MODULE-5

VEHICULAR IOT
Introduction:
 The application of IoT in connected vehicular systems is increasing rapidly across the
globe as the increasing number of vehicles gives rise to the problem of parking.
 Vehicular IoT systems have penetrated different aspects of the transportation ecosystem,
including on-road to off-road traffic management, driver safety for heavy to small
vehicles, and security in public transportation. In a connected vehicular environment,
vehicles are capable of communicating and sharing their information.
 Moreover, IoT enables a vehicle to sense its internal and external environments to make
certain autonomous decisions.
 With the help of modern-day IoT infrastructure, a vehicle owner residing in Earth’s
northern hemisphere can very easily track his vehicular asset remotely, even if it is in the
southern hemisphere.

1. Explain the architecture of a vehicular IOT.

Ans: The Figure below represents a simple architecture of a vehicular IoT system.
The architecture of the vehicular IoT is divided into three sublayers:
1. Device
2. Fog and
3. Cloud

• Device:
1. The device layer is the bottom-most layer, which consists of the basic infrastructure of
the scenario of the connected vehicle.
2. This layer includes the vehicles and road side units (RSU).
 3. These vehicles contain certain sensors which gather the internal information of the
vehicles.
4. The RSU works as a local centralized unit that manages the data from the vehicles.
• Fog:
1. In vehicular IoT systems, fast decision making is pertinent to avoid accidents and traffic
mismanagement. Hence fog computing plays a crucial role by providing decisions in
real-time, much near to the devices.
2. Consequently, the fog layer helps to minimize data transmission time in a vehicular IoT
system.
• Cloud:
1. In a vehicular IoT system, cloud computing helps to handle processes that involve a huge
amount of data.
2. Further, for long-term storage, cloud computing is used as a scalable resource in
vehicular IoT systems.

2. What are the components of vehicular IoT? Explain with a neat figure.
Ans:
Components of vehicular IoT:
The Figure below shows the different components required for vehicular IoT systems.

1. Sensors:
i. In vehicular IoT, sensors monitor different environmental conditions and help to make
the system more economical, efficient, and robust.
ii. Traditionally, two types of sensors, internal and external, are used in vehicular IoT
systems.
(i). Internal:
1. These types of sensors are placed within the vehicle to sense parameters that are
directly associated with the vehicle.
 2. Also, the vehicles are equipped with different electronic components such as
processing boards and actuators.
3. The internal sensors in a vehicle are connected with the processor board, to
which they transmit the sensed data which is further processed by the board to
take certain predefined actions.
4. A few examples of internal sensors are GPS, fuel gauge, ultrasonic sensors,
proximity sensors, accelerometer, pressure sensors, and temperature sensors.
(ii). External:
1. External sensors quantify information of the environment outside the vehicle.
2. For example, sensors used in the smart traffic system to sense vacant parking
lots in a designated parking area.
3. Therefore, on-road cameras are widely used as external sensors to capture still
images and videos. The captured images and videos are processed further, either
in the fog or in the cloud layer, to take certain pre-programmed actions.
4. Similarly, temperature, rainfall, and light sensors are also used in the vehicular
IoT infrastructure.
2. Satellites:
1. In vehicular IoT systems, automatic vehicle tracking and crash detection are among the
important available features.
2. Satellites help the system to track vehicles and detect on-road crashes.
3. The satellite image is also useful for detecting on-road congestions and road blocks.
3. Wireless connectivity:
1. In the vehicular IoT scenario, the high mobility of the vehicles necessitates the
connectivity type to be wireless for practical and real-time data transmission.
2. Different communication technologies, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and GSM, are common
in the vehicular IoT systems.
4. Road Side Unit (RSU):
1. The RSU is a static entity that works collaboratively with internal and external sensors.
2. Typically, the RSUs are equipped with sensors, communication units, and fog devices.
3. In time critical applications, the fog devices attached to the RSUs process the sensed data
and take necessary action promptly.
4. If a vehicular system involves heavy computation, the RSU transmits the sensed data to
the cloud end.
5. Sometimes, these RSUs also work as an intermediate communication agent between two
vehicles.
5. Cloud and fog computing:
1. In vehicular IoT systems, fog computing handles the light-weight processes
geographically closer to the vehicles than the cloud and for faster decision making.
2. However, for a heavy-weight process, cloud computing is more adept and provides more
scalability of resources as compared to fog computing.
3. Therefore, the choice of the application of fog and cloud computing depends on the
situation.
4. For example, the location and extent of short on-road congestion from a certain location
can be determined by fog computing with the help of sensed data. Further, the congestion
 information can be shared by the RSU among other on road vehicles, thereby suggesting
them to avoid the congested road.
5. On the other hand, for determining regular on-road congestion, predictions are typically
handled with the help of cloud computing. For the regular congestion prediction, the
cloud end needs to process a huge amount of instantaneous data, as well as, historical
data for that stretch of road spanning back a few months to years.
6. Analytics:
1. In vehicular IoT, analytics is a crucial component.
2. Vehicular IoT systems can be made to predict different dynamic and static conditions
using analytics.
3. For example, strong data analytics is required to predict on-road traffic conditions that
may occur at a location after an hour.

