Production Engineering Course

University of Basrah
Mechanical Engineering Department
Production Engineering Course
(BEM125)
Dr Raheem Al-Sabur
Delivery Plan (Weekly Syllabus)
‫المنهاج االسبوعي النظري‬
Week Material Covered
Week 1 Engineering Materials: Classification of engineering materials, Mechanical properties of materials
Week 2 Engineering Materials: Destructive and non-destructive tests
Week 3 Ferrous Metal Production: Production of cast iron
Week 4 Ferrous Metal Production: Steel production
Week 5 Non-Ferrous Metal Production: Copper metal production
Week 6 Non-Ferrous Metal Production: Aluminum metal production
Week 7 Non-Ferrous Metal Production: Zinc, lead, and tin production
Week 8 Plastic Industry: Properties and classification of plastics
Week 9 Plastic Industry: Plastics production
Week 10 Ceramic Industry: Classification of ceramics, Ceramics production
Week 11 Cold and Hot Working: Principles of cold and hot working processes
Week 12 Hot Rolling: Principles of rolling processes, Rolling types, Force analysis in rolling
Week 13 Drawing Process: Types of hot drawing, Drawing analysis, Hot Extrusion
Week 14 Welding technology
Powder Metallurgy: Principles of powder metallurgy, Powder metallurgy production

Week 15
Casting: Casting types, Casting sandy process
Week 16 Preparatory week before the final Exam

Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 01 Material Properties and Tensile Test
Lecture 01 Material Properties and Tensile Test

1.1 PROPERTIES OF METALS
The important properties of an engineering material determine the utility of the
material which influences quantitatively or qualitatively the response of a given
material to imposed stimuli and constraints. The various engineering material
properties are given as under.
1. Physical properties
2. Chemical properties
3. Thermal properties
4. Electrical properties
5. Magnetic properties
6. Optical properties
7. Mechanical properties
1.1.1 Physical Properties
The important physical properties of the metals are density, color, size, and shape
(dimensions), specific gravity, porosity, luster etc.
1.1.2 Chemical Properties
The study of chemical properties of materials is necessary because most of the
engineering materials, when they meet other substances with which they can react,
suffer from chemical deterioration of the surface of the metal. Some of the chemical
properties of the metals are corrosion resistance, chemical composition and acidity
or alkalinity.
1.1.3 Thermal Properties
The study of thermal properties is essential to know the response of metal to thermal
changes i.e., lowering or raising of temperature. Different thermal properties are
thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, specific heat, melting point, thermal
diffusivity.
1.1.4 Electrical Properties
The various electrical properties of materials are conductivity, temperature
coefficient of resistance, dielectric strength, resistivity, and thermoelectricity.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Basrah University – Engineering College
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1.1.5 Magnetic Properties

Magnetic properties of materials arise from the spin of the electrons and the orbital
motion of electrons around the atomic nuclei. Many materials except ferromagnetic
material which can form permanent magnet, exhibit magnetic affects only when
subjected to an external electro-magnetic field.
1.1.6 Optical Properties
The main optical properties of engineering materials are refractive index,
absorptivity, absorption co-efficient, reflectivity and transmissivity.
1.1.7 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of materials are of great industrial importance in the
design of tools, machines, and structures
1. Elasticity
It is defined as the property of a material to
regain its original shape after deformation
when the external forces are removed. It can
also be referred as the power of material to
come back to its original position after
deformation when the stress or load is
removed.
2. Proportional limit
It is defined as the maximum stress under
which a material will maintain a perfectly
uniform rate of strain to stress.
A – Limit of proportionality
B – Elastic limit
3. Elastic limit C – Yield point
D – Maximum stress point
E – Breaking of fracture point
Many metals can be put under stress
slightly above the proportional limit
without taking a permanent set. The greatest stress that a material can endure
without taking up some permanent set is called elastic limit.
4. Yield point
At a specific stress, ductile metals particularly cease, resisting tensile forces.
This means, the metals flow and a relatively large permanent set takes place
without a noticeable increase in load. This point is called yield point.
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5. Strength
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist the externally applied
forces with breakdown or yielding. This property of material therefore
determines the ability to withstand stress without failure. Strength varies
according to the type of loading. It is always possible to assess tensile,
compressive, shearing, and torsional strengths. The maximum stress that any
material can withstand before destruction is called its ultimate strength.
6. Stiffness
It is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The
resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called stiffness
or rigidity.
7. Plasticity
Plasticity is defined the mechanical property of a material which retains the
deformation produced under load permanently. This property of the material
is required in forging, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.
Plastic deformation takes place only after the elastic range of material has
been exceeded.
8. Ductility
Ductility is termed as the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into
wire with the application of tensile load. A ductile material must be strong
and plastic. The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage
elongation and percent reduction in area which is often used as empirical
measures of ductility.
9. Brittleness
Brittleness is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property
of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. The materials
having less than 5% elongation under loading behavior are said to be brittle
materials. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads, snap off without
giving any sensible elongation. Glass, cast iron, brass and ceramics are
considered as brittle material.
10.Hardness
Hardness is defined as the ability of a metal to cut another metal. A harder
metal can always cut or put impression to the softer metals by virtue of its
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hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety
of meanings.
1.2 Destructive and Non-Destructive Tests
The purpose of metal testing is estimating the behavior of metal under loading
(tensile, compressive, shear, torsion and impact, cyclic loading etc.). Also, it is very
important that the material shall be tested so that their mechanical properties
especially their strength can be assessed and compared.
➢ Destructive tests of metal include various mechanical tests such as tensile,
compressive, hardness, impact, fatigue, and creep testing.
➢ Non-destructive testing includes visual examination, radiographic tests,
ultrasound test, liquid penetrating test and magnetic particle testing.
1.2.1 Tensile test
A tensile test is carried out on standard tensile test specimen in universal testing
machine. A standard test specimen for tensile test is shown in Fig. 1.1 according to
ASTM E8/E8M standard while Fig. 1.2 shows a schematic set up of universal testing
machine reflecting the test specimen griped between two cross heads. Fig. 1.3 shows
the stress strain curve for ductile material. Fig. 1.4 shows the properties of a ductile
material.
Tensile Test Plate Specimen [ASTM E8/E8M]

Item mm
G—Gauge length 200
W—Width 40
T—Thickness -
R—Radius of fillet, min 25
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L—Overall length, min 450

A—Length of reduced section, min 225
B—Length of grip section, min 75
C—Width of grip section, approximate 50
Fig. 1.1 Tensile test specimen
Fig. 1.2 Stress strain curve for ductile material
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A – Limit of proportionality
B – Elastic limit
C – Yield point
D – Maximum stress point
E – Breaking of fracture point
Fig. 1.3 Stress strain curve for ductile material
Fig. 1.4 Properties of a ductile material
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Tensile Strain: The ratio of increase in length to the original length.

The stress can be calculated by two formulae which are distinguished as engineering
stress and true stress, respectively.
Engineering Stress  = P/Ao
P = load (N)
Ao = original cross-sectional area (m2)
True Stress T= P/Ai

P = load (N)
Ai = instantaneous cross-sectional area (m2)
Strain: is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.

Engineering Strain  = (lf - lo)/ lo = l / lo
lf = final gage length (m)
lo= original gage length (m)
True Strain T= ln (li / lo) = ln (1 +)

li = instantaneous gage length (m)
lo= original gage length (m)
ln = natural logarithm
Hook’s Law: states that when a material is loaded within elastic limit (up to
proportional limit), stress is proportional to strain.
Compressive Strain: The ratio of decrease in length to the original length.
Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain or compressive
stress to compressive strain. It is denoted by E. It is also called as Young’s modulus
of elasticity.
E = Tensile Stress/Tensile Strain
Modulus of Rigidity: The ratio of sheer stress to shear strain. It is denoted by G.
G = Shear Stress/Shear Strain
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Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test
Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test

1.2.2 Testing of Hardness
It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of meanings. It
embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear, scratching,
deformation, and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to cut another
metal. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the following tests.
a) Brinell hardness test
b) Rockwell hardness test
c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test
Brinell hardness test
Dr. J. A. Brinell invented the Brinell test in Sweden in 1900. The oldest of the
hardness test methods in common use today, the Brinell test is frequently used to
determine the hardness of forgings and castings. Therefore, Brinell tests are
frequently done on large parts. The Brinell hardness number is a function of the test
force divided by the curved surface area of the indent. The Brinell hardness test
method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel
or carbide ball. The average of the two diagonals is used in the following formula to
calculate the Brinell hardness.
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Fig. 1.5 Brinell hardness test

Brinell hardness for several materials
Lead 5 -22 HB
Pure Aluminium 15 HB
Copper 35 HB
Hardened AW-6060 Aluminium 75 HB
Mild steel 120 HB
stainless steel annealed 200 HB
Hardened tool steel 600–900 HB
Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a
diamond indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of
136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load
is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left
in the surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a
microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the
indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by dividing
the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.
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Fig. 1.6 Vickers hardness test

Vickers hardness for several materials
Material Value
316L stainless steel 140HV30
347L stainless steel 180HV30
Carbon steel 120HV5
Iron 80HV5
Martensite 1000HV
Diamond 10000HV
Rockwell hardness test

