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MATHEMATICS
The Mathematics component of the General Education portion of the Licensure
Examination for Teachers include Fundamentals of Math, Plane Geometry, Elementary
Algebra, Statistics and Probability

DEVELOPING PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS

1. Understand the problem

2. Plan what to do

3. Do it

4. Look back

In planning what to do, there are a number of strategies that can be selected
from.

Following is Partial list.

1. Draw a diag ram 6. Look for a pattern

2. Guess and check 7. Solve a Simpler problem

3. Work Backwards 8. Apply logical reasoning

4. Organize a list 9. Simulation or experimentation

5. Make a table 10. Write and solve equations (s)

While the above strategies have bearing on mathematics, they are not particular
to mathematics alone. One may not need to solve any mathemitcal problems in his
adult life, but he may apply the strategies and have generality and power.
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Converntional mathematics, being concerned more with content and algorithms,

focuses on the last two strategies. Unfortunately, conventional mathematics does not
give adequate attention to the other problem-solving strategies, and therefore fails to
five a realistic flavor to the problem-solving process. Experience with a variety of
problem-solving strategies promotes the improvement of many of the processes involed
in mathematical/scientific thinking.

Experience in looking for patterns helps students develop their ability to make
generalizations on the basis of examples. Experience in drawing diagrams improves the
student’s ability to visualize ability to formulate hypotheses and conjectures. Many of the
strategies enable students to recognize and remedy errors. There are no set rules or
algorithms for solving problems that involve these processes, therefore experience in
problem solving develops the student’s capability to cope with situations about which
they have not been taught.

This collection of mathematical problems has been obtained from many sources,
has been classified for the benefit of the teacher, according to different strategies in the
list given previously. This collection should not give the impression that there is only one
way to solve a problem. A problem with sucj cataloging in mind will develop in the
teacher/supervisor some confidence in the use of each strategy and some appreciation
of its power.

Ultimately, focusing on these problem-solving strategies may convince you that

teaching mathematics is not just imparting knowledge and skills but also inculcalaing
way of looking at things, a desirable attitude of mind.

Problem

A snail is at the bottom of a 10-meter well. Each day it crawls up 3 meters, but at
night it slips down 2 meters. How many days will it take the snail to get out of the well?

Understanding the problem

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1. What is the snail doing?

2. How deep is the well? How does the depth compare to the height in this room?

Planning the solution

The drawing if the well is divided into 10 equal parts. Each part representing a
meter. The drawing shows that in 2 days the snail reaches a height of 4 meter.

1. How far up the well is the snail in 3 days? 4 days? 5days?

Guess and Check

Often when no direct procedure for a solution comes to our minds the guess-and-
check strategy keeps us from losing hope – the strategy is always applicable. This
strategy involves guessing, checking, guessing again, checking again repeating until a
reasonable answer is arrived. The first guess may be a random one, but successive
guesses should become better and better, based on results from the precious guesses.
It is in these successive “educated” guesses where careful thinking becomes a
necessary ingredient.

Problem

Ticket were sold for a school activity. Adult tickets cost P12 while student tickets
cost P8. Ana sold 14 tickets for P132. How many tickets for each type did she sell?

Understanding the Problem

1. What did Ana do?

2. Could all the tickets Ana sold have been adult ticket? All student’s tickets?
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Planning the solution

We try 10 adult tickets.

This leaves 3 students ticket (i.e, 14-10).

10 adult tickets cost P120 (i.e, 8x4)

This gives a total cost of P152, more than Anas collection.

1. We make a second guess. Shall we try more than 10 adult tickets or less than 10?

2. Make a second guess. Check your guess.

3. If you still didmt get the right answer you third guess should be better. Continue
guessing, but don’t forget to check each time.

The guessing strategy may suggest an algebraic solution as shown below:

X adult ticket.

This leaves (14-x) student tickets.

X adult tickets cost 12x pesos.

(14-x) student ticket cost 8(14-x)pesos.

This gives a total cost of 12x+ 8 (14 – x) pesos.

Therefore 12x+8(14 – x) = 132

Make an organized list

The make an organized list strategy often facilitates a systematic approach to

certain types of problems. Emphasis is on the word organized, as apposed to “Random”

Problem
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The five disks shown are placed in a box and mixed. Three disks at a time are
then drawn out. The score is the sum of the numbers drawn. How many different scores
are possible?