3. What are the advantages of vehicular IoT? Explain.

Ans:
A few selected advantages of vehicular IoT are shown below:
(i) Easy tracking:
1. The tracking of vehicles is an essential part of vehicular IoT.
2. In a vehicular IoT system, the tracking. of vehicles is straightforward; the system can
collect information at a remote location.
(ii) Fast decision making:
1. Most of the decisions in the connected vehicle environment are time critical.
2. Therefore, for such an application, fast and active decision making are pertinent for
avoiding accidents.
3. In the vehicular IoT environment, cloud and fog computing help to make fast decisions
with the data received from the sensor-based devices.
(iii) Connected vehicles:
1. A vehicular IoT system provides an opportunity to remain connected and share
information among different vehicles.
(iv) Easy management:
1. Since vehicular IoT systems consist of different types of sensors, a communication unit,
processing devices, and GPS, the management of the vehicle becomes easy.
2. The connectivity among different components in a vehicular IoT enables systems to track
every activity in and around the vehicle.
3. Further, the IoT infrastructure helps in managing the huge number of users located at
different geographical coordinates.
(v) Safety:
1. Safety is one of the most important advantages of a vehicular IoT system.
2. With easy management of the system, both the internal and external sensors placed at
different locations play an important role in providing safety to the vehicle, its occupants,
as well as the people around it.
(vi) Record:
1. Storing different data related to the transportation system is an essential component of a
vehicular IoT.
 2. The record may be of any form, such as video footage, still images, and documentation.
3. By taking advantage of cloud and fog computing architecture, the vehicular IoT systems
keep all the required records in its database.

Case Study
Crime assistance in a smart IoT transportation system
The system highlights a fog framework for intelligent public safety in vehicular environments
(fog-FISVER). The primary aim of this system is to ensure smart transportation safety (STS) in
public bus services. The system works through the following three steps:
(i) The vehicle is equipped with a smart surveillance system, which is capable of executing video
processing and detecting criminal activity in real time.
(ii) A fog computing architecture works as the mediator between a vehicle and a police vehicle.
(iii) A mobile application is used to report the crime to a nearby police agent.

Architecture of smart IoT transportation system (fog-FISVER):

The architecture of the fog-FISVER consists of different IoT components. Fog-FISVER is based
on a three-tiered architecture, as shown in Figure below.
(i) Tier1—In-vehicle FISVER STS Fog:
1. In this system component, a fog node is placed for detecting criminal activities.
2. This tier accumulates the real sensed data from within the vehicle and processes it to
detect possible criminal activities inside the vehicle.
3. Further, this tier is responsible for creating crime-level metadata and transferring the
required information to the next tier.
For performing all the activities, Tier 1 consists of two subsystems:
i. Image processor and
ii. Event dispatcher
i. Image Processor:
1. The image processor inside Tier 1 is a potent component, which has a capability similar
to the human eye for detecting criminal activities.
2. Developers of the system used a deep-learning-based approach for enabling image
processing techniques in the processor.
3. To implement the fog computing architecture in the vehicle, a Raspberry-Pi-3 processor
board is used, which is equipped with a high-quality camera.
4. Further, this architecture uses template matching and correlation to detect the presence of
dangerous articles (such as a pistol or a knife) in the sub-image of a video frame.
5. Typically, the image processor stores a set of crime object templates in the fog-FISVER
STS fog infrastructure, which is present in Tier 2 of the system.
The image processor is divided into the following three parts:
(a) Crime definition downloader:
This component periodically checks for the presence of new crime object template
definitions in fog-FISVER STS fog infrastructure. If a new crime object template is
available, it is stored locally.
 (b) Crime definition storage:
In order to use template matching, the crime object template definition is required to be
stored in the system. The crime definition storage is used to store all the possible crime
object template definitions.
(c) Algorithm launcher:
This component initiates the instances of the registered algorithm in order to match the
template with the video captured by the camera attached in the vehicles. If a crime object
is matched with the video, criminal activity is confirmed.