Stanley P. Rockwell invented the Rockwell hardness test. Rockwell hardness test
enabled the user to perform an accurate hardness test on a variety of sized parts in
just a few seconds. There are two types of Rockwell tests:
1. Rockwell: the minor load is 10 kgf, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kgf.
2. Superficial Rockwell: the minor load is 3 kgf and major loads are 15, 30, or
45 kgf.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending
upon the characteristics of the material being tested.
The principles of the Rockwell Test are:
1. The indenter moves down into position on the part surface
2. A minor load is applied, and a zero-reference position is established
3. The major load is applied for a specified time (dwell time) beyond zero
4. The major load is released leaving the minor load applied
The resulting Rockwell number represents the difference in depth from the zero-
reference position as a result of the application of the major load.
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Fig. 1.6 Rockwell hardness test
Table 1 Rockwell hardness test values

1.2.3 Impact Test
When metal is subjected to suddenly applied load or stress, it may fail. In order to
assess the capacity of metal to stand sudden impacts, the impact test is employed.
The impact test measures the energy necessary to fracture a standard notched bar by
an impulse load and as such is an indication of the notch toughness of the material
under shock loading. Izod test and the Charpy test are commonly performed for
determining impact strength of materials. These methods employ same machine and
yield a quantitative value of the energy required to fracture a special V notch shape
metal.
The beams may be simply loaded (Charpy test) or loaded as cantilevers (Izod test).
Fig. 1.7 shows the impact testing set up arrangement for Charpy test.
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Fig. 1.7 Impact test
Charpy tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either brittle or ductile.
This is particularly useful for ferritic steels that show a ductile to brittle transition
with decreasing temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of energy
when impact tested, a tough ductile metal absorbs a large amount of energy. The
appearance of a fracture surface also gives information about the type of fracture
that has occurred; a brittle fracture is bright and crystalline; a ductile fracture is dull
and fibrous.
1.3 CHOICE OF MATERIALS

The choice of materials for the engineering purposes depends upon the following
factors:
1. Availability of the materials,
2. Properties needed for meeting the functional requirements,
3. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service, and
4. The cost of the materials.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/NK1iRSMbSz0
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Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 03: Ferrous Metal Production
Lecture 03: Ferrous Metal Production

1. Classification of Engineering Materials
Some commonly used engineering materials are broadly classified as shown in Fig.
2.1. Engineering materials may also be categorized into metals and alloys, ceramic
materials, organic polymers, composites and semiconductors. The metal and alloys
have tremendous applications for manufacturing the products required by the
customers.
Fig. 2.1 Classification of engineering materials

Metals and Alloys
Pure metals possess low strength and do not have the required properties.
Alloys are produced by melting or sintering two or more metals or metals and a non-
metal, together. Alloys may consist of two more components.
a. Ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such
as crude (pig) iron, cast iron, wrought iron and steels.
b. Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main
constituent, such as copper, aluminium, brass, bronze, tin, silver zinc, invar
etc.
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2. Ferrous Metals
The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituents. The ferrous
metals commonly used in engineering practice are cast iron, wrought iron, steel and
alloy steels. The basic principal raw material for all ferrous metals is crude (pig iron)
which is obtained by smelting iron ore, coke and limestone, in the blast furnace.
The principal iron ores with their metallic contents are shown in Table 2.1.
2.1. Main Types of Iron

1. Cast iron: Cast iron is basically an alloy of iron and carbon and is obtained
by re-melting pig iron with coke, limestone and steel scrap in a furnace known
as cupola. The carbon content in cast iron varies from 1.7% to 6.67%. It also
contains small amounts of silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur in
form of impurities elements.
a. White cast iron
b. Gray cast iron
c. Malleable cast iron
d. Ductile cast iron
e. Meehanite cast iron
f. Alloy cast iron
2. Wrought iron: Wrought iron is the assumed approximately as purest iron

which possesses at least 99.5% iron. It contains a large number of minute
threads of slag lying parallel to each other, thereby giving the metal a fibrous
appearance when broken. It is said as a mechanical mixture of very pure iron
and a silicate slag.
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3. Steel: Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content maximum up
to 1.7%. The carbon occurs in the form of iron carbide, because of its ability
to increase the hardness and strength of the steel
a. Plain carbon steels
i. Dead Carbon steels
ii. Low Carbon steels
iii. Medium Carbon steels
iv. High Carbon steels
b. Alloy steels
i. High speed steel
ii. Stainless steel
2.2. Cast Iron Production (Blast furnace)

Blast furnace was invented in 14th century. A typical blast furnace along with its
various parts is shown in Fig. 2.2. Modern blast furnaces range in size from 20 to 35
m diameter. It is set on the top of brick foundation. There are four major parts of
blast furnace from bottom to top:
1. hearth,
2. bosh,
3. stack and
4. top.
The hearth acts as a storage region for molten metal and molten slag. The charge of
blast furnace possesses successive layers of iron ore, scrap, coke, and limestone and
some steel scrap which is fed from the top of the furnace.
Iron ore exists as an aggregate of iron-bearing minerals. These mineral aggregates
are oxides of iron called hematite, limonite, and magnetite. They all contribute to the
smelting process. It takes about 1.6 tons of iron ore, 0.65 ton of coke, 0.2 ton of lime-
stone and about 0.05 ton of scrap iron and steel to produce 1 ton of crude (pig) iron.
For burning this charge, about 4 tons of air is required.
The impurities or other minerals are present in the ore. These impurities may be
silicon, sulfur, phosphorus, manganese, calcium, titanium, aluminum, and
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magnesium. The amounts of silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur present will determine
the purification process used in the manufacture of the steel.
The output from the furnace in form of crude (pig) iron is collected in large ladles
from the tap hole existing at lower portion of furnace. As the coke burns, aided by
the air forced into the furnace, the ore melts and collects in the hearth. As the melting
process proceeds, the entire mass settles and thus makes room for the addition of
charges at the top. While the melting is going on, the limestone forms a slag with the
impurities.
Fig. 2.2 Typical blast furnace

2.3. Steel Production Furnaces
The iron picks up carbon from the coke and impurities from the ore. The amount of
carbon picked up by the iron is more than is needed in the production of steel. The
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carbon becomes part of the pig iron used in the making of steel. The control of this
carbon during the subsequent processes determines the properties of the steel.
The crude (pig) iron is then processed for purification work for production of various
kinds of iron and steel in form of ingots (large sections) using different furnaces.
The steel ingots can be further processed in rolling mill or blooming mill to produce
different structural shapes and sections of steel.
Fig. 2.3 Flow chart for converting pig iron into useful iron and steel
2.3.1. Bessemer Convertor
The Bessemer process was the first inexpensive industrial process for the mass-
production of steel from molten pig iron. The process is named after its inventor,
Henry Bessemer, who took out a patent on the process in 1855. The key principle is
removal of impurities from the iron by oxidation with air being blown through the
molten iron. The oxidation also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it
molten. The process is carried on in a large ovoid steel container lined with clay or
dolomite called the Bessemer converter. The capacity of a converter was from 8 to
30 tons of molten iron.
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Fig. 2.4 Bessemer Convertor

2.3.2. Open Hearth Furnace
In open hearth furnace, pig iron, steel scrap etc. are melted to obtain steel. The hearth
is surrounded by roof and walls of refractory bricks as shown in Fig. 2.5. The charge
is fed through a charging door and is heated to 1650°C mainly by radiation of heat
from the burning of gaseous fuels above it. The products of combustion at the same
time pass through the checkers at the other end of the furnace, then process then
reverses itself.
Oxygen is one of the most important elements used in the reduction of the molten
metal. Twice the oxygen input quantity will double the carbon reduction and
increases the steel production of the furnace.
For magnesite lined furnace, the charge consists of pig iron, limestone, and scrap
iron. The slag reacts with the sulfur and the phosphorus in the metal, while the
bubbling air causes oxidation of the carbon and silicon. For acid lining furnace, the
charge should be scrap iron and low-phosphorus pig iron.
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Fig 2.6 open hearth furnace
2.3.3. Electric-arc steelmaking Furnace

About one-quarter of the world’s steel is produced by the electric-arc method, which
uses high-current electric arcs to melt steel scrap and convert it into liquid steel of a
specified chemical composition and temperature. External arc heating permits better
thermal control than does the basic oxygen process, in which heating is
accomplished by the exothermic oxidation of elements contained in the charge.
The electric-arc furnace (EAF) is a squat, cylindrical vessel made of heavy steel
plates. It has a dish-shaped refractory hearth and three vertical electrodes that reach
down through a dome-shaped, removable roof (see figure). The shell diameter can
be reached to 9m and can produce about 300-ton.
The roof is also made of water-cooled panels and has three circular openings,
equally spaced, for insertion of the cylindrical electrodes. Another large roof
opening, the so-called fourth hole, is used for off-gas removal. Additional openings
in the furnace wall, with water-cooled doors, are used for lance injection, sampling,
testing, inspection, and repair.
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Fig 2.6 Electric-arc steelmaking furnace
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Principles of Engineering Production lecture 04 Non-ferrous Materials Production
Lecture 04 Non-ferrous Materials Production