What are the possible scores?

3 6 2 5 1

Understanding the problem

Here are pictures of few draws.

2 6 1 2 6 5 1 5 3

1. What is the score in each draw shown above?

2. The picture show 3 different draws. Are the 3 different?

3. What are the possible scores?

Planning the solution

We can make a list of draw as follows. First we list all draws that start with 3 and
6. Then we list all draws that start with 3 and 2.

The draw “ 3,2,6” was crossed out because it gives the same score as 3,6,2 So
also, “3,2,5” was crossed out since it gives the same score as , “3,6,1”

Draw | Score
____________________________________________________

3 6 2 | 11

3 6 5 | 14

3 6 1 | 10

3 2 6 | 11

3 2 5 |6
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Draw | Score
____________________________________________

3 5 …

We continue to list all the other draws beginning with 3. In the same manner we list all
the drawings beginning with 2. Complete the table.

Make a table

The making a ble strategy often helps to organize a data of a problem. It may be
useful in relation to other strategies such as guess-and-check or look for a patten

Problem

Lita read every 100g of sea water contains 3g of salt. Using this information, how
much sea water would be needed to obtain 10g of salt?

Understanding the problem

1. How much a salt can be obtained from 200g sea water?

2. Is the relation 100g sea water to 3g salt the same as:

a) 50g sea water to 2g salt

b) 50g sea water to 1g salt

c) 30g sea water to 1g salt

d) 300g sea water to 9g salt

Planning the solutiob

Let us make a table

Sea water | 100 | 200 | 300 | 400 | 500

___________________________________________

Salt |3 |6 | ? | ? | ?
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Then use the information to arrive at an answer.

Look for a pattern

Look for patterns helps students develop their inductive reasoning ability –i.e

Making tentative generalizations on the basis of examples. As a start, the make a list or
make a table strategies may be used to bring up some examples; the list is not
exgaustive.

Problem

A rich neighbor gave jerry a choice of P600 for a 16 day painting job, or 1
centavo the first day, twice as much the second day, and so on, doubling the amount
each day to the 16th day. Which arrangement should jerry choose?

Understanding the problem

1. According to the double the pay plan, how much will jerry make on the second
day? The third day?

2. According to the double the pay plan, what will be jerrys total pay after two
days? After 3 days?

Planning solution

We need to find out how much jerry will make in 16 days according to the double
the pay plan. We canb make a table of the pay Jerry gets each day.

1. Continue the table a few more days

a. Do you see a patter?

b. How do we find out how much jerry will make on the 16th day?
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DAY |1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | ….
_______________________________________

Pay |1|2|3|4|5|6|

2. We add another row to our table to record the total pay.

a. Continue the table a few more days, Do you see a pattern?

b. How do we find the total pay for 16 days?

Day |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |
___________________________________________________

Pay |1 |2 |3 |4 |5 |6 |
___________________________________________________

Total Pay |1 |3 |7 | | |

Solve a simple problem

If you can’t solve the problem posed, try to solve a simpler related problem.
Basically, the strategy consist of breaking up a problem.

The strategy could be used together with other strategies, e.g., draw-a-pic;

Make an organized list, make a table, look for pattern.

Problem

Bener and 8 friends decided to play chess. If each of them plays one and only
with each of others, how many chess games will be played?

Understanding the problem

1. How many people are in the group?

2. How many people are involved in one chess game?

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3. Will Ben play in all the games?

4. How many games will Ben play?

Planning the solution (1)

We can make the problem sumpler by reducing the number of people in

the group.

What if there are only 2 people in the group? 3 people? 4 people?

Diagrams may help us. Here p1, p2, p3, Indicate the players and the loops indicate the
games.

P1 P2 P1 P2 P3 P1P2P3P4

2 players 3Players 4Players

1 game 3 games ?games

1. Draw a diagram for the P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 number of games among 5 players.

2. Look at the diagrams. Counting the loops gives us the number of games. Let us
arrange our information in table.

Players | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
_________________________________

Games | 1 | 3 | 6 |? | | | | |

| | | |

----- ------ ------

2 3 ?

Look at the successive differences (indicated by | |).

What is the pattern to find in the successive differences?—

3. Continue the pattern to find the number of games among 9 people.

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Planning the solution (2)

Another way to analuze the problem is to focus on the number of games added
each time one more person is added to the group-indicated in the diagram below by
hold loops.

