased serum alkaline phosphatase (ALKP) decreased urinary Ca2+ radiologic findings pseudofractures thought to be healed microfractures radiolucent banding of spine bone biopsy usually not necessary but considered the gold standard for diagnosis Treatment depends on the underlying cause vitamin D supplementation PO4 supplements if low serum PO4 is present Ca2+ supplements for isolated calcium deficiency HCO3 if chronic acidosis
RENAL OSTEODYSTROPHY
Pathophysiology metabolic bone disease secondary to chronic renal failure combination of hyperphosphatemia (inhibits 1,25(OH)2-vit D synthesis) and loss of renal mass (reduced 1--hydroxylase)
produces a mixture of four types of bone disease
Types
osteomalacia - from acidosis and retention of toxic metabolites osteoporosis - metabolic acidosis dissolution of bone buffers osteitis fibrosa cystica - from increased PTH osteosclerosis - from increased PTH metastatic calcification secondary to hyperphosphatemia may occur Clinical Features soft tissue calcifications > necrotic skin lesions if vessels involved osteodystrophy > bone pain and fractures pruritus neuromuscular irritability and tetany may occur radiologic features of osteitis fibrosa cystica, osteomalacia, osteosclerosis, osteoporosis Treatment prevention maintenance of normal serum Ca2+ and PO4 by restricting PO4 intake to 1 g/day Ca2+ supplements PO4 binding agents prophylactic use of vitamin D with close monitoring to avoid hypercalcemia and metastatic calcification
PAGETS DISEASE OF BONE

Definition a metabolic disease characterized by excessive bone destruction and repair Epidemiology a common disease: 5% of the population, 10% of population > 80 years old Etiology postulated to be related to a slow viral infection of osteoclasts, possibly paramyxovirus strong familial incidence Pathophysiology initiated by increased osteoclastic activity leading to increased bone resorption; osteoblastic activity increases in response to produce new bone that is structurally abnormal and fragile Clinical Features usually asymptomatic (routine x-ray finding or elevated alkaline phosphatase) severe bone pain (e.g. pelvis, femur, tibia) is often the presenting complaint skeletal deformities bowed tibias, kyphosis, frequent fractures skull involvement headaches, increased hat size, deafness increased warmth over involved bones due to increased vascularity
. . . CONT.
Investigations laboratory serum alkaline phosphatase is usually very high normal or increased serum Ca2+ normal serum PO4 increased urinary hydroxyproline (indicates resorption) imaging evaluate the extent of disease with bone scan initial lesion may be destructive and radiolucent involved bones are expanded and denser than normal multiple fissure fractures in long bones Differential Diagnosis primary bone lesions osteogenic sarcoma multiple myeloma fibrous dysplasia secondary bone lesions osteitis fibrosa cystica metastases Complications fractures hypercalcemia and nephrolithiasis cranial nerve compression and palsies, e.g. deafness spinal cord compression osteosarcoma/sarcomatous change 1-3% indicated by marked bone pain, new lytic lesions and sudden increased alkaline phosphatase high output congestive heart failure due to increased vascularity osteoarthritis Treatment symptomatic therapy calcitonin bisphosphonates, e.g. alendronate
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ENDOCRINOLOGY

Androgen Regulation both positive and negative feedback may occur by androgens directly or after conversion to estrogen testosterone (from the Leydig cell) primarily involved in negative feedback on LH, whereas inhibin (from the Sertoli cell) suppresses FSH secretion
TESTS OF TESTICULAR FUNCTION

testicular size (lower limit = 4 x 2.5 cm) serum LH, FSH, testosterone hCG stimulation test semen analysis
assesses ability of Leydig cell to respond to gonadotropin
semen volume sperm count, morphology and motility testicular biopsy indicated in the context of normal FSH and azoospermia/oligospermia
HYPOGONADISM
Etiology
deficiencies in gametogenesis or the secretion of gonadal hormones

1. Hypergonadotropic Hypogonadism (Primary Testicular Failure) characterized by increased LH/FSH congenital chromosomal defects, i.e. Klinefelter syndrome, Noonan syndrome cryptorchidism male pseudohermaphroditism bilateral anorchia

germ cell defects
. . . CONT.
Sertoli cell only syndrome (arrest of sperm development) Leydig cell aplasia/failure inflammation orchitis mumps, tuberculosis, lymphoma, leprosy genital tract infection physical factors trauma, heat, irradiation drugs marijuana, alcohol, chemotherapeutic agents myotonic dystrophy defects in androgen biosynthesis idiopathic
2. Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadism (Hypothalamic Pituitary Failure) characterized by decreased or normal LH congenital Kallmans syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome constitutional delay endocrine Cushings syndrome hypothyroidism hypopituitarism (pituitary tumours, hypothalamic lesions, hemochromatosis) estrogen-secreting tumours (testicular, adrenal) drugs alcohol marijuana spironolactone ketoconazole GnRH agonists prior androgen use chronic illness malnutrition idiopathic 3. Defects in Androgen Action complete androgen insensitivity (testicular femininization) incomplete androgen insensitivity 5--reductase deficiency
depends on age of onset fetal life prepubertal

