KWV MATHS 11 & 12

STATISTICS
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 ➢ Data Handling

Data refers to the pieces of information that have been observed and recorded, from an

experiment or a survey.

✓ Ungrouped data

➢ Here we use the individual scores that are recorded.

➢ They need to be ranked in ascending order of size.

➢ However, if the data base is large, this is cumbersome,

➢ and it is difficult to analyse the data, so the stem and leaf is used to arrange the data.

✓ The stem and leaf diagram

The data is listed in intervals that depend on the place value of the digits of each data.

Note:

➢ The leaf is the units digit-i.e. furthest to the right in the number.

➢ The stem is the tens/hundreds or thousands digit

➢ Back to back

❖ EXAMPLE

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 ✓ Grouping Data

➢ One of the first steps to processing a large set of raw data is to arrange the data values

together into a smaller number of groups,

➢ and then count how many of each data value there are in each group.

➢ The groups are usually based on some sort of interval of data values, so data values that

fall into a specific interval, would be grouped together.

➢ The grouped data is often presented graphically or in a frequency table. (Frequency

means “how many times”)

➢ Note that

❖ EXAMPLE

✓ Graphical Representation of Data

➢ Once the data has been collected, it must be organised in a manner that allows for the

information to be extracted most efficiently.

➢ One method of organisation is to display the data in the form of graphs.

➢ Bar graphs, histograms and pie charts will be drawn directly from the data.

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 ✓ Bar and Compound Bar Graphs

➢ A bar chart is used to present data where each observation falls into a specific category.

➢ The frequencies (or percentages) are listed along the y-axis and the categories are listed

along the x-axis.

➢ The heights of the bars correspond to the frequencies.

➢ The bars are of equal width and should not touch neighbouring.

➢ A compound bar chart (also called component bar chart) is a variant: here the bars are

cut into various components depending on what is being shown.

➢ If percentages are used for various components of a compound bar, then the total bar

height must be 100%.

➢ The compound bar chart is a little more complex but if this method is used sensibly, a

lot of information can be quickly shown in an attractive fashion.

❖ SHAPE

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 ✓ Histograms and Frequency Polygons

➢ It is often useful to look at the frequency with which certain values fall in pre-set groups

or classes of specified sizes.

➢ The choice of the groups should be such that they help highlight features in the data.

➢ If these grouped values are plotted in a manner similar to a bar graph, then the resulting

graph is known as a histogram.

➢ The same data used to plot a histogram are used to plot a frequency polygon, except the

pair of data values are plotted as a point and the points are joined with straight lines.

➢ Unlike histograms, many frequency polygons can be plotted together to compare

several.

➢ frequency distributions, provided that the data has been grouped in the same way and

provide a clear way to compare multiple datasets.

❖ HISTOGRAM SHAPE

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 ❖ FREQUENCY POLYGON SHAPE

✓ Pie Charts

➢ A pie chart is a graph that is used to show what categories make up a specific section

of the data,

➢ and what the contribution each category makes to the entire set of data.

➢ A pie chart is based on a circle, and each category is represented as a wedge of the

circle.

✓ Method: Drawing a pie-chart

1. Draw a circle that represents the entire data set.

2. Calculate what proportion of 360 degrees each category corresponds to according to

Angular Size

3. Draw a wedge corresponding to the angular contribution.

4. Check that the total degrees for the different wedges add up to close to 360 degrees.

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 ➢ The graphs drawn from the ungrouped or

raw data

✓ Line and Broken Line Graphs

➢ All graphs that have been studied until this point (bar, compound bar,

histogram, frequency polygon and pie) are drawn from grouped data.

➢ Line and broken line graphs are plots of a dependent variable as a function of

an independent variable, e.g. the average global temperature as a function of

time, or the average rainfall in a country as a function of season.

➢ Usually a line graph is plotted after a table has been provided showing the

relationship between the two variables in the form of pairs.

➢ Just as in (x; y) graphs, each of the pairs results in a specific point on the

graph, and being a line graph these points are connected to one another by a

line.

➢ Many other line graphs exist; they all connect the points by lines, not

necessarily straight lines.