1. Non-Ferrous Materials
Non-ferrous metals contain metals other than iron as their main constituents such as
aluminum, copper, zinc, magnesium, lead, tin, nickel and their alloys and non-
metallic materials.
1.1. Aluminum
Pure aluminium has silvery color. It is ductile, malleable and very good conductor
of heat and electricity. It has a very high resistance to corrosion than the ordinary
steel. Its good electrical conductivity is an important property and is broadly used
for overhead cables. There are several of alumimum alloys depending upon the main
additive items as shown in table
Extraction of Aluminium
The aluminium production process can be broken down into three stages:
• first Bauxite, ore which contain aluminium, are extracted from the ground.
• Second, bauxites are processed into aluminium oxide or alumina (white
powder from which aluminium can be extracted)
• Third, pure aluminium is produced using electrolytic reduction,
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Fig 2.6 Bauxite Ore of Aluminium

The extraction is done by electrolysis which it does dissolve in molten cryolite
(double fluoride of aluminium and sodium). The negative electrodes (cathodes) and
the positive electrodes (anodes) are made of graphite, a form of carbon.
During electrolysis:
• positively charged aluminium ions gain electrons from the cathode, and form
molten aluminium
• oxide ions lose electrons at the anode, and form oxygen molecules. The
oxygen reacts with the carbon in the electrodes, forming carbon dioxide which
bubbles off. Carbon is therefore lost from the positive electrodes, so they must
be replaced frequently. This adds to the cost of the process.
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Fig 2.7 Extraction of Aluminium

A process in which aluminium oxide is broken down into its components using
electric current. About 4-5 tons of bauxites get processed into 2 tons of alumina from
which about 1 ton of aluminium can be made.
1.2. Copper
Copper is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. Pure copper
is soft, malleable and ductile metal with a reddish-brown appearance. It is a good
conductor of electricity. It is non-corrosive under ordinary conditions and resists
weather very effectively.
1.2.1. Copper Ores
Name Formula % Copper
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 34.5
Chalcocite Cu2S 79.8
Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 57.7
Azurite 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 55.1
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1.2.2. Copper Extraction

It is extracted from ores of copper such as copper glance, copper pyrites, melachite
and azurite. Copper ore is first ground and then smelted in a reverberatory or small
blast furnace for producing an impure alloy. Then the air is blown through the molten
metal to remove Sulphur and iron contamination to obtain blister copper in the
converter. Copper is then refined further using electrolysis processes.
The following copper alloys are important
a. Copper-zinc alloys (Brasses)
b. Copper-tin alloys (Bronzes)
Copper is mainly used in:
1. making electric cables and wires for electric machinery, motor winding, electric
conducting appliances, and electroplating etc.
2. It can be easily forged, casted, rolled and drawn into wires.
3. Copper in the form of tubes is used widely in heat transfer work of boilers,
condensers, roofing etc.
1.3. LEAD
Lead is a bluish grey metal with a high metallic lustre when freshly cut. It is a very
durable and versatile material. The heavy metal obtained from the bottom of the
furnace is further oxidized in Bessemer’s converter to remove most of the impurities.
Lead has properties of high density and easy workability. It has very good resistance
to corrosion and many acids have no chemical action on it. It is the softest and
heaviest of all the common metals. It can readily be scratched with fingernail when
pure.
Applications
a. Lead is used in safety plug in boilers, fire door releases and fuses.
b. It is also used in various alloys such as brass and bronze.
c. In the soldering process, an alloy of lead and tin is most widely utilized as a
solder material for joining metals in joining processes.
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1.4. ZINC
Zinc is bluish grey in color and is obtained from common ores of zinc are zinc blende
(ZnS), zincite (ZnO), calamine (ZnCO3). These ores are commonly available in
Burma. The oxide is heated in an electric furnace where the zinc is liberated as vapor.
The vapors are then cooled in condensers to get metallic zinc. Zinc possesses high
resistance to corrosion.
Zinc is the fourth most utilized metal after iron, aluminium, and copper. It is
commonly used as:
a. a protective coating on iron and steel in the form of a galvanized or sprayed
surface.
b. It is used for generating electric cells and making brass and other alloys.
c. The oxide of zinc is used as pigment in paints.
d. Parts manufactured by zinc alloys include carburetors, fuel pumps,
automobile parts, and so on.
1.5. TIN
Tin is considered as a soft and ductile material. It possesses very good malleability.
Tin is recognized as brightly shining white metal. It does not corrode in wet and dry
conditions. Therefore, it is commonly used as a protective coating material for iron
and steel. The main source of tin is tinstone.
Applications
a. Tin-base white metals are commonly used to make bearings that are subjected
to high pressure and load.
b. Tin is used as coating on other metals and alloys owing to its resistance to
corrosion.
c. Because of its high malleability, it finds application in tin cans for storing food
and food items.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/DhJVR0ZAAm8
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Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 05: Plastics Properties
Lecture 05: Plastics Properties

1. Plastics
Plastics are commonly known as synthetic resins or polymers. In Greek terminology,
the term polymer comprises ‘poly’ means ‘many’ and ‘mers’ means ‘parts’. Thus,
the term, polymer represents a substance built up of several repeating units, each
unit being known as a monomer. Thousands of such units or monomers join in a
polymerization reaction to form a ‘polymer’.
Some natural polymers like starch, resins, shellac, cellulose, proteins, etc are very
common in today’s use. Synthetic polymers possess several large applications in
engineering work. Therefore, plastic materials are hard and rigid and can be readily
molded into different shapes by heating or pressure or both.
Various useful articles can be produced from them rapidly, accurately and with very
good surface quality. They can be easily produced in different colors or as
transparent. They are recognized by their extreme lightness, good corrosion
resistance and high dielectric strength. These materials have extensive applications
in industrial and commercial work such as electrical appliances, automotive parts,
communication products bodies (Telephone, Radio, TV), and those making
household goods. They possess a combination of properties which make them
preferable to other materials existing in universe.
1.1.Properties of plastics
The properties of plastics are given as under.
1. Plastics are light in weight and at the same time they possess good toughness
strength and rigidity.
2. They are less brittle than glass, yet they can be made equally transparent and
smooth.
3. They resist corrosion and the action of chemicals.
4. The ease with which they can be mass-produced contributes greatly to their
popularity as wrappers and bags.
5. They can be easily molded to desired shapes.
6. They can easily be made colored.
7. They are hard, rigid and heat resistance.
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1.2.The structure of polymers

To understand how plastics are made, and why certain plastics are suitable for some
uses, and others not, you have to understand a little about the structure of polymers.
Polymers are large molecules made up of many smaller molecules. 'Poly' means
many and 'mer' means units. These smaller units are called monomers (mono = one,
mer = unit) and are joined together through polymerisation to form polymers. A
polymer contains hundreds of thousands of monomers.
Polymerisation, which means the linking of monomers to form polymers results
from two kinds of chemical reaction called condensation and addition.
The basic structure of plastics (or polymers) is given by macromolecule chains,
formulated from monomer units by chemical reactions. Typical reactions for chain
assembling are polyaddition (continuous or step wise) and condensation
polymerization (polycondensation).
• Polyaddition as chain reaction: Process by chemical combination of a large
number of monomer molecules, in which the monomers will be combined to
a chain. No hydrogen atoms will be moved within the chain during the
reaction.
• Polyaddition as step reaction: Process by combination of monomer units
without a reaction. Hydrogen atoms can change position during the process.
• Polycondensation: Generation of plastics by buildup of polyfunctional
compounds. Typical small molecules like water or ammonia can be set free
during the reaction. The reaction can occur as a step reaction.
1.3.Classification of Plastics
Plastics are broadly classified into thermos-plastics and thermo-setting plastics.
1.3.1. Thermo-Plastics
Those plastics which can be easily softened again and again by heating are called
thermoplastic. They can be reprocessed safely. They retain their plasticity at high
temperature, i.e. they preserve an ability to be repeatedly formed by heat and
pressure.
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Structure of thermoplastic types (A) linear and (B) with side chains
Types of Thermo-Plastics
(A) Amorphous
1. Polystyrene
2. P.V.C (Polyvinyl chloride)
(B) Crystalline
1. Polyethylene
2. Polypropylene
1.3.2. Thermo-Setting Plastics

Those plastics which are hardened by heat, effecting a non-reversible chemical
change, are called thermo-setting. Alternatively, these plastics materials acquire a
permanent shape when heated and pressed and thus cannot be easily softened by
reheating. They are commonly known as heat-setting or thermosets.
Structure of strong crosslinking thermosets
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Thermosetting resins samples

1. Phenol-formaldehyde resins
2. Polyester resins
3. Epoxy resins
4. Silicone resins
Processes for generating plastics and examples
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Comparison between Thermo Plastic and Thermosetting Plastic

Thermo-Plastic Thermosetting Plastic
1 They can be repeatedly softened by Once hardened and set, they do not
heat and hardened by cooling. soften with the application of heat.
2 They are comparatively softer and They are stronger and harder than
less strong. thermoplastic resins
3
Objects made by thermoplastic resins
Objects made by thermosetting
cannot be used at comparatively
resins can be used at comparatively
higher temperature as they will tend
higher temperature without damage
to soften under heat
4
They are usually supplied in
monomeric or partially polymerized
They are usually supplied as granular
material form in which they are
material
either liquids or partially
thermoplastic solids
5
Themo-plastics can be formed by
Thermosetting plastics can be
Injection molding, Extrusion, Blow
formed by Compression or transfer
molding, Thermo-forming, and
molding and Casting
Casting.
6
Applications. Telephone receivers,
Applications. Toys, combs, toilet electric plugs, radio and T.V.
goods, photographic films, insulating cabinets, camera bodies, automobile
tapes, hoses, electric insulation, etc. parts, tapes, hoses, circuit breaker
switch panels, etc.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/pOjq4oi0Y40
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

