WABER 2021 Conference Proceedings

Proceedings of the West Africa Built
Environment Research (WABER)

Conference 2021
Book
Published Version
Conference Proceedings
Laryea, S. and Essah, E. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-

1349-5167, eds. (2021) Proceedings of the West Africa Built
Environment Research (WABER) Conference 2021. West
Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference,
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE
WABER 2021CONFERENCE
WEST AFRICA BUILT ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH CONFERENCE
9-11 AUGUST W W W . W A B E R C O N F E R E N C E . C O M
Labadi Beach Hotel
Accra, Ghana KNOWLEDGE, INTERACTION, PEOPLE & LEADERSHIP
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2 EDITORS: S. LARYEA AND E. ESSAH

WEST AFRICA BUILT ENVIRONMENT RESEARCH (WABER) CONFERENCE
Knowledge, Interaction, People & Leadership
PROCEEDINGS OF THE
WABER 2021 CONFERENCE
9th-11th August 2021
Accra, Ghana
EDITORS
Sam Laryea
Wits University, South Africa
Emmanuel Adu Essah

University of Reading, United Kingdom
Proceedings of the West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference 2021
9th – 11th August 2021

Labadi Beach Hotel, Accra, Ghana
© Copyright. WABER Conference.

The copyright for papers in this publication belongs to authors of the papers. Refer to copyright
statement in publication for more details
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
The ISBN for this publication was provided by the National Library of South Africa. Legal deposits of
the publication have been supplied to the National Library of South Africa, Library of Parliament,
and other places of Legal Deposit.
First published in August 2021
Published by:
West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference
C/o Prof Sam Laryea
School of Construction Economics and Management
University of the Witwatersrand
1 Jan Smuts Avenue, Johannesburg, South Africa
Tel: +233 545 204 300 / +27 78 172 6106
Email: info@waberconference.com / samuel.laryea@wits.ac.za
Website: www.waberconference.com
Editors
Sam Laryea, Wits University, South Africa
Emmanuel Adu Essah, University of Reading, United Kingdom
Cover design by MPDPS Pty Ltd
Declaration
All papers in this publication have been through a review process involving initial screening of
abstracts, review of full papers by at least two referees, reporting of comments to authors, revision
of papers by authors and re-evaluation of re-submitted papers to ensure quality of content.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents iii
Foreword v
Copyright Statement vii
Peer Review and Scientific Publishing Statement ix
Peer Review Panel xi
Prizes to be awarded at the WABER Conference 2021 xiii
Programme and Profile of Speakers for WABER 2021 Conference xv
List of Papers in WABER 2021 Conference Proceedings xvii
Conference Papers 21
Index of Authors 1077
Index of Keywords 1081
NEA ONNIM NO SUA A, OHU

"He who does not know can know from learning"
This is the Adinkra symbol of knowledge, life-long education and continued quest for
knowledge. The Akan people in West Africa believe that the search for knowledge is a life-long
process. This is evident from the Akan saying "Nea onnim sua a, ohu; nea odwen se onim dodo
no, se ogyae sua a, ketewa no koraa a onim no firi ne nsa" which translates into "He who does
not know can become knowledgeable from learning; he who thinks he knows and ceases to
continue to learn will stagnate".
iii
FOREWORD
I would like to welcome each participant to the WABER 2021 Conference. Since its inception in 2009,
the WABER Conference series has done a great deal to nurture and support researchers, initially in
West Africa, also, in other parts of Africa and elsewhere. I would like to thank all delegates for your
participation which enables us to keep this Conference going.
The WABER Conference enjoys a positive international reputation and has continued to grow from
strength to strength over the past 13 years. For this, I would like to thank our team, keynote
speakers and participants over the years for every contribution you have made to the success of this
Conference. This year's Conference has an excellent programme, line up of speakers and authors.
I would like to thank and commend the authors of all 72 papers in this Conference proceedings. If
the research paper writing process was compared to a marathon, the authors of the 72 papers in
this publication would be adjudged as the ones who have endured and finished the race.
We opened the call for papers for this Conference in December 2020 and over 100 abstracts were
submitted by authors. However, it is one thing to propose to write a paper, and it is quite another
thing to actually write the paper. Therefore, I would like to thank and congratulate all authors who
succeeded in completing the process of getting published in this conference proceedings.
It is befitting that we have an excellent range of interesting topics in the 72 papers to be discussed
at this conference.
We are honoured to welcome Professor Charles Egbu, Vice Chancellor of Leeds Trinity University,
to give us a special opening address.
In the three days of this conference, we will have various plenary presentations by
experienced international academics and I would like to thank and welcome each of them below.
Professor Albert Chan
Richard Lorch
Professor Taibat Lawanson
Professor Dato’ Sri Ar Dr Asiah Abdul Rahim
Professor George Ofori
In addition to these speakers, we have other interesting sessions on the programme including a
special session for doctoral students and supervisors several other experienced speakers addressing
various topics that should be of interest to many of us.
I would like to thank all members of the organising team particularly Associate Professor
Emmanuel Essah, Dr Yakubu Aminu Dodo and Dr Sam Moveh for their efforts which has helped
to organise this Conference successfully. I would also like to thank all of our reviewers
particularly Associate Professor Emmanuel Essah and Dr Haruna Moda for the considerable time
and effort spent reviewing and checking all papers to ensure a high standard of quality.
The WABER Conference Team always plays an excellent role in the success of our events and I
would like to thank and appreciate the contributions of Florence, Sam Boakye, Victor Ayitey and
his team, Kwesi Kwofie and Issah Abdul Rahman to the success of this Conference.
I hope you enjoy our first hybrid conference and engage with our exciting speakers on the diverse
topics that will be covered over the three days of this Conference.
Sam Laryea
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
Chairman of WABER Conference
August 2021
v
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
The copyright for papers published in the WABER Conference Proceedings belongs to authors of
the papers.
Authors may reproduce and distribute papers published in the WABER Conference Proceedings for
personal and educational purposes without written permission but with a citation to this source.
No unauthorised reproduction or distribution, in whole or in part, of work published in the WABER
Conference Proceedings by persons other than authors is allowed without the written permission
of authors or organisers of the WABER Conference, whichever is applicable.
All authors of papers published in the WABER Conference Proceedings retain the right to re-publish
their work in any format without the need for further permission from organisers of the WABER
Conference. This includes making copies the final published pdf version of papers available on
personal websites and institutional repositories and bibliographic databases. However, we ask
authors to acknowledge that the original paper was first published by WABER Conference as part
of the Conference Proceedings.
We have taken reasonable steps to comply with copyright obligations in the production of this
Conference Proceedings. However, we make no warranties or representations that material
contained in the papers written by authors does not infringe the intellectual property rights of any
person anywhere in the world.
We do not authorise infringement of copyrights / intellectual property rights by authors. If you
believe that any material in any paper published in this Conference Proceedings has been
inappropriately used, please contact us by email: info@waberconference.com
Our authors are responsible for ensuring good academic practice when conducting and reporting
scientific research. It is the responsibility of authors to abide by the norms of academic ethics and
integrity. WABER Conference accepts no liability for copyright infringements or inappropriate use
of material in any paper published.
Correspondence relating to copyrights / intellectual property rights or requests for permission to
use material from the WABER Conference Proceedings should be made to the Chairman of WABER
Conference by email: info@waberconference.com
vii
PEER REVIEW AND SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING STATEMENT
9th August 2021
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
The scientific information published in peer-reviewed outlets carries special status, and confers
unique responsibilities on editors and authors. We must protect the integrity of the scientific
process by publishing only manuscripts that have been properly peer-reviewed by scientific
reviewers and confirmed by editors to be of sufficient quality.
I confirm that all papers in the WABER 2021 Conference Proceedings have been through a peer
review process involving initial screening of abstracts, review of full papers by at least two referees,
reporting of comments to authors, revision of papers by authors, and re-evaluation of re-submitted
papers to ensure quality of content.
It is the policy of the West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference that all papers
must go through a systematic peer review process involving examination by at least two referees
who are knowledgeable on the subject. A paper is only accepted for publication in the conference
proceedings based on the recommendation of the reviewers and decision of the editors.
The names and affiliation of members of the Scientific Committee & Review Panel for WABER 2021
Conference are published in the Conference Proceedings and on our website
www.waberconference.com
Papers in the WABER Conference Proceedings are published open access on the conference website
www.waberconference.com to facilitate public access to the research papers and wider
dissemination of the scientific knowledge.
Yours Sincerely,
Sam Laryea, PhD

Chairman of WABER Conference
ix
PEER REVIEW PANEL
WABER Conference is very grateful to each the following persons for your contribution to the peer
review process. Thank you so much.
A/Prof Samuel Laryea, Wits University, South Africa

A/Prof Emmanuel A. Essah, University of Reading, UK
A/Prof Carmel Margaret Lindkvist , Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
A/Prof Ian Ewart, University of Reading, UK
A/Prof Joy Maina, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria
A/Prof Obinna Ozumba, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
Dr Adwoa Serwaa Ofori, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
Dr Afolabi Dania, University of Westminster, UK
Dr Amna Shibeika, United Arab Emirates University
Dr Amos Darko, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
Dr Bruno Lot Tanko, University of Reading Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr Chiahemba J. Nor, Department of Parks and Recreational, Nigeria
Dr. Ing. Collins Ameyaw, Kumasi Technical University, Ghana
Dr Cynthia Adeokun, O. N. A. Architects Ltd, UK
Dr Dave Collins, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
Dr Erekpitan Ola-Adisa, University of Jos, Nigeria
Dr Faizah Bashir, University of Hail, Saudi Arabia
Dr Folake Ekundayo, Architect at Berkshire Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, UK
Dr Gabriel Nani, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana
Dr Hafizah Latif, Universiti Teknologi MARA (Perak), Malaysia
Dr Haruna Moda, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK
Dr Humphrey Danso, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills Training & Entrepreneurial
Development, Ghana
Dr Immanuel Darkwa, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
Dr Kwadwo Oti-Sarpong, University of Cambridge, UK
Dr Eng L. Ofetotse, Kingston University, UK
Dr Lawrence Mbugua, University of Reading, UK
Dr Mehdi Shahrestani, University of Reading, UK
Dr Naa Adjeley Ashiboe-Mensah Doamekpor, University of Professional Studies, Accra
Dr Nimlyat S. Pontip, University of Jos, Nigeria
Dr Ogunbode Ezekiel Babatunde, Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria
Dr Philippa Boyd, University of Reading, UK
Dr Prince Senyo, University of Southampton, UK
Dr Ron Watermeyer, Infrastructure Options (Pty),Ltd, South Africa
Dr Ronan Champion, University of Reading, UK
Dr Sarfo Mensah, Kumasi Technical University, Ghana
Dr Selorm Adukpo, Oxford Brookes University, UK
Dr Seyi Odeyale, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Dr Sherif Razak, University of Salford, UK
Dr Sitsabo Dlamini, Wits University, South Africa
Dr Wallace Imoudu Enegbuma, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Dr. Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Istanbul Gelisim University, Turkey
xi
PRIZES TO BE AWARDED AT THE WABER 2021 CONFERENCE
 Best Research Paper

This prize is awarded to recognize the author(s) of an original piece of research which contributes
a better understanding of the research question/problem investigated and demonstrates a high
degree of scientific quality and innovative thought. This prize was created to acknowledge the
continuing importance of high quality research to academic institutions, a researcher’s reputation
and the development of the built environment field.
 Best Oral Presentation

This prize is awarded to recognise the presentation which is the most coherent, clearly enunciated,
well-paced, easy to understand, and effective. The award is given on the basis of quality of the
presentation and not the written paper. It recognizes the best presentation based on
communication of the content of a paper and the ability of the speaker to deliver an impactful,
authoritative and engaging presentation. The award looks to encourage researchers to put as much
effort as possible into the presentation of their work.
 Gibrine Adam Promising Young Scholar Award

This prize is awarded to recognize and encourage exceptional young researchers. The recipient
should be a young academic who demonstrates promise, such that he/she is likely to become
established as a research leader. The prize is provided by Mr Gibrine Adam – President of Zenith
University College and CEO of EPP Books Services – who has made significant contributions to the
education sector through his educational establishments and philanthropic work. Awarding this
prize each year will serve as an important inspiration for young African built environment
academics.
xiii
9-11 AUGUST 2021
Labadi Beach Hotel
Accra, Ghana and Online
TIME
08:45am to 16:00pm GMT/UTC
Please note your local time zone
may be different
Click on icon to attend online

Meeting ID: 894 6050 4735
Passcode: 661844
PROGRAMME
W W W . W A B E R C O N F E R E N C E . C O M
KNOWLEDGE, INTERACTION, PEOPLE & LEADERSHIP
SPECIAL OPENING ADDRESS ON THE THEME OF

ACADEMIC ASPIRATION AND EXCELLENCE
By Professor Charles Egbu, Vice Chancellor Leeds Trinity University, UK
Keynote presentations by experienced international academics
Professor Charles Egbu Professor Albert Chan Professor Taibat Lawanson Professor Asiah Abdul Rahim Professor George Ofori Richard Lorch
Vice Chancellor Department of Building Department of Urban and Department of Architecture, Dean of School of the Built Editor-in-chief
Leeds Trinity University, UK and Real Estate Regional Planning International Islamic Environment and Architecture of Buildings and Cities,
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, University of Lagos, Nigeria University Malaysia London South Bank University, former editor-in-chief of Building
Hong Kong UK Research and Information
DAY 1 MONDAY 9th
AUGUST 2021 WABER 2021 CONFERENCE
08:45-09:00 WELCOME REMARKS AND INTRODUCTION OF GUEST OF HONOUR BY
PROFESSOR SAM LARYEA - CHAIRMAN OF WABER CONFERENCE
09:00-10:00 OPENING ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR CHARLES EGBU, VICE CHANCELLOR, LEEDS TRINITY UNIVERSITY, UK
Theme: Academic aspiration and excellence
10:00-10:30 BREAK
10:30-11:15 KEYNOTE ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR ALBERT CHAN, HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY, HONG KONG
Topic: Current trends and future directions of built environment research
11:15-11:30 BREAK
11:30-12:40 PAPER PRESENTATIONS
PARALLEL SESSION 1 PARALLEL SESSION 2 PARALLEL SESSION 3
11:30-11:35 Session Chair remarks Session Chair remarks Session Chair remarks
Dr Humphrey Danso, Prof Kulomri Adogbo, Dr Cynthia Adeokun, O.N.A Architects
AAMUSTED, Ghana Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria London
11:35-11:45 Stress-coping strategies among Impact of risk factors on construction Automated recognition of construction
construction personnel: an integrative projects’ quality in Nigeria - Ziyadul workers’ physical fatigue based on foot
review - Janet Mayowa Nwaogu and Hassan Ishaq, Mu’awiya Abubakar, plantar patterns captured from a
Albert P. C. Chan Shehu Muhammad, Yarima Sallau Lawal wearable insole pressure system -
and Ibrahim Isah Maxwell Fordjour Antwi-Afari, Heng Li,
David John Webb, Shahnawaz Anwer,
JoonOh Seo, Kenneth Sungho Park and
Alex Torku
11:45-11:55 The relationship between self-efficacy Awareness and perceptions of Socio-psychological motivational needs
beliefs and career choices of construction professionals on of unskilled women working in Nigeria’s
undergraduate built environment environmental risks in construction construction industry - Seun Micheal
students - Mariam Akinlolu and project delivery in Lagos and Ondo Oloruntoba and Ayokunle Olubunmi
Theo C. Haupt States, Nigeria - Deborah Abosede Olanipekun
Ogungbemi and Ayokunle Olubunmi
Olanipekun
11:55-12:05 Q&A
12:05-12:15 Factors affecting the delivery of building Review of risk management studies: Covid-19 pandemic and co-working
construction projects funded by towards a frame of reference for large environment: analysis of shared office
district assemblies common fund (dacf): projects - Rilwan Shuaib Abdulrahman, space in Federal Capital Territory (FCT),
the case of selected regions in Ahmed Doko Ibrahim, Baba Adama Kolo Abuja, Nigeria - Tosin B. Fateye,
Ghana - Aborah-Osei Castro and and Hassan Adaviriku Ahmadu Abiodun K. Sodiya, Victoria O. Odunfa,
Humphrey Danso Ayodele A. Ibuoye and Adewale R.
Adedokun
12:15-12:25 Assessment of residents’ perception of Urban morphology and crime patterns The potential role of green infrastructure
infrastructure delivery in Nigeria: in urban areas: a review of the literature on mental health and well-being: the
the tale of Osogbo - Olatunji Solomon - Idris Isah Iliyasu, Aldrin Abdullah and covid-19 pandemic experience - Adedo-
Ayodeji and Olowoporoku Massoomeh Hedayati Marzbali tun Ayodele Dipeolu and Akintunde
Oluwaseun Ayodele Olaniyi Onamade
12:25-12:35 Q&A
Dr Humphrey Danso, Prof Kulomri Adogbo, Dr Cynthia Adeokun,
AAMUSTED, Ghana Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria O.N.A Architects London
12:40-13:30 BREAK