ii. Event dispatcher:

1. This is another key component of Tier 1.
2. The event dispatcher is responsible for accumulating the data sensed from vehicles and
the image processor.
3. After the successful detection of criminal activity, the information is sent to the fog-
FISVER STS fog infrastructure.

The components of the event dispatcher are as follows:

(a) Event notifier:
It transfers the data to the fog-FISVER STS fog infrastructure, after receiving it from the
attached sensor nodes in the vehicle.
(b) Data gatherer:
This is an intermediate component between the event notifier and the physical sensor; it
helps to gather sensed data.
(c) Virtual sensor interface:
Multiple sensors that sense data from different locations of the vehicle are present in the
system. The virtual sensor interface helps to maintain a particular procedure to gather data.
This component also cooperates to register the sensors in the system.

(ii) Tier 2—FISVER STS Fog Infrastructure:

1. Tier 2 works on top of the fog architecture.
2. Primarily, this tier has three responsibilities
 keep updating the new object template definitions,
 classifying events, and
 finding the most suitable police vehicle to notify the event.
FISVER STS fog infrastructure is divided into two sub-components:
(a) Target Object Training:
1. There are different types of crime objects. The system needs to be up-to-dated
regarding all crime objects.
2. This subcomponent of Tier 2 is responsible for creating, updating, and storing the
crime object definition. The algorithm launcher uses these definitions in Tier 1 for the
template matching process.
3. The template definition includes different features of the crime object such as color
gradient and shape format.
4. A new object definition is stored in the definition database.
 5. The database requires to be updated based on the availability of new template
definitions.
(b) Notification Factory:
1. This sub-component receives notification about the events in a different vehicle with
the installed system.
2. Further, this component receives and validates the events.
3. In order to handle multiple events, it maintains a queue.

(iii) Tier 3 consists of mobile applications that are executed on the users’ devices. The
application helps a user, who witnesses a crime, to notify the police.
 HealthCare IoT
Introduction:
1. Internet of Things (IoT) has resulted in the development and emergence of a variety of
technologies that has had a huge impact on the medical field, especially wearable healthcare.
2. These technologies have given rise to small, power-efficient, health monitoring and
diagnostic systems.
3. Currently, various IoT-enabled healthcare devices are in wide use around the globe for
diagnosing human diseases, monitoring human health conditions, caring/monitoring for
elders, children, and even infants.
4. IoT-based healthcare devices provide access and knowledge about human physiological
conditions through hand held devices. With this development, users can be aware of the risks
in acquiring various diseases and take necessary precautions to avoid preventable diseases.

1. Explain the architecture of Healthcare IoT with a neat figure.

Ans:
A typical architecture for healthcare IoT is shown in Figure below.

It is divided into four layers.

(i) Layer 1:
Layer 1 contains different physiological sensors that are placed on the human body. These
sensors collect the values of various physiological parameters. The physiological data are
analyzed to extract meaningful information.
(ii) Layer 2:
Layer 1 delivers data to Layer 2 for short-term storage and low-level processing. The devices
that belong to Layer 2 are commonly known as local processing units (LPU) or centralized hubs.
These units collect the sensed data from the physiological sensors attached to the body and
process it based on the architecture’s requirement. Further, LPUs or the centralized hubs forward
the data to Layer 3.
(iii) Layer 3:
This layer receives the data from Layer 2 and performs applicationspecific high-level analytics.
Typically, this layer consists of cloud architecture or high-end servers. The data from multiple
patients, which may be from the same or different locations, are accumulated in this layer. Post
analysis of data, some inferences or results are provided to the application in Layer 4.
(iv)Layer 4:
The end-users directly interact with Layer 4 through receiver-side applications. The modes of
accessibility of these services by an end user are typically through cell phones, computers, and
tablets.