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Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 06: Plastics Processes
Lecture 06: Plastics Processes

1.1.Plastics Processes
1. Extrusion
• Raw materials are thermoplastic pellets, granules, or powder
• Placed in hopper and fed into extruder barrel
• Screw blends pellets and pushes them down the barrel –through the feed,
transition/melt, and pumping sections
• Barrel is heated from outside, and by friction
• Plastic is liquefied and forced through a die under pressure
• Pellets for other plastics processes are made by extruding small-diameter rod
and chopping into short segments
• Equipment costs on the order of $300,000
• Rated by barrel diameter (D, 1-8 inch) and L/D ratio (5 to 30)
Fig. 1 extrusion process for plastic
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Fig. 2 Several samples plastic extrusion products

2. Injection Molding
• Similar to hot chamber die casting of metals
• Pellets, granules, or powder are fed into heated cylinder, then forced into die
chamber by hydraulic plunger or rotating screw system
• Pressures from 70-200 MPa (10-30 Kpsi)
• Cool molds for thermoplastics. Heated molds for thermosets
• Complex shapes and good dimensional accuracy
• Using metallic inserts, multiple materials/colors, and printed films can
eliminate post processing or assembly operations
• Injection Molding Capabilities
➢ High production rates
➢ Good dimensional control
➢ Machines are usually horizontal with clamping forces (100-250 tons)
Fig. 3 Plastic Injection molding process
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Fig. 4 Samples of Plastic Injection molding products

3. Structural Foam Molding
• A variation of the injection molding process developed for applications where
stiffness is a primary concern, and particularly for large structural parts.
• Parts consist of a rigid, closed-cellular core surrounded by a continuous, solid
skin.
• The polymer melt contains a dissolved inert gas; most commonly nitrogen,
introduced in the extrusion screw.
• A predetermined shot size is injected into the mold cavity, the extruder valve
is closed, and the foam material generates internal pressure and expands to fill
mold cavity.
• A much lower pressure operation than the conventional injection molding
system, which allows much larger parts to be molded
Fig. 5 Plastic Structural Foam Molding process
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Fig. 6 Samples of Plastic Structural Foam Molding products

4. Blow Molding
• Modified extrusion and injection molding processes
• Extrusion Blow Molding
➢ Small tube is first extruded, usually vertically, then clamped and air
blown inside to expand it to fit a much larger diameter mold
➢ Air pressures 350-700 kPa (50-100 psi)
• Injection blow molding
➢ Short tubular piece (parison) injection molded, transferred to a blow-
molding die
➢ Plastic beverage bottles and hollow containers
• Multilayer blow molding
➢ Plastic packaging for food and beverages, cosmetics and
pharmaceutical industries
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Fig. 7 A three station injection blow-molding machine
Fig. 8 Samples of Plastic blow-molding products

5. Reaction Injection Molding
• Chemical reaction between two polymer materials – thermoset
• Large parts
• Low tooling costs
• Car bumpers are good examples for this process
Fig. 9 Plastic Reaction Injection Molding process
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Fig. 10 Samples of Plastic Reaction Injection Molding products

6. Rotational Molding
• Premeasured quantity of powder placed inside warm mold
• Rotated on two axes inside a heated furnace
• Low equipment costs
• Longer process times
• Trash cans, boat hulls, buckets, toys, footballs
• 0.4 mm wall thickness possible
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

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Fig. 11 Plastic Rotational Molding process
Fig. 12 Samples of Plastic Rotational Molding products

7. Thermoforming
• Plastic sheet is heated to a sag point (softened, but not melted)
• Heated sheet placed over a room-temperature mold and forced against it by
vacuum pressure
• Stretch forming process – material thickness variations
• Advertising signs, refrigerator liners, appliance housings, shower stalls,
packaging
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Fig. 13 Plastic Thermoforming process
Fig. 14 Samples of Plastic Thermoforming products

Plastics Processes (summary)
Extrusion Long, uniform, solid or hollow complex cross-sections;
high production rates; low tooling costs; wide tolerances.
Injection molding Complex shapes of various sizes, eliminating assembly;
high production rates; costly tooling; good dimensional
accuracy.
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Structural foam Large parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; less

molding expensive tooling than in injection molding; low
production rates
Blow molding Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high
production rates and low cost for making containers.
Rotational molding Large hollow shapes of relatively simple shape; low
tooling cost; low production rates
Thermoforming Shallow or relatively deep cavities; low tooling costs;
medium production rates.
Compression molding Parts similar to impression-die forging; relatively
inexpensive tooling; medium production rates
Transfer molding More complex parts than compression molding and
higher production rates; some scrap loss; medium
tooling cost.
Casting Simple or intricate shapes made with flexible molds; low
production rates.
Processing of Long cycle times; tolerances and tooling cost depend on
composite materials process.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/-saKpxY4-no
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

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Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 07: Ceramic Manufacturing Industry
Lecture 07: Ceramic Manufacturing Industry

1. Introduction
The term ‘ceramics’ is derived from the Greek ‘keramos’ meaning ‘burned earth’
and is used to describe materials of the pottery industry.
Ceramics are defined as a class of inorganic, nonmetallic solids that are subjected to
high temperature in manufacture and/or use. The most common ceramics are
composed of oxides, carbides, and nitrides.
Traditional ceramics refers to ceramic products that are produced from unrefined
clay and combinations of refined clay and powdered or granulated non-plastic
minerals. Often, traditional ceramics is used to refer to ceramics in which the clay
content exceeds 20 percent.
2. Traditional Ceramics classifications

1. Pottery is sometimes used as a generic term for ceramics that contain clay
and are not used for structural, technical, or refractory purposes.
2. Whiteware refers to ceramic ware that is white, ivory, or light gray in color
after firing. Whiteware is further classified as earthenware, stoneware,
chinaware, porcelain, and technical ceramics.
3. Stoneware is vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine texture, made
primarily from nonrefractory fire clay or some combination of clays, fluxes,
and silica that, when fired, has properties like stoneware made from fire clay.
Applications for stoneware include artware, chemicalware, cookware,
drainpipe, kitchenware, tableware, and tile.
4. Chinaware is vitreous ceramic ware of zero or low absorption after firing that
are used for nontechnical applications. Applications for chinaware include
artware, ovenware, sanitaryware, and tableware.
5. Porcelain is defined as glazed or unglazed vitreous ceramic ware used
primarily for technical purposes. Applications for porcelain include artware,
ball mill balls, ball mill liners, chemical ware insulators, and tableware.
6. Technical ceramics include vitreous ceramic whiteware used for such
products as electrical insulation, or for chemical, mechanical, structural, or
thermal applications.
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3. Properties of Ceramic Materials

• Density – in general, ceramics are lighter than metals and heavier than
polymers.
• Melting temperatures - higher than for most metals
• Electrical and thermal conductivities - lower than for metals; (some
ceramics are insulators while others are conductors).
• Brittle and High hardness, electrical and thermal insulating.
• Ceramics are substantially stronger in compression than in tension.
4. Ceramic Manufacturing Process Description

The ceramics sectors can be summarized in two groups:
1. ‘coarse’ or ‘construction’ ceramics including the bricks and roof tiles, vitrified
clay pipes, refractory products and expanded clay aggregates sectors.
2. ‘fine’ or ‘traditional and industrial ceramics’, including the wall and floor
tiles, table- and ornamental ware, sanitaryware, technical ceramics and
inorganic bonded abrasives sectors.
The border between ‘fine’ or ‘traditional and industrial’ and ‘coarse’ or
‘construction’ ceramics varies between equivalent particle diameters of 0.1 and 0.2
mm. ‘Coarse' or ‘construction’ ceramic products show an inhomogeneity of more
than 0.2 mm.
4.1. Ceramic Manufacturing Equipment

1. Pressure vessel
2. Conveyers
3. Jaw Crushers
4. Ball Mill
5. Screens
6. Trommel Screens
7. Tray dryer
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4.2. Main steps for ceramic manufacturing
Step #1: Milling & Raw Material Procurement

The raw materials used in the process are milled materials typically found in mining
sites that have been reduced from a large size to smaller sizes.
Step #2: Sizing
The milling materials must be sized to separate desirable material by controlling the
particle size using Fine mesh vibratory sifting equipment, the result will give you
proper bonding and a smooth surface on the finished product.
Figure 2: Sizing Machine of Ceramic products
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Step #3: Batching