P1 P2 P1 P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 P4 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

2players 3Players 4 Players 5Layers

1 game 2 games added 3games added 4games added

By this thinking process, each diagram builds on the one immediately preceding,
therefore the eventually of forgetting a loop is lessened

We can then rearrange the table like this :

Players |2| 3 | 4 | 5 |.......

Games | |1+2 | 1+2+3 | 1+2+3+4|

------- -------- ------------

Working backwards

Sometimes it is easier to start at an end result and work backward to an initial

condition, taking nite if the steps on the working backwards process.

Problem

A studemt obtain a grade of 75% in each of 3 tests. He needs to take one more
test, and he wants an average of 80% for the four tests.

What grade should he work for in the fourth test?

Understanding the problem

1. What is meant by “average”?

2. Can the grade in the 4th test be lessem than 75% equal to 75%?

3. What should be the total grade of the 4 tests?

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Planning ethe solution

To obtain the average we proceed as follows.

Grade in 4th test = add grades in first 3 tests minus 4

Working backwards

81x 4 then subtract grades in first 3 tests = grade in 4th test.

Logical Reasoning

Problems solved using logical reasoning are usually problems “to prove” or those
requiring little computations but uses mostly reasoning in their solutions. Many puzzles
can come under this strategy.

Problem

There are three boxes, one containing 2 black marbles, one containing 2 white
marbles and another one white and one black marble. The boxes were labeled for their
contents – BB, WW and BW – but someone has switched the labels so that every box
now is incorrectly labeled. If you draw one marble from particular box without looking
inside, how will you know the contents of all the boxes?

Understanding the problem

1. How can the boxes be mis-labeled?

2. From which box should you pick a marble?

Planning the solution

There are two ways in which the boxes could have veen mis-labeled.

If we select a box labeled BB, it might contain either WB or a WW box. Thus if

you pick marble and it turned to be white, you will not be able to tell wether it is indeed a
WB box or a WW box. The same thing is true if you select a box labeled WW.
HOweever, you select the box labeled WB, then you know that is either a WW box or
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BB box. Thus, upon picking a marble and nothing its color, one can tell the correct label
of the box. You can then easily correct the labels of the two remaining boxes.

Write and solve equations

Many of the usual “word problems” can be solved using this strategy. After
determining what is the “unknown”, we represent it by some letters ( or variable) ang
then set up the equation which can be obtained from the conditions given in the
problem. The final solution then depends on whether the resulting equations (s) can be
solved or not.

Problem

Today, Allan spent 10 more minutes asleep in class then he spent awake. If the
class period is one hour, how long was Allan asleep?

Understanding the problem

1. What is the unknown?

2. What are the conditions in the problem?

3. What quantities are equal?

Planning the solution

If we let x represent the time Allan was awake in class then x + 10 is the time he
was asleep. The total time he was awake and asleep was the total class period. Hence,

X + x + 10 = 60

Time awake time asleep Class Period

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Continue to solve the equation to get the answer.

Simulations and experiment

Sometimes, the solution of a problem involves setting up and carrying out an

experiment, gathering data and making a decision based on an analysis of the data.
When the undertaking of an experiment is too unrealistic or oo costly, simulation is an
appropriate and powerful problem-solving strategy

Problem

Form a square the segment shown as a side

Understanding the problem

In this problem, we have to “experiment” actually the instruction given. In how

many ways can this be done?

Planning the solution

Dirst, draw the square with one of its side at the top of the left most nails. Then
translate the square one nail to the right. How many times can you translate to the
right? Down?

Activity 1. Problem Solving: Learning to Use a Strategy

Problem: Juan, Mario, Gary and Ralph each read four magazines. They read a
different magazine each week, always choosing from a group of four magazines. During
Week 2, Juan read Travel ang Gary read Auto Guide. During Week 3, Mario read
Update and Ralph read Listen. During Week 4, Gary read Listen and Ralph read Auto
Guide. What week did each boy read each magazine?

Situtaion:
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1. Each boy read _________- magazines.

Did any of them read the same magazines more than once a week? ________

2. What are you asked to find? ___________

Data:

3. During Week, Juan read ______________ and Gary read _________

Note how it is shown in the table below.