➢ Sometimes polynomials, for example, are used to describe approximately the

basic relationship between the given pairs of variables, and between these

points.

➢ Summarising Data

If the data set is very large, it is useful to be able to summarise the data set by calculating a few

quantities that give information about how the data values are spread and about the central

values in the data set.

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 ➢ Measures of Central Tendency

✓ Mean or Average

➢ The mean, (also known as arithmetic mean), is simply the arithmetic average of a group

of numbers (or data set) and is shown using the bar symbol.

➢ So the mean of the variable x is ̅ pronounced ”x-bar”.

➢ The mean of a set of values is calculated by adding up all the values in the set and

dividing by the number of items in that set.

➢ The mean is calculated from the raw, ungrouped data.

Method: Calculating the mean

1. Find the total of the data values in the data set.

2. Count how many data values there are in the data set.

3. Divide the total by the number of data values.

FORMULA:-----------------------------------

➢ Median

➢ The median of a set of data is the data value in the central position, when the

data set has been arranged from highest to lowest or from lowest to highest.

➢ There are an equal number of data values on either side of the median value.

➢ Ungrouped data

Method: Calculating the median

1. Order the data from smallest to largest or from largest to smallest.

2. Count how many data values there are in the data set.

3. Find the data value in the central position of the set.

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 ✓ Median

✓ An easy way to determine the central position or positions for any ordered

data set is to take the total number of data values, add 1, and then divide

by 2.

✓ If the number you get is a whole number, then that is the central position.

✓ If the number you get is a fraction, take the two whole numbers on either

side of the fraction, as the positions of the data values that must be

averaged to obtain the median.

✓ Mode

➢ The mode is the data value that occurs most often, i.e. it is the most frequent value or

most common value in a set.

Method: Calculating the mode

❖ For ungrouped

➢ Count how many times each data value occurs.

➢ The mode is the data value that occurs the most.

❖ For grouped

➢ Simple look at the interval with the higher frequency

➢ It is referred as modal class

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 ✓ Measures of Dispersion

➢ The mean, median and mode are measures of central tendency, i.e. they provide
information on the central data values in a set.
➢ When describing data it is sometimes useful (and in some cases necessary) to determine
the spread of a distribution. Measures of dispersion provide information on how the
data values in a set are distributed around the mean value.
➢ Some measures of dispersion are range, percentiles and quartiles.

✓ Range

➢ The range of a data set is the difference between the lowest value and the highest value
in the set.
Method: Calculating the range 1. Find
the highest value in the data set.
2. Find the lowest value in the data set.

3. Subtract the lowest value from the highest value. The difference is the range

✓ Quartiles

➢ Quartiles are the three data values that divide an ordered data set into four groups
containing equal numbers of data values.
𝑛+1
➢ Lower quartile Q1 : P = 4

➢ The lowest 25% of the data being found below the first quartile value

➢ The median is the second quartile Q2 : P =

➢ The median, or second quartile divides the set into two equal sections.

➢ Upper quartile Q3 : P =

➢ The lowest 75% of the data set should be found below the third quartile

➢ Note: for the grouped data you must remove 1 for positions

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 ✓ Inter-quartile Range

➢ The inter quartile range is a measure which provides information about the spread of a

data Set.

➢ and is calculated by subtracting the first quartile from the third quartile, giving the

range of the middle half of the data set, trimming off the lowest and highest quarters,

IQR =

➢ The semi-interquartile range is half the interquartile range,

Semi-IQR =

✓ Percentiles

➢ Percentiles are the 99 data values that divide a data set into 100 groups.

➢ The calculation of percentiles is identical to the calculation of quartiles,

➢ except the aim is to divide the data values into 100 groups instead of the 4 groups

required by quartiles.

➢ Position : P =

➢ r stand for the percentage given.

Method: Calculating the percentiles

1. Order the data from smallest to largest or from largest to smallest.

2. Count how many data values there are in the data set.

3. Divide the number of data values by 100. The result is the number of data values per group.

4. Determine the data values corresponding to the first, second and third quartiles using the

number of data values per quartile.