Calculates amounts, weighing and initial blended of the raw materials. For consistent
material flow into a pub mill hopper, Vibratory Feeders can be applied in the process.
Step #4: Mixing
To obtain a more homogeneous material prior to forming, the constituents of the
ceramic powder are combined using the method of mixing. Pug mills are the
preferred piece of machinery used in this step of the process.
Step #5: Forming
The materials such as dry powders, pastes are consolidated and molded. In the case
of dry forming, vibratory compaction can be used to achieve the desired shape.
Step #6: Drying
The formed materials hold water and binder in its mix that can in turn cause
shrinkage, warping or distortion of the product. Convection drying is the most used
method by heated air.
Step #7: Glazing
This step is added to the process prior to firing. Typically, the glaze consists of
oxides that give the product the desired finish look. The glaze can be applied using
spraying or dipping methods.
Step #8: Firing or sintering or densification.
The ceramics pass through a controlled heat process where the oxides are
consolidated into a dense, cohesive body made up of uniform grain. Some general
points to remember about different types of firing end products:
• Short Firing Time: gives porous and low-density products.
• Intermediate Firing: gives fine-grained, high-strength products.
• Long Firing Time: gives coarse-grained products and will not distort when
under a load for an extended period.
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Final Processing
• Following firing, some ceramic products are processed further to enhance
their characteristics or to meet dimensional tolerances.
• Ceramics can be machined by abrasive grinding, chemical polishing,
electrical discharge machining, or laser machining.
• Annealing at high temperature, followed by gradual cooling can relieve
internal stresses within the ceramic and surface stresses due to machining.
• Coatings also may be applied to improve strength, and resistance to corrosion
or for decoration.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/SikbHFTiy10
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

44
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 08: Powder Metallurgy
Lecture 08: Powder Metallurgy

1. Introduction
Powder metallurgy is used for manufacturing products or articles from powdered
metals by placing these powders in molds and are compacting the same using heavy
compressive force. Typical examples of such article or products are grinding wheels,
filament wire, magnets, welding rods, tungsten carbide cutting tools, self-lubricating
bearings electrical contacts and turbines blades having high temperature strength.
The manufacture of parts by powder metallurgy process involves the manufacture
of powders, blending, compacting, sintering and several secondary operations such
as sizing, machining, infiltration, plating, and heat treatment.
The compressed articles are then heated to temperatures much below their melting
points to bind the particles together and improve their strength and other properties.
Few non-metallic materials can also be added to the metallic powders to provide
adequate bond or impart some the needed properties.
The products made through this process are very costly on account of the high cost
of metal powders as well as of the dies used. The powders of almost all metals and
a large quantity of alloys, and nonmetals may be used.
2. POWDER METALLURGY PROCESS

The powder metallurgy process consists of the following basic steps:
1. Formation of metallic powders.
2. Mixing or blending of the metallic powders in required proportions.
3. Compressing and compacting the powders into desired shapes and sizes in
form of articles.
4. Sintering the compacted articles in a controlled furnace atmosphere.
5. Subjecting the sintered articles to secondary processing if needed so.
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3. ADVANTAGES OF POWDER METALLURGY

1. The processes of powder metallurgy are quite and clean.
2. Articles of any complicated shape can be manufactured.
3. The dimensional accuracy and surface finish obtainable are much better for
many applications and hence machining can be eliminated.
4. No material is being wasted as scrap and the process makes utilizes full raw
material.
5. High production rates can be easily achieved.
6. This process facilitates production of many such parts, which cannot be
produced through other methods, such as sintered carbides and self-
lubricating bearings.
7. The components produced by this process are highly pure and bears longer
life.
8. It enables production of parts from such alloys, which possess poor cast
ability.
4. LIMITATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY

1. Powder metallurgy process is not economical for small-scale production.
2. The cost of tool and die of powder metallurgical set-up is relatively high.
3. Articles made by powder metallurgy in most cases do not have as good
physical properties as wrought or cast parts.
4. The process is not found economical for small-scale production.
5. It is not easy to convert brass, bronze and a number of steels into powdered
form.
5. Production of Metal Powders

The commonly used powder making processes are given as under
1. Atomization: In this process, the molten metal is forced through an orifice
and as it emerges, a high-pressure stream of gas or liquid impinges on it
causing it to atomize into fine particles. The inert gas is then employed to
improve the purity of the powder. It is used mostly for low melting point
metals such as tin, zinc, lead, aluminum, cadmium etc.
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2. Chemical Reduction Process: In this process, the compounds of metals such

as iron oxides are reduced with CO or H2 at temperatures below the melting
point of the metal in an atmosphere-controlled furnace.
Fe3O4 + 4C = 3Fe + 4CO
Fe3O4 + 4CO = 3Fe + 4CO2
Copper powder is also produced by the same procedure by heating copper
oxide in a stream of hydrogen.
Cu2 + H2 = 2Cu + H2O
Powders of W (Tungsten), Mo (Molybdenum), Ni (Nickle) and CO can easily
be produced or manufactured by reduction process because it is convenient,
economical, and flexible technique and perhaps the largest volume of
metallurgy powders is made by the process of oxide reduction.
3. Electrolytic Process: It is quite like electroplating and is principally
employed to produce extremely pure, powders of copper and iron. For making
copper powder, copper plates are placed as anodes in a tank of electrolyte,
whereas aluminum plates are placed into the electrolyte to act as cathodes.
4. Crushing Process: The crushing process requires equipment such as
crushers, or gyratory crushes. Various ferrous and non-ferrous alloys can be
heat-treated to obtain a sufficiently brittle material which can be easily
crushed into powder form.
5. Milling Process: It is commonly used for production of metallic powder. It is
carried out by using equipment such as ball mill, impact mill, eddy mill, disk
mill, vortex mill, etc. Milling and grinding process can easily be employed for
brittle, tougher, malleable, ductile, and harder metals to pulverize them.
6. Condensation of Metal Powders: This process can be applied in case of
metals, such as Zn, Cd and Mg, which can be boiled, and the vapors are
condensed in a powder form. Generally, a rod of metal say Zn is fed into a
high temperature flame and vaporized droplets of metal are then allowed to
condense on to a cool surface of a material to which they will not adhere.
6. Characteristic of Metal Powders

6.1. Powder particle size
Particle size of metal powder is expressed by the diameter for spherical shaped
particles and by the average diameter for non-spherical particle as determined by
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sieving method or microscopic examination. Metal powders used in powder

metallurgy usually vary in size from 20 to 200 microns. Particle size influences
density/porosity of the compact, mold strength, permeability, flow and mixing
characteristics.
6.2. Particle shape
There are various shapes of metal powders namely spherical, sub-rounded, rounded,
angular, sub-angular, flakes etc. Particle’s shape influences the packing and flow
characteristics of the powders.
6.3. Chemical composition
Chemical composition of metallic powder implies the type and percentage of
alloying elements and impurities. It usually determines the particle hardness and
compressibility. The chemical composition of a powder can be determined by
chemical analysis methods.
6.4. Particle microstructure
Particle microstructure reveals various phases, inclusions, and internal porosity.
6.5. Apparent density
Apparent density is defined as the weight, of a loosely heated quantity of powder
necessary to fill a given die cavity completely.
6.6. Flow characteristics
Flow-ability of metal powders is most important in cases where moulds have to be
filled quickly. Metal powders with good flow characteristics fill a mould cavity
uniformly.
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by powder metallurgy? What are the main stages of
powder metallurgy process?
2. Explain the objectives of powder compaction and list important products of
powder metallurgy.
3. Describe the atomization process of making powder in detail.
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4. What are the effects of sintering on the powder compact produced by

pressing?
5. Describe the process of blending, compacting, and sintering in detail.
6. What are the effects of sintering on the powder compact produced by
pressing?
7. Name the products of powder metallurgy.
8. List the advantages, dis-advantages of powder metallurgy process.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/-5p9smqlGX8
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

49
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 09 Sand Casting
Lecture 09 Sand Casting

Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process
characterized by using sand as mold material. It is relatively cheap and sufficiently
refractory even for steel foundry use. A suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is
mixed or occurs with the sand. The mixture is moistened with water to develop
strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding.
The term "sand casting" can also refer to a casting produced via the sand-casting
process. Sand castings are produced in specialized factories called foundries.
Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via a sand-casting process.
BASIC STEPS IN MAKING SAND CASTINGS
1. Patterns are required to make molds. The mold is made by packing molding
sand around the pattern. The mold is usually made in two parts so that the
pattern can be withdrawn.
2. If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns, referred to as core boxes, are
needed to shape the sand forms, or cores, that are placed in the mold cavity to
form the interior surfaces and sometimes the external surfaces as well of the
casting.
3. Molding is the operation necessary to prepare a mold for receiving the metal.
It consists of ramming sand around the pattern placed in support, or flask,
removing the pattern, setting cores in place, and creating the gating/feeding
system to direct the metal into the mold cavity created by the pattern, either
by cutting it into the mold by hand or by including it on the pattern, which is
most used.
4. Melting and pouring are the processes of preparing molten metal of the
proper composition and temperature and pouring this into the mold from
transfer ladles.
5. Cleaning includes all the operations required to remove the gates and risers
that constitute the gating/feeding system and to remove the adhering sand,
scale, parting fins, and other foreign material that must be removed before the
casting is ready for shipment or other processing.
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KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

1) Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared
mixture of silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to
8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green sand. This sand is easily available,
and it possesses low cost.
2) Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and
cores, is called dry sand. It is mainly suitable for larger castings.
3) Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand
possesses high clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water. This is particularly
employed for loam molding used for large grey iron castings.
4) Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mold, gives surface finish to
casting. It is directly next to the surface of the pattern, and it comes into contact
molten metal when the mold is poured. It is made of silica sand and clay, without
the use of used sand.
5) Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the
whole volume of the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this
purpose. The backing sand is sometimes called black sand.
6) Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This
is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders.
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PATTERN
The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the
object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main
modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints.
If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these
cavities in the finished product.
Types of Patterns
Solid pattern - A solid pattern is a model of the part as a single
piece. It is the easiest to fabricate but can cause some difficulties
in making the mold. Solid patterns are typically used for
geometrically simple parts that are produced in low quantities.
Split pattern - split pattern models the part as two separate

pieces that meet along the parting line of the mold. Split patterns
are typically used for parts that are geometrically complex and
are produced in moderate quantities.
Match-plate pattern - A match-plate pattern is similar to a split

pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to opposite
sides of a single plate.
Cope and drag pattern - It is similar to a match plate pattern, except

that each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate. Cope and
drag patterns are often desirable for larger castings.
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CLASSIFICATION OF MOLDING PROCESSES

Molding processes can be classified in several ways. Broadly they are classified
either based on the method used or based on the mold material used.
a) Sand molding: Molding processes where a sand aggregate is used to make the
mold produce by far the largest quantity of castings. Whatever the metal
poured into sand molds, the product may be called a sand casting.
b) Plaster molding: The mold material in plaster molding is gypsum or plaster of

paris, additives like talc, fibers, asbestos, silica flour etc. are added to control
the contraction characteristics of the mold as well as the settling time. The
pattern is usually made of brass, and it is generally in the form of half portion
of job to be cast and is attached firmly on a match plate which forms the
bottom of the molding flask. Wood patterns are not used because the water in
the plaster raises the grains on them and makes them difficult to withdraw.
c) Metallic molding: Metallic mold is also known as permanent mold because of

their long life. The metallic mold can be reused many times before it is
discarded or rebuilt. Permanent molds are made of dense, fine grained, heat
resistant cast iron, steel, bronze, anodized aluminum, graphite, or another
suitable refractoriness. The mold is made in two halves to facilitate the
removal of casting from the mold. Usually, the metallic mold is called dies
and the metal is introduced in it under gravity.
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Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 10: Cold and Hot Working
Lecture 10: Cold and Hot Working
1. METAL FORMING
Metal forming is also known as the mechanical working of metals. Metal forming
operations are frequently desirable either to produce a new shape or to improve the
properties of the metal. The main objectives of metalworking processes are to
provide the desired shape and size under the action of externally applied forces in
metals.
Shaping in the solid-state may be divided into
1. non-cutting shapings, such as forging, rolling, pressing, etc.,

2. cutting shaping, such as the machining operations performed on various
machine tools.
Metals are commonly worked by plastic deformation because of the beneficial effect
that is imparted to the mechanical properties by it. The necessary deformation in a
metal can be achieved by application of mechanical force only or by heating the
metal and then applying a small force. This plastic deformation of a metal takes place
when the stress caused in the metal, due to the applied forces reaches the yield point.
2. RECRYSTALLISATION
During the process of plastic deformation in metal forming, the plastic flow of the
metal takes place, and the shapes of the grains are changed. If the plastic deformation
is carried out at higher temperatures, new grains start growing at the location of
internal stresses caused by the metal. If the temperature is sufficiently high, the
growth of new grains is accelerated and continuous till the metal comprises entirely
only the new grains. This process of formation of new grains is known as
recrystallization. The temperature at which recrystalisation is completed is known
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Basrah University – Engineering College 54
as the recrystallisation temperature of the metal. It is this point which draws the line
of difference between cold working and hot working processes. Mechanical working
of a metal below its recrystallization temperature is called as cold working and that
accomplished above this temperature but below the melting or burning point is
known as hot working.
3. Cold Working
The cold working of metal is carried out below its recrystallization temperature.
Although average room temperatures are ordinarily used for cold working of various
types of steel, temperatures up to the recrystallization range are sometimes used. In
cold working, recovery processes are not effective.
The cold working process increases:
• Ultimate tensile strength

• Yield strength
• Hardness
• Fatigue strength
• Residual stresses
Cold working processes decreases:
• Percentage elongation
• Reduction of area
• Impact strength
• Resistance to corrosion
• Ductility
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

3.1. Purpose of Cold Working
The common purpose of cold working is given as under
1. Cold working is employed to obtain a better surface finish on parts.

2. It is commonly applied to obtain increased mechanical properties.
3. It is widely applied as a forming process of making steel products using
pressing and spinning.
4. It is used to obtain thinner material.
3.2. Advantages of Cold Working
1. In cold working processes, smooth surface finish can be easily produced.

2. Accurate dimensions of parts can be maintained.
3. The strength and hardness of the metal are increased, but ductility decreases.
4. Since the working is done in a cold state, no oxide would form on the surface.
5. It is far easier to handle cold parts and it is also economical for smaller sizes.
3.3. Disadvantages of Cold Working
1. Some materials, which are brittle, cannot be cold worked easily.

2. Since the material has higher yield strength at lower temperatures, the amount
of deformation that can be given is limited.
3. Since the material gets strain hardened, the maximum amount of deformation
that can be given is limited.
4. Internal stresses are set up, which remain in the metal unless they are removed
by proper heat-treatment.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

4. Hot Working
Mechanical working processes done above the recrystallization temperature of the

metal are known as hot working processes. Some metals, such as lead and tin, have
a low recrystallization temperature and can be hot worked even at room temperature,
but most commercial metals require some heating.
In hot working, the temperature of completion of metalworking is essential since any

extra heat left after working aid in grain growth. This increase in the size of the grains
occurs by process of coalescence of adjoining grains and is a function of time and
temperature. Grain growth results in poor mechanical properties. If the hot working
is completed just above the recrystallization temperature, then the resultant grain
size would be fine.
4.1. Advantages of Hot Working
1. At a high temperature, the material would have higher amount of ductility

and therefore there is no limit on the amount of hot working that can be
done on a material. Even brittle materials can be hot worked.
2. In hot working process, the grain structure of the metal is refined, and thus
mechanical properties improved.
3. The porosity of the metal is considerably minimized.
4. If the process is appropriately carried out, hot work does not affect tensile
strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, etc.
5. Larger deformation can be accomplished more rapidly as the metal is in
the plastic state.
6. No residual stresses are introduced in the metal due to hot working.
7. Mechanical properties, especially elongation and reduction of area, are
improved.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

4.2. 3.2. Disadvantages of Hot Working
1. Due to high temperature in hot working, rapid oxidation or scale formation

take place on the metal surface leading to poor surface finish and loss of
metal.
2. The weakening of the surface layer may give rise to a fatigue crack which
may ultimately result in fatigue failure of the component.
3. Some metals cannot be hot worked because of their brittleness at high
temperatures.
4. Because of the thermal expansion of metals, the dimensional accuracy in
hot working is difficult to achieve.
5. Handling and maintaining hot working setups are complicated and
troublesome.
5. CLASSIFICATION OF HOT WORKING PROCESSES
The classification of hot working processes is given as under.
1. Hot rolling
2. Hot extrusion
3. Hot drawing
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Comparison of Hot Working with Cold Working
Hot Working Cold Working

1 Hot-working is carried out above the Cold working is carried out below the
recrystallization temperature and recrystallisation temperature. As
below the melting point. Hence the such, there is no appreciable
deformation of metal and recovery recovery.
take place simultaneously.
2 No internal or residual stresses are set In this process, internal or residual
up in the metal in hot working. stresses are set up in the metal.
3 It helps in irradiating irregularities in It results in a loss of uniformity of
metal composition, breaking up the metal composition and thus affects
nonmetallic impurities into tiny the metal properties.
fragments and dispersing them through
composition in the metal
4 Close tolerance cannot be maintained Close tolerance is accepted
5 The surface finish of this process is The surface finish of this process is
comparatively not good. better.
6 Due to higher deformation The stress required to cause
temperatures, the stress required for deformation is much higher
deformation is much less.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/3J1lzJq1rPc
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 11: Principles Rolling Processes
Lecture 11: Principles Rolling Processes

1.1. Hot Rolling
Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by plastic
deformation through compressive stresses using two or more two rolls. It is one of
the most widely used of all the metalworking processes. The main objective of rolling
is to convert larger sections such as ingots into smaller sections. The coarse structure
of cast ingot is convened into a fine-grained structure using the rolling process as
shown in Fig. 3.1. The hot rolling process is being widely used in producing a large
number of valuable products such as rails, sheets, structural sections, plates, etc.
Fig. 3.1 Grain refinement in the hot rolling process
1.2. Hot Rolling Mill Types

1. Two-High Rolling Mill: A two-high rolling mill has two horizontal rolls
revolving at the same speed but in the opposite direction. The rolls are supported
on bearings housed in sturdy upright side frames called stands. The space
between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or 1owering the upper roll.
2. Three-High Rolling Mills: It consists of three parallel rolls arranged above the
other. The rotation directions of the upper and lower rolls are the same, but the
intermediate roll rotates in a direction opposite to both.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Basrah University – Engineering college
60
3. Four-High Rolling Mill: It is essentially a two-high rolling mill with small-sized

rolls. Practically, it consists of four horizontal rolls; the two middle rolls are
smaller in size than the top and bottom rolls.
4. Cluster Mill: It is a particular type of four-high rolling mill in which each of the
two smaller working rolls is backed up by two or more of the larger backup rolls
for rolling hard thin materials
Fig. 3.2 Hot rolling stand arrangements
5. Continuous (Tandem) Rolling Mill consists of several non-reversing two-high

rolling mills arranged one after the other so that the material can be passed
through all of them in sequence. It is suitable for mass production work only
because quick set-up changes will be required for smaller quantities and will
consume a lot of time and labor.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