4. During Week 3, which magazine did Mario read? Which magazine did Ralph read?

Record that information in the table below:

5. During Week 4, which magazine did Gary read? Which magazine did Ralph read?

Plan:

6. What strategy is being used to solve the problem? _______________

Boy Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Duke Travel

Rene

Franklin Auto Guide

Allan

7. During Week 4, Gary read Listen and Ralph read Auto Guide. Since Juan read Travel
during Week 2, which magazines in the table.

8. During Week 3, Mario read Update and Ralph read Listen. Since Juan read Travel
during Week 2, which magazine did he read third? So which magazine did Gary read
third?
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Record the magazine in the table.

9. Use logical reasoning to find which boy read which magazine. Record the magazines
in the table.

Answer:

10. Read across in the table to tell which magazine each boy read in each week

Check:

11. Make sure that no magazine appears more than once in each column and that no
magazine appears more than once in each row.

TIPS AND STRATEGIES IN SOLVING MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

1. Round off and estimate whenever possible. Simplify your calculations 3,978 x 289
can be roundned off to 4,000 x 300. Then if only one of the answer choices is slightly
less than 1,200,000

2. Look for shortcuts. These are often built into problems. For example, you know that
an odd number multiplied by an odd number will give you and odd number. If only one
of the answer choices is an odd number, it has to be the right answer.

3. DO not panic if a question has an unusual sumbol. Replace the symbol with the
specially designed definition that accompanies the symbol.

4. Work in consistent units. If one side of a square measures 30inches and the other
measures 2 feet, don’t try mmmuuultiplying until you have both measurements in feet or
in inches
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5. Have important rules and formulas at your fingertips. Use the information supplied at
the top of the first page of each mathematics section. Or better yet, memorize these and
other important facts and formulas before the test date.

6. Read the question carefully. DO not assume anything that is not actually stated.
Some questions are not similar to questions you usualy encounter in regular mat
classes.

7. Beware of positive and negative number. If the problem does not specifically state
that the value of an unknown is positive, then it could also be negative. The square root
of a number can be positive or negative.

8. Use your time wisely. If you absolutely have no idea on how to solve a particular
problem, do not waste time on it. Circle it and leave it. If you have time at the end of the
tests, you can go back and try again.

9. Avoid lengtly computation. None of the questions on the test will require terribly
complicated computations. If you find yourself about to start on a long string of
complicated computations. To solve a problem, you are doing something wrong. Either
you missed a shortcut, or you are solving the wrong problem. Read the question again.

10. Use the exam booklet wisely. Don’t try to do all computations in your head. Write in
the test booklet. Mark up any diagrams if it will help you.

11. Chech the diagrams. The diagrams may be drawn accurately or they may be
accompanied by a statement saying that figure is not drawn to scale. In the altter case
you may redraw the diagram slightly to make it accurate.
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12. Be on the look out for irrelevant material in a word problem. There probably will be
at least one question that gives you more information that you need. Don’t assume that
you have to use it all to solve the problem. If what you need si how many people were
wearing red hats, it does not matter how many were wearing blue shoes.

13. Don’t rush to get the most challenging problems. Questions get harder as you go
along in the math section.

14. Don’t hesistate to work back from the answers. On this test you don’t have to show
how you arrive at the answer. First plug in the answer which is easiest to try. Usually
this is the correct choice.

15. DO not panic when you are faced with mathematical terminology. Try putting the
problem into simpler words. “S” is a set of integers on the number line1-100 inclusive
“just means” S is all the numbers from I through 100.”

16. Substiture for unknowns, if necessary, If you are having trouble solving a problem
with several unknowns, try substituting simple number for theunknows.

MATHEMATICS REVIEW

SYMBOLS

= equals

≠ is not equal to

> is more than

< is less than

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≥ is greater than or equal to

_ is congquent to

≈ is similar to

│ is perpendicular to

║ is parallel to

± plus or minus

Important Definitions

Sum is the result of addition.

Difference is the result of substraction.

Product is the result of multiplication

In division, Divident Quotient + Remainder

___________ = ____________________

Divisor Divisor

A fraction is an indicated division

A decimal is an implied fraction a denominator of 10, 100,1000.. .. . . .

A Percent is a fraction with a denominator of 100

A Ratio compares two quantities by dividing one by the other.

A Proportion is an equation, both sides of which are fractions

A Positive numver is one that is greater than zero, a Negative number is one that is less
than zero. The meaning and the use of signed numbers are basic in the study of
Algebra.