Meeting ID: 894 6050 4735
Passcode: 661844
MONDAY 9th
AUGUST 2021 DAY 1
AAMUSTED, Ghana Amadu Bello University, Nigeria O.N.A Architects London
13:35-13:45 Assessing the causes of material Performance–based EPC contracting: BIM utilization in facilities management
wastage as it affects various building a preliminary study of the challenges practice: a status study in South Africa -
materials on Nigerian construction sites of engineering procurement and Faith Dowelani and Aghaegbuna O. U.
- A. A. Salihu, S. Gambo, M. M. construction projects in Nigeria Ozumba
Sa’ad, F. M. Oyeleke and J. Usman Aluko-Olokun Bukola Adenike, Baba
Adama Kolo,Mustapha Abdulrazaq
and Peter C. Gangas
13:45-13:55 Determination of factors that influence Enablers of mutual satisfaction in The benefits of building information
labour output on construction transnational public infrastructure modeling in architectural education in
sites in Ghana - Joseph Henry Acquah, development: the case of Sino- Ghana - Nigeria - Elimisiemon Monday Chris,
Humphrey Danso and Emmanuel Bridget Tawiah Badu Eshun, Poopola J. O. and Salisu A. S.
Bamfo-Agyei Albert P.C. Chan and Frank D.K. Fugar
13:55-14:05 Q&A
14:05-14:15 Examination of energy consumption Towards a research agenda for smart BIM education ontology: towards a
reduction measures for residential contract adoption in less technologically research agenda for non-industrialized
buildings in tropical climate (A Case enabled construction environments: a economies - Abdulazeez Abdulmumin,
Study of Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria) - systematic literature review - Ekweani B. A. Kolo, Y. G. Musa-Haddary
Nkeleme Emmanuel Ifeanyichukwu, Chioma Precious, Kolo Baba Adama, and P. G.Chindo
Sani Abdulrahman Tolani, Winston Adogbo Kulomri Jaule and Mohammed
Shakantu and Mbamali Ikemefuna Abdullahi
14:15-14:25 An investigation into the use of building Key factors for electronic procurement Advancements in computer-aided
information modelling and its impact systems in the promotion of sustainable design and the challenges for
on construction performance within procurement in construction projects - architectural education in Nigeria –
Ghanaian constructionindustry - Sitsofe Kwame Yevu, Ann Tit Wan Yu, feedback from the students’ industrial
Frederick Kwasi Wirekoh Amos Darko and Mershack Opoku Tetteh work experience scheme - Sunday A.
and Humphrey Danso Bobadoye, Dorcas A. Ayeni, Saidat D.
Olanrewaju andAjenifujah-Aminat O.
Ajenifujah-Abubakar
14:25-14:35 Q&A
AAMUSTED, Ghana Amadu Bello University, Nigeria O.N.A Architects London
14:40-15:00 BREAK
15:00-15:45 KEYNOTE ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR GEORGE OFORI, LONDON SOUTH BANK UNIVERSITY, UK
Topic: Construction in developing countries: need for new concepts and theorising of contextual specificities to the global
corpus of knowledge
15:45-16:00 WRAP UP AND CLOSE - SAM LARYEA, WITS UNIVERSITY, SOUTH AFRICA

Meeting ID: 894 6050 4735
Passcode: 661844
DAY 2 TUESDAY 10th
AUGUST 2021 WABER 2021 CONFERENCE
08:45-09:00 CHECK-IN AND OVERVIEW OF WHAT WE WILL COVER FOR THE DAY
EMMANUEL ESSAH, UNIVERSITY OF READING, UK
09:00-10:00 SESSION FOR DOCTORAL STUDENTS AND SUPERVISORS - BY PROFESSOR ALBERT CHAN AND PROFESSOR GEORGE OFORI
Topic: Experiential tips for doing and supervising doctoral research successfully
10:00-10:15 BREAK
10:15-11:15 EDITOR’S FORUM
PRESENTATION BY RICHARD LORCH (EDITOR-IN-CHIEF OF BUILDINGS AND CITIES and FORMER EDITOR-IN-CHIEF OF
BUILDING RESEARCH AND INFORMATION) FOLLOWED BY 15 MINS Q&A
Topic: Elements of a good research article and what the editors and reviewers of top journals look for in modern scientific
research articles
11:15-11:30 BREAK
Dr Haruna Moda, Prof Kola Akinsomi, Wits University, Dr Amina Batagarawa,
Manchester Metropolitan University, UK South Africa Baze University, Nigeria
11:35-11:45 Application of Information and Challenges to sustainable affordable Analytical nexus of urban liveability,
Communication Technology on the housing using frugal innovation liveable communities and place-making
implementation of health and safety David Mbabil Dok-Yen, Duah Daniel in African cities - Samuel Medayese,
measures by construction firms in Yaw Addai and Michael Nii Addy Hangwelani Magidimisha-Chipungu,
Abuja, Nigeria - Abdullateef Adewale Ayobami Popoola and Lovemore
Shittu, Anita Dzikwi Adamu, Abel John Chipungu
Tsado, Lois Adedamola Arowolo and
Shakirat Remilekun Abdulazeez
11:45-11:55 Assessment of the challenges and Development of social housing agenda Users’ assessment of the relationship
solutions to implementation of safety to solve housing deficit in sub-Sahara between housing quality and the con-
measures by small and medium sized Africa: a case for Ogun State, Nigeria - ditions of residential outdoor spaces in
construction firms in Abuja, Nigeria - Babatunde Adekoyejo Jolaoso and Ilesa, Nigeria - Yussuf Shakirat Oladayo,
Jibril Adamu Muhammad, Abdullateef Olusegun Olaopin Olanrele Jiboye Adesoji David, Agbabiaka Hafeez
Adewale Shittu, Yakubu Danasabe Idowu, Adeyemi Toyin Ebenezer and Oke
Mohammed, John Ebhohimen Idiake Oluyemi Ebenezer
and Zannah Alhaji Ali
11:55-12:05 Q&A
12:05-12:15 An Investigation into the safety Housing affordability in Osogbo Osun Awareness and acceptance of smart
performance of public buildings in State Nigeria - Akinremi Adenike R., security system among occupants of
relation to compliance of fire safety Adedayo Adeyanju G., Saheed Jelili, selected public buildings in central
regulations: a case study of Ashanti and Yussuf Shakirat O. and Ojo Omotayo business district (FCT-Abuja) Nigeria
Greater Accra Regions of Ghana - ‘Mubo - Fatima Baba Ciroma, Musa Lawal
Samuel Asumadu Roberts and Sagada and Joy Joshua Maina
Humphrey Danso
12:15-12:25 Evaluation of health and safety Factors influencing perceived value of Awareness of green infrastructure and
compliance of construction projects residential properties in Free State its socio-demographic predictors among
in south east Nigeria - Chidinma Province, South Africa - Kahilu Kaji- residents of Lagos metropolis, Nigeria -
Amarachukwu Emma-Ochu, Kevin C. mo-Shakantu, Barend Groenewald and Adedotun Ayodele Dipeolu, Eziyi Offia
Okolie and Ikem Mbamali Timothy O. Ayodele Ibem, Joseph Akinlabi Fadamiro, Gabriel
Fadairo, Joseph Adeniran Adedeji and
Akintunde Olaniyi Onamade
12:25-12:35 Q&A
Dr Haruna Moda, Prof Kola Akinsomi, Wits University, Dr Amina Batagarawa,
Manchester Metropolitan University, UK South Africa Baze University, Nigeria
12:40-13:30 BREAK
WABER 2021 CONFERENCE 2
TUESDAY 10th
AUGUST 2021 DAY

Dr Samuel Moveh, Prof Kola Akinsomi, Wits University, Dr Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Istanbul Gelisim
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia South Africa University, Turkey
13:35-13:45 A study on interpersonal skills of Micro-climatic benefits of Green Spatial accessibility to urban
Nigerian built environment professionals infrastructure (trees) in a Housing infrastructure services among hotels in
for the successful delivery of mass Estate in Abuja, Nigeria - Tobi Eniolu the small city of Wa, Ghana
housing programmes - Mansir Dodo, Morakinyo, Olumuyiwa Bayode Adegun, Elvis Attakora-Amaniampong, Appau
Muhammad M. Gambo, Kabir Bala and Morisade O Adegbie and Olawale Williams Miller and Emmanuel K.
Badamasi Abdulmalik Oreoluwa Olusoga Derbile
13:45-13:55 Adoption of technology in human Investigating the effect of covid-19 Modeling of future land use/land cover
resource management - a new normal - driven inflation on commercial property change dynamics in Lagos, Nigeria using
Kuforiji, A. Aramide hedging capacity in Lagos, Nigeria cellular automata and Markov chain
- Muktar Babatunde Wahab, Wasiu (Ca-Markov) - Auwalu Faisal Koko,
Ayobami Durosinmi, Matthew Wu Yue, Muhammed Bello and Ghali
Mamman, Yetunde Christianah Charles- Abdullahi Abubakar
Afolabi and Dodo Usman Zakari
13:55-14:05 Q&A
14:05-14:15 Assessing the level of awareness on the Students’ perceptions about training Assessment of factors responsible for
concept of Design for Safety (DfS) on property valuation techniques in outsourcing of facilities management
amongst design professionals in the selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria services in public hospitals within
construction industry in Nigeria - - Augustina Chiwuzie, Daniel Ibrahim Kaduna metropolis - Aliyu Suleiman
Mu’awiya Abubakar, Bello Mahmud Dabara, Edith Mbagwu Prince, Sayo Shika, Mohammed Mustapha Saad and
Zailani and Abdulgafar Adamu Tolani Olawuyi and Sayo Tolani Olawuyi Abdullahi Getso Ibrahim
14:15-14:25 An exploration of spatial layout and Predictors of academic attainment in An innovative approach for the evalua-
communication patterns in tertiary a Nigerian polytechnic: perceptions of tion of expansion option in buildings -
hospital design: an innovative approach estate management students Yarima Sallau Lawal, Aliyu Makarfi Ibra-
to sustainable hospital design - - Augustina Chiwuzie him, Mu’awiya Abubakar and Ziyadul
Ejeh David Ekoja, Sagada Musa Lawal, Hassan Ishaq
Oluigbo Stephen Nwabunwanne,
Maina Joy Joshua and Sufiyan
Mu’awiyyah Babale
14:25-14:35 Q&A
Dr Samuel Moveh, Prof Kola Akinsomi, Wits University, Dr Yakubu Aminu Dodo, Istanbul Gelisim
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Malaysia South Africa University, Turkey
14:40-15:00 BREAK
15:00-15:45 KEYNOTE ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TAIBAT LAWANSON, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, NIGERIA
Topic: Rethinking current approaches to urban development in Africa
15:45-16:00 WRAP UP AND CLOSE - EMMANUEL ESSAH, UNIVERSITY OF READING, UK

Meeting ID: 894 6050 4735
Passcode: 661844
DAY 3 WEDNESDAY
11th AUGUST WABER 2021 CONFERENCE
2021
08:45-09:00 CHECK-IN AND OVERVIEW OF WHAT WE WILL COVER FOR THE DAY
PROFESSOR SAM LARYEA, WITS UNIVERSITY, SOUTH AFRICA
09:00-10:00 KEYNOTE ADDRESS BY PROF ASIAH ABDUL RAHIM, INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY, MALAYSIA
Topic: Current trends and future directions in the inclusive, sustainable and tropical design of built facilities
10:00-10:30 BREAK
10:30-11:15 KEYNOTE ADDRESS BY PROF ALBERT CHAN, HONG KONG POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY, HONG KONG
Topic: Insights for developing individual and institutional research areas and strategies in construction and real estate
11:15-11:30 BREAK
Dr Maxwell Fordjour Antwi-Afari, Dr Humphrey Danso, Dr Sarfo Mensah,
Aston University, UK AAMUSTED, Ghana Kumasi Technical University, Ghana
11:35-11:45 Conceptual framework for whole-life Water absorption quality of clay bricks Comparative analysis of soundness and
cost data transformation and model made by emerging manufacturers in setting time of Portland cement of three
selection - Ibrahim, A., M. , Bala, K. , SouthAfrica companies in Nigeria - Angulu Haruna,
Ibrahim, A. D. , Zubairu, I. K. Bonga PraiseGod Khuzwayo Abba Musa, Samaila Hamza, Galadima
Muhammad and Odesanmi, Atinuke
11:45-11:55 The impact of project contributory Effects of sand on the properties of Effect of cereal flours on the properties
factors on the cost performance of cement-laterite interlocking blocks - of concrete - Alfa Nasirudeen Musa and
building projects - V. H. Jiya, A. D. Sampson Assiamah and Adeleke Babatunde Kazeem
Ibrahim, D. Kado and K. Bala Humphrey Danso
11:55-12:05 Q&A
12:05-12:15 Developing a framework for public Effect of petroleum contamination on Effect of palm kernel shell as coarse
private partnership project governance some selected properties of compressed aggregate on the properties of concrete
in Nigeria - Atoyebi Kayode Emmanuel stabilized earth brick (CSEB) A.G. Ibrahim, A. Yahya,
and Ojo Stephen Okunlola K. A. N. Sackey, M. M. Garba, M.M. Gambo, S. Gambo and J. Usman
O. G. Okoli and D. D. Dahiru
12:15-12:25 Contractors’ selection and its effects on Suction of clayey soil treated with Effects of maximum aggregate sizes
water infrastructure delivery quarry dust base geopolymer cement on flexural strength of recycle iron and
Mkasi P., Ogbeifun E. and for sustainable pavement subgrade steel slag (RIIS) concrete - Oluwaleke
Pretorius J. H. C. construction - Ezenwa Chinenye Adekunle Olowu, Akeem Ayinde
Amanamba and Kennedy Chibuzor Raheem, Abiodun Yesiru Akinsanya and
Onyelowe Victor Ikechukwu Opara
12:25-12:35 Q&A
Dr Maxwell Fordjour Antwi-Afari, Dr Humphrey Danso, Dr Sarfo Mensah,
Aston University, UK AAMUSTED, Ghana Kumasi Technical University, Ghana
12:40-13:30 BREAK

Meeting ID: 894 6050 4735
Passcode: 661844
WEDNESDAY
11th AUGUST DAY 3
2021
13:30-13:35 Dr Afolabi Dania, A/Prof Emmanuel Essah, Session Chair remarks
University of Westminster, UK University of Reading, UK Dr Sarfo Mensah,
Kumasi Technical University, Ghana
13:35-13:45 Responsible material sourcing: Modelling optimal unconfined Investigating the effect of curing
Assessment of factors influencing compressive strength of geotextile methods on the strength properties of
construction material sustainability - reinforced soil for flexible foundation concrete
Nana Benyi Ansah , Emmanuel construction - Daniel E. Aju and - Francis Kwesi Nsakwa Gabriel-Wettey
Adinyira , Kofi Agyekum and Isaac Aidoo Kennedy C. Onyelowe and Humphrey Danso
13:45-13:55 Social procurement and sustainability ANFIS model of the UCS of modified soil Assessment of seasonal flood
in the Nigerian construction for construction purposes - Udeala, R. impact and management strategies
industry - Francis O. Okeke and C., Onyelowe, K. C., Uranta, J. D. C., in Okitipupa, Ondo State, Nigeria -
Rosemary C. Nnaemeka-Okeke Keke, E. O. and Alaneme, G. U. Olorunlana, Folasade Aderonke
13:55-14:05 Q&A
14:05-14:15 The relationship of attitude and Households’ exposure to indoor air pol- Session Chair remarks
perceived behavioral control on lution from fossil fuel electric generator Dr Sarfo Mensah,
behavioral intention to practice use in Minna Nigeria - C. B. Ohadugha, Kumasi Technical University, Ghana
surveying - Ayodele Oduwole Y. A. Sanusi, A. O. Sulyman, B. N. Santali,
M. Mohammed and S. O. Medayese
14:15-14:25 The role of safety attitude in changing Diurnal temperature changes and Join Session 1 or Sesison 2
safety behaviour and hazard physiological experience: case study
recognition capability of construction analysis of indoor condition in a school
workers - Bello Mahmud Zailani, environment in Nigeria - Eludoyin
Mu’awiya Abubakar and, Yahaya Oyenike Mary
Makarfi Ibrahim
14:25-14:35 Q&A
14:35-14:40 Dr Afolabi Dania, A/Prof Emmanuel Essah,
University of Westminster, UK University of Reading, UK
14:40-15:00 BREAK
15:00-15:45 KEYNOTE ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR GEORGE OFORI, LONDON SOUTH BANK UNIVERSITY, UK
Topic: What African built environment academics and departments need to know and strategise in the march
forward into the future
15:45-16:00 CONFERENCE SUMMARY, PRESENTATION OF CERTIFICATES/PRIZES, VOTE OF THANKS
PROFESSOR SAM LARYEA, CHAIRMAN OF WABER CONFERENCE
PRIZES TO BE AWARDED AT THE WABER 2021 CONFERENCE

BEST RESEARCH PAPER AWARD
This prize is awarded to recognize the author(s) of an original piece of research which contributes a better understanding of the research
question/problem investigated and demonstrates a high degree of scientific quality and innovative thought.
This prize was created to acknowledge the continuing importance of high quality research to academic institutions, a researcher’s reputation
and the development of the built environment field.
BEST PRESENTATION AWARD

This prize is awarded to recognise the presentation which is the most coherent, clearly enunciated, well-paced, easy to understand, and
effective. The award is given on the basis of quality of the presentation and not the written paper. It recognizes the best presentation based on
communication of the content of a paper and the ability of the speaker to deliver an impactful, authoritative and engaging presentation.
GIBRINE ADAM PROMISING YOUNG SCHOLAR AWARD

This prize is awarded to recognize and encourage exceptional young researchers.
The recipient should be a young academic who demonstrates promise, such that he/she is likely to become established as a research leader.
SPECIAL OPENING ADDRESS
Professor Charles Egbu

Vice Chancellor
Professor Charles Egbu joined Leeds Trinity University as Vice-Chancellor on
Leeds Trinity University, UK 1 November 2020. He leads the University on all strategic matters; ensuring financial
sustainability to allow the delivery of the University’s Strategic Plan, including the overall
vision and values of the University. He represents the University externally at various
groups including Universities UK (UUK), Million Plus and the Cathedral’s Group. He
works closely with industry and professional bodies, especially in the Built Environment
sector, and with local communities.
Professor Egbu’s research interests focus on project management, construction

management and sustainable development; subjects about which he has written
12 books and contributed to more than 350 publications in various international
journals and conferences. He has supervised over 25 PhD students and examined over
100 PhD candidates world-wide. In addition, he has acted as an external examiner to
many undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in universities all over the world