2. Explain the different components of Healthcare IoT.

Ans:
The different components for a basic healthcare IoT system are,

(i) Sensors:
Layer 1 contains different physiological sensors that are placed on the human body. These
sensors collect the values of various physiological parameters. The physiological data are
analyzed to extract meaningful information.
(ii) Wireless Connectivity:
1. Communication and connectivity in healthcare IoT is an essential component.
2. The communication between the wearable sensors and the LPU is through either wired or
wireless connectivity.
3. The wireless communication between the physiological sensors and LPU occurs with the
help of Bluetooth and ZigBee.
4. On the other hand, the communication between the LPU and the cloud or server takes
place with Internet connectivity such as WiFi and WLAN.
5. In Layer 4 of the healthcare IoT architecture, the healthcare data are received by the end
users with different devices such as laptops, desktops, and cell phones.
6. These communication protocols vary depending on the type of device in use.
 7. For example, when a service is received by a cell phone, it uses GSM (global system for
mobile communications). On the other hand, if the same service is received on a desktop,
it can be through Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
(iii) Privacy and Security:
1. The privacy and security of health data is a major concern in healthcare IoT services.
2. In a healthcare IoT architecture, several devices connect with the external world.
3. In order to increase the security of the healthcare data, different healthcare service
providers and organizations are implementing healthcare data encryption and protection
schemes.
(iv)Analytics:
1. For converting the raw data into information, analytics plays an important role in
healthcare IoT.
2. Several actors, such as doctors, nurses, and patients, access the healthcare information in
a different customized format pertinent to their job/role.
3. In such a scenario, analytics plays a vital role in providing different actors in the system
access to meaningful information extracted from the raw healthcare data.
4. Analytics is also used for diagnosing a disease from the raw physiological data available.
(v) Cloud and Fog Computing:
1. To store health data in a healthcare IoT system, cloud storage space is used.
2. Analytics on the stored data in cloud storage space is used for drawing various
inferences.
3. The major challenges in storage are security and delay in accessing the data.
4. Therefore, cloud and fog computing play a pivotal role in the storage of these massive
volumes of heterogeneous data.
(vi) Interface:
1. Among IoT applications, healthcare IoT is a very crucial and sensitive application.
2. Thus, the user interface must be designed in such a way that it can depict all the required
information clearly and, if necessary, reformat or represent it such that it is easy to
understand.
3. Moreover, an interface must also contain all the useful information related to the services.

3. What are the advantages of Healthcare IoT?

Ans:
Advantages of healthcare IoT:
The major advantages of healthcare IoT can be listed as follows:
1) Real-time:
1. A healthcare IoT system enables users, such as doctors, end users at the patient-side, and
staff in a healthcare unit, to receive real-time updates about the healthcare IoT
components.
2. Moreover, a healthcare IoT system can enable a doctor to observe a patient’s health
condition in real-time even from a remote location, and can suggest the type of care to be
provided to the patient.
3. On the other hand, users at the patient-end can easily take different decisions, such as
where to take a patient during critical situations.
 4. Moreover, the staff in a healthcare unit is better aware of the current situation of their
unit, which includes the number of patients admitted, availability of the doctors and bed,
total revenue of the unit, and other such information.
2) Low cost:
1. Healthcare IoT systems facilitate users with different services at low cost.
2. For example, an authorized user can easily find the availability of the beds in a hospital
with simple Internet connectivity and a web-browser-based portal.
3. Moreover, multiple registered users can retrieve the same information simultaneously.
3) Easy management:
1. Healthcare IoT is an infrastructure that brings all its end users under the same umbrella to
provide healthcare services.
2. In such an infrastructure, the management of numerous tangible and intangible entities
(such as users, medical devices, facilities, costs, and security) is a challenging task.
3. However, healthcare IoT facilitates easy and robust management of all the entities.
4) Automatic processing:
1. Healthcare IoT enables end-to-end automatic processing in different units and also
consolidates the information across the whole chain: from a patient’s registration to
discharge.
5) Easy record-keeping:
1. A healthcare IoT enables the user to keep these records in a safe environment and deliver
them to the authorized user as per requirement.
2. Moreover, these recorded data are accessible from any part of the globe.
6) Easy diagnosis:
1. In a healthcare IoT system, the diagnosis of the disease becomes easier with the help of
certain learning mechanisms along with the availability of prior datasets.