ambiguous genitalia and male pseudohermaphroditism poor secondary sexual development, poor muscle development eunuchoid skeletal proportions (upper/lower segment ratio < 1; arm span/height ratio > 1) postpubertal decreased libido, erectile dysfunction, infertility decreased facial and body hair if very significant androgen deficiency (very low levels required to maintain sexual hair) fine wrinkles in the corners of mouth and eyes osteoporosis with longstanding hypogonadism Treatment consider testosterone replacement
Clinical Presentation
INFERTILITY (see Urology Chapter) ERECTILE DYSFUNCTION (see Urology Chapter) GYNECOMASTIA
Etiology physiologic neonatal (maternal hormone) puberty aging
E40 Endocrinology
proliferation of the glandular component of the male breast estrogen/androgen imbalance - increased estrogen/androgen ratio

pathologic
. . . CONT.
endocrinopathies - primary hypogonadism, hyperthyroidism extreme hyperprolactinemia, adrenal disease tumours - pituitary, adrenal, testicular, breast chronic diseases - liver, renal, malnutrition, etc. drugs - spironolactone, cimetidine, digoxin, chemotherapy, marijuana congenital/genetic - Klinefelters syndrome other - idiopathic, familial Investigations history age, onset, duration, pain, family history, chronic diseases, drugs physical examination general health, feminization breast, thyroid, adrenal, liver, testicular exams investigations laboratory - serum TSH, PRL, LH, FSH, free testosterone, estradiol, LFTs CXR to rule out tumour testicular U/S to rule out testicular mass Treatment medical correct the underlying disorder, discontinue responsible drug androgens for hypogonadism anti-estrogens - tamoxifen, clomiphene surgical usually required if gynecomastia present for > 1 year reduction mammoplasty
REFERENCES
Dayan CM. (2001). Interpretation of thyroid function tests. Lancet 357: 619-24. DCCT Research Group. (1993). The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT). The Effect of Intensive Treatment of Diabetes on the Development and Progression of Long-Term Complications in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus. N Engl J Med 329: 977-986. Defronzo R. (1999). Pharmacologic Therapy for Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. An Int Med 131(4): 281-303. Fodor JG et al. (2000). Recommendations for the Management and Treatment of Dyslipidemia. CMAJ 162(10): 1441-1447. Meltzer S et al. (1998). Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Diabetes in Canada. CMAJ 159 (8 Suppl). NIH Consensus Conference. (2001). Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA 285:785-795.
Endocrinology E41
Class
Generic Name
Trade Name
Mechanism of action
Indications
Major Side Effects
Contraindications
Sulfonylureas (see Table 2)
E42 Endocrinology
L-thyroxine 1. propylthiouracil (PTU) Propyl-Thyracil inhibits organification of iodine and therefore synthesis of thyroid hormones inhibits organification of iodine and therefore synthesis of thyroid hormones decrease cholesterol synthesis elevated total and LDL cholesterol, 20 prevention of MI hyperthyroidism agranulocytosis, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, aplastic anemia GI symptoms, rash, pruritus, elevated LFTs, myositis (uncommon) hyperthyroidism acute - headache, nausea; chronic - rash, hepatitis, agranulocytosis Synthroid replace deficient thyroid hormone hypothyroidism thyroid suppression induced hyperthyroidism caution in heart disease breast feeding
Biguanides (see Table 2)
Thyroid Hormones
Thionamides
COMMON MEDICATIONS
2. methimazole (MMI)
Tapazole
nursing mothers
HMG Co-A Reductase Inhibitors gemfibrozil fenofibrate nicotinic acid decreases synthesis of VLDL and clearance of HDL Lorelco decreases LDL, anti-oxidant used for a variety of hyperlipidemias increased LDL, mixed hyperlipidemia elevated LDL Lopid Lipidil decrease VLDL, increase HDL levels
lovastatin simvastatin pravastatin atorvastatin
Mevacor Zocor Pravachol Lipitor
active liver disease, persistent elevated transaminases hepatic and renal dysfunction
Fibric Acid Derivatives
hypertriglyceridemia GI upset, enhances hyperchylogallstone formation micronemia generalized flushing, abnormal LFTs, pruritus, worsening glucose tolerance severe hypertension decreased HDL diarrhea, flatulence, abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting GI symptoms - constipation, nausea, flatulence, bloating
Niacin Derivatives
hypersensitivity, hepatic dysfunction, active peptic ulcer disease, overt DM, hyperuricemia pregnancy
Other Lipid Lowering Drugs
probucol
Resin Binders
cholestyramine
Questran
absorbs and binds bile acids which are excreted, decreasing enterohepatic circulation dopamine analogue
complete biliary obstruction, pregnancy, lactation prolactinoma, nausea and vomiting, galactorrhea, headaches inhibition of lactation, acromegaly uncontrolled hypertension, pre-eclampsia