INVITED SPEAKER FOR THE EDITOR’S FORUM
ON TUESDAY 10TH AUGUST
Richard Lorch
Editor-in-chief Richard Lorch is an architect, researcher, writer and editor-in-chief of Buildings &
of Buildings and Cities,
former editor-in-chief of Building Cities. He was the former editor-in-chief of Building Research and Information and
Research and Information executive editor of Climate Policy.
and executive editor
of Climate Policy
He is a visiting professor at University College London and Politecnico di Milano and on

the advisory board of the Dresden Leibniz Graduate School. He works on organisational
/ policy responses to climate change - mitigation and adaptation paths - and the
environmental impacts of the built environment and building performance at different
scales from the individual building to neighbourhood to city.
As editor, his key concerns are fair, robust peer review assessment and feedback
processes, author support and the diffusion and take-up of research and new knowledge
by ‘end users’ - promoting two-way dialogue and co-production between stakeholders,
practitioners, policy makers and the academic community.
KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Professor Albert Chan is Associate Director of RISUD and Able Professor in Professor Albert Chan
Department of Building
Construction Health and Safety and Chair Professor of Construction Engineering and and Real Estate
Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong. Hong Kong
A Chartered Construction Manager, Engineer, Project Manager, and Surveyor by

profession, Prof. Chan has worked in a number of tertiary institutions both in Hong
Kong and overseas. He was a Senior Lecturer and Deputy Head of the School of Building
and Planning at the University of South Australia.
Professor Chan joined the Department of Building and Real Estate of the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University in 1996 and was Associate Head (Teaching) from 2005 to 2011;
Associate Dean and Interim Dean of the Faculty of Construction and Environment from
2011 to 2013, and from 2013 to 2014 respectively.
His outstanding research performance has resulted in the appointment of Able

Professor in Construction Health and Safety in August 2019. He has produced over
1,000 research outputs in refereed journal papers, international refereed conference
papers, consultancy reports, and other articles. He has won numerous prestigious
research paper and innovation awards since 1995. Professor Chan served as an expert
member in the Built Environment Panel of FORMAS, Swedish Research Grants Council.
He was also an expert member to assess the research performance of the Faculty of
Architectural and the Built Environment, TU Delft, the Netherlands. Professor Chan is
currently an expert member of the Engineering Panel of the Research Grants Council,
HKSAR.
Professor Chan holds an MSc in Construction Management and Economics from

the University of Aston in Birmingham, and a PhD in Project Management from
the University of South Australia. He has been an Adjunct Professor in a number of
universities. Professor Chan was also a Founding Director of Construction Industry
Institute, Hong Kong, which was a joint research institution developed by industry and
the academia.
KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Professor Taibat Lawanson

Department of Urban and
Professor Taibat Lawanson is a Professor in the Department of Urban and Regional
Regional Planning Planning at the University of Lagos, Nigeria, where she leads the Pro-poor Development
University of Lagos, Nigeria
and Urban Management Research Cluster. She is also co-director at the University of
Lagos Centre for Housing and Sustainable Development. She holds a PhD in Urban and
Regional Planning from the Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
She has conducted extensive research on issues relating to urban informality,

livability,environmental justice and pro-poor development. She is interested in how formal
and informal systems can synthesize in the emerging African city, and written or co-
authored over 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, books and conference proceedings
and enjoyed funding support for her work from UKAid, USAID, Cambridge Alborada
Research Fund, GCRF, British Academy and University of Beyreuth ‘Africa Multiple’
among others. She is a member of the editorial advisory board of Area Development
and Policy Journal of the Regional Studies Association and International Corresponding
Editor at Urban Studies Journal.
She is also a member of the advisory committee of UNHABITAT fl agship ‘State of the
World’s Cities Report’. She is a registered town planner and a member of the Hunan
Capacity Development Association,Urban Aff airs Association and International Society
of City and Regional Planners among others.Taibat is a proud alumnus of the prestigious
Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Academic Residency and is a 2013 World Social Science
Fellow of the International Social Science Council.

KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Professor Dato’ Sri Ar Dr Asiah Abdul Rahim, is a Professor at the Department of

Architecture in Kulliyyah of Architecture and Environmental Design (KAED), International
Professor Asiah Abdul Rahim
Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), apart from being a Professional Architect, she used to
Department of Architecture, managed her own Architectural Firm, DASAR Architect, she is also a renowned architect
International Islamic
University Malaysia in Designing and managing construction for various building typologies. She is also
Universal Design Expert and an Access Audit Consultant.
She obtained her PhD from Oxford Brookes University in Oxford, United Kingdom with
her previous degree of B. Arch from Deakin University in Australia and a Diploma in
Architecture from our local University of Technology Malaysia (UTM). She was among
the pioneer lecturers in establishing Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design
(KAED) of International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) about 22 years ago.
KEYNOTE SPEAKER
Professor George Ofori specialises in Construction Management and Economics, at Professor George Ofori
Dean of School of the Built
the project, company and industry levels. His main subject of research is the Environment and Architecture
London South Bank University,
improvement of the capacity and capability of the construction industry, especially in UK
developing countries. Professor Ofori was educated at the University of Science and
Technology in Kumasi, Ghana where he obtained a BSc (Building Technology in
Quantity Surveying) (First Class Honours). He worked briefl y in that university as a
Teaching Assistant before proceeding to the UK to study for an MSc (Building Economics
and Management) (Distinction) degree at University College London, from where he
also obtained a Ph.D. degree in 1981.
He was subsequently awarded a DSc degree by the University of London in

1998. Professor Ofori is a Fellow of the Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Professor Ofori worked with G.A. Takyi and Partners in Accra, Ghana, as a Senior
Quantity Surveyor for two years.
From 1983 to 2017, he was employed by the National University of Singapore,

where he was promoted to Full Professor in 1999, and was the Head of the
Department of Building for fi ve years. He has been a consultant to many governments
and international agencies on construction industry development.
We would like to sincerely thank

all our distinguished speakers
for accepting to be part of this year’s
CONFERENCE PAPERS
CONFERENCE PAPERS
A study on interpersonal skills of Nigerian built environment professionals for the successful
delivery of mass housing programmes – Dodo, M., Gambo, M. M., Bala K., and Abdulmalik,
B. 21
Adoption of technology in human resource management - a new normal – Kuforiji, A. A., Eze,
B. D. and Fajana, S. 33
Advancements in computer-aided design and the challenges for architectural education in
Nigeria – feedback from the students' industrial work experience scheme - Bobadoye, S. A.,
Ayeni, D. A., Olanrewaju S. D. and Ajenifujah-Abubakar, A. O. 43
An exploration of spatial layout and communication patterns in tertiary hospital design: an
innovative approach to sustainable hospital design - Ejeh, D. E., Sagada, M. L., Oluigbo, S. N.,
Maina, J. J. and Sufiyan, M. B. 59
An innovative approach for the evaluation of expansion option in buildings - Lawal, Y. S.,
Ibrahim, A. M., Abubakar, M. and Ishaq, Z. H. 81
An investigation into the safety performance of public buildings in relation to compliance of
fire safety regulations: a case study of Ashanti and Greater Accra regions of Ghana - Asumadu,
R. S. and Danso, H. 99
An investigation into the use of building information modelling and its impact on
construction performance within Ghanaian construction industry - Wirekoh, F. K. and Danso,
H. 115
Analytical nexus of urban liveability, liveable communities and place-making in African cities -
Medayese, S., Magidimisha-Chipungu, H., Popoola, A. and Chipungu, L. 137
ANFIS model of the UCS of modified soil for construction purposes - Udeala, R. C., Onyelowe,
K. C., Uranta, J. D. C., Keke, E. O. and Alaneme, G. U. 163
Application of information and communication technology for the implementation of health
and safety measures by construction firms in Abuja, Nigeria - Shittu, A. A., Adamu, A. D.,
Tsado, A. J., Arowolo, L. A. and Abdulazeez, S. R. 177
Assessing the causes of material wastage as it affects various building materials on Nigerian
construction sites - Salihu, A. A., Gambo, S., Sa’ad, M. M., Oyeleke, F. M. and Usman, J. 195
Assessing the level of awareness on the concept of Design for Safety (DfS) amongst design
professionals in the construction industry in Nigeria - Abubakar, M., Zailani, B. M. and Adamu,
A. 207
Assessment of factors responsible for outsourcing of facilities management services in the
public hospitals within Kaduna metropolis - Shika, A. S., Saad, M. M. and Ibrahim, A. G. 219
Assessment of residents’ ’perception of infrastructure delivery in Nigeria: the tale of Osogbo -
Olatunji, S. A. and Olowoporoku, O. A. 235
Assessment of seasonal flood impact and management strategies in Okitipupa, Ondo State,
Nigeria - Olorunlana, F. A. 249
Assessment of the challenges and solutions to implementation of safety measures by small
and medium sized construction firms in Abuja, Nigeria - Muhammad, J. A., Shittu, A. A.,
Mohammed, Y. D., Idiake J. E. and Ali, Z. A. 259
Automated recognition of construction workers’ physical fatigue based on foot plantar
patterns captured from a wearable insole pressure system - Antwi-Afari, M. F., Li, H., Webb, D.
J, Anwer, S., Seo, J., Park, K. S. and Torku, A. 277
Awareness and acceptance of smart security system among occupants of selected public
buildings in central business district (FCT-Abuja) Nigeria - Ciroma, F. B., Sagada, M. L. and
Maina, J. J. 287
Awareness and perceptions of construction professionals on environmental risks in
construction project delivery in Lagos and Ondo States, Nigeria - Ogungbemi, D. A. and
Olanipekun, A. O. 299
17
Awareness of green infrastructure and its socio-demographic predictors among residents of
Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria - Dipeolu, A. A., Ibem, E. O., Fadamiro, J. A., Fadairo, G., Adedeji, J. A.
and Onamade, A. O. 311
BIM education ontology: towards a research agenda for non-industrialised economies –
Abdulmumin, A., Kolo, B. A., Musa-Haddary, Y. G. and Chindo, P. G. 333
BIM utilization in facilities management practice: a status study in South Africa – Dowelani, F.
and Ozumba, A. O. U. 351
Challenges to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation - Dok-Yen, D. M., Duah,
D. Y. A and Addy, M. N. 363
Comparative analysis of soundness and setting time of portland cement of three companies
in Nigeria - Angulu, H., Abba, M., Samaila, H., Galadima, M. and Odesanmi, A. 379
Conceptual framework for whole-life cost data transformation and model selection in the
building sector - Ibrahim, A. M., Bala, K., Ibrahim, A. D. and Zubairu, I. K. 391
Construction in developing countries: need for new concepts and theorising of contextual
specificities to the global corpus of knowledge – Ofori, G. 405
Contractors’ selection and its effects on water infrastructure delivery – Mkasi, P., Ogbeifun, E.
and Pretorius, J. H. C. 419
Covid-19 pandemic and co-working environment: analysis of shared office space in Federal
Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria - Fateye, T. B., Sodiya, A. K., Odunfa, V. O., Ibuoye, A. A.
and Adedokun A. R. 431
Design trends and future planning for inclusive development in tropical built environment -
Rahim, A. A., Samad, N. A. A. and Seman, W. M. W. 449
Determination of factors that influence labour output on construction sites in Ghana -
Acquah, J. H., Danso, H. and Bamfo-Agyei, E. 457
Developing a Framework for Public Private Partnership Project Governance in Nigeria -
Atoyebi, A. K. and Ojo, S. O. 469
Development of social housing agenda to solve housing deficit in sub-Sahara Africa: a case
for Ogun State, Nigeria - Jolaoso, B. A. and Olanrele, O. O. 483
Diurnal temperature changes and physiological experience: case study analysis of indoor
condition in a school environment in Nigeria - Eludoyin, O. M. 501
Effect of cereal flours on the properties of concrete - Alfa, N. M. and Adeleke, B. K. 515
Effect of palm kernel shell as coarse aggregate on the properties of concrete - Ibrahim, A. G.,
Yahya, A., Gambo, M. M., Gambo, S. and Usman, J. 529
Effect of petroleum contamination on properties of Compressed Stabilized Earth Brick (CSEB)
- Sackey, K. A. N., Garba, M. M., Okoli, O. G. and Dahiru, D. D. 543
Effects of maximum aggregate sizes on flexural strength of recycle iron and steel slag
concrete - Olowu, O. A., Raheem, A. A., Akinsanya, A. Y. and Opara, V. I. 557
Effects of sand on the properties of cement-laterite interlocking blocks - Assiamah, S. and
Danso, H. 569
Enablers of mutual satisfaction in transnational public infrastructure development: the case of
Sino-Ghana - Eshun, B. T. B., Chan, A. P. C. and Fugar, F. D. K. 579
Evaluation of health and safety compliance of construction projects in South East Nigeria -
Emma-Ochu, C. A., Okolie, K. C. and Mbamali, I. 597
Examination of energy consumption reduction measures for residential buildings in tropical
climate: a Case Study of Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria - Ifeanyichukwu, N. E., Tolani, S. A., Shakantu, W.
and Ikemefuna, M. 609
Factors affecting the delivery of building construction projects funded by District Assemblies
Common Fund (DACF): the case of selected regions in Ghana - Aborah-Osei, C. and Danso,
H. 629
Factors influencing perceived value of residential properties in Free State Province, South
Africa - Kajimo-Shakantu, K., Groenewald, B. and Ayodele, T. O. 645
xviii
Households’ exposure to indoor air pollution from fossil fuel electric generator use in Minna
Nigeria - Ohadugha, C. B., K., Sanusi, Y. A., Sulyman, A. O., Santali, B. N., Mohammed, M. and
Medayese, S. O. 661
Housing affordability in Osogbo Osun State Nigeria - Akinremi, A. R., K., Adedayo, A. G.,
Saheed, J., Yussuf, S. O., and Ojo, O. M. 671
Impact of risk factors on construction projects ’quality in Nigeria - Ishaq, Z. I., K., Abubakar, M.,
Muhammad, S., Lawal, Y. S. and Isah, I. 685
Investigating the effect of Covid-19 driven inflation on commercial property hedging capacity
in Lagos, Nigeria - Wahab, M. B., Durosinmi, W. A., Mamman, M., Charles-Afolabi, Y. C. and
Zakari, D. U. 701
Investigating the effect of curing methods on the strength properties of concrete - Gabriel-
Wettey, F. K. N. and Danso, H. 715
Key factors for electronic procurement systems in the promotion of sustainable procurement
in construction projects - Yevu, S. K., Yu, A. T. W., Darko, A. and Tetteh, M. O. 725
Micro-climatic benefits of Green infrastructure (trees) in a Housing Estate in Abuja, Nigeria -
Morakinyo, T. E., Adegun, O. B., Adegbie, M. O. and Olusoga, O. O. 739
Modelling of future land use/land cover change dynamics in Lagos, Nigeria using Cellular
Automata and Markov Chain (CA-MARKOV) Model - Auwalu, F. K., Wu, Y., Muhammed, B. and
Ghali, A. A. 749
Modelling optimal unconfined compressive strength of geotextile reinforced soil for flexible
foundation construction – Aju, D. E. and Onyelowe, K. C. 763
Performance–based EPC contracting: a preliminary study of the challenges of engineering
procurement and construction projects in Nigeria - Aluko-Olokun B. A., Kolo, B. A.,
Abdulrazaq, M. and Gangas, P. C. 779
Predictors of academic attainment in a Nigerian polytechnic: perceptions of estate
management students - Chiwuzie, A. 793
Responsible material sourcing: an assessment of factors influencing construction material
sustainability – Ansah, N. B., Adinyira, E., Agyekum, K. and Aidoo, I. 805
Review of risk management studies: towards a frame of reference for large projects –
Abdulrahman, R. S., Ibrahim, A. D., Kolo, B. A. and Ahmadu, H. A. 823
Social procurement and sustainability in the Nigerian construction industry – Okeke, F. O. and
Nnaemeka-Okeke, R. C. 843
Socio-psychological motivational needs of unskilled women working in Nigeria’s construction
industry – Oloruntoba, S. M. and Olanipekun, A. O. 857
Spatial accessibility to urban infrastructure services among hotels in the small city of Wa,
Ghana – Attakora-Amaniampong, E., Appau, W. M. and Derbile, E. K. 875
Stress-coping strategies among construction personnel: an integrative review – Nwaogu, J. M.
and Chan, A. P. C. 895
Students’ perceptions about training on property valuation techniques in selected tertiary
institutions in Nigeria – Chiwuzie, Dabara, D. I., Prince, E. M., Aiyepada, E. G. and Olawuyi, S.
T. 909
Suction of clayey soil treated with quarry dust base geopolymer cement for sustainable
pavement subgrade construction - Amanamba, E. C. and Onyelowe, K. C. 925
The benefits of building information modeling in architectural education in Nigeria -
Elimisiemon, Monday Chris, Poopola, J. O. and Salisu, A. S. 933
The impact of project contributory factors on the cost performance of building projects - Jiya,
V. H., Ibrahim, A. D., Kado, D. and Bala, K. 945
The potential role of green infrastructure on mental health and well-being: the covid-19
pandemic experience - Dipeolu, A. A. and Onamade, A. O. 957
The relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and career choices of undergraduate built
environment students - Akinlolu, M. and Haupt, T. C. 973
The relationship of attitude and perceived behavioral control on behavioral intention to
practice surveying – Oduwole, A. 987
xix
The role of safety attitude in changing safety behaviour and hazard recognition capability of
construction workers - Zailani, B. M., Abubakar, M., and Ibrahim, Y. M. 1001
Towards a research agenda for smart contract adoption in less technologically enabled
construction environments: a systematic literature review - Ekweani, C. P., Kolo, B. A., Adogbo,
A. K. and Mohammed, A. 1013
Urban morphology and crime patterns in urban areas: a review of the literature - Iliyasu, I. I.,
Abdullah, A. and Marzbali, M. H. 1023
Users ’assessment of the relationship between housing quality and the conditions of
residential outdoor spaces in Ilesa, Nigeria - Yussuf, S. O., Jiboye, A. D., Agbabiaka, H. I.,
Adeyemi, T. E. and Oke, O. E. 1045
Water absorption quality of clay bricks made by emerging manufacturers in South Africa -
Khuzwayo, B. P. 1063
INDEX OF AUTHORS - 1077 -
INDEX OF KEYWORDS - 1081 -
xx
WABER 2021 Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana
Proceedings Edited by Laryea, S. and Essah, E.
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
A STUDY ON INTERPERSONAL SKILLS OF NIGERIAN BUILT