4. What are the risks in Healthcare IoT?

Ans:
Risk in healthcare IoT:
1) Loss of connectivity:
Intermittent connectivity may result in data loss when data is transferred from sensors to a
centralized unit, and results in life-threatening situations for the patient. Proper and
continuous connectivity is essential in a healthcare IoT system.
2) Security:
A healthcare IoT system contains the health data of different patients and must keep the data
confidential. As different persons and devices are associated with a healthcare IoT system,
the risk of data tampering and unauthorized access is quite high.
3) Error:
Data analytics helps a healthcare IoT system to predict the patients’ condition and diagnosis
of diseases. A huge amount of data needs to be fed into the system in order to perform
accurate analytics. Moreover, the management of a huge amount of data is a crucial task in
any IoT-based system. Errors in data may lead to misinterpretation of symptoms and lead to
the wrong diagnosis of the patient.
 Case Studies
AmbuSens system
The Smart Wireless Applications and Networking (SWAN) laboratory at the Indian Institute of
Technology Kharagpur developed a system: AmbuSens.
The primary objectives of the AmbuSens system are summarized as follows:
1. Digitization and standardization of the healthcare data, which can be easily accessed by the
registered hospital authorities.
2. Real-time monitoring of the patients who are in transit from one hospital to another. At both
hospitals, doctors can access the patients’ health conditions.
3. Accessibility by which multiple doctors can access the patient’s health data at the same time.
4. Provision of confidentiality to the health data of the patients in the cloud.
5. In the AmbuSens system, wireless physiological sensor nodes are used. These sensor nodes
make the system flexible and easy to use.

Architecture of the AmbuSens system:

1. The AmbuSens system is equipped with different physiological sensors along with a local
hub.
2. These sensors sense the physiological parameters from the patient’s body and transmit those
to a local data processing unit (LDPU).
3. The physiological sensors and LDPU form a wireless body area network (WBAN).
4. Further, this local hub forwards the physiological data to the cloud for storing and analyzing
the health parameters.
5. Finally, the data are accessed by different users.
The detailed layered architecture of the AmbuSens system is depicted in Figure below.
(i) Layer 1:
1. This layer consists of multiple WBANs attached to a patient’s body. These WBANs acquire
the physiological data from the patient and transmit them to the upper layer.
2. The physiological sensors are heterogeneous and require calibration for acquiring the correct
data from a patient’s body.
3. Layer 1 takes care of the calibration of the physiological sensor nodes. The physiological
data from the sensor node is delivered to the LDPU through a proper WBAN.
(ii) Layer 2:
1. In the AmbuSens system, cloud computing has an important role. Layer 2 is responsible for
handling the cloud-related functions.
2. From Layer 1, WBANs attached to the different patients deliver data to the cloud end. The
cloud is used for the long-term analysis and storage of data in the AmbuSens system.
3. A huge volume of health data is produced by the WBANs, which are handled by the cloud
with the help of big data analytics for providing real-time analysis.
(iii) Layer 3:
1. In the AmbuSens system, the identity of the patients remains anonymous.
2. An algorithm is designed to generate a dynamic hash value for each patient in order to keep
the patient’s identity anonymous. Moreover, in the AmbuSens system, at different time
instants, a new hash value is generated for the patients. The entire hashing mechanism of the
AmbuSens is performed in this layer.
(iv)Layer 4:
The users simply register into the system and use it as per requirement.

Hardware of the AmbuSens system:

In the AmbuSens system, a variety of hardware components are used such as sensors,
communication units, and other computing devices.
• Sensors:
The sensors used in the AmbuSens system are non-invasive. The descriptions of the sensors used
for forming the WBAN in the AmbuSens system are as follows:
(i) Optical Pulse Sensing Probe:
It senses the photoplethysmogram (PPG) signal and transmits it to a GSR expansion module.
Typically, PPG signals are sensed from the ear lobe, fingers, or other location of the human
body. Further, the GSR expansion module transfers the sensed data to a device in real-time.
(ii) Electrocardiogram (ECG) unit and sensor:
The ECG module used in AmbuSens is in the form of a kit, which contains ECG electrodes,
biophysical 9” leads, biophysical 18” leads, alcohol swabs, and wrist strap. Typically, the
ECG sensor measures the pathway of electrical impulses through the heart to sense the heart’s
responses to physical exertion and other factors affecting cardiac health.
(iii) Electromyogram (EMG) sensor:
This sensor is used to analyze and measure the biomechanics of the human body.
Particularly, the EMG sensor is used to measure different electrical activity related to muscle
contractions; it also assesses nerve conduction, and muscle response in injured tissue.
(iv) Temperature sensor:
The body temperature of patients changes with the condition of the body. Therefore, a
temperature sensor is included in the AmbuSens system, which can easily be placed on the
body of the patient.
(v) Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) sensor:
The GSR sensor is used for measuring the change in electrical characteristics of the skin.
• Local Data Processing Unit (LDPU):
1. In AmbuSens, all the sensors attached to the human body sense and transmit the sensed data
to a centralized device, which is called an LDPU.
2. An LDPU is a small processing board with limited computation capabilities.
3. The connectivity between the sensors and the LDPU follows a single-hop star topology.
4. The LDPU is programmed in such a way that it can receive the physiological data from
multiple sensor nodes, simultaneously.
5. Further, it transmits the data to the cloud for long-term storage and heavy processing.
• Communication Module:
1. Each sensor node consists of a Bluetooth module.
2. The communication between the sensor nodes and the LDPU takes place with the help of
Bluetooth, which supports a maximum communication range of 10 meters in line-of-sight.
3. The LDPU delivers the data to the cloud with 3G/4G communication.
 IoT Analytics
1. What is machine learning (ML)? Why do we use ML?
Ans:
Machine learning:
Machine learning is defined as a “field of study that gives computers the ability to learn
without being explicitly programmed”.
1. ML is a powerful tool that allows a computer to learn from past experiences and its mistakes
and improve itself without user intervention.
2. Different ML models play a crucial role in designing intelligent systems in IoT by leveraging
the massive amount of generated data and increasing the accuracy in their operations.
3. The main components of ML are statistics, mathematics, and computer science for drawing
inferences, constructing ML models, and implementation, respectively.

2.Wwhat are the advantages of Machine Learning (ML)? Explain.

Ans: Advantages of ML:
The different advantages of ML are,
(i) Self-learner:
1. An ML-empowered system is capable of learning from its prior and run-time experiences,
which helps in improving its performance continuously.
2. For example, an ML-assisted weather monitoring system predicts the weather report of the
next seven days with high accuracy from data collected in the last six months. The system
offers even better accuracy when it analyzes weather data that extends back to three more
months.
(ii) Time-efficient:
1. ML tools are capable of producing faster results as compared to human interpretation.
2. For example, the weather monitoring system generates a weather prediction report for the
upcoming seven days, using data that goes back to 6–9 months. A manual analysis of such
sizeable data for predicting the weather is difficult and time-consuming.
(iii) Self-guided:
1. An ML tool uses a huge amount of data for producing its results. These tools have the
capability of analyzing the huge amount of data for identifying trends autonomously. ……
2. For example, when a particular item is searched on an online e-commerce website, an ML
tool analyzes our search trends and shows a range of products similar to the original item.
(iv)Minimum Human Interaction Required:
1. In an ML algorithm, the human does not need to participate in every step of its execution.
The ML algorithm trains itself automatically, based on available data inputs.
2. For example, in a healthcare system using traditional systems, humans need to determine the
disease by analyzing different symptoms using standard “if– else” observations. However,
the ML algorithm determines the same disease, based on the health data available in the
system and matching the same with the symptoms of the patient.
(v) Diverse Data Handling:
1. Typically, IoT systems consist of different sensors and produce diverse and multi-
dimensional data, which are easily analyzed by ML algorithms.
 2. For example, ML algorithms use diverse and multi-dimensional data to determine the profit
of the industry in the financial year.
(vi)Diverse Applications:
1. ML is flexible and can be applied to different application domains such as healthcare,
industry, smart traffic, smart home, and many others.
2. Two similar ML algorithms may serve two different applications.