Positive numbers are preceded by a plus sign (+); negative numbers, a minus sign (-).
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Arithmetic Concepts

Any quantity multiplied by zero is (x. 0 =0)

Any quantity = 4, except zero raised to the zero power is 1 (xº =1 if x=0)

If x2 then x= +2 or -2

Any fraction multiplied by its reciprocal equals 1: (x/y) (y/x) = 1.

Odd and Even Numbers

Even + odd = even

Odd + odd = odd

Even + odd = odd

Even x even = even

Even x odd = even

Odd x odd = odd

Adapted from:

Krulik, Stephen and Rudnick, Jesse. Problem Solving: A Handbook for Teachers
Allyn and Bacon, Inc.Boston, Mass. 1980

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS

Whole Numbers

Number is an idea of a given quantity.

Numeral is a symbol to represent a number.

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A digit is any numeral from 0 to 9 and can represent different numbers

depending on its position. This is called the place value.

The Factors of a given number are numbers which when multiplied together
from the given number.

Example: The complete set of factors of 15 are 1, 3, 5 and 15.

Prime factors are those numbers which have no other factors except one and
itself.

Example: The prime factor of 36 are 2,2,3,3

The Greatest Common Factor is the largest common factor of two or more
numbers. It is the product of all the prime factors which they have in common.

Example: Find the GCF of 25 and 125

25= 5 x 5

125 = 5 x 5 x 5, therefore the GCF is 5 x 5 = 25

ADDITION

The numbers that are to be added are called addends. The number resulting in
the addition of these numbers is called the sum of the numbers.

Example:

45

395
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+ 4396

890

_____________________

5726 SUM

SUBSTRACTION

Minuend is the number from which another is to be subtracted. Subtrahend is the

number to be subtracted. Differemce is the answer or the result in the process of
substraction.

Example:

5283 minuend

- 4997 subtrahend

____________

286 DIFFERENCE

MULTIPLICATION

Multiplicand refers to the number to be multiplied. Multiplier refers to the number

of times another number is to be multiplied. Product is the answer in the process of
multiplication.

Example:

1937 Multiplicand

X 86 Multiplier
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__________

11622

15496

166582 Product

DIVISION

Dividend refers to the number to be divided into equal groups. Divisor refers to
the size of each group. Quotient refers to the number of groups resulting from division

Example:

54,528 ÷ 64 = 852

↓ ↓ ↓

Dividend divisor quotient

Multiples

The multiples of a number are those numbers that are divisable by the given
number.

Characteristics:

1. A number has an infinite number of multiples.

2. A number is always a multiple of itself.

Example: The multiples of 3 are 3,6,9,12,15,18,21,24 . . .

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Divisibility are ways of quickly determining factors without havinf to perform a

complete division.

Divisibility Test for 2

A number divisible by 2 is an even number.

Example: 300, 12, 254, 1008

Divisivility Test for 3

A number is divisable by 3 if the sum of the digits of the number is divisable by 3.

Example: 186585 is divisable by 3 because 1+8+6+5+8+5=33, and 33 is divisible by 3.

Divisibility Test for 4

A number is divisible by 4 if the number formed by its last 2 digits is divisible

by 4.

Example: 128 & 524 are divisible, by 4 since 28 and 24 are divisible by 4.

Divisiblity Test for 5

If the ones digit is 0 or 5, then the number is divisible by 5.

Example: 300, 505, 2090 are divisible by 5.

Divisibilty Test for 6

A number is divisible by 6 if it is an even number and divisible by 3.

Example: 634128 is an even number. It is divisible by 3 since 6+3+4+1+2+8=24

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And 24 is divisible by 3

Divisibility Test for 7

Steps:

1. Double the last digit.

2. Subtract the product in step 1 from the number without the last digit.

3. If the difference is a multiple for 7, then the number is divisible by 7.

Note: If the difference is big, repeat steps 1 to 3.

Example: Is 6853 divisible by 7?

Solution:

1. 3(2) =6 3.(Repeat 1 & 2) 9(2)=18

2. 685-6=679 4. 67-18=49 is divisible by 7,

Divisibility Test for 8

If the last 3 digits of a number is divisible by 8, then the number is divisible by 8.

Example: Is 4912 a multiple of 8?

The last 3 digit is 912 & 912 = (114)(8). Therefore, 912 is divisible by 8 and 4912 is
divisible by 8.