ENVIRONMENT PROFESSIONALS FOR THE SUCCESSFUL
DELIVERY OF MASS HOUSING PROGRAMMES
Mansir Dodo1, Muhammad M. Gambo2, Kabir Bala3 and Badamasi Abdulmalik4
1,3Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria.
2ShelterAfrique, Nairobi, Kenya
4School of Built Environment, University of Salford, Manchester, England
The Nigerian Economic Sustainability Plan (NESP) 2021 is the most current national
plan in Nigeria. It aims to alleviate the economic emergency caused by the COVID-
19 pandemic, as well as bridge the housing deficit in the country. The Mass Housing
Programme of the NESP is predicted to provide 300,000 houses in 12 months. Also,
the project is expected to produce 1.8 million jobs and help Nigeria reach Goal 11
of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). However, the capacity of relevant
built environment specialists has affected the successful delivery of previous mass
housing programmes in Nigeria, which poses a possible hurdle to the successful
delivery of the planned Mass Housing Programme in the NESP. This research aims
to study the interpersonal skill of the built environment professionals towards
successful delivery of mass housing projects. The data was acquired using an online
survey with the aid of a structured questionnaire. A total of 137 professionals
participated in the survey. Data were analyzed descriptively and inferentially. Study
discovered that none of the factors studied is deemed to be of essential priority.
Likewise, the following interpersonal skills are opined to be of higher priority:
decision making; leadership; communication; team building; motivation; trust-
building; influencing, and conflict management. However, more attention must be
given to the interpersonal factors coaching, negotiation, and political and cultural
awareness. The implication of this study may imply that, to successfully deliver mass
housing projects like the Mass Housing Programme proposed in the NESP,
academic institutions, construction firms, and professional bodies must invest more
in education and training programs supporting and facilitating coaching,
negotiation, and, most importantly, political and cultural awareness.
Keywords: built environment professionals, interpersonal skills, mass housing

programme, Nigerian economic sustainability plan
INTRODUCTION
Housing is essential for people worldwide. According to (Intel, 2020), housing has
helped to revitalize a country or economy during the initial stages of global
1 mdodo@abu.edu.ng
2 mgambo@shelterafrique.org
3 balakabir@abu.edu.ng
4 a.a.badamasi@edu.salford.ac.uk
Dodo, et al. (2021) A study on interpersonal skills of Nigerian built environment professionals for
the successful delivery of mass housing programmes In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs WABER
2021 Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 21-32
21
Dodo et al.,
downturn. In both developed and developing countries, the housing sector is

highly relevant. Historically, housing has been a dominant business cycle in the
United States of America (USA), exceeding all other investments (Ahadzie, 2014).
Also, there are claims that mainstream home building helped propel Japan's
current economic success. Infact, during the 1970s and 1990s, macroeconomic
stability of the housing sector in Japan significantly increased demand and kept
jobs even during recessions (Ahadzie, 2014). During similar periods, other countries
such as Thailand and Singapore equally employed housing investments as
economic revitalisation methods. As such, housing in general, but especially mass
housing serves both short-term and long-term goals of development plans of
countries.
The Japanese government has taken concerted steps to enhance the nation's
housing supply, with an average yearly commitment of 7% to 9% of GDP (Zairul,
2011). Another primary housing-policy objective is economic growth and
investment, and savings. Similar policies exist in Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan,
and South Korea (Noorzai, 2020). These governments do not only see housing as
an economic base but consider housing projects as an assured way to grow the
economy which is invariably a fiscal stabilization project (Zairul, 2011). As reported
by Intel (2020), a new house provides 1.5 direct and eight secondary jobs in India.
Similarly, there are 5.62% direct jobs created in South Africa and 2.5% indirect jobs
anytime a new house is constructed. Hence, the construction of houses is a booster
of socio-economic development.
The World Bank indicates that urban population in Nigeria increase at 4.23%
annually and that urban population accounts for 50% of its total population (NBS,
2019). This rapid urbanization rate, primarily due to migration, has increased
housing demand. Construction in Nigeria has a significant impact on the country's
economic growth. The impact of housing on the overall economy is extensive.
Nigeria's construction sector accounts for 4% of the country's GDP (NBS, 2019;
Ajayi, 2020). The building industry creates numerous jobs for skilled, semi-skilled
and unskilled workers every time a new construction job is initiated. According to
Intel (2020), increased housing construction as a result of mass housing projects
such as the Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN) housing projects would help
spur economic recovery and encourage economic inclusion by generating
substantial number of jobs both in the formal and informal sector.
Nigeria has had several housing policies and programs. According to (Ikediashi et
al., 2012), in the early 1980s, for example, the Shagari mass housing project was
implemented across the country. Bilau et al., (2015) also reports on the mass
housing programme initiated in Kogi State. Likewise, the Family Homes Fund (FHF)
was established to support the developing of 2 million new homes and shelter
500,000 households by 2020 (Ajayi, 2020). Essentially, both federal and state
governments have made massive housing initiatives in Nigeria. More recently, the
FMBN Housing Stock Development Initiatives captured in the Nigerian Economic
Sustainability Plan (NESP) is intended to have a nationwide impact especially due
to the crippling effect of COVID-19 in the national economy (Ajayi, 2020). These
efforts demonstrate Nigeria's desire for large-scale housing invariably affecting
economic development.
22
Dodo et al.,
The Mass Housing Programme in the NESP supposedly plans to deliver 300,000
housing units to all 774 local governments in 12 months. However, educational and
training capability are required for successful delivery of such large-scale
undertakings(Sunindijo & Zou, 2011) (Project Management Institute, 2013). In
Nigeria, there exist researches on education and training specific to mass housing.
For instance, the work of Suleman and Sagada (2012) covered mass housing
specific to design considerations as well as use of materials in public housing
schemes of Barnawa and Malali low-cost housing estates in Kaduna, Nigeria.
Similarly, the research of (Bilau et al., 2015) focused on education and skill
acquisition relative to reconstruction activities of mass housing affected by
disasters. Although these researches somewhat covered technical skills, they both
report that there is a deficit in capacity of the built environment professionals
towards successfully delivering mass housing projects. Considering the scale of the
proposed Mass Housing Programme in the NESP, this capacity deficit poses
potential challenge to the successful delivery. As such, this research intends to
initially review Mass Housing Programme in the NESP, and then ascertain the
interpersonal skills of the built environment professionals towards successful
delivery of the such initiatives. Interpersonal skills will be covered in this study
based on how essential such skills are in successful delivery of large-scale
construction projects. The findings from this study will have implications for
improved implementation of large-scale construction projects in Nigeria.
MASS HOUSING IN NIGERIA

Mass housing means houses produced in large numbers on a wide scale for public
purchase, either as the owner-occupier or as a rental (Ibem, 2010). The aim of
providing affordable housing to low-income families is to provide high-quality
homes at lower prices. There are policies and programs regarding Nigeria's mass
housing. A pioneer having national coverage is the Shagari housing mass program
which was implemented nationally throughout the early 1980s (Ikediashi et al.,
2012). Others include the mass housing programs in Kogi State Bilau et al., (2015).
These are some amongst others present in different states of the federation.
The difficulties that the Nigerian government and its private sector partners face in
providing sufficient housing are aggravated by a lack of understanding of the
nature and complexity of the country's housing issues and a limited understanding
of the housing need (NBS, 2015). Despite the government's ambitious housing
policies since the 1960s, several studies have shown that outcomes have been
largely unimpressive, with housing provision falling well short of policy estimates
(Ayedun, 2011).
The housing deficit in Nigeria was projected to be between 12 million and 14
million units in 2007 (Akeju, 2007), but by 2008, it had risen to 18 million units
(Onwuemenyi, 2008). Urbanization is rapidly increasing, while the housing deficit
is predicted to grow at a 3.2% annual rate. For Nigeria, this scarcity of housing
represents an opportunity for both increased quantity and improved quality. For
most Nigerians however, government-assisted public housing (mass housing) is
still the sole cheap housing option (Ayedun, 2011).
23
Dodo et al.,
THE NIGERIAN ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY PLAN AND ITS MASS

HOUSING PROGRAMME
The Economic Sustainability Committee (ESC), founded by President Muhammadu
Buhari on March 30, 2020, established the NESP, which was accepted by the Federal
Executive Council (FEC) on June 24, 2020 (Okoh, 2021). The Cabinet Ministers,
Heads of Federal Agencies, The Presidential Economic Advisory Council (PEAC),
State Governors, and the National Assembly were involved in the NESP. The
Ministerial Committee is to oversee that all parties, especially the public and private
sectors, cooperate. The Committee will also oversee the implementation of
individual programs and coordinate the entire sectorial value chain and remove
any obstructions to performance. The ESC which is in charge of implementation
supervision, will provide regular reports to the President (Kolawole, 2020).
To guide Nigeria through the trying times posed by COVID-19, a concerted whole-
of-government and whole-of-society campaign is needed. The guiding document
to drive the process of overcoming the challenges posed by the COVID-19 is the
Nigerian Economic Sustainability Plan (NESP). The NESP aims to promote projects
designed to turn adversity into a strategic advantage. Among other opportunities,
the NESP will create job opportunities for at least 30 million Nigerians (Kolawole,
2020). Invariably, the NESP is an expression of the determination of the Nigerian
government not only to survive but also succeed as a result of the COVID-19 crisis
(Okoh, 2021). The goal of the NESP is to minimize the usage of non-local inputs as
a conscious decision (Ukpe, 2020). It is designed to protect the disadvantaged
population while also presenting opportunities to diverse and entrepreneurial
citizens (Kolawole, 2020).
The NESP captures that the Mass Housing Programme is among its key projects.
This initiative aims to provide Nigerians with sufficient affordable housing while
also generating direct and indirect job opportunities in various sectors (Intel, 2020).
The mass housing initiative has a 12-month timetable and a budget of
$317,292,377,973.48, with 1.8 million jobs to be generated. According to (Ukpe,
2020), the NESP equally proposes to build 5 million homes by the private sector.
Mass housing projects in the NESP will majorly rely on the use of local products
and local labour. Such deliberate effort will indeed make the NESP sustainable.
The initiative's beneficiaries will be entitled to purchase homes with long-term
installment options lasting up to 15 years. According to Isaac (2020), the plan will
take a two-track approach: reducing bottlenecks in the delivery of social housing
while also implementing direct government investments in house development.
The Federal Housing Authority (FHA), the FMBN, and the Public Building and
Housing Development Programme will collaborate towards delivering this
proposed program (Isaac, 2020). The Federal Ministry of Works and Housing,
Ministry of Finance, the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and the Family Homes Fund
(FHF) are among the project's essential stakeholders. Under this initiative, houses
are purchased through cooperatives and warehoused. They are used to secure a
mortgage or be rented on a rent-to-own basis, allowing continuous house
development across the country (Ajayi, 2020).
24
Dodo et al.,
Programs within the NESP are designed to enhance and insulate vulnerable
individuals and communities (Kolawole, 2020). These vulnerable communities are
the majority of people in Nigeria's bottom of the pyramid who are daily-paid and
self-employed workers such as bricklayers, vulcanizers, general petty traders,
electricians, bus drivers, and barrow pushers among others. In short, The NESP
policy has been designed to meet the needs of the most vulnerable Nigerians
affected by the COVID-19 pandemic.
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS FOR CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

A characteristic of construction project is its bringing together different parties who
are all required to work together towards successful delivery of the construction
project. Parties involved in a construction project come from diverse backgrounds,
underwent different trainings and have and varied experiences. As such, the skills
they possess are variable. Successful delivery of construction projects requires
Project Managers to have certain skills. Specific to interpersonal skills, (Sunindijo &
Zou, 2011) reported eight interpersonal skills for the effective management of
construction projects which are:
a. Leadership: The ability to get things done through others;

b. Team building: The process of helping a group of individuals, bound by a
common purpose, to work with each other;
c. Motivation: Creating an environment to meet project objectives while providing

maximum satisfaction related to what people value most;
d. Communication: Adopting communication styles and techniques that facilitate

mutual understanding;
e. Influencing: Getting others to cooperate towards common goals skillfully and
cautiously;
f. Decision making: Taking decisions that optimally consider time, trust, quality,
and acceptance
g. Political and cultural awareness: Catering for stakeholder’s diversity in norms,

backgrounds, and expectations;
h. Negotiation: Conferring with parties of shared or opposed interests with a view
towards compromise or reaching an agreement.
In addition to these eight, the (Project Management Institute, 2013) as well as (A
Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge 6th Edition, 2017) added
three which are: which are:
a. Trust building: Establish positive relationships necessary between the various
stakeholders engaged in the project;
b. Conflict management: Identify the causes for conflict and then actively manage
the competition, thus minimizing potential negative impacts; and
25
Dodo et al.,
c. Coaching: Developing the project team to higher levels of competency and

performance or Help people recognize their potential through empowerment
and development.
Although these skills vary across project teams and individuals, (Gamil & Abdul
Rahman, 2017) strongly believes that that they play a vital role in the success of a
construction project. In other words, they are essential to successful construction
project delivery.
METHODOLOGY
This research intends to obtain objective opinions on interpersonal skills required
by built environment professionals towards successful delivery of mass housing
projects. According to Pathirage et al. (2008), a survey research strategy is
appropriate for obtaining objective opinions. As such this research is designed to
collect primary data by means of a survey technique. The data collection instrument
suitable for a survey is a questionnaire (Fellows & Liu, 1999; Kasim, 2008). The
questionnaire used in this study consists to two sections whereby the first is meant
to collect demographic data, the second is designed to collect opinions on a 5-
point Likert-type response item which is sequenced as: Not a priority (1); Low
priority (2); Medium priority (3); High priority (4); Essential priority (5). Such a
priority scale is adopted from (Piper, 2017).
Judgmental sampling is used in selecting the respondents. The claim informs the
choice of such a non-probability sample of Fellows & Liu (2008). They recommend
its use when a researcher intends to use some informed judgment to determine
the population and selection. Similarly, Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill (2009)
recommend judgmental sampling when a researcher wishes to select respondents
that are particularly informative in fulfilling the research objectives. Based on such
justification, the respondents for this study have undergone education and training
in construction courses across several social media professional platforms. Google
forms were used as the technique for data collection.
To determine the frequencies, the data will be analyzed descriptively and
inferentially using IBM SPSS Statistics 23. Furthermore, MS Excel would be used to
compute the Mean Score. This measure has been used in construction
management researches whereby John & Itodo (2013), Samuel & Eziyi (2014), Chan
& Hou (2015), and also Ejohwomu et al. (2017) express it as:
__ ∑Xi
X=
n
where: X denotes the Mean Score
∑Xi is the sum of the number of responses and score awarded a variable (Vi;
for 5 ≥Vi ≥ 1)
n represents the total number of responses
26
Dodo et al.,
The Mean Score obtained will be used as a basis to ascertain where each factor
studied leans towards in the 5 point scale used (supported by Holt, 2014; Samuel
& Eziyi, 2014; and also John & Itodo, 2013). Additionally, MS Excel will be used to
compute the Relative Index (RI), which will serve as a basis to rank the level of
priority accorded to the interpersonal factors studied. The suitability in using RI is
obtained from the works of Aigbavboa & Thwala (2010) and also Olusola (2012),
where they express RSI as:
RI = 1n1+ 2n2 + …. AnA (0 ≤ RSI ≤ 1)
AN
where:
n1, n2, ... , nA = number of respondents scoring response stem integers 1 to
Amax (5), respectively.
A = largest integer on the response item (5 for this research)
N= total number of respondents

Furthermore, the respondent proportion scoring above or below the median value
will be calculated. Such analysis helps draw inferences from the scoring profiles for
each factor studied (refer to Holt, 2014; Joshi, Kale, Chandel, & Pal, 2015; Bishop &
Herron, 2015; Carifio & Perla, 2007; and Harpe, 2015).
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

A total of 137 questionnaires were retrieved from the Google forms survey
conducted. The subsequent sub sections present and discuss the results of the data
analysed.
Results on respondents’ demography

The results on the demography of the respondents are presented in Table 1.
The respondents that constitute the largest group in the survey conducted are
Builders constituting 41.60 percent (57). Architects followed these with a
proportion of 19.70 percent (27) and then Engineers (Structural/Services)
consisting of 14.60 percent (20). Next to Engineers are Quantity Surveyors
constituting 10.20 percent (14). These are followed by Urban and Regional Planners
making up 8 percent (11). The minimum number of participants in the survey
conducted are Land Surveyors, consisting of 5.80 percent (8). These results depict
a fair representation of the professionals that are party to the delivery process of
mass housing projects.
Relative to the educational qualification of the respondents, the respondents that
constitute the largest group in the survey conducted are those with BSc/HND, with
a proportion of 44.50 percent (61). Those with an MSc have a ratio of 40.10 percent
(55), while those with a PhD have 12 percent (16). The minimum number of
participants in the survey conducted are those with Diploma, which constitute 3.60
27
Dodo et al.,
percent (5). From these results, over 88 percent of the respondents have the
opportunity to further their education at BSc/HND, Masters, and PhD levels.
Relative to the years of working experience the respondents that constitute the
largest group in the survey conducted are those with ten years and less experience
with a proportion of 38 percent (52). These are followed by individuals with 11-20
years of experience, who account for 34.30 percent (47) of the total, and then those
with 21-30 years, who account for 22.60 percent (31). The respondents with more
than 30 years of experience, who make up 5.10 percent (7) of the total, are the least
that participated in this study. From these results, over 72% of the respondents
have working experience of 20 years and below which implies they still have
decades of professional service.
Table 1: Results on the demography of respondents