61
1.3. Shape Rolling

Shape rolling of steels is a process that requires a lot of heat and a lot of force.
Reheating is carried out to around 1200°C, and then the metal is continuously fed
through rollers to draw the desired dimensions. Popular shapes have promising
applications in the construction business as I, H, and U-shaped beams or girders can
be produced for structural integrity.
Steel is a strong material resistant to shaping at ordinary temperatures, but this
resistance lessens considerably at higher temperatures. For that reason, the billets,
blooms, and slabs from the steelmaking process are shaped into essential products at
carefully controlled elevated temperatures.
The most used method for shaping is to heat the steel to around 1,200°C in a reheat
furnace and roll the steel, squeezing it between cylinders or rolls. Rolls are arranged
in pairs and housed in a 'stand.'
For long products, a series of specially shaped and angled rolls (referred to as stands)
are used to transform the section to the required shape. The figure shows the frame
used to create open sections.
Figure 1: Standard open sections
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

62
1.4. Flat Rolling Analysis:

the volume of metal exiting the rolls equals the volume entering.
wo and wf are the widths before and after work, mm
Draft thickness (d)
ho= starting thickness, mm (in); and

hf= final thickness, mm (in).
R = roll radius in mm
(α) = bite angle in degree.
The maximum draft (dmax)
coefficient of friction, μ
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

63
Reduction (r)
Contact length (L)
True strain (ε)
Average flow stress (Yf)
K and n: (strength and strain hardening)
Roll force in flat rolling:
The torque in rolling
The power
F is in newtons,
L is in meters, and
N is the revolutions per minute (rpm)
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

64
Ex: A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a rolling mill with two powered
rolls of radius = 250 mm. The working thickness must be reduced to 22 mm in one
pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work material has a flow curve defined by K
= 275 MPa and n = 0.15, and the coefficient of friction between the rolls and the
work is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling
operation to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force, torque, and power.
Solution:
The draft attempted in this rolling operation is
d = 25 - 22 = 3mm
Maximum draft
dmax = (0.12)2(250) = 3.6mm

The contact length
Rolling force is determined

F =175.7(300) (27.4) =1,444,254 N
Torque required to drive each roll
T = 0.5(1,444,254) (27.4) (10-3) = 19.786 N-m
Power:
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

65
Questions:
1. Two thick slabs of 300mm each, the first one is used in cold rolling where
μ=0.08 while the second is used in cold rolling where μ=0.5. The mill roll
diameter in each case is the same as 600mm. Determine the max draft
(reduction) in both cases. Discuss the wide difference in results.
2. A tensile specimen of the metal of 100 mm is length stretched to a length = of
157 mm during the rolling process. If the metal has a flow curve with
parameters: K = 850 MPa and strain hardening exponent n = 0.30. Determine
the average flow stress that the metal has been subjected to during the
deformation.
3. During the rolling process, the average flow stress is 20,000 lb/in2,
determining the amount of reduction in the cross-sectional area (use n = 0.40
and K = 35,000 lb/in2).
4. A plate of 270 mm wide and 25 mm thick from carbon steel. A two-high
rolling mill is used to reduce the thickness to 20 mm. Roll radius = 600 mm,
and roll speed = 8 rpm. Strength coefficient = 500 MPa, and strain hardening
exponent = 0.25. Determine (a) roll force, (b) roll torque, and (c) power
required to perform the operation.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/Kq86U1-PvCQ
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

66
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 12: Drawing Processes
Lecture 12: Drawing Processes

Drawing is a metal forming process (cold working process). In this process rod or
tube is pulled through a tapered hole in a die which results in reduction in cross
section area. The shape of die determines the final product shape. Quality of product
obtained is excellent. This process increases strength and hardness of the metal.
Cold drawing is performing important functions in hydraulic system of vehicles, aero
planes, ships, industries, etc.….
When the metal is forced through the die by a tensile force applied to the metal at
exist of die it is called drawing, while when a compressive force is applied at the
entry of the die it is called extruding.
Drawing Types:
1- Deep Drawing:
Deep drawing is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is
radially drawn into a forming die by the mechanical action of a punch. It is thus a
shape transformation process with material retention. The process is considered
"deep" drawing when the depth of the drawn part exceeds its diameter. This is
achieved by redrawing the part through a series of dies. The flange region (sheet
metal in the die shoulder area) experiences a radial drawing stress and a tangential
compressive stress due to the material retention property. These compressive stresses
(hoop stresses) result in flange wrinkles (wrinkles of the first order). Wrinkles can
be prevented by using a blank holder, the function of which is to facilitate controlled
material flow into the die radius.
In pure deep drawing there is no reduction of sheet metal thickness, forming is

achieved in stretch forming purely because of a decrease in sheet metal thickness.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

67
The recommended metals for Deep Drawing are: Aluminum, Brass, Bronze, cold
rolled steel, Copper, Iron, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silver, Stainless steel, and others.
Deep Drawing Advantages:

1. Tool construction costs are lower in comparison to similar manufacturing
processes.
2. The technique is ideal for products that require significant strength and
minimal weight.
3. The process is also recommended for product geometries that are
unachievable through other manufacturing techniques.
4. Deep drawing is especially beneficial when producing high volumes since unit
cost decreases considerably as unit count increases.
Deep Drawing Disadvantages:

1. Material thickness has a large effect on processing price.
2. Special sleeves required to assist in driving the parts into the dies.
3. This process is costly for low production rate.
4. Limited shapes
2- Wire drawing:
To begin the wire drawing process, a spool of wire is placed at beginning of the
machine on a spool. To feed it through the machine, the end of wire must be cut or
flattened. It is fed through the machine and through a series of dies to achieve its
final cross-sectional area. The end of the machine usually has a spool or coiler, so
the finished product is a coil of wire at the desired cross-sectional area. The end
process may also be a barrel packer where a barrel is placed, and the coiled wire is
spooled directly into the barrel using a turntable.
It is vitally important the temperature of the machinery does not get too hot
(primarily caused by the energy released while deforming of the metal) and the wire
has a constant tension and speed as it moves through the series of dies.
There are many applications for wire drawing, including electrical wiring, cables,
tension-loaded structural components, springs, paper clips, spokes for wheels, and
stringed musical.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

68
Wire drawing Advantages

1. Close dimensional control
2. Improved mechanical properties such as strength and hardness.
3. Adaptability to economical batch or mass production
Wire and Tube Drawing Disadvantages:
1. That lengths are limited by the length of the mandrel, usually no more than
100 feet (30 m), and that a second operation is required to remove the mandrel,
called reeling. This type of process is usually used on heavy walled or small
(inner diameter) tubes.
3- Tube Drawing:
Tube producers often use tube drawing to change tube IDs, ODs, and wall
thicknesses. Drawing also can improve the surface finish and refine the grain
structure. Tubing is used in applications as varied as aircraft hydraulic lines, diesel
fuel lines, thermocouple sheathing, chromatography, and semiconductor
manufacture.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

69
a- Tube Sinking:
In this process, tube is simply pulled through the die. The outer diameter is
regulated by the die diameter but there is no regulation of inner diameter or
thickness of tube. The surface finish on inner diameter is also not good.
During the drawing operation the thickness of tube generally changes.
b- Tube Drawing with Floating Mandrel:
The process of tube drawing with a floating mandrel. The position of mandrel
with respect to the die gets adjusted by the normal and tangential forces
exerted by tube material on the mandrel. The frictional force tends to pull the
mandrel into the die while the normal force tries to it push out. Since there is
no external control on the position of the mandrel, it may change its position
if the frictional condition changes, thus resulting in change in tube thickness.
c- Tube Drawing with Fixed Mandrel:
The tube is drawn through a die and a mandrel. The position of mandrel may
be adjusted by the bar attached to its rear end to change the thickness of tube
and the internal diameter. The external diameter is determined by the die
diameter. The surface quality of both the surfaces, internal as well as external
gets improved. The pull required is certainly more than that in tube sinking
because of the additional deformation in the thickness of tube and due to
frictional force between the tube and the mandrel.
d- Tube Drawing with Moving Mandrel:
The process is illustrated the cylindrical mandrel and the tube are pulled
together through the die. The process is generally used to reduce the thickness
of tube. Since the area of cross section of tube increases towards the entry side
its speed decreases while the mandrel being rigid moves with the same speed
as the speed of tube at the exit. Therefore, in the deformation zone the mandrel
moves faster than the tube. The frictional force between the tube and the
mandrel pulls the tube inside the die while the frictional stress between the
tube and die acts in the opposite direction.
Tube drawing Advantages:

1. Low equipment and tooling cost
2. Good surface finish and dimensional accuracy
3. High production rate
4. Long lengths of rounds, tubing, square, angles, etc. can be produced.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