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 ➢ Five number summary

1. Minimum value

It the smallest number that occurs in the data set. 2.

Maximum value

It is a greatest number that occurs in the data set.

3. The median

The median is the middle most number when the data is arranged from smallest to greatest.

Note:

➢ For even data

➢ For odd data

4. The lower quartile

It is a lower halve of the data from median.

5. The upper quartile

It is an upper halve of the data from median

The upper and lower quartiles are the median of the upper

Note: the data must be ordered

✓ Outliers

➢ A point or score which is widely separated from the other points or scores, this is mostly

applicable to the plot called scatter plot and Box and Whisker. ➢ To check the outlier :

[ Q1 – 1,5 x IQR ; Q3 + 1,5 x IQR]

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 ✓ Box and Whisker Plot

➢ Box and Whisker Plots allow us to interpret the spread of the data more easily.

➢ The Box is the part from the lower quartile to the upper quartile

➢ and the whiskers are the lines on either end of the box.

➢ The end point of the whiskers gives us the minimum and maximum values. NB; it

focuses on the spread around the median

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 SHAPE

✓ Percentages in the box plot

➢ It is very important to note that the first 25% (first quarter) of results lies between the

minimum and the lower quartile.

➢ The next 25% (second quarter) of results lies between the lower quartile and the median.

➢ The third quarter lies between the median and the upper quartile and the last quarter of

data lies between the upper quartile and the maximum value.

➢ Interpreting the box and whisker plot

Shape of a data set; this describes how the data is distributed relative to the mean and median.

✓ Positively skewed

If the mean > median then the data is positively skewed (skewed to the right). This means that

the median is close to the start of the data set.

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 SHAPE

a)

b)

✓ Negatively skewed

If the mean < median then the data is negatively skewed (skewed to the left). This means that

the median is close to the end of the data set.

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 SHAPE

a)

b)

✓ Symmetrically skewed

➢ Symmetrical data sets are balanced on either side of the median (spread fairly evenly).

➢ If the mean, median, and mode are approximately equal to each other, the distribution

can be assumed to be approximately symmetrical.

➢ With both the mean and median known, the following can be concluded:

mean = median then the data is symmetrical

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 SHAPE

a)

b)

c)

NB: The longer whisker shows the greater variability and/or spread.

WTS TUTORING 17
 ➢ Ogive Curves (Cumulative Frequency curves)

In mathematics, the name ogive is applied to any continuous cumulative frequency polygon.

Note:

➢ The Cumulative Frequency is the sum of all the frequencies within a specific interval

or boundary.

➢ Use Z shape to write cumulative frequency from frequency

➢ Moving from cumulative to frequency use:

➢ Every interval always starts at the lower band.

➢ The Cumulative Frequency table is obtained from the frequency table.

➢ The sum of all the frequencies is always equal to the Cumulative Frequency value. ➢

The last number on the cumulative will give the total frequency

✓ Drawing of Ogive

➢ 7 shape is used to locate the points

➢ To plot the graph we plot the cumulative frequency value against the end point value

(x-value) for each interval.

➢ Use a smooth, continuous curve.

Note:

One extra point is obtained by plotting (x; 0), x is the lower boundary of the lowest class

interval. This is done because all the values must lie above x.

Frequency table

Intervals Frequency Cumulative

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Finding the Lower Quartile, Median and Upper Quartile using an ogive curve

Note:

➢ Find the position of each and then use the cumulative frequency.

➢ Cumulative frequency curves make it very simple to answer questions that involve

“less than” or “more than”.

➢ For box and whisker: the right lower interval indicate the minimum value and the right

upper interval indicate the maximum value

➢ Finding the mean and standard deviation using an ogive curve

Add all the y-values of the cumulative frequency and the divide it by number of point.

Note: that the range can also be found.

✓ Interpreting the Ogive

➢ To interpret you will need to use :

➢ Using the histogram

Note:

The bars „touch‟ meaning that we are working with continuous data. How to complete the

cumulative frequency table from the histogram given.

❖ SHAPE

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 ✓ Standard deviation and Variance

➢ The variance and standard deviation are measures of how spread out a set of data is.