Number of Proportion/Percentage
Profession of respondents
respondents (%)
Architect 27 19.70
Builder 57 41.60
Land Surveyor 8 5.8
Quantity Surveyor 14 10.20
Urban and Regional Planner 11 8.10
Engineer (Structural/Services) 20 14.60
Total 137 100
Educational qualification of respondents
PhD 16 12
MSc 55 40.10
BSc/HND 61 44.50
Diploma 5 3.6
Total 137 100
Years of experience of respondents
10 years and less 52 38
11-20 years 47 34.30
21-30 years 31 22.60
Over 30 years 7 5.10
Total 137 100
Stage of participation in the delivery
process of mass housing projects
Design Only 18 13
Construction Only 47 34
Design and Construction 48 35
None of the Above 24 18
Total 137 100
Relative to the stage of participation in the delivery process of mass housing

projects, the respondents that constitute the largest group in the survey are those
that have participated in both design and construction with a proportion of 35
percent (48). These are followed by those who have participated in construction
only with a ratio of 34 percent (47) and those who have never participated in any
stage in the delivery process of mass housing projects with a proportion of 18
28
Dodo et al.,
percent (24). The minimum number of participants in the survey conducted are
those that have participated in design only with a ratio of 13 percent (18). From
these results, 82 percent of the respondents have participated in some stage of the
delivery process of mass housing construction.
Results on interpersonal skills
Table 2 depicts the results of the 11 interpersonal skills studied. While ‘decision
making ’ranked 1st (with a Mean Value of 3.69; RI of 0.74), both ‘leadership ’and
‘communication ’ranked 2nd (with a Mean Value of 3.66; RI of 0.73). Also, while
‘team building ’ranked 3rd (with a Mean Value of 3.58; RI of 0.72), both ‘motivation ’
and ‘trust building ’ranked 4th (with a Mean Value of 3.55; RI of 0.71). Furthermore,
both ‘influencing ’and ‘conflict management ’ranked 5th (with a Mean Value of 3.51;
RSI of 0.70). Likewise, while ‘coaching ’ranked 6th (with a Mean Value of 3.42; RI of
0.68), ‘negotiation ’ranked 7th (with a Mean Value of 3.16; RI of 0.63). Among all
the factors, ‘political and cultural awareness ’ranked 8th (with a Mean Value of 3.06;
RI of 0.61).
Table 2: Results of interpersonal skills

Frequency of
responses
Interpersonal Scores Scores Mean Relative
Skill 1 4 Total below above Index Rank
2 3 5
median median Score
N HP
LP MP EP
P
Decision
1 8 24 62 42 137 9 104 3.69 0.74 1
making
Leadership 2 7 27 50 51 137 9 101 3.66 0.73 2
Communication 1 10 25 60 41 137 11 101 3.66 0.73 2
Team building 1 14 27 59 36 137 15 95 3.58 0.72 3
Motivation 5 7 32 54 39 137 12 93 3.55 0.71 4
Trust building 2 13 30 51 41 137 15 92 3.55 0.71 4
Influencing 1 15 34 54 33 137 16 87 3.51 0.70 5
Conflict
4 14 29 55 35 137 18 90 3.51 0.70 5
management
Coaching 2 20 34 59 22 137 22 81 3.42 0.68 6
Negotiation 8 22 47 47 13 137 30 60 3.16 0.63 7
Political and
cultural 9 24 54 32 18 137 33 50 3.06 0.61 8
awareness
Legend: Not a priority (1), Low priority (2), Medium priority (3), High priority (4), Essential priority
(5)
From the results of the scores below the median and the scores above the median,
although ‘leadership ’and ‘communication ’recorded the same rank (2nd), the
respondents that place more priority on 'leadership' are marginally more in
number compared to those that place significant emphasis on 'communication.'
Likewise. although 'motivation' and 'trust building' both ranked 4th, responders
that place greater importance on 'motivation' are slightly more in number to those
on 'trust building'. Although 'influencing' and ‘conflict management' got the same
rank (5th), respondents who emphasize 'influencing' are marginally more
29
Dodo et al.,
significant in number. Results also show that not up to half of the respondents set
priorities on ‘negotiation ’as well as ‘political and cultural awareness’.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The built environment professionals surveyed allude that none of the factors
studied is of essential priority. Similarly, their response reveals the following
interpersonal skills being of higher priority: decision making; leadership;
communication; team building; motivation; trust-building; influencing, and conflict
management. Overall, more attention must be given to the interpersonal factors
coaching, negotiation, and political and cultural awareness. For successful delivery
of mass housing projects, this is essential, particularly considering the fact that
most respondents have the opportunity to further their education at BSc/HND,
Masters, and PhD. Similarly, the respondents covered in this study still have about
two decades of professional service. Because of the low priority given to political
and cultural awareness in this study, (Sunindijo & Zou, 2011) assert that, while
political skill is often overlooked, successful Project Managers must understand the
importance of maintaining solid political ties to achieve project success. In other
words, politics can significantly positively impact the success of construction
projects in general but mass housing projects in particular. The implication of this
study may imply that, to successfully deliver mass housing projects like the Mass
Housing Programme proposed in the NESP, academic institutions, construction
firms, and professional bodies must invest more in education and training
programs supporting and facilitating coaching, negotiation, and, most importantly,
political and cultural awareness. The interpersonal factors covered in this study are
not all encompassing. Future studies may cover emotional human-related factors
essential to the successful delivery of large-scale construction projects. Similarly,
other techniques of data collection if used to study interpersonal factors may
present results that may differ from those obtained in this study. Likewise, other
respondents with varied opinions may reveal findings contrary to this study.
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32
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ADOPTION OF TECHNOLOGY IN HUMAN RESOURCE

MANAGEMENT - A NEW NORMAL
Kuforiji, A. Aramide1, Eze, B. Daniel2 and Fajana, Sola3
1Industrial
Relations and Personnel Management, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
2Business
Administration, Christopher University, Nigeria
3Employment Relations and Human Resources Management, University of Lagos, Nigeria
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted socio-economic activities globally.In the

same vein, police brutality, Black life matters in the US and ENDSARS protest in
Nigeria re-emphasized the importance of technological advances in business
activities. Before this period, businesses in Nigeria have been skeptical in using
technology to run businesses, as employees have to resume work by 8:00am and
leave after 8 hours of work. However, with the advent of COVID19 and ENDSARS
protests, working from home with flexible work hours that are being practiced in
technologically advanced economies is now becoming the new normal in Nigeria.
This study examines the effect of technology adoption on human resource practices
in selected manufacturing firms in Lagos and Ogun States, Nigeria. The study
employed survey research design, through the administration of structured
questionnaire on selected members of staff of the selected manufacturing firms.
The findings reveal that e-hr implementation has a positive significant effect on HR
practices with a coefficient of 0.5612(p-value <0.05). However, the findings further
reveal that technology adoption has a negative significant effect on employees'
collaboration and bonding. It can therefore be concluded that while e-hr has
positively affected HR practices, technology adoption has negatively affected
employees' collaboration and bonding. It is recommended that engagement
strategies should be adopted by management to facilitate collaboration and
bonding among employees while implementing e-HR in the organization.
Keywords: collaboration, COVID-19 pandemic, e-HR, emotional intelligence (EI),

workplace
INTRODUCTION
Change is the only constant thing in life and can either be disruptive or
constructive. In whatever form it comes, innovation, renovation and creation are
imminent afterwards. The transformation of HR today is a natural extension of
changes occurring more broadly within firms. Globalization, diversity, intellectual
capital, information technology, COVID19 pandemic, ENDSARS and the like are
expanding the scope of organizations, accelerating the rate of change, and placing
1 aramide.kuforiji@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng
2 beneze7@gmail.com
3 fajana@unilag.edu.ng
Kuforiji, Eze and Fajana (2021) Adoption of technology in human resource management - a new
normal In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 33-42
33
Kuforiji, Eze and Fajana
a premium on organizational agility, flexibility and rapid response of the Human

Resource Management to the pace of change(Snell, Stueber, &Lepak, 2001). The
current COVID19 pandemic has in a way affected various sustainable
developmental goals mostly in areas such as poverty reduction, shrinking
inequalities and social inclusion encouragement. (UN 2020; Buheji and Ahmed,
2020; Ahmad et al., 2021).
HR departments are being charged with being simultaneously strategic, flexible,
cost-efficient, and customer-oriented. Unfortunately, the evidence suggests that
traditional models of HR are poorly suited for these challenges. Critics charge that
HR departments are often the last bastions of bureaucracy in organizations, and
that the command and control approaches they use actually impede rather than
facilitate progress to strategic goals. Although these limitations of traditional HR
functions have always been there, recent health emergencies and societal unrest
like the COVID-19 pandemic, police brutality, Black life matters in the US and
ENDSARS protest in Nigeria have re-emphasized the urgent need for technological
adoption in rightly and promptly responding to the ever-increasing global
business opportunities. Businesses in Nigeria have hitherto been skeptical in using
technology to run, as employees before now have to resume work by 8:00am and
leave after 8hours work. However, with the advent of COVID19 and ENDSARS
protests, working from home with the use of technological tools and internet have
now become the new normal in Nigeria. Buheji and Ahmed (2020) postulated that
a lot of corporate, business and social activities would become virtual under the
new normal, and as such, many physical businesses would change their means of
services ’delivery to more technologically-driven methods.
Old-economy companies attempt to fit into the new economy with the use of
Internet to expand and improve their current collaborative relationships among
their stakeholders however there is lack of reliable data on the people issues arising
from a move from a traditional brick-and-mortar business model to an e-business
model (Snell, Stueber, &Lepak, 2001). Moreso, Buheji and Ahmed (2020) identified
the psychological impact of implementing technologically-driven systems to
manage the organisation’s human resource in the new normal as gap in literature
that other researchers should explore. Based on this the objective of the study is
to examine the effect of technology-driven initiatives like zoom meeting and
Facebook chat room in managing human resource in the manufacturing businesses
in Lagos State, Nigeria. The questions this paper answered are;
1. What is the effect of e-HR/HRIS on the way the human resource is being
managed in selected manufacturing companies in Lagos State, Nigeria?
2. What effects does technological adoption in HR practice have on employees ’
collaboration and bonding, retaining of new talents and overall
emotional/mental wellness in selected manufacturing companies in Lagos
State, Nigeria?
The attendant hypotheses tested were:
1. There is no significant effect of e-HR/HRIS implementation on HR practices.
34
2. There is no significant effect of the technological adoption made in HR practice

on the employees ’collaboration and bonding.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This section focused on empirical reviews concerning the new normal perspective
on post-COVID-19, technology adoption and human resource.
The new normal

Currently, globalization, diversity, intellectual capital, information technology are
increasing organisational operating space, accelerate the pace of change, and
place premium on organizational agility, flexibility and rapid response. Today, firms
compete more on capabilities, relationships, new ideas and have discovered the
importance of collaborating with all stakeholders both internal, external partners
as well as maximize the use of technology. Doing this, allows them to focus
resources and their expertise, integrate knowledge from the outside, react quickly
to arising opportunities, and deliver better value to customersin the midst of either
environmental, economic or health hitches that may be encountered (Snell,
Stueber, &Lepak, 2001).
Virtual working, Teleconferencing and flexible working have been in existence long
before the advent of COVID-19. However, the pandemic activated most
organisations into their importance. Buheji and Ahmed (2020) stated that the New
Normal started with the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic in Asia, and spreading
over many nations of the world, with very limited facility for effective suppression.
The pandemic disordered trade and industry activities, social life, and endangered
basic socio-economic principles. Ozili and Arun (2020) believe that the global
health implications of Covid19 pandemic would lead to more economic hardship,
arising from national and international travel bans, monetary procedure alteration,
additional restrictive processes and unrelenting vacillation in global stock market.
Ambrosi De la Cadena (2020) assert that the pandemic has brought to the fore,
many technology-driven opportunities which had reshaped work roles views. One
of the envisaged features of the new normal as prompted by the Covid19 pandemic
is the change in the mind-set of the entrepreneurs about how to run a successful
business.
Technology adoption
Frederick Winslow Taylor developed the scientific management theory at the turn
of the industrial revolution and has successive improved the manual labour
practices that existed before the industrial revolution. Technological mechanisms
in organisations speed workflow processes, giving employees the ultimate
resource – more time – to focus on the important work, and in turn, make the
communication process within the organisation more effective and efficient.
However, technological adoption in HR Practice is not without its downside issues.
Unlike face-to-face work environs, communication through technology creates
barriers and limits honest interactions. There are also the valid concerns of data
safety, misdeeds and violence, communal cut off, confidentiality abuse, overwork,
manoeuvring of digital media and job uncertainty (Thompsonand McHugh, 1995
p.32).
35
Ozili and Arun (2020) opine that COVID19 pandemic has triggered the introduction
of various hi-tech appliances, which were not in use pre Covid19 pandemic, into
the manufacturing and production activities globally. Buheji and Ahmed (2020)
mentioned that the COVID19 transformed every aspect of human life, having a
huge impact on e- learning, remote-working and e-commerce, with its both hurtful
and helpful implications on various sectors of the world economy.
Human resource
Information Technology has been a veritable tool in Human Resource Management
and Practice for several years, with its usage being intensified and its roles being
expanded with Human Resource developments. (Sharma, 2020). The term e-HRM
was first used in the late 1990s when e-commerce was sweeping the business world
and e-HRM was seen as an internal application of e-business techniques. It helps
the management in a more effective and efficient flow of information and method
of doing HRM. Organizations could manage an increasing number of HRM
processes effectively with enhanced information technology, thus contributing to
the accessibility of information and knowledge. This also assisted HRM
professionals in playing a strategic role in attaining enhanced competitive benefit.
Drawing, preserving and encouraging employees, meeting demand for a more
calculated HR function and overseeing the “human element” of technological
alteration in the future have all been facilitated by advancement in IT to meet the
challenges of Human Resource Management (Ashbaugh and Miranda, 2002).
HRM can live up to expectation by concurrently becoming more bendable, cost-

efficient, tactical and customer-oriented through the power of information
technology (Lengnick-Hallet al., 2009). Worldwide economies and businesses were
disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic and Human Resources (HR) has been at the
heart of it. Now that most organisations are at the recovery stage, the role of HR is
much more important than before (Bashsoun, Braik and Kassis 2020). Sneader and
Singhal (2020) opine that post COVID-19, livelihoods of many people will change
as both commerce and trade are likely to experience swift reorganization in both
the technological, socio-economic and political precedence. With the advent of
COVID19, every business framework is open to questioning in order to arrive at its
best. With the drastic change in both the standard and cost of living, occasioned
by the outbreak of COVID19 pandemic, the mind-set of people will not be the same
again. Both the social and economic structures would progress towards
computerization. The automated system would be moving across different
business models, where every worker becomes a skilled worker (Buheji, 2020).
Gigauri(2020) declares that as businesses focus on the convalescence after the
pandemic, which was consumed by disruption of jobs, automation, and changing
workforce demographics, the worker’s wellbeing is a priority.
Theoretical framework
Emotional intelligence theory postulated by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004) as
a type of social intelligence, separable from general intelligence, which involves
the ability to monitor one’s own and others ’emotions, to discriminate among
them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions. In a later
attempt, they expanded their model and defined EI as the ability of an individual
to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or
generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion
36
and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote

emotional and intellectual growth (Lam and Kirby, 2002)
Arora (2017) defined Emotional intelligence as someone’s ability: (a) to understand

his feelings, (b) to listen to others and to feel them, and (c) to express his emotions
in a productive manner. The rational for using Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (2004);
Goleman (1998) EI principle stems from the understanding that in the new normal
some skill sets will become dormant/latent due to emergence/ use/ advent of
Artificial Intelligence in the work place. Although robotic will take over some jobs,
the human’s role would not be taken way completely (Belsky, 2020; Hessman,
2020). Therefore, the organisation’s leaders ’ability to adopt emotional intelligence
skills while implementing the new technological way of working will engender
positive employee engagement within the organisation (Suehs, 2015).
METHODOLOGY
Snell, Stueberand Lepak(2001) and Buheji and Ahmed (2020) suggested that there
is need to investigate technological adoption in HR practice, The cross-sectional
survey research design was employed and the manufacturing organization was the
focus of the study with the Western Region of Nigeria as the scope.
The population of the study comprises of members of staff of Cadbury Nigeria PLC,
Nestle Nigeria PLC and PZ Cussons Nigeria PLC. The three firms were selected
because they are among the top ten manufacturing firms, quoted on the Nigerian
Stock Exchange. The numbers of employees of the three selected firms are stated
below:
Table 1: Numbers of Employees of the Selected Firms

S/N Name of Company Number of Employees
1 CADBURY NIGERIA PLC 1,797
2 NESTLE NIGERIA PLC 3,300
3 PZ CUSSONS NIGERIA PLC 4,476
TOTAL 9573
Source: Author’s compilation from the firms ’website
The study employs Survey System Sample Size Calculator at 95% confidence level
and margin of error of 7, which gave a sample size of 192. This study employed
stratified sampling as well as simple random sampling. The population was divided
into three strata based on the three companies and a simple random sampling was
carried out in each stratum.
The questionnaire items were in 5-point Likert scale structured as Strongly Agreed
(5), Agreed (4), Indifferent (3); Disgreed (2) and Strongly Disagreed (1) which
included questions on (1) Respondents Level of Experience (2) e-HR, (3)
Technology adoption. Questions on e-HR were adapted from Loon, Otaye-Ebede
and Stewart, (2020) while Technology adoption was from Sharma (2020) and its
validity and reliability were established. Copies were administered to simple
randomly selected Human Resource managers and management team of selected
manufacturing companies in Lagos State, Nigeria. Linear Regression method of
data analysis was used. One hundred and ninety two copies of questionnaires were
37
administered on the selected respondents. However, only one hundred and fifty
four copies were properly completed and found useable. This represent 80.2%
response rate.
Results
Table 2 indicated that 20% of the respondents have been working with their firms
for less than 5years, while 74% of the respondents have been working with their
firms for between 5-9 years. Furthermore, 6% of the respondents ’years of
experience range from 10years and above. This implies that 80% of the
respondents have a minimum of 5 years of working experience. Therefore, the
respondents are relatively conversant with their firms' operations and information
provided by the respondents can be relied upon, since they are conversant with
their firms ’operation.
Table 2: Respondents Level of Experience

Years of Experience Frequency Percentage
Less than 5years 31 20%
5-9 years 114 74%
10years and above 9 6%
Total 154 100%
Source: Field Survey (2020) Authors ’Computation from SPSS 23
Hypotheses testing
Ho1: E-HR does not have a positive significant effect on HR practices in
manufacturing firms.
Table 3: The regression result for hypothesis 1 (HR Practices)