70
Drawing Analysis
Area Reduction
where r area reduction in drawing; Ao original area of work, and Af final area
Draft
where d draft; Do original diameter; and Df final work diameter.
True strain:
Average flow stress(Yf):
Stress (ideal deformation)
Draw Stress
where σd draw stress; μ die-work coefficient of friction; α die angle (half-angle)

φ factor that accounts for inhomogeneous deformation:
Average diameter (D)
Contact length (Lc)
Draw Force
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

71
Ex: Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle 15°. Starting diameter is
2.5 mm and final diameter 2.0 mm. The coefficient of friction at the work–die
interface 0.07. The metal has a strength coefficient K=205 MPa and a strain-
hardening exponent n = 0.20. Determine the draw stress and draw force in this
operation.
= (2.5+2)/2=2.25
=(2.5-2)/(2*sin15) = 0.966
The areas before and after drawing:

Ao=4.91mm2 and Af =3.14 mm2.
True strain ε = ln (4.91/3.14) =0.446
Average Flow Stress
Draw stress
Draw force
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

72
Questions
Q1: A spool of copper wire has a starting diameter of 2.5 mm. It is drawn through a
die with an opening that is 2.1 mm. The entrance angle of the die = 18°. Coefficient
of friction at the work die interface is 0.08. The pure copper has a strength coefficient
= 300 MPa and a strain hardening coefficient = 0.50. The operation is performed at
room temperature. Determine (a) area reduction, (b) draw stress, and (c) draw force
required for the operation.
Q2: Aluminum rod stock with a starting diameter = 0.50 in is drawn through a draw
die with an entrance angle = 13. The final diameter of the rod is = 0.375 in. The metal
has a strength coefficient = 25,000 lb/in2 and a strain hardening exponent = 0.20.
Coefficient of friction at the work-die interface = 0.1. Determine (a) area reduction,
(b) draw force for the operation.
Q3: Bar stock of initial diameter = 90 mm is drawn with a draft = 15 mm. The draw
die has an entrance angle = 18, and the coefficient of friction at the work-die interface
= 0.08. The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material with yield stress = 105 MPa.
Determine (a) area reduction, (b) draw stress, (c) draw force required for the operation.
YouTube: https://youtu.be/uCThQTUNdWU
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

73
Principles of Engineering Production Lecture 13: Welding Technology
Lecture 13: Welding Technology

1. Introduction
Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins
different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or
without the use of filler metal.
Weldability may be defined as property of a metal which indicates the ease with
which it can be welded with other similar or dissimilar metals.
2. Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Fig. 17.3. Welding joints are of generally
of two major kinds namely lap joint and butt joint.
2.1. Lap weld joint
1. Single-Lap Joint: This joint, made by overlapping the edges of the plate, is
not recommended for most work. The single lap has very little resistance to
bending.
2. Double-Lap Joint: This is stronger than the single-lap joint but has the
disadvantage that it requires twice as much welding.
2.2. Butt weld joint
1. Single-Vee Butt Weld: It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle
of the vee depends upon the technique being used, the plates being spaced
approximately 3.2 mm.
2. Double-Vee Butt Weld It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the
welding can be performed on both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is
either 60° or 80°, while the bottom angle is 80°, depending on the technique
being used.
Fig. 4.1 lap and butt-welding joints
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

74
3. Welding Positions
There are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
1. Flat or down hand position
2. Horizontal position
3. Vertical position
4. Overhead position
Fig. 4.2 Kinds of welding positions

4. CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES
1. Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding Processes
a. Air-acetylene welding
b. Oxy-acetylene welding
2. Arc Welding Processes
a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
b. Gas Metal Arc Welding
c. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
d. Submerged Arc Welding
e. Plasma Arc Welding
3. Resistance Welding
a. Spot Welding
b. Seam Welding
4. Solid-State Welding Processes
a. Forge Welding
b. Friction Welding
c. Explosive Welding
5. Thermit Welding Processes
6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes
a. Laser Welding
b. Electron Beam Welding
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

75
4.1. Oxy-Acetylene Welding

In this process, acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding
torch and ignited. The flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt
and join the parent metal. The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about
3300°C and thus can melt most of the ferrous and non-ferrous metals in common
use. A filler metal rod or welding rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to
build up the seam slightly for greater strength.
Fig. 4.3 Gas welding operation

4.2. Arc Welding Processes
4.2.1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a commonly used arc welding process
manually carried by welder. It is an arc welding process in which heat for welding
is produced through an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the
workpiece. The flux coating of electrode decomposes due to arc heat and serves
many functions, like weld metal protection, arc stability etc. Inner core of the
electrode supplies the filler material for making a weld. SMAW can be carried out
in any position with highest weld quality and is the simplest of all the arc welding
processes.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

76
Fig. 4.4 Schematic SMAW Process

4.2.2. Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG)
Metal inert gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately called as gas metal arc
welding (GMAW) utilizes a consumable electrode. The typical setup for GMAW or
MIG welding process is shown in Fig. 4.5. The consumable electrode is in the form
of a wire reel which is fed at a constant rate, through the feed rollers. The welding
torch is connected to the gas supply cylinder which provides the necessary inert gas.
The electrode and the workpiece are connected to the welding power supply. The
power supplies are always of the constant voltage type only.
Fig. 4.5 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) set up
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

77
4.2.3. Tungusten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)

In this process a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used with an envelope of inert
shielding gas around it. The shielding gas protects the tungsten electrode and the
molten metal weld pool from the atmospheric contamination. The shielding gases
generally used are argon, helium, or their mixtures. Typical tungsten inert gas
welding setup is shown in Fig. 5.5.
Fig. 5.5 Tungsten inert gas welding setup
4.2.4. Submerged Arc Welding

Schematic submerged arc welding process is shown in Fig. 5.6. In this welding
process, a consumable bare electrode is used in combination with a flux feeder tube.
The arc, end of the bare electrode and molten pool remain completely submerged
under blanket of granular flux. The feed of electrode and tube is automatic, and the
welding is homogenous in structure. No pressure is applied for welding purposes.
This process is used for welding low carbon steel, bronze, nickel, and other non-
ferrous materials.
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

78
Fig. 5.6 Schematic submerged arc welding process

4.3. RESISTANCE WELDING
In resistance welding the metal parts to be joined are heated by their resistance to
the flow of an electrical current. The process applies to practically all metals and
most combinations of pure metals and those alloys, which have only a limited plastic
range, are welded by heating the parts to fusion (melting).
Fig. 5.7 Resistance spot welding machine
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

79
4.4. SOLID STATE WELDING PROCESSES

4.4.1. Friction Welding
In this process, the heat for welding is obtained from mechanically induced sliding
motion between rubbing surfaces of workpieces as shown in Fig. 5.8. In friction
welding, one part is firmly held while the other (usually cylindrical) is rotated under
simultaneous application of axial pressure. As these parts are brought to rub against
each other under pressure, they get heated due to friction. When the desired forging
temperature is attained, the rotation is stopped, and the axial pressure is increased to
obtain forging action and hence welded joint. Most of the metals and their dissimilar
combinations such as aluminum and titanium, copper and steel, aluminum and steel
etc. can be welded using friction welding.
Fig. 5.8 Friction welding process
YouTube: https://youtu.be/IGgIgb6qDR0
Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

80

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University of Basrah

Mechanical Engineering Department

Production Engineering Course

‫المنهاج االسبوعي النظري‬

Week Material Covered

Week 1 Engineering Materials: Classification of engineering materials, Mechanical properties of materials

Week 2 Engineering Materials: Destructive and non-destructive tests

Week 3 Ferrous Metal Production: Production of cast iron

Week 4 Ferrous Metal Production: Steel production

Week 5 Non-Ferrous Metal Production: Copper metal production

Week 6 Non-Ferrous Metal Production: Aluminum metal production

Week 7 Non-Ferrous Metal Production: Zinc, lead, and tin production

Week 8 Plastic Industry: Properties and classification of plastics

Week 9 Plastic Industry: Plastics production

Week 10 Ceramic Industry: Classification of ceramics, Ceramics production

Week 14 Welding technology

Powder Metallurgy: Principles of powder metallurgy, Powder metallurgy production

Week 16 Preparatory week before the final Exam

Lecture 01 Material Properties and Tensile Test

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

1.1.5 Magnetic Properties

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Tensile Test Plate Specimen [ASTM E8/E8M]

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

L—Overall length, min 450

Fig. 1.1 Tensile test specimen

Fig. 1.2 Stress strain curve for ductile material

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Fig. 1.3 Stress strain curve for ductile material

Fig. 1.4 Properties of a ductile material

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Tensile Strain: The ratio of increase in length to the original length.

True Stress T= P/Ai

Strain: is the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.

True Strain T= ln (li / lo) = ln (1 +)

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Lecture 02 Hardness Test and Impact Test

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Fig. 1.5 Brinell hardness test

Vickers Hardness Test

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Fig. 1.6 Vickers hardness test

Rockwell hardness test

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Fig. 1.6 Rockwell hardness test

Table 1 Rockwell hardness test values

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Fig. 1.7 Impact test

1.3 CHOICE OF MATERIALS

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

Lecture 03: Ferrous Metal Production

Fig. 2.1 Classification of engineering materials

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

2.1. Main Types of Iron

2. Wrought iron: Wrought iron is the assumed approximately as purest iron

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur

2.2. Cast Iron Production (Blast furnace)

Dr. Raheem Al-Sabur