➢ In other words, they are measures of variability. it is a measure of the average distance

between the values of the data in the set and the mean.

➢ If the data values are all similar, then the standard deviation will be low (closer to 0).

➢ If the data values are highly variable, then the SD is high (further from 0).

➢ The standard deviation is always a positive number and is always measured in the same

units as the original data.

➢ For example, if the data are distance measurements in metres, the standard deviation

will also be measured in metres.

➢ Standard deviation is directly proportional to mean.

➢ If the data is more closed together the Standard deviation and mean

The variance: is the average squared deviation of each number from the mean.

The standard deviation: it is the square root of the variance.

NB; it focuses on the spread around the mean

➢ When data elements are tightly clustered together, the standard deviation
and variance are small; when they are spread apart, the standard deviation and the
variance are relatively large.
✓ A data set with more data near the mean will have less spread and a smaller
standard deviation

✓ A data set with lots of data far from the mean which will have a greater
spread and a larger standard deviation.

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 ➢ Calculations

✓ Two methods

1. Pen and paper method

2. A calculator method

Method 1

Manual calculation for finding σ – the standard deviation

➢ For ungrouped

Table:

X(score) (x - ̅) (x - ̅)2

Steps

1. Find (The mean average).

2. Subtract the mean from each of your values. (Column2).

3. Square each of the results (Column 3).

4. Add all the values in column 3, and divide by the total number of original values. i.e.: find

the average of column 3. This answer is the variance.

5. To find the standard deviation, σ, square root the answer found in step 4.

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 ➢ For grouped data

Table:

Intervals f(frequency) x(midpoint) f.x (x - ̅) (x - ̅)2 f(x - ̅)2

The table used for a set of grouped data is slightly different as the frequency has to be taken

into account now.

Steps

1. Find the mean:

• the midpoint from intervals

• multiply each midpoint by the frequency

2. Subtract the mean from each of your values (Column 4).

3. Square each of the results (Column 5).

4. Multiply each square with the frequency (Column 6).

5. Add all the values in column 6, and divide by the total number of original values. i.e.: find

the average of column 6. This answer is the variance.

6. To find the standard deviation, σ, square root the answer found in step 5.

Method 2

Using the calculator

The variance and/or standard deviation can be calculated easily with a calculator:

Although you are encouraged to use a calculator to calculate the standard deviation, you must

also be able to perform this calculation manually.

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 ➢ For ungrouped data

CASIO ƒx – ES PLUS to demonstrate this:

Steps

Step 1: Press “SET UP”. Select 2: STAT

Step 2: Press 1: 1 – VAR

Step 3: Enter the numbers one by one followed by the equals after each number.

Once you have completed entering all the data as described in step 3, press the AC button once.

Step 4: Press the “ shift” button and then the “1” button. (Notice that Mean is also an option

here, so you can use your calculator to determine the mean.)

Select 4: VAR

Step 5: Select 3: xσn and then the “=” button.

Kwv 1

Finding the standard deviation manually for 5 test scores:

62% ; 80% ; 71% ; 51% ; 86%

➢ For grouped data

➢ Note that when using the calculator be sure to put the frequency mode on.

➢ On the CASIO ƒx – 82ES PLUS, this is done by pressing “SHIFT” then ”SET UP”.

➢ Scroll down and select 3:STAT. Then select 1: ON.

➢ Use midpoints as the x- values

➢ Then use the frequency

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 ➢ Variation

Note:

• Within one/ two standard deviation intervals (max/min)

• How to calculate % of standard deviation intervals

• Range is directly proportional to standard deviation.

• The larger the standard deviation, the greater the variability of the data (the greater the

spread of the data)

• A large standard deviation indicates that the data values are far from the mean and a

small standard deviation indicates that they are clustered closely around the mean.

• Standard deviation with one ( x - α ; x + α )

• Standard deviation with one ( x - 2 α ; x + 2α )

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 ❖ Scatter Plots

➢ In science, the scatter plot is widely used to present measurements of two or more

related variables.

➢ We say this is bivariate data.