Variable(s) Coefficient T P-Value
Constant 6.673 7.452 0. 000
e-HR 0. 5612 4.932 0. 000
F-Stat=24.342(0. 000) R-Square= 0.293
Source: Field Survey (2020) Author`s Computation from SPSS 23
The result in table 3 revealed that e-HR implementation significantly affects the HR
practices of manufacturing firms. This can easily be deduced from the coefficient
and probability value (0. 5612, P-value <0.05), which is less than the 5% (0.05) level
of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected while the alternative
hypothesis was accepted. Furthermore, the F-stat showed that the model is fit for
prediction and decision-making. The R2 (0.293) indicates that e-HR
implementation accounts for 29.3% change in HR practices.
Ho2: Technology adoption does not have a significant effect on employees ’

collaboration in manufacturing firms
Table 4: The regression result for hypothesis 2 (Employees’ Collaboration)

Variable(s) Coefficient T P-Value
Constant 5.039 3.202 0. 002
Technology adoption -0. 555 -6.342 0. 000
F-Stat= 41.502(0.000) R-Square= 0.419
Authors ’Computation from SPSS 23Source: Field Survey (2020)
38
The result in table 4 revealed that technology adoption has a negative significant
effect on employees collaboration of manufacturing firms, this can easily be
deduced from the coefficient and probability value (-0. 555, P-value< 0.05), which
is less than the 5% (0.05) level of significance. Therefore, the null hypothesis will
be accepted while the alternative hypothesis will be rejected. Furthermore, the F-
stat showed that the model is fit for prediction and decision making. The R2 (0.419)
indicates that technology adoption accounts for 41.9% change in employees
collaboration.
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
The advent of COVID-19 which had a global presence, police brutality in the US,
ENDSARS in Nigeria has reinforced the axiom “the only constant in life is change”
because change is a fact of organizational life, just as it is in human life. From the
findings of this study, the researchers found that adoption of e-HR in the selected
manufacturing organization during the COVID-19 pandemic era in Nigeria has
further led to technologically-driven HR practices.
From the findings of this study, the employees of selected manufacturing firms in
Lagos State, Nigeria felt that e-HR is effectively implemented in their organizations.
The organizational culture is gradually being eroded due to the virtual mode of
working. The result of this the study is in line with the study conducted by Karanja
(2015),changes in organizational structures due to technological advancement,
such as downsizing, mergers, and acquisitions not only affect employee numbers
in an organization, but can also radically affect factors such as management style,
organizational culture, and employee commitment and performance.
Employees in the selected manufacturing firm in Lagos State, Nigeria from this
study revealed that technology adoption does not encourage collaboration,
therefore, indicating that the emotional and mental wellness of staff were not
probably adequately considered during policy formulation. This finding
corroborates finding of Rashid, Sambasivan and Rahman (2004), that people are
the most important factor in making change, and however, they are also the most
difficult element to deal with. Therefore, managing the human part of the
organization becomes a major challenge in handling change processes in the
organization as it involves values, preferences, and attitudes toward a particular
activity.
A study conducted by Sunindijo and Zou (2013) has shown that to effectively work
in a team to achieve high organizational performance, emotional intelligence
competence is a vital requirement. However, EI is not only the ability to control
one's feelings, it is also the ability to understand other people by learning to
recognize someone else's experiences and show empathy. The study revealed that
implementing technologically-driven HR practices in companies in the Western
Region of Nigeria does not encourage employee collaboration. The leadership
while formulating policies in the new normal should "penetrate the inner world" of
colleagues to engender a feeling of unity, a feeling that both the leader and
follower are - at one wave (Sneader and Singhal, 2020).
39
The study revealed that the rate of technologically-inclined talents inflows into the
organization has increased due to the COVIC-19 pandemic, sociological
happenings around the globe and the deployment of e-HR practices which have
reduced the number of workforces to give room for light overhead. In the new
normal, automation has changed the world of work. The new robot generation has
a different purpose: to overcome both the physiological and psychological
limitations of human beings. However, the few talents that will be available to work
in this dispensation are expected to be filled with ideas, insights, perspectives and
abstract creative genius that no machine and no software can duplicate (Hessman,
2020).
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESEARCH

Literature has emphasised the fact that Human Resources are the most significant
and vital input for the success of any organization. To thrive in the new normal, the
HR function must inculcate technological literacy as a requirement. The roles and
skills of HR managers have grown considerably in recent times due to the adoption
and use of new technologies. The managers are now able to perform the traditional
functions of procurement, maintenance, development and utilization more
effectively and efficiently. Human resource managers can now take up more
challenging roles in organizations. The growing use of information technology in
human resource has significantly increased the efficiency of HR management
activities and processes, increased their speed and reduced associated costs.
Technology cannot displace man in the workplace; however, the need for man to
collaborate effectively has been discovered to be a necessity. The study,
recommends that engagement strategy should be adopted by management to
facilitate collaboration and bonding among employees while implementing e-HR
in the organization. Further studies to test the research variables in other sectors
like service, banking and construction, would make for better generalization of the
outcomes.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ADVANCEMENTS IN COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN AND THE

CHALLENGES FOR ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
– FEEDBACK FROM THE STUDENTS' INDUSTRIAL WORK
EXPERIENCE SCHEME
Sunday A. Bobadoye1, Dorcas A. Ayeni2, Saidat D. Olanrewaju3 and Ajenifujah-
Aminat O. Ajenifujah-Abubakar4
1,2,3,4Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria
The paper examines the challenges that revolutionary advancements in Computer-

Aided Design (CAD) pose to architectural education against the background of
widespread applications of computers to architectural practice in twenty-first
Century Nigeria. Architectural education as universities in Nigeria are offering it has
not adequately responded to the challenge of equipping students to cope with
computer applications to architecture and construction. On the other hand, design
and modelling operations in architecture and construction establishments are
mostly done in CAD. Using a structured questionnaire as research instrument, this
paper seeks to answer some questions: 1. What CAD knowledge does the
architecture school provide? 2. What CAD competency do students possess, and
how were they acquired? 3. Was CAD competency required to secure internship
placements? Feedback from the mandatory Student's Industrial Work Experience
(SIWES) program undertaken by fourth-year students of the Department of
Architecture, Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria (FUTA), was used to
gauge students' preparation and expectations from architecture and construction
establishments. The questionnaire administered on sixty randomly selected
students was used in eliciting data and serves as feedback on which this study was
anchored. Content analysis was used to analyse the data obtained. Results from the
survey revealed that the current curriculum does not provide the students with
adequate CAD competency to meet architectural workplaces' challenges. However,
CAD competency was significant in securing SIWES placements, and self-help
measures were the primary means to acquire CAD competency. The study suggests
the collaborative design of a Twenty-first Century relevant CAD curriculum,
establishment and maintenance of functional CAD laboratories, re-skilling and up-
skilling of educators to equip architecture students for the profession's CAD
realities.
Keywords: architectural education, CAD, curriculum, students ’industrial work

experience scheme
1 sabobadoye@futa.edu.ng; adebobadoye@gmail.com
2 daayeni@futa.edu.ng
3 olanrewajuso@futa.edu.ng
4 aoajenifujah-abubakar@futa.edu.ng
Bobadoye, et al. (2021) Advancements in computer-aided design and the challenges for
architectural education in Nigeria – feedback from the students' industrial work experience scheme
In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference,
9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 43-57
43
Bobadoye, et al.
INTRODUCTION
In the last three decades of the twentieth century, advancements in computer
technology brought about sweeping changes in the way modern society learn,
work and play. Further developments in the early years of the twenty-first century
in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) have effectively transformed
the world into a global information space causing revolutionary changes in
workplaces. In contemporary Nigeria, the architectural profession has been
inextricably drawn into the vortex of Information technology. The demand and
realities of the local and global workplace have made it inevitable for practicing
architects, architectural educators and students in Nigeria to seek proficiency in
computing (Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 1987; Ogunsote, 2001; Bobadoye,
2002; Ogunsote and Prucnal-Ogunsote, 2006; World Economic Forum, 2016).
In line with global trends, architecture practitioners and construction
establishments in Nigeria have embraced ICT; they are continually investing in new
machines and software. Most reputable architecture firms and establishments in
the country have been computerized, and the use of Computer-Aided Design
(CAD) to accomplish tasks in the design process for conception, drafting,
presentation, documentation and project management is now widespread.
However, there seems to be a mismatch in what architecture establishments
require and what architecture schools in Nigeria offer in terms of interns or
graduates' CAD competency. As it is being taught in Nigeria Universities,
architecture has not adequately responded to the challenges posed by dynamic
advancements in Computer Technology and the increased deployment of CAD in
architectural practice. In the 1980s and 1990's most Schools of architecture in the
country lacked the wherewithal to produce CAD proficient architects, and so most
architects learnt CAD outside of school. How much has the situation changed in
the post year 2000 era? What are the challenges and prospects of producing CAD
proficient architects by architecture schools in Nigeria? Ogunsote et al. (2006)
provided insights into the other posers. First, the significant production of CAD
proficient graduates by Nigeria's architecture schools will require a comprehensive
review of the curriculum to make CAD an integral part of the training programme.
Second, if resources are carefully planned and utilized, CAD proficient graduates'
production is possible because global trends and improvements in computer
technology have led to lower costs of hard and software.
The quintessence of qualitative education is to equip students for future tasks

adequately and perform societal building roles effectively. This study is important
because it sought to identify if there is gap between the CAD knowledge the formal
architecture school exposes the students to and the level of competency expected
from interns by architecture establishments and how such gaps are been bridged
if they exists. It is indeed essential for stakeholders in architectural education to
identify and fashion out means of bridging the gap between school and practice
in the area of computer applications to architecture, especially Computer-Aided
Design (CAD). In the light of the foregoing, this paper seeks to answer some
questions: 1. What CAD knowledge does the architecture school provide? 2. What
CAD competency do students possess, and how were they acquired? 3. Was CAD
competency required to secure internship placements in architecture and
construction establishments?
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ADVANCEMENT IN CAD AND ARCHITECTURAL PRACTICE

Over the years, the use of computers in architecture has been dynamic. According
to Rabee (2006), "it was first envisioned as a sophisticated simulation machine and
then a repository of accurate and comprehensive records of buildings." On their
part, Akin and Anadol (1993) opined that the computer was not seen as a
replacement for other things such as draftsmen, hard copy documents and
organizations. They instead considered it a "medium," no more no less, and then
as a collaborator in the design process in which the computer and the humans
complement each other's weaknesses.
In exploring the integration of digital design and architecture during the past three
decades, Andia, (2001) revealed that architectural firms adapted their CAD skills in
three distinctive eras: first, the CAD on Mainframe Era; second, the CAD Operator
Era; and third, the High Computer Literacy era. This third wave ushered in
introducing the personal computer and PC CAD to architectural firms in the
developed world. This later spread to other developing countries in the late 1980s.
By the 1990s, computers had advanced to the stage where debates could be held
about whether it was possible to create spatial architecture in the virtual rather
than in the real world (Dare-Abel, Igwe, and Ayo, 2014).
From a few years back, there has been rapid development of CAD in the field of
engineering and architecture (World Economic Forum, 2016). CAD systems are
used at various stages in the building design process and are integrated with
analysis tools (Gero, 2002). It can be used to design 2D floor plans and visualize
space within 3D in the field of architecture (Jayathilake and Shantha, 2015). This
brought about a gradual end to the manual drafting and tracing era in architectural
firms.
Since the 1980s, architectural firms in Nigeria have accepted computer

technologies for operations. Since then, there has been incremental growth in the
adoption of CAD in the practice of Architecture in Nigeria (Dare Abel, 2013).
However, an article by Dare-Abel, Igwe, and Ayo (2014) revealed challenges
encountered by architectural firms in adopting CAD. This includes high initial cost
of hardware and software, high cost of maintenance, upgrades and training of staff;
and health and safety implications. Other challenges are software compatibility
problems and system crashes.
As buildings become more complicated due to the introduction of innovative

technologies and increased awareness of social and communal needs, the design
process requires significant modifications of previous practices to respond to newly
emerging requirements (Aksamija & Ali, 2008). It is difficult to imagine how all
these would be possible without CAD. CAD helps to bring several factors that affect
design and construction, such as environmental sensitivity, energy efficiency,
integrated building systems, life safety and security measures. As Aksamija and Ali
(2008) observed, these factors might not result in the development of new building
types, but instead, they change the nature of architectural discourse and practice
and impact the design process. Using Building Information Modeling (BIM)
software, architects can now better manage every aspect of a project as a shared
database with other professionals whose inputs are needed for efficient job
delivery through simulations and collaborations.
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Bobadoye, et al.
Such is the advancement of CAD in architectural practice. It has revolutionised how

architects work positively, helping architects make the best design decisions. These
gains of CAD in architecture do not appear to be waning as several kinds of
research and improvements to existing technologies are underway in various
institutions around the globe.
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN IN NIGERIA'S ARCHITECTURE SCHOOL

CURRICULUM
According to MacGregor (2009), education is the fundamental factor in developing
human capital, the most influential form of capital, and a central societal
development factor. In architectural education, future professional architects'
training is based primarily around the design studio, which serves as the pivot and
gathering point of all knowledge and skill acquired throughout the curriculum
(Mostafa & Mostafa, 2010).
Freehand design, sketching, and manual drafting have always served as useful tools
in the crucial stages of ideation and creative development of Architectural design.
However, the development of digital technology in architecture has opened up a
new vista in the architects' profession and education. As observed by Dare-Abel,
Igwe, and Ayo, (2014), a significant revolution in architectural practice occurred on
a global scale from the 1980s through 1990s when drawing boards were replaced
with the newly developed system called CAD (Computer Aided Drafting). CAD
applications are now generally recognized as a vital aspect of computers' utility in
the architects' workplace and design industry at large (Suleiman, 2006).
As a result of all these developments, the profession is continuously compelling

architecture schools to enhance CAD teaching in their curricula (Pektas & Erkip,
2006). Consequently, Ogunsote, Prucnal-Ogunsote and Umaru, (2006) sought to
identify computer courses taught to architecture students in selected universities.
The study showed that the Schools of Architecture are making concerted efforts to
make CAD an integral part of the training programme. Computer-aided design into
the architectural school curriculum has been lengthily debated among scholars
(Iwuagwu, Azubuine, & Eme-Anele, 2015). However, it has not yielded the desired
fruits as CAD still occupies the background in the architecture schools (Uwakonye,
Alagbe, Oluwatayo, Alagbe, & Alalade, 2015). Towards entrenching CAD in the
architecture school curriculum, Ogunsote, Prucnal-Ogunsote and Umaru (2006)
proposed a CAD curriculum for Nigerian architecture schools cutting across all
undergraduate learning levels. They opined that CAD proficiency should cover
basic computer literacy, CAD concepts and theory, graphics software, 2D CAD and
3D CAD and visualization.
Notable challenges are affecting the integration of CAD into the architectural
curriculum. These include placement of additional work-load on the already
overloaded curriculum, lack of sufficiently qualified resource persons, poor power
supply and inadequate funding for necessary infrastructure, hardware and software
(Iwuagwu, Azubuine, & Eme-Anele, 2015). Added to this is the lack of curriculum
specialization by Architectural schools, which has limited the schools in several
aspects of their operations, including CAD's successful teaching (Balah & Damen,
n. d.). As a result of these bottlenecks, a piecemeal approach has been used to
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Bobadoye, et al.
teach CAD in the curricula of schools of architecture in Nigeria, which is due to the
already overloaded curricula. In entrenching CAD training, care must be taken to
ensure that students are well-prepared to use the tool by first being adequately
trained in manual design and presentation techniques. This will aid the avoidance
of 'garbage-in-garbage-out' kind of design endeavour (Al-Qawasmi, 2005; Alagbe,
Aderonmu, Opoko, Oluwatayo, & Dare-Abel, 2014).
CAD CURRICULUM IN FUTA

As at the time of conducting this study, an old curriculum is being phased out while
a new curriculum takes effect with the 2016/2017 session intake of The Department
of Architecture, Federal University of Technology Akure. The old curriculum still
applies to the students who participated in this study. In the old curriculum,
students could use the computer as a conception tool, while detailed drawings are
presented using manual drafting. In the newly revised curriculum of the FUTA
architecture school, CAD education was introduced at 300 and 400 undergraduate
programs. The CAD courses are compulsory for all architecture students. It is
offered in the first semester of the third year as Computer-Aided Design I (ARC
303) and the fourth year as Computer-Aided Design II (ARC 415). It was expected
that, at this level of study, students had reached an acceptable design maturity that
would enable them to experiment and deal with the advanced design issues
explored in the CAD. In ARC 303, students learn computer basics, computer in
architecture, operating systems and introduction to hardware and different
software. Furthermore, they explore the use of Microsoft office and documentation
tools and get an introduction to AutoCAD software. Students are expected to
produce 2D drawings of a simple structure using AutoCAD at the end of the
semester. In ARC 415, students learn how to use other significant CAD software
focusing on their rendering facilities such as Archi-Cad, Revit architecture, Goggle
sketch-up and 3D Max (Department of Architecture, FUTA, 2018). However, at the
postgraduate level, usually, the initial drafting and modelling are done manually
when most design rationalisation occurs, and computer drawing and rendering are
mostly used for final presentations and project documentation.
STUDENTS' INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

