Excess Carrier Phenomenon in Semiconductors

6
Excess Carrier Phenomenon

in Semiconductors
6.1. Introduction
The generation of excess carriers in a semiconductor may be accomplished by
either electrical or optical means. For example, electron–hole pairs are created
in a semiconductor when photons with energies exceeding the band gap energy
of the semiconductor are absorbed. Similarly, minority carrier injection can be
achieved by applying a forward bias voltage across a p-n junction diode or a bipo-
lar junction transistor. The inverse process to the generation of excess carriers
in a semiconductor is that of recombination. The annihilation of excess carriers
generated by optical or electrical means in a semiconductor may take place via
different recombination mechanisms. Depending on the ways in which the energy
of an excess carrier is removed during a recombination process, there are three
basic recombination mechanisms that are responsible for carrier annihilation in
a semiconductor. They are (1) nonradiative recombination (i.e., the multiphonon
process), (2) band-to-band radiative recombination, and (3) Auger band-to-band
recombination. The first recombination mechanism, known as the nonradiative
or multiphonon recombination process, is usually the predominant recombination
process for indirect band gap semiconductors such as silicon and germanium.
In this process, recombination is accomplished via a deep-level recombination
center in the forbidden gap, and the energy of the excess carriers is released via
phonon emission. The second recombination mechanism, band-to-band radiative
recombination, is usually the predominant process occurring in direct band gap
semiconductors such as GaAs and InP. In this case, the band-to-band recombi-
nation of electron-hole pairs is accompanied by the emission of a photon. Auger
band-to-band recombination is usually the predominant recombination process oc-
curring in degenerate semiconductors and small-band-gap semiconductors such as
InSb and HgCdTe materials. The Auger recombination process can also become
the predominant recombination mechanism under high-injection conditions. Un-
like the nonradiative and radiative recombination processes, which are two-particle
processes, Auger band-to-band recombination is a three-particle process, which
involves two electrons and one hole for n-type semiconductors, or one electron
and two holes for p-type semiconductors. For an n-type semiconductor, Auger
134
6.2. Nonradiative Recombination: The Shockley–Read–Hall Model 135
recombination is accomplished first via electron–electron collisions in the con-

duction band, and followed by electron–hole recombination in the valence band.
On the basis of the principle of detailed balance, the rate of recombination is equal
to the rate of generation of excess carriers under thermal equilibrium conditions,
and hence a charge-neutrality condition prevails throughout the semiconductor
specimen.
Equations governing the recombination lifetimes for the three basic recombina-
tion mechanisms described above are derived in Sections 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4, respec-
tively. The continuity equations for the excess carrier transport in a semiconductor
are presented in Section 6.5, and the charge-neutrality equation is discussed in
Section 6.6. The Haynes–Shockley experiment and the drift mobility for minority
carriers are presented in Secton 6.7. Section 6.8 presents methods of determining
the minority carrier lifetimes in a semiconductor. The surface states and surface re-
combination mechanisms in a semiconductor are discussed in Section 6.9. Finally,
the deep-level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) technique for characterizing deep-
level defects in a semiconductor is described in Section 6.10.
6.2. Nonradiative Recombination:

The Shockley–Read–Hall Model
In the nonradiative recombination process, the recombination of electron-hole pairs
may take place at the localized trap states in the forbidden gap of a semiconductor.
This process involves the capture of electrons (or holes) by the trap states, followed
by the recombination with holes in the valence band (or electrons in the conduc-
tion band). When electron–hole pairs recombine, energy is released via phonon
emission. The localized trap states may be created by deep-level impurities (e.g.,
transition metals or normal metals such as Fe, Ni, Co, W, Au), or by radiation-
and process-induced defects such as vacancies, interstitials, antisite defects and
their complexes, dislocations, and grain boundaries. The nonradiative recombina-
tion process in a semiconductor can be best described by the Shockley–Read–Hall
(SRH) model,1,2 which is discussed next.
Figure 6.1 illustrates the energy band diagram for the SRH model. In this figure,
the four transition processes for the capture and emission of electrons and holes via
a localized recombination center are shown. A localized deep-level trap state may
be in one of the two charge states differing by one electronic charge. Therefore,
the trap could be in either a neutral or a negatively charged state or in a neutral or a
positively charged state. If the trap state is neutral, then it can capture an electron
from the conduction band. This capture is illustrated in Figure 6.1a. In this case,
the capture of electrons by an empty neutral trap state is accomplished through the
simultaneous emission of phonons during the capture process. Figure 6.1b shows
the emission of an electron from a filled trap state. In this illustration, the electron
gains its kinetic energy from the thermal energy of the host lattice. Figure 6.1c
shows the capture of a hole from the valence band by a filled trap state, and Figure
6.1d shows the emission of a hole from the empty trap state to the valence band.

Excess Carrier Phenomenon in Semiconductors

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Excess Carrier Phenomenon in Semiconductors

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Excess Carrier Phenomenon in Semiconductors

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

6

Excess Carrier Phenomenon

recombination is accomplished first via electron–electron collisions in the con-

6.2. Nonradiative Recombination:

You might also like