➢ It is particularly useful when the variables of the y-axis are thought to be dependent

upon the values of the variable of the x-axis (usually an independent variable). ➢

Normal the first row indicate the x-axis

Note:

• The data points are plotted but joined the resulting pattern indicates the type and

strength of the relationship between two or more variables

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 The line of the best fit / regression line

➢ is the line drawn with the aim of having the same number of points above the line

as below the line in grade 11

➢ in grade 12 we use the equation

➢ a - represent y- intercept

➢ b – represent the gradient or slope

➢ if x is given then substitute to get y or visa verse

❖ How to calculate the equation

Casio

➢ MODE 2

➢ PRESS 2: A + BX

➢ ENTER DATA POINTS

➢ THEN PRESS AC

➢ THEN PRESS SHIFT 1

➢ THEN PRESS 5 : REG

➢ THEN PRESS 1 : A

➢ THEN PRESS SHIFT 1

➢ THEN PRESS 5 : REG

➢ THEN PRESS 2 : B

➢ THEN PRESS AC

➢ THEN PRESS MODE 1 TO GET BACK TO NORMAL MODE

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 ✓ Able to state whether a trend is linear, quadratic (parabola) or exponential.

✓ Outlier: a disable point(s) or incorrectly recorded

EXAMPLE OF AN OUTLIER POINT

➢ To draw the line

➢ Calculate the x and y mean to create the point

➢ And then use the value of a ( 0: a )

➢ Then join the two points

✓ Interpretation

➢ Extrapolation : estimating outside the given domain

❖ SHAPE

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 ➢ Interpolation: estimating inside the given domain

SHAPE

❖ Relationship (correlation)

➢ Positive trend/gradient: as the variable on the x-axis increases, the variable on the

yaxis also increases.

➢ Negative gradient/trend: as the variable on the x-axis increases, the variable on the y-

axis decreases.

❖ Correlation (r)

➢ It is a value that give an indication of the strength of the association

➢ r > 0 means positive association

➢ r < 0 means negative association

➢ If the points on the scatter plot are close to the line of best fit, we have a strong

correlation or association between the two variables.

➢ If the points are not so close to the line of best fit, we have a weak correlation or

association between the two variables.

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 ❖ Types of Correlation

➢ In analysing the scatter plot, you look for a pattern in the way the points lie.
➢ Certain patterns tell you that correlations (relationships) exist between the two variables.
➢ When describing the relationship between two variables displayed on a scatter plot, we should
comment on:
The form – whether it is linear or non-linear (either a quadratic or exponential curve).
The direction – whether it is positive or negative
The strength – whether it is strong, moderate or weak.

❖ Different types of correlation

1. ZERO CORRELATION

The points are scattered randomly over the graph indicating no pattern between the two sets of
data. This tells you that there is no correlation between the two variables.
❖ SHAPE

2. STRONG POSITIVE CORRELATION

The points show a „band‟ that slopes upwards from bottom left to top right. As one variable
increases, the other variable also increases. Such a pattern shows a strong positive
correlation.

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 ❖ SHAPE

3. STRONG NEGATIVE CORRELATION

The points show a „band‟ that slopes downwards from top left to bottom right. As one
variable increases, the other variable decreases. Such a pattern shows a strong negative
correlation.
❖ SHAPE

4. MODERATLY POSITIVE CORRELATION

The points are obviously clustered from bottom left to top right, but are not clustered together as
closely as with the strong positive correlation.
❖ SHAPE

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 5. MODERATE NEGATIVE CORRELATION

The points are obviously clustered from top left to bottom right, but are not clustered together as
closely as with the strong negative correlation.

❖ SHAPE

➢ In many real-life situations, scatter plots follow patterns that are approximately linear.
However, it might sometimes look as though there is no correlation between the
variables.

➢ The points might look as though they are randomly scattered over the plane.
➢ However, on closer inspection you may be able to recognise a quadratic or an
exponential shape to the pattern of points or any other pattern.

❖ Consider the examples given below

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 The points move upwards from left to right until they reach a peak point. From the peak
point, they follow a downwards movement.

The points in this scatter plot follow a curve from left to right, and show an exponential
correlation.

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 ❖ Correlation coefficient

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