The Students' Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is an initiative of the
Federal Government of Nigeria. Its implementation is through the Industrial
Training Fund (ITF) in collaboration with Universities, Polytechnics and
Monotechnics offering science and technology-related courses in Nigeria. It is
funded and managed by the national government through the Federal Ministry of
Education (Balah & Damen, n. d.). SIWES is fashioned to provide practical
opportunities to undergraduates outside of their institutions. The core objective of
SIWES is to expose students to industrial practices via attachments to firms and
establishments that are engaged in endeavours related to their field of study.
Attachments are for a period of up to six months under supervision, after which
they are answerable to their respective institutions for assessment. During the
internship, the students are expected to have accrued to themselves, tangible work
experience, sense of devotion and responsibility, innovativeness, the right attitude
to work, and requisite skills. As outlined above, these gains are expected to increase
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Bobadoye, et al.
the students' knowledge in their field of study and fire up their zeal, aspirations,
and readiness to be introduced into the work community upon graduation. It also
gives the students the opportunity to develop employability skills (Oladimeji et al.,
2017)
In the Students' Industrial Work Experience Scheme, architecture students secure
attachments to architectural, construction and other related firms and
establishments with a view to making them develop more skills in the field of
architecture. It exposes them to workplace realities and provides an additional
opportunity for students to learn to write field reports.
METHODOLOGY
A structured questionnaire was used to obtain data. Questions were drawn based
on the objectives of the study. Questions that sought to identify students' CAD
competency before SIWES, facilitators of CAD training and the CAD competencies
required by SIWES employers were included in the questionnaire. Population for
the study comprised of fourth-year students of the Department of Architecture,
Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria (FUTA), who completed the
mandatory Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) in the 2015/2016
academic session. Sixty (60) questionnaires were administered, out of which fifty-
six (56) were found suitable for analysis. Our study is, therefore, based on the
content analysis of fifty-six (56) questionnaires. Descriptive statistics in the form of
frequencies and percentages were used to present the responses on the various
questions raised. Findings from the study are presented below.
FINDINGS
Table 1 presents the number of students who had knowledge of CAD before
proceeding on SIWES. From the analysis, 96.4% of respondents had acquired
knowledge of CAD before going on SIWES. This infers that the level of awareness
and readiness to learn CAD is quite high among the students.
Table 1: Knowledge of CAD before SIWES

Responses Frequency Percentage
Yes 54 96.4
No 2 3.6
Total 56 100.0
Source: Field Work, 2017
With respect to the level or period at which the students began learning the use of
CAD, the results showed that the 200 Level was most occurring with 48.2% of
respondents, closely followed by the 100 Level with 21.4% (Table 2). Other
scenarios that included learning CAD before coming to FUTA; and no prior
knowledge of CAD were each represented by 5.4% of respondents. Furthermore,
17.9% of the population indicated 300 Level as their point of learning CAD.
However, the higher levels, that is the 400 and 500 Levels, presented 5.4% and 1.8%
respectively, an indication that the students' quest for the knowledge of CAD
started at the earlier stages of their learning in Architecture.
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Bobadoye, et al.
Table 2: Level at which respondents begun learning CAD

Level Frequency Percentage
100 12 21.4
200 27 48.2
300 10 17.9
400 3 5.4
500 1 1.8
Others 3 5.4
Total 56 100.0
In response to the enquiry on the level of CAD knowledge acquired before SIWES,
most respondents reported that they had acquired the intermediate-level
proficiency in CAD with 60.7% occurrence; basic level proficiency was next with
19.6%, closely followed by advanced-level proficiency at 17.9%. Only one person
indicated no level of knowledge, which suggests that one of the respondents who
had earlier indicated no knowledge of CAD probably had a level of knowledge that
may be classified as rudimentary (see Table 1). Therefore, this indicates that the
majority (98.2%) of the respondents have at least a basic knowledge of CAD before
SIWES (Table 3).
Table 3: Level of CAD knowledge acquired before SIWES

Basic (2D only) 11 19.6
Intermediate (2D and 3D) 34 60.7
Advanced (2D, 3D, Advanced rendering and animation) 10 17.9
None 1 1.8
Total 56 100.0
With respect to CAD being a part of the curriculum, students' responses showed
that 57.1% of respondents believe that CAD training was not included in their
Architecture curriculum, while 41.1% opined contrariwise. Contradiction arose from
respondents during the survey; CAD was only taught as a small component of 300
and 400 Level design studios and not as a stand-alone course in the curriculum.
Table 4: CAD training as part of school curriculum

Yes 23 41.1
No 32 57.1
Unsure 01 1.8
Total 56 100.0
Table 5 shows information about the various facilitators of CAD training. Influences
of the academic environment are higher at a combined 72.8% occurrence as
against private tutors and self-tutoring at an occurrence of 27. 2%.
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Bobadoye, et al.
Table 5: Facilitators of CAD training

Facilitators Frequency Percentage
Design tutors 5 9.1
Level mates 26 47.3
Senior Architecture students 9 16.4
Private tutors (individual) 5 9.1
Private tutors (training centres) 2 3.6
Self-training 7 12.7
Others 1 1.8
Total 55 100.0
A crucial question which the study sought to answer was if CAD knowledge was a
condition for securing the SIWES internship. Table 6 below shows that for 75.0% of
the students, CAD knowledge was a condition for securing the SIWES internship.
However, CAD knowledge was not a condition for securing the SIWES internship
for the remaining 25.0%.
Table 6: CAD knowledge was condition for securing SIWES internship placement
Yes 42 75.0
No 14 25.0
Total 56 100.0
Furthermore, the study examined the level of CAD knowledge that architectural
firms require interns at the entry point. The survey showed that 21.4% required
Basic CAD knowledge (2D only); 50.0% required Intermediate knowledge (2D and
3D) while for 21.4% of students, Advanced CAD knowledge (2D, 3D, rendering and
animation) was required at the point of seeking SIWES placement.
Table 7: Level of CAD knowledge which the employer required at the point of seeking SIWES
placement
Basic (2D only) 12 21.4
Intermediate (2D and 3D) 28 50.0
Advanced (2D, 3D, Advanced rendering and
12 21.4
animation)
None 4 7.2
Total 56 100.0
In Table 8 below, a list of CAD software is presented, and the number of proficient
respondents before IT is given. Note that a student may be proficient in more than
one software; hence, the total figures may not add up to each category's sample
size.
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Bobadoye, et al.
Table 8: CAD software in which respondents were proficient before SIWES

Software Frequency
Autodesk AutoCAD 46
Graphisoft ArchiCAD 26
Autodesk Revit Architecture 36
Google SketchUp 9
Artlantis Studio 15
Rhinoceros 2
Autodesk 3D Max 6
Lumion 6
Others 14
Table 9: Additional CAD training by SIWES establishment to help fit into the workplace
Yes 25 44.64
No 31 55.36
Total 56 100.0
From Table 9, the study sought to know whether or not architectural

establishments have CAD training programmes for their new interns. A little over
half (55.36%) of the establishments do not have additional CAD training to help
their employees fit into the workplace.
Table 10 reveals the types of software training on offer to interns who got
additional training at the entry point. Almost half (48.0%) of the architectural
establishments gave Autodesk AutoCAD training to interns, while 28.0% gave
Autodesk Revit Architecture training. Furthermore, 12.0% of the architectural
establishments gave Graphisoft ArchiCAD training, while 8.0% gave Autodesk 3D
Max training. Rhinoceros software was the least on offer at 4.0%.
Table 10: Type of CAD software training that was received by students during SIWES internship
Autodesk AutoCAD 12 48.0
Graphisoft ArchiCAD 3 12.0
Autodesk Revit Architecture 7 28.0
Rhinoceros 1 4.0
Autodesk 3D Max 2 8.0
Total 25 100.0
Finally, Table 11 shows that occurrence of acquisition of higher CAD knowledge

after SIWES was in the majority (66.1%), while 25.0% did not acquire a higher
level of CAD competency after SIWES.
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Table 11: Acquisition of higher CAD knowledge at the completion of SIWES

Yes 37 66.1
No 14 25.0
Uncertain 5 8.9
Total 56 100.0
Implications of findings for academia and architectural practice

The findings shows that less than 10% of the sample gained CAD competency
through the design tutors. Nonetheless, 88.6% of the students have knowledge of
CAD which is good enough to enter most architecture firms (intermediate
knowledge, 60.7%; advanced knowledge, 17.9%). However, employers require
definite CAD competencies ranging from basic to advanced CAD competencies
from over 90% of prospective SIWES interns. Most students acquired CAD
knowledge from level mates and senior architecture students (47.3% & 16.4%
respectively). The findings therefore implies the inadequacy of formal CAD
pedagogy as offered through teaching staff to prospective SIWES interns. The need
to overhaul CAD curriculum and pedagogy is further highlighted. The availability
or otherwise of sufficient CAD savvy Tutors needs to be scrutinized. In the short
term, it is likely that students will continue to rely on non-formal means of
acquiring CAD competency to bridge the gap. Architectural practice will definitely
seek more advanced CAD competencies from interns and staff while the
architecture schools play catch up.
CHALLENGES FOR ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION

Massive transformations in architecture and construction, aided by technological
advancements in CAD and ICT, have made architectural education devoid of
computing skills near obsolete. Over the past four decades, the steady and rapid
growth of CAD applications to the field of architecture has been relentless. The
emergence of 3-D printing, for example, holds enormous potential for
revolutionising construction (World Economic Forum, 2016). Because recent
advancements like 3-D printing rely on cutting-edge CAD and ICT to function, it
becomes germane that the training of architects must consider contemporary
advancements in CAD.
A combination of excellent traditional sketching and design skills with CAD
proficiency is key to survival in the highly competitive architecture field. This is
where the architecture school must excel. The School curriculum has to be
responsive and even pro-active to accommodate the challenges that CAD realities
have brought upon the architectural profession. How well this has been done in
Nigeria is always in question and will remain so until a significant shake-up is made
in the school curriculum. The dynamism that CAD has brought to architecture
poses specific challenges that the architectural schools must respond to, being the
training ground for future architects who are expected to shape society's physical
fabric. In all these, the expectations of architectural establishments for the
architectural graduate most be borne in mind. This is to ensure that whatever the
processes adopted to combat the challenges of students' CAD proficiency; it must
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be relevant to the work environment in which they are expected to function on

completion of their studies.
Some challenges that are inhibiting the training of CAD proficient architects were
identified first from the literature and second, from our survey and are highlighted
and discussed below:
1. A near static curriculum in an era of rapid technological change: The

architecture school curriculum in Nigeria has come under intense scrutiny over
the last three decades (Olotuah, 2005; Uwakonye, Alagbe, Oluwatayo, Alagbe,
& Alalade, 2015). One of its main shortcomings is CAD's poor presentation,
making it seem almost absent (Ogunsote, Prucnal-Ogunsote, & Umaru, 2006;
Uwakonye, Alagbe, Oluwatayo, Alagbe, & Alalade, 2015). Since the curriculum
is the guide for the teaching of architecture, what the student learns is
determined mainly by the curriculum's design and implementation. A
curriculum that does not give due attention to CAD will result in students being
trained in an environment that inhibits their growth in CAD applications.
Furthermore, this is a significant challenge to the training of CAD competent
architects in Nigeria. The continuous relevance of drawing board-based studios
in this computer age is still unclear. The earlier the architectural educators and
proprietors face the computer revolution reality, the better for architectural
education and practice. The rate at which technology advances over the last few
decades poses a critical challenge to architectural education and CAD
competent students' training. The rate at which software is being developed
and replaced is quite challenging. These changes leave architectural educators
and architects almost no time to react, with new developments springing up
every few months (Bobadoye, 2002). Computer technology is an indispensable
tool for the accumulation and distribution of knowledge in today's information-
driven world. Hence, architectural education must be flexible and dynamic
enough to cope with rapid technological changes. Nevertheless, Field (2005)
warns on the limitations of computer technology to both the practice and
education of architecture if architecture is more than a direct problem-solving
profession.
2. Funding: The availability and process of providing funds is a cardinal challenge
to the training of CAD competent students. This challenge plays out in several
ways. The first problem is that government, which is the main sponsor of
architectural education in Nigeria, has demonstrated its inability to solely and
adequately fund architecture schools. The problem is now made worse by the
downturn in Nigeria's economy and the associated dwindling allocations to the
education sector. The second problem is acquiring the full licensed software
packages that are needed for academic instruction in the architectural school
and utilising the funds efficiently to get the best deals. CAD software is
expensive, and upgrades do not come cheap either. In addition to the cost of
acquiring licensed CAD software, schools are required to set-up standard fully
equipped CAD laboratories where CAD teaching can be comfortably done to
the full benefit of students. Another way funding becomes a challenge is when
we consider that students who use the self-help route to gain CAD competency
usually pay significant amounts of money to acquire the training. Not every
architecture student can bear the cost. Insufficient funding of architectural
education poses a definite challenge to effective CAD pedagogy.
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Bobadoye, et al.
3. The paucity of CAD specialists among teaching staff: This critical challenge to
the production of CAD competent architecture graduates focuses on the
teaching staff in schools of architecture in Nigeria. Here, the challenge arises
from the fact that compared to industry standards, most teaching staff possess
little or near obsolete CAD skills and rarely have core specialisation in CAD. The
shortcomings have rendered most teaching staff in architecture schools
incompetent to handle the teaching of CAD to their current crop of students.
The magnitude of this single challenge is quite enormous; it is at the core of
the challenge of producing CAD proficient students. Without capable teaching
staff, modifications to the curriculum and provision of more funds will be
meaningless, and the expected result, which is the production of CAD
competent graduates, will not be achieved.
Suggestions
The challenges associated with producing CAD competent students can be
tackled reasonably if the following suggestions are implemented:
▪ Designing a CAD curriculum minimum benchmark for architecture

students: This study suggests collaborations among Nigerian schools of
architecture, Association of Architectural Educators (AARCHES), Architects
Registration Council of Nigeria (ARCON) and Nigerian Universities Commission
(NUC) to establish a 21st Century relevant national CAD curriculum benchmark
for architecture students. In the interim, we suggest that CAD courses should
be mounted in the third and fourth of year of undergraduate studies in
architecture with additional courses at the Master's degree programmes. These
study levels are suggested since students need to acquire basic knowledge in
the design and related subjects upon which CAD pedagogy can be built.
▪ Establishment and proper funding of CAD laboratories: standard and functional
CAD laboratories should be established in each architecture school. We suggest
the sequential acquisition of computer hardware, software, and ancillary
equipment to respond to funding limitations. In line with the foregoing, public-
private partnership is advocated to assist the architecture schools with
establishing truly functional CAD laboratories in light of the government's
inability to bear the enterprise's financial burden alone. The enthralling global
village that ICT has turned the world into makes it imperative for architectural
firms to collaborate with the academic institutions to achieve desired results.
▪ Re-skilling and up-skilling of architectural educators: Architect educators
should be supported to attain cutting edge competency in CAD (2D, 3D
rendering, visualization and animation) and Building Information Modeling
(BIM). Scholarships and grants will significantly help educators pursue a
specialization in the challenging but exciting world of architectural computing.
Reskilling and up-skilling of architect educators are critical to kick-starting a
CAD pedagogy revolution. Educators must engage in continuous learning and
should know enough to train industry-relevant graduates. This is in line with
the global best practice where educators and students are encouraged to
engage in lifetime training (World Economic Forum, 2016) This, in synergy with
traditional training and design experience of lecturers, will go a long way in
facilitating the effective teaching and learning of CAD in the schools. Regular
collaborations that feature workshops on computer application in architecture
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should be undertaken by stakeholders such as the Nigerian Institute of

Architects (NIA) and Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria
(AARCHES) as forms of continuing education for practicing architects and
architect-educators. This will also serve to bring educators and practitioners up
to date with the latest CAD developments in architecture and construction.
CONCLUSIONS
The use of computing in architecture in Nigeria has only been on for about four
decades. However, it has recorded phenomenal growth over the period. The
deployment of CAD in architectural practice has increased tremendously in twenty-
first century Nigeria. We hypothesize that all leading architectural firms have
become computerized. It is rare for a non-computerized architectural practice to
win decent commissions. It is also unlikely that a graduate of architecture will get
an excellent job in an architecture firm without being CAD competent (Lawani,
2001; Bobadoye, 2002).
Advancements in Computer Technology and its robust application to architectural
practice pose a definite challenge to architectural education, and the response has
been painfully slow. Restructuring of the architecture curriculum, establishment
and proper funding of CAD laboratories in schools of architecture, sequential
acquisition of computers and associated equipment by the schools, public-private
sector partnership, re-skilling and up-skilling of architectural educators are
suggested as means of equipping students of architectural schools Nigeria to meet
the challenges of the dynamic nature of the global architectural practice. Further
research may consider how students ’dominant reliance on self-help as means to
gain CAD competence impact on their understanding of basic architectural
principles.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AN EXPLORATION OF SPATIAL LAYOUT AND