Divisibility for 9
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A number is divisible by 9 if the sum of its digits is a multiple of 9.

Example: 845721 is divisible by 9 because 8+4+5+7+3+1 = 27 and 27 is a multiple of 7

Divisibility for 10

If any number except 0 end in 0, the nmber is divisible by 10.

Example: 3,000, 10,000, 000, 200, 500 are divisible by 10

Divisibilty for 11

A number is divisible by 11 if after subtracting and adding the digits successively,

the answer is divisible by 11.

Example: Is 4972 divisible by 11?

4-9 +7 -2 = 0, 0 is divisible by 11. Therefore, 4972 is divisible by 11.

ORDER OF OPERATIONS

Very often two or more numbers are grouped together to indicate that they are to
be considered together as a single number. To avoid confusion, grouping, grouping
sumbols are used.

The grouping symbols are:

() parenthesis [] brackets

{} braces ─ vinculum

Rules:
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1. Simplify expression inside parentheses and other grouping symbols first.

2. Do multiplication and division next, in the order they occur that is, from left to
right.

3. Do addition and substraction last, in the order they occur, that is from left to
right.

In short, you can remember this by using the mnemonic “Please Mind Dear Aunt
Sally’. The first letters will remind you of “Parentheses, Multiplication and Division,
Addition and Subtraction.’ (PMDAS)

Example:

Simplify 16 x 2 ÷ 8 + 12 x 3 – 48 ÷ 6 x 3 = 32

EXPONENTS AND POWERS

An exponent is the number that indicates how many times a whole number is used as a
factor.

Example:

25 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2

FRACTIONS

The symbol a/b, where a,b are the elements of whole nos. and b ≠ 0, is called a
fraction.

The number above the bar is the numerator and the number below the bar is the
denominator. The word fraction if derived from the latin word fraction, meaning’ to break
into parts.

Kind of Fractions:
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1. Proper Fractions – is a fraction in which the numberator is less tan the denominator.

Example: 1/3, 2/3, 15/28, 105/201

2. Improper fraction – A fraction in which the numerator is greater than the

denominator.

Example: 5/2, 25/8, 128/121

3. Mixed Fractions – is composed of a whole number and a fraction.

Example: 2 1/3, 3 2/5, 15 16/17, 100 25/31

4. Equivalent Fraction – fractions that show the same value.

Example: 2/5 = 8/20, 16/20 = 32/40, 101/120 = 303/360

Addition and Substraction

Adding and Subtracting Fractions with similar or Like Denominators

To add or subtract fractions with similar or like denominators, add or subtract rhe
numerators. Write the sum or difference over the common denominator.

Examples:

1. 14/27 + 11/27 = 25/27 2. 7/18 , 4/18 = 3/18 = 1/6

Adding and Subtracting Frantions with Dissimilar or Unlike Denominators

1. Find the leat common denominator (LCD)

2. Change each fraction to equivalent fraction using LCD.

3. Add or subtract the numberators and write the result over the LCD

4. If necessary, reduce the answer to lowest terms.

Example: Calculate 4 ¼ + 2 4/5 – 1 1/3

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4 ¼ = 4 15/60

+ 2 4/5 = +2 48/60

- 1 1/3 + -1 20/60

__________________________

5 43/60

Multiplication and Division

Rules for Multiplying Fractions

To multiply two fractions, multiply the numerators and multiply the denominators.
Write the product of the numerators over the product of the denominators. If necessary,
reduce the answer to lowest terms.

Example: Find the product

a. 2/9 x 5/8 = 5/36

b. 3/5 of 5 = ¾ x 5 = 15/14 = 3 ¾

c. (2/3) 3 = 2/3 x 2/3 x 2/3 = 8/27

d. 49/10 x 2/3 x 15/77 = 49/10 x 2/3 x 15/17 = 7/11

Rules for Multiplying Mixed Numbers

1. Change each mixd number to an improper fraction

2. Multiply the numerators.

3. Place the result over the product of the denominators.

4. Express the answer as a mixed number or as a proper fraction reduced to lowest

terms.