3. What are the major challenges in ML? Explain.

Ans: Challenges in ML:
An ML algorithm utilizes a model and its corresponding input data to produce an output. A few
major challenges in ML are listed as follows:
(i) Data Description:
The data acquired from different sensors are required to be informative and meaningful.
Description of data is a challenging part of ML.
(ii) Amount of Data:
In order to provide an accurate output, a model must have sufficient amount of data. The
availability of a huge amount of data is a challenge in ML.
(iii) Erroneous Data:
A dataset may contain noisy or erroneous data. On the other hand, the learning of a model is
heavily dependent on the quality of data. Since erroneous data misleads the ML model, its
identification is crucial.
(iv)Selection of Model:
Multiple models may be suitable for serving a particular purpose. However, one model may
perform better than others. In such cases, the proper selection of the model is pertinent for
ML.
(v) Quality of Model:
After the selection of a model, it is difficult to determine the quality of the selected model.
However, the quality of the model is essential in an ML-based system.

4. Explain the types of ML.

Ans: Types of ML:
Typically, ML algorithms consist of four categories:
(i)Supervised Learning
(ii)Unsupervised Learning
(iii)Semi-supervised Learning
(iv)Reinforcement Learning
 Labeled data contain certain meaningful tags, known as labels. Typically, the labels
correspond to the characteristics or properties of the objects. For example, in a dataset
containing the images of two birds, a particular sample is tagged as a crow or a pigeon.
 Unlabeled dataset does not have any tags associated with them. For example, a dataset
containing the images of a bird without mentioning its name.
(i) Supervised Learning:
1. This type of learning supervises or directs a machine to learn certain activities using labeled
datasets.
2. The labeled data are used as a supervisor to make the machine understand the relation of the
labels with the properties of the corresponding input data.
3. Consider an example of a student who tries to learn to solve equations using a set of labeled
formulas. The labels indicate the formulae necessary for solving an equation. The student
learns to solve the equation using suitable formulae from the set. In the case of a new
equation, the student tries to identify the set of formulae necessary for solving it.
4. Similarly, ML algorithms train themselves for selecting efficient formulae for solving
equations. The selection of these formulae depends primarily on the nature of the equations
to be solved.
5. Supervised ML algorithms are popular in solving classification and regression problems.
6. The classification deals with predictive models that are capable of approximating a mapping
function from input data to categorical output.
7. The regression provides the mapping function from input data to numerical output.
8. There are different classification algorithms in ML. The three popular classification
algorithms:
(i) k-nearest neighbor (KNN),
(ii) decision tree (DT), and
(iii) random forest (RF).
Regression method:
Regression method is used to estimate the relationship among a set of dependent variables
with independent variables, as shown in Figure below. The dependent variables are the
primary factors that are to be predicted. However, these dependent variables are affected by
 the independent variables. Let x and y be the independent and dependent variables,
respectively. Mathematically, a simple regression model is represented as:

(ii) Unsupervised Learning:

1. Unsupervised learning algorithms use unlabeled datasets to find scientific trends.
2. Unsupervised learning does not use any labels in its operations. Instead, the ML algorithms
in this category try to identify the nature and properties of the input equation and the nature
of the formulae responsible for solving it.
3. Unsupervised learning algorithms try to create different clusters based on the features of the
formulae and relate it with the input equations.
4. Unsupervised learning is usually applied to solve two types of problems: clustering and
association.
5. Clustering divides the data into multiple groups.
6. In contrast, association discovers the relationship or association among the data in a dataset.
(iii) Semi-Supervised Learning:
1. Semi-supervised learning belongs to a category between supervised and unsupervised
learning.
2. Algorithms under this category use a combination of both labeled and unlabeled datasets
for training.
3. Labeled data are typically expensive and are relatively difficult to label correctly.
4. Unlabeled data is less expensive than labeled data.
 5. Therefore, semi-supervised learning includes both labeled and unlabeled dataset to design
the learning model.
6. Traditionally, semi-supervised learning uses mostly unlabeled data, which makes it
efficient to use, and capable of overcoming samples with missing labels.
(iv)Reinforcement Learning:
1. Reinforcement learning establishes a pattern with the help of its experiences by interacting
with the environment.
2. Consequently, the agent performs a crucial role in reinforcement learning models. It aims to
achieve a particular goal in an uncertain environment.
3. Typically, the model starts with an initial state of a problem, for which different solutions
are available.
4. Based on the output, the model receives either a reward or a penalty from the environment.
The output and reward act as inputs for proceeding to the next state.
5. Thus, reinforcement learning models continue learning iteratively from their experiences
while inducing correctness to the output.