bromocriptine cabergoline Parlodel Dostinex
Prolactin Inhibitors
Class
desmopressin transient increase in clotting factor VIII hemostasis for hemophilia A and vWD type I metallic taste, epigastric discomfort, nausea and vomiting DDAVP stimulates tubular water reabsorption central DI, enuresis headache, tachycardia, hypotension, decreased urine output, hyponatremia hypersensitivity
Generic Name
Trade Name
Mechanism of action
Indications
Major Side Effects
Contraindications
ADH Analogues

calcitriol Rocaltrol increased osteoclast action; hypocalcemia, renal Ca2+ absorption, bone osteodystrophy, resorption, Ca2+ and PO4 osteoporosis absorption from gut; increased serum Ca2+ and PO4 osteoclast inhibitor osteoclast inhibitor osteoclast inhibitor Pagets disease; used in cyclic fashion for osteoporosis as it may inhibit bone formation osteoporosis arthralgia, diarrhea, headache osteoporosis tumour induced hypercalcemia hypercalcemia 1. pamidronate disodium 2. alendronate 3. etidronate Didrocal Fosamax Aredia (APD) infusion site reaction transient decrease in Ca2+ GI upset, esophagitis hypersensitivity severe renal dysfunction severe renal dysfunction 4. risedronate Actonel osteoclast inhibitor 1. prednisone (5 mg) 2. methylprednisolone (4 mg) 3. hydrocortisone (25 mg) 4. dexamethasone (0.75 mg) fludrocortisone Decadron Florinef Solucortef Solumedrol many anti-inflammmatory effect via unclear mechanisms systemic fungal infection adrenal insufficiency, autoimmune disorders, COPD/ asthma, ITP, nephrotic syndrome, dermatological disorders, cerebral edema, prevention of organ transplant rejection, gout, chemotherapy, ocular inflammation adrenocortical insufficiency (Addisons), hypoaldosteronism, CAH electrolyte disturbances, fluid retention, immunosuppression, muscle weakness, impaired wound healing, PUD, menstrual irregularities, psychosis, osteoporosis, AVN, many drug interactions less severe then above systemic fungal infectoin
COMMON MEDICATIONS
Vitamin D
Bisphosphonates
. . . CONT.
Steroids A. Glucocorticoids
with equivalent PO doses
Endocrinology E43
B. Mineralocorticoids
Illustrated by Angela Handforth

Endocrinology - Dr. R. Silver

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MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

50-85% prone to ketoacidosis

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

Thiazolidinediones rosiglitazone (Avandia) pyoglitazone (Actos) -Glucosidase Inhibitors acarbose (Prandase)

decrease the absorption of carbohydrates (thus decreasing postprandial rise of glucose)

hypersensitivity, DKA, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

lente and NPH

DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS (DKA)

DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

HYPEROSMOLAR NONKETOTIC HYPERGLYCEMIC SYNDROME

DISORDERS OF GLUCOSE METABOLISM

SYNDROME X - INSULIN RESISTANCE SYNDROME

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

proteins and phospholipids

Table 6. Abnormal Lipid Values in mmol/L (mg/dL)

Figure 2. Lipid Pathways

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

b) Polygenic Hypercholesterolemia (most common) 2. Hypertriglyceridemias a) Familial Hypertriglyceridemia

b) Familial Lipoprotein Lipase Deficiency

8 defective or absent chylomicrons lipoprotein lipase

3. Combined Disorders a) Familial Combined Hyperlipidemia b) Dysbetalipoproteinemia

8LDL 8VLDL 8IDL

excessive hepatic synthesis of apolipoprotein B abnormal apoprotein E

SECONDARY CAUSES OF HYPERLIPIDEMIAS

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

GROWTH HORMONE (GH)

LEUTINIZING HORMONE (LH) AND FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH)

ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

octapeptide synthesized in supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus and

OXYTOCIN (see Obstetrics and Gynecology Chapters)

a nonapeptide synthesized in paraventricular nuclei and supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus

Empty Sella Syndrome

MCCQE 2002 Review Notes

TESTS OF THYROID FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE

plasma thyroglobulin level

none none decreased

increased increased decreased

increased increased increased

none none none

increased increased increased

A. GRAVES DISEASE (see Colour Atlas E2)

propylthiouracil (PTU) or methimazole (MMI)

B. SUBACUTE THYROIDITIS (Thyrotoxic Phase)

C. TOXIC MULTINODULAR GOITRE

a severe state of uncontrolled hyperthyroidism, extreme fever,

often precipitated by infection, trauma, or surgery in hyperthyroid patient

tachycardia, vomiting, diarrhea, vascular collapse and confusion

A. CONGENITAL HYPOTHYROIDISM (see Pediatrics Chapter) B. HASHIMOTOS THYROIDITIS

E. SICK EUTHYROID SYNDROME (SES)

serious illness, trauma, or stress can induce changes in circulating levels

THYROID NODULES (see Otolaryngology Chapter)

clearly defined discrete mass, separated from the thyroid parenchyma