Example: Simplify 1 ½ x 1/ 7/9= 3/2 x 16/9

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3/2 x 1 6/9 = 8/3 = 2 2/3

Rules for Dividing Fractions

If a, b, c and d are all real numbersm and if b≠ 0, c≠0, d≠-, then a/b ÷ c/d = a/b x d/c

Example: Divide: 3 3/8 by 2 ¼

= 27/8 ÷ 9/4= 27/8 x 4/9 = 27/8 x 4/9= 3/2 = 1 ½

DECIMALS

A decimal fraction is a fraction whose denominator can be expressed as a power

of ten

Examples

(1) 6/10 = 6/101 = .6 (2.) 16/100 = 16/102= .16 (3.) 425/1000 = 425/ 103 =
.425

Operations on Decimals

To add Decimals

1. Write the numbers to be added vertically and line up the decimal points.

2. Add all digits with the same place value, beginning with the rightmost column.

3. Be sure to place a decimal point in the sum in the correct location

Example: Add 6.47 + 340.8 + 73.523

To Subtract Decimals

1. Write the numbers to be subtracted vertically such that the decimal points are in a
column.
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2. If the number of decimal places in the subtrahend exceeds that in the minuend, insert
the necessary number of zeros to the right of the last decimal place in the minuend.

3. Subtract all digits with the same place value, beginning with the rightmost column and
regroup when necessary.

4. Write the decimal point in the difference. This should be in line with the other decimal
points.

Example: Subtract 462 – 26.528

To Multiply Decimals

1. Calculate the product, in the same manner as whole numbers.

2. Put a decimal point in the appropriate location so that the number of decimals places
in the product equals the sum of the number of decimal places in all the factors.

Examples: Find the product of 43.7 and 0.00035

To Divide Decimals

1. Move the decimal point in the divisor up to the necessary number of places to the
right to make it a whole number.

2. Move the decimal point in the dividend to the same number of places to the right.

3. Put a decimal point in the quotient immediately above the new decimal point in the
dividend.

4. Proceed with the technique for dividing whole numbers, take note of the location of
the decimal point in the quotient,

Example: Find the quotient of 0.02904 ÷ 0.04

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INTEGERS

The set of integers consists of the positive whole numbers, negative whole
numbers, and zero. { . . . . , -5, -4 , -3, -2 , -1 ,0 ,1 ,2 ,3 , 4 ,5 . . . }

Examples: +45 or 45 ‘Positive forty-five’

-57 ‘negative fifty-seven’

0 ‘Zero’

THE NUMBER LINE

- 9 – 8 – 7 – 6 – 5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Negative Integers Positive Integers

For any numbers a, the opposite of a is denoted by –a.

Examples: The opposite of 100 is -100

The opposite of -99 is 99

6 stands for a gain of P6, while -3 stands for a loss of P3

OPERATIONS ON INTEGERS

Addiition

1. if the addends have the same signs, add the numbers disregarding the signs. The
sign of the sum will be the common sign of the addends.

Example: +138 + + 200 = 338

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If the addends are of different signs, subtract the smaller number from the larger
number and write the sign of the larger number.

Example: - 285 + 100 = -185

Subtraction

1. In subtracting signed numbers, change the sign of the subtrahend then proceed to
addition of integers.

-10,348

Example - - 9,753

_______________

-595

Multiplication

1. When two numbers of the same signs are multiplied, the product is positive.

2. When two numbers of opposite signs are multiplied, the product is negative.

Example: Multiply + 12 by + 4 = 48

Multiply -16 by 5 = -80

Division

1. In dividing numbers of the same signs, their quotient is a positive number.

2. In dividing numbers of different signs, their quotient is a negative number.

Examples: Find the quotient

-96 -84

a. ______ = -32 b. - _______ = 12

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3 -7

Cognitive Reasoning and Problem Solving

- Finding Patterns

Objectives

-Recognize simple non-mathematical patterns

- Recognize number patterns

- Recognize patterns that will help gain mathematical maturity

Many discoveries in mathematics are based on patterns. A mathematician often

uses the strategy of generalizing to form a rule based on a few exampes.

The process of finding patterns is not quick or direct as following a recipe or list
of instructions. It requires the concept of sequence.

A sequence is a set of numbers in a particular order. The numbers in a sequence

are called terms of the sequence. If we have the sequence 1,3,5,7,9 . . . The first term in
1, the second term is 3, the third is 5 and so on.

Example

Given the following sequence of letters,A, C, D, F, G, I

What are the next two letters?

Solution:

To discover the pattern for this problem, let us look at the first nine letters of the
English alphabet, A B C D E F G H I, Let us cross out those letters that are not included
in the sequence, A B C D E F G H I. Following this pattern, J should come after I. Then
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we should skip K and write L. A B C D E F G H I J K L. Hence, the two succeeding lettrs

are J and I.

From the examples shown, it is seen that patterns involve not only numbers, but
also non-mathematical objects like letters, words, and figures.

Reasoning based on patterns is sometimes called cognitive reasoning. Students

often use cognitive reasoning when they answer tests. Employees also often use this
type of reasoning in the performance of their jobs. All of us, in one way or another, use
cognitive reasoning in our daily lives.

A collection of numbers arranged in order from left to right, such that there is a
first term, second term, etc, and are separated by commas, is called a number
sequence.

Example:

What are the next three terms of this sequence?

1, 1, 2,4, 8, 16 ,32 ,64

Solution:

To describe a sequence, we often try to find a pattern that relates the number of
a term to the term itself. Now for the sequence 1, 1, 2, 4,8 , 16, 32 ,64, the pattern is not
obvious. First, let us look at the relationship between the terms. The first term, I and the
second term, 1, are equal but the third term is 2, which may be treated as the sum of
the forst two terms.

Considering the sums of the terms, we have

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1+1=2

And if we add the first, the second, and the third terms, we have 1 + 1 + 2 = 4,
which is fourth term. Continuing the patterm

1 + 1 + 2 + 4= 8, fifth term

1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 16, sixth term

1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 32, seventh term

1 + 1 + 2+ 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 = 64,eight term

Hence for the next three terms,

64 + 64 = 128 ninth term

128 + 128 =256 10th term

256 + 256 = 512, eleventh term

READING FOR UNDERSTANDING AND ANALYSIS

Objectives

Analyze the problem to be solved step by step with the aid of a picture or a
diagram. Sometimes a math problem looks more difficult than it really is. You must dirst
understand the problem before you attempt to solve it. It often helps to rewrite the
problem using only the important information. This makes it easier to figure out what
you must do.

Guideline for comprehension

1. Jot down the key words or phrases.

2. Write down what is being asked for.

3. Restate what you have read in your own words.

4. Prepare a visual representation

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Example Given the numbers 6, 2 ,3 ,1 ,4 and 5. If the second number is less then the
fourth circle the number that is the difference between the first numbers, circle the
second number.

Solution:

To do this, we have the following:

1. The key word is less than.

2. We are to circle a number in 6 2 3 1 4 5.

3. If the second number is less than the fourth number, then circle the number
that is the difference between the first and the sixth numbers. Circle the second number
if the third is less than the first. 5th no.

4. Now Consider:

6 2 3 1 4 5

1st no.

2nd no. 3rd no. 4th no. 6th no,

2. (2nd number) > (4th number)

3. (3rd number) < 6 (1st number)

Thus, 6 2 3 1 4 5

PLANE GEOMETRY

Plane geometry deals with shapes like lines, circles and triangles . . . shapes that
can be drawn on a flat surface called a Plane.
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Common Symbols Used in Geometry

Symbol Meaning Example In Words

∆ Triangle ∆ABC has Triangle ABC has three

equal sides

Angle ∟ABC is 45º The angle formed by Abc

. is 45º degress

┴ Perpendicular AB┴CD The line AB is . .

. perpendicular to line CD

║ Parallel EF║GH The line EF is parallel to line GH

º Degrees 360º makes full circle

∟ Right Angle is 90º A right angle is 90 degrees

AB Line Segment AB The line between A and B

AB Line “AB” AB The Infinite line that includes

. A and B
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AB Ray AB AB The line that start at A. goes.

. through B and continues on

≅ Conguent ∆ABC≅∆ Triangle ABC is congruent to

. triangle DEF

~ Similar ∆DEF~∆ Triangle DEF is similar to triangle

. MNO

∴ Therefore a=b ∴ b = a a equals b, therefore b equals a

Glossary of Gemometric Terms

Line
A line is one of the basic terms in geometry. We may think of a line as a “straight”
Line that we might draw with a ruler on a piece of paper, except that in geometry, a line
extends forever in both directions. We write the name of a line passing through two
different points A and B as “ line AB”, the two headed arrow over AB signifying a line
passing through points A and B.
Example: The following is a diagram of two lines: line AB and line HG