COMMUNICATION PATTERNS IN TERTIARY HOSPITAL
DESIGN: AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE
HOSPITAL DESIGN
Ejeh David Ekoja1, Sagada Musa Lawal2, Oluigbo Stephen Nwabunwanne3, Maina
Joy Joshua4 and Sufiyan Mu'awiyyah Babale5
1,2,3,4Architecture,
Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria
5Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria
Hospitals are designed to provide healthcare. This is the goal of any healthcare
institution. From previous studies, 36% of the mortality rates in Tertiary Hospitals in
Nigeria have been attributed to communication errors between and among healthcare
professionals and patients. While it is obvious that there is a complex communication
pattern in the Hospital environment, this study sought to investigate how the spatial
layout is related to how the users of the hospital's spatial layout communicate. Thus,
this study sought to probe specific ways the spatial layout is related to communication
patterns in the Hospital environment. To achieve this, this study developed a conceptual
framework that interpreted the spatial layouts in Hospitals based on the Space Syntax
theory and communication patterns on the concept of organisational culture and social
interactions. Based on the framework, a sequential transformative research design was
used to guide the gathering, analysis and interpretation of data. Using DepthmapX and
hospital design sketches, this study assessed the spatial characteristics of hospital
design based on three spatial Depth and Shape of the Spatial layout. Closed Circuit
Televisions (CCTVs) were used to monitor users' social networks in these spatial
categories. In a bid to explore the relationship between spatial layout and
communication patterns in Tertiary Hospital design, results revealed, among other
findings, that the shape, size, and depth, of the Spatial layout contribute significantly to
the predominant communication pattern in the Treatment and Diagnostics Areas
(Vertical Communication patterns). This study concludes through an Evidenced-based
Design framework that the spatial layout of the hospital is strongly related and
influences the patterns of communication among healthcare professionals and between
healthcare professionals and patients. It is, however, recommended that further
comparative studies be conducted to validate findings in this study, as this study (a case
study) was conducted to develop theory in this regard.
Keywords: communication patterns, organisational culture, social interactions,

space syntax, spatial layout
1archejeh@gmail.com
2msagada@yahoo.com
3stephenoluigbo@gmail.com
4joyamina16@gmail.com
5sufiyanmb@gmail.com
Ejeh, et al. (2021) An exploration of spatial layout and communication patterns in tertiary hospital
design: an innovative approach to sustainable hospital design In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs
West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 59-
80
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INTRODUCTION
Hospitals are designed to provide medical services to patients. The design of
hospital spaces promotes easy accessibility, easy movement and easy
communication between health workers and health workers and patients.
(Wagenaar and Men, 2018) From an architecture point of view, the design of a
hospital can either enhance or limit the level of communication between health
workers and between health workers and patients. When communication is
impeded or distorted due to the design, it could lead to poor healthcare service
delivery, leading to increased mortality (Ogunola, 2015, Tahir, Haming and Bijaang,
2018). Barasa, Molyneux, English, and Cleary (2017) noted that communication in a
hospital environment is complex because of the different categories of
professionals, creating communication problems (Sari 2017; Scott, 2017).
The concept of communication, not just in hospitals, is not new and is normally
related to the effective service delivery of various organisations (Scott, 2017). How
an organisation delivers its services to some degree is affected by how the
organisation communicates (methods and patterns). For example, healthcare
delivery in hospitals, which is regarded as an organisation, depends on the way and
manner of communication. Tahir, Haming and Bijaang (2018) point out that an
organisation's communication is a critical factor in achieving set organisational
goals and objectives, coordinating material and human elements of the
organisation. In other words, all the components that contribute to its service
delivery (Lee, 2003, Mckinney, Barker, Smith & Davis, 2004; Scott, 2004;).
Consequently, Ogunola (2015), in a study, established that there is a significant
relationship between the patterns of communication and the delivery of health
care services in Hospitals.
In this relationship stated above, the design of hospitals plays a major role (Rees
and Smith, 2017). Furthermore, according to Wagenaar and Mens (2018), the
design of hospitals has been strongly linked to the development of service delivery.
In other words, the development of the design of hospitals is strongly related to
the development of its service delivery.
To put this in proper perspective, a recent survey of a handful of National teaching
hospitals including the Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital by Oladejo,
Umeh, & Ogbuefi, (2015) revealed that 36% of the errors committed in the delivery
of Healthcare services were traced to poor communication between the various
players in the Hospital environment. This has resulted in poor service delivery,
which accounts for over 20% of the mortality rate recorded in the hospital
(Okonofua, Ntoimo, Ogu, Galadanci, Abdus-Salam, Gana, & Randawa, 2018, Jamoh,
Abubakar and Isa, 2018).
Technology has played a vital in communications in the hospital environment

(Martin, et al., 2019). However, scholars in the medical practice still believe that
interpersonal communication is vital in healthcare delivery and forms the basis for
mentorship and tutelage in the medical professional. (Ezeah, et al., 2020, Chichirez
&Purcărea, 2018, Pirnejad, et al, 2008, de Negri, et al 1997, Thompsonv& Parrott,
1994).
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Most of the studies have focused on the relationship between hospital design and
the effective delivery of care. (Sailer & Penn, 2007. Sailer, et al., 2009, Sailer, et al.,
2013). The findings in these studies highlighted how healthcare environments
affect staff health and safety and how the design of hospitals can improve staff
effectiveness and satisfaction. Other studies have focused on how the design of
hospitals can improve the safety and outcome of the patient. Pachilova & Sailer,
2014, Pachilova, & Sailer, 2015). These studies have linked the design of the
physical environment to patient falls and medication errors, infection, patient
confidentiality and privacy and highlighted the strong impact of the hospital's
design on different aspects of patient safety. Other researchers have focused on
the impact of the physical environment on Stress, depression and the effectiveness
of organisational patterns, especially among staff and patient. (Alfonsi, Capolongo
& Buffoli,2014).
PROBLEM FOCUS
Most studies in spatial layout and communication in hospitals have focused more
on how hospital designs affect the communication of single groups (example
nurses) and groups of two (nurses and patients) while neglecting the complex
social network (communication patterns) between different user groups in the
hospital Pachilova, & Sailer, 2015). environment. Though these studies have been
able to address some of the social problems like commitment, satisfaction and
even communications in the Hospital design, the solutions suggested have been
about these selected groups which are not representative of the entire
communications that are needed for effective service delivery in hospitals. In other
words, communication involving the entire players in the Hospital environment is
what determines effective healthcare delivery. As a result, studies done in this area
has said little in specifically itemising the extent to which the hospital's design
influences the communication patterns (involving all players) in the delivery of
healthcare services. (Sailer & Penn, 2007. Sailer, et al., 2009, Sailer, et al., 2013)
Furthermore, communication patterns occur within the hospital's design space and
it is assumed that it would influence the outcome and pattern of communications.
On paper, the use of the designed spaces of Hospitals by the users in the Hospital
environment is governed by its structure and this is usually termed as strongly
programmed, where the communication patterns between its users follow the rules
and requirements of the organisation, in this case, Hospitals Sailer, Pachilova,
Kostopoulou, Pradinuk, Mackinnor and Hoofwifjk (2013),. In reality, the interplay of
these different roles according to research record overlapping responsibilities
which affect the use of the hospital's design space and subsequently the
communication patterns which influence healthcare delivery. Put differently, most
of the studies in this area have focused on the organisational structure which
defines how communication should be with a lesser focus on how communication
is carried out in the design spaces of the Hospital environment. Thus, spatially
related design solutions to communication-related problems in hospitals have not
focused more on empirical data, which can provide a unique approach to
adequately address a range of the communication problems in the Hospital
environment. This is against a backdrop of a popular comparative research type in
hospitals that favour generalisations with a lesser focus for example on the
uniqueness of communication patterns in hospitals.
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Subsequently, Sailer, Pachilova, Kostopoulou, Pradinuk, Mackinnor and Hoofwifjk

(2013), observed the communication patterns (social interactions) of three
categories of users (physicians, nurses and clerks) and correlated with the spatial
layout of two different hospital design. Though the study investigated the
relationship between spatial layout and communication patterns, the patient, who
sits at the focal point of Hospital Design (Wagenaar & Mens, 2019) and a major
stakeholder in the patterns of communication (social interaction) in hospitals has
seldom be catered for in spatial layout-communication research in Architecture.
This has translated to evidence-based design frameworks that are tailored towards
specific groups in the Hospital environment. and do not effectively address the
communication problems associated with the complex social interaction involving
the entire groups representative in the Hospital environment.
Similarly, Cai, and Zimring's study (2019), sought to understand the relationship
between spatial layout and communication across two distinct cultural regions
(China and USA). This was a comparative study of Hospital designs in the United
States of America and the Republic of China. It focused very little on establishing
and building a theory between the communication patterns in Hospitals,
interpreted in this study as the social interactions between the players in the
Hospital environment including patients and the spatial layout of the Hospitals
where these social interactions occur. Subsequently, the findings in the study
addressed hypothetically the relationship between the spatial layout of Hospitals
and the Culture in the two distinct cultures investigated (the United States and
China). The issue is that, like many other studies in this area. There is little
knowledge about the communications patterns prevalent in the Hospital
environment, especially when considering all players in the organisation. Also,
there seems to be little evidence-based design information on the specific ways
the spatial layout of Hospitals influences communication patterns, which is unique
to different hospital environments. Thus, this paper aimed to investigate the impact
of spatial layout on organisational communication patterns in tertiary hospital
design and propose an evidence-based design (EBD) in hospital architecture. To
achieve this, the following objectives were listed
1. To interpret the concepts of spatial layouts and communication patterns in
Tertiary Hospitals.
2. To explore the prevailing communication patterns and characteristics of spatial
layout in Tertiary hospital design.
3. To propose an evidence-based design framework highlighting the relationship
between spatial layout and communication patterns in the hospital
environment.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This paper operationalised spatial configuration and communication patterns to
explore the relationship between space and communication patterns.
The concept of space syntax was used to interpret the concept of spatial
configuration. Hillier and Hanson (1984) opined that the spatial configuration of
different building typologies have unique social millieux. The social milieu is a
combination of the spatial configuration's structure, function and aesthetics.
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Table 1.1: A list of studies on organisational communication and spatial configuration

No Author/ Year Study
Cultural impacts on nursing unit design: A comparative study on Chinese

1 Cai H, Zimring C,.(2017).
nursing unit typologies and their U.S. counterparts using space syntax
Real, K., Bardach, S. H., & The role of the built environment: how decentralised nurse stations
2
Bardach, D. R. (2017) shape communication, patient care processes, and patient outcomes.
Gharaveis, A., Hamilton, D. K., & The Impact of Environmental Design on Teamwork and Communication
3
Pati, D. (2017) in Healthcare Facilities: A Systematic Literature Review.
Rippin, A. S., Zimring, C., Samuels, Finding a Middle Ground: Exploring the Impact of Patient-and Family-
4
O., & Denham, M. E. (2015) Centered Design on Nurse–Family Interactions in the Neuro ICU
5 Rashid, M. (2015). Research on nursing unit layouts: an integrative review.
Hua, Becker, Wurmser, Bliss, Haltz Effects of nursing unit spatial layout on nursing team communication
6
and Hedges (2015). patterns, quality of care, and patient safety
The effects of physical environments in medical wards on medication
7 Liu, Mainas and Gerdtz (2014)
communication processes affecting patient safety
Bayramzadeh, S., & Alkazemi, M. Centralised vs. decentralised nursing stations: An evaluation of the
8
F. (2014). implications of communication technologies in healthcare.
The Effect of Hospital Layout on Caregiver-Patient Communication
9 Pachilova, R., & Sailer, K. (2013)
Patterns
Out of Sight, Out of Reach: Correlating spatial metrics of nurse station
10 Cai, H., & Zimring, C. (2012) typology with nurses' communication and co-awareness in an intensive
care unit
Space, behaviour, and environmental perception in open-plan offices: a
11 Rashid, 2009
prospective study
Comparative studies of offices pre and post—how changing spatial
12 Sailer et al., 2009
configurations affect organisational behaviours
13 Sailer & Penn, 2009 Spatiality and transpatiality in workplace environments
14 Wineman et al., 2009 Spatial and Social Networks in Organizational Innovation
15 Penn et al., 2007 Structure, Agency, and Space in the Emergence of Organizational Culture
16 Peponis et al., 2007 Designing space to support knowledge work
17 Sailer, 2007 Movement in workplace environments–configurational or programmed?
Effective workplaces: bridging the gap between architectural research
18 Sailer et al., 2007
and design practice
The performance of space–exploring social and spatial phenomena of
19 Sailer & Penn, 2007
interaction patterns in an organisation
Enhancing Workspace Performance: Predicting the Influence of Spatial
20 Wineman & Adhya, 2007
and Psychosocial Factors on Job Satisfaction
Spatial layout and face-to-face interaction in offices--a study of the
21 Rashid et al., 2006
mechanisms of spatial effects on face-to-face interaction
Configuration and Design in Caring Environments: Syntax and quality of
22 Hanson & Zako, 2005
life in a sample of residential care homes for older people
The Effects of Spatial Behaviors and Layout Attributes on Individuals'
22 Rashid et al., 2005
Perception of Psychosocial Constructs in Offices
Organisational constructs and the structure of space: A comparative
23 Rashid & Zimring, 2003
study of office layouts
The Space of Innovation: Interaction and Communication in the Work
24 Penn et al., 1999
Environment
Spatial and Communication Patterns in Research and Development
25 Serrato & Wineman, 1999
Facilities
26 Peatross, 1997 The Spatial Dimension of Control in Restrictive Settings
27 Wineman & Serrato, 1997 Enhancing Communication in Lab-based Organizations
28 Peatross & Peponis, 1995 Space, Education, and Socialization
The social potential of buildings: spatial structure and the innovative
29 Penn & Hillier, 1992
milieu in scientific research laboratories
30 Allen, 1977 Managing the Flow of Technology
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Ejeh, et al.
In other words, a spatially configured space can evoke unique experiences that are
a combination of its primary function, the way individual spaces that make up the
spatial layout are arranged (structure) and the architectural symbols used in the
spatial configuration.
Furthermore, the concept of space syntax provides numerical interpretation
through spatial metrics that help to characterise any space in terms of its size,
shape, depth, global properties, the potential to explore and move, and
complexities (Koutsolampros et al. 2019).
On the other hand, the concept of communication patterns was interpreted with
Hofstede (2015) concept of organisational culture. Previous communication-
related studies understood communication strictly through the lens of
organisational structure, highlighting how communication patterns should be in
the hospital environment. However, this research posts a dynamic nature to the
communication patterns in the hospital environment. This can be interpreted
through the concept of its organisational culture, which reveals the
communication patterns in reality. This study went further to use the Hofstede
(2015) concept of organisational culture to interpret communication patterns as
social interactions within the hospital environment. This paper posits that
interactions among the different user groups still form the core of health care
delivery and tutelage. Thus the [a[er acknowledges the use of technology to aid
and not replace physical interactions within the hospital environment. Thus, this
study focuses on the attributes, behaviours and values which reveal prevailing
communication patterns within the hospital environment.
After contextualising the concepts under consideration, the paper proceeded to
online databases to search for relevant published literature in line with the purpose
of this paper. The selection of the databases was based on proven records of
research in human behaviour in the built environment. Three databases were used,
namely, SAGE journals, Medline and Google scholar. Keywords used in the search
for related articles included spatial configuration, communication, behaviour, and
healthcare settings. After a preliminary review of the paper titles, 101 related
articles were listed as research done in human behaviour in healthcare settings. A
thorough review of the Abstract and major findings highlighted 30 studies that
have targeted the investigation of organisational communication and spatial
configuration in healthcare environments. These studies outlined in table 1.1 show
the title and year of the research.
To analyse the data in the literature reviewed a summative content analysis was
used. This was done to understand the conceptual use of the concepts under
review, examine language intensely in order to classify texts in categories and most
importantly interpret the context of text data through systematic classification.
The criteria used to examine the content were based on;

i. The aim and the findings of the study
ii. The objectives and methodology of the study
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Findings from the review based on these two criteria included;

1. Most studies were focused on how the spatial configurations of complex
building typologies affected the communication patterns of single groups
(example, nurses) and groups of two (example, nurses and physicians)
2. Also, most studies failed to incorporate the patient group in the study of the
complex social network within the hospital environment, which according to
literature, is pivotal in the design of hospitals and a key node in communication
relations in healthcare environments.
3. Recent research was not based on empirical data (observed communication
pattern) and focused on theoretical assumptions.
4. Regarding the findings, most studies were limited to comparisons of different

cultures and building typologies. Thus most studies highlighted differences and
similarities between the different hospital typologies among different cultures
and failed to study in-depth.
5. Methods used to assess space were based on the theory of space syntax. Thus
studies under review highlighted key spatial measures used in assessing the
spatial configuration of healthcare environments. Examples of these measures
include Accessibility, Copresence, Integration (Global and Local), connectivity,
length of axial lines and visibility.
6. Organisational measures used to assess communication were movement,
behaviour during communication, tie strength, face-to-face interaction,
territoriality, frequency of interaction, location of interaction.
7. Most studies recorded the use of statistical analysis in harmonising spatial
analysis data and data from communication patterns—for example, Pearsons'
Correlation and Multiple linear regression to highlight relationships between
the two concepts.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In developing the theoretical framework for the study, the research understood the
organisational communication in Hospitals to depict the social interactions
between the key players (Doctors, Nurses, Medical Personnel and Patient) within
the hospital environment. According to Sadia, Salleh, Kadir and Sanif (2016), there
is a relationship between organisational culture, organisational structure, and
communication patterns in a hospital environment. It must be pointed out that
communication patterns do not refer to communication in hospitals as elucidated
in the Organisational structure of Hospitals. Put differently, an organisational
structure provides on paper how communication in hospitals should be. However,
the Organisational culture presents communication as it is in the hospital and thus
provides a valid interpretation of the communication patterns in the hospital.
The organisational culture is expressed through the attitudes, behaviour and values
in the hospital organisation. Therefore, it portrays the patterns of communication
that is of interest in this study to a certain degree. These patterns of
communications that the Behavioural and Movement patterns can observe can be
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Ejeh, et al.
measured by analysing the structure of social networks. The structure of social

networks can be measured by the Number of Ties, Average Degree and
Betweenness Centrality. These variables of the social networks within the hospital
environment define the patterns of communication. These variables and measures
can be related to the properties of space, defined by the concept of space syntax
and measured using spatial metrics that measure the Size, Shape and Normalised
Depth of the spatial layout (Koutsolampros, 2019).
Figure 1: Relationship between the constructs of Communication and Spatial layout in Hospital
design
Figure 2: Theoretical framework showing the focus of the study.

Thus, this forms a reasonable basis that this study sought to explore a relationship
between a hospital's communication patterns and the spatial layout in the hospital
environment. Thus, using the concept of space syntax to interpret and measure the
characteristics of the spatial layout of hospitals and the concept of social network
analysis to interpret the social interactions, which in this case portrays the patterns
of communication in the hospital environment figure 2 elucidates the theoretical
framework for this paper graphically.
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Ejeh, et al.
METHODOLOGY
To promote the understanding of the various phenomena in question, inform
practice for similar situations and develop theory in hospital architecture, the case
study method was proposed for the study. This was because the study sought to
understand the phenomenon and relationship between spatial layout and hospital
communication patterns. To study the case, a sequential transformative research
design was used for the study. This allowed the theoretical perspective of the study
to guide the research and determine the manner and order data was collected. The
results were integrated at the end during the interpretation of the data collected.
(Creswell, 2013).
Table 1: Summary of Sequential Transformative Research Design and Objectives

Obj Step Approach Variables/instrument
1 Develop a Theoretical Systematic Review of Relevant Relevant
framework on Spatial Literature on Spatial layout and Literature/previous
layout and organisational Communication empirical studies (30)
Organisational Studies
Communication in
Tertiary Hospitals
2 Evaluate the An observational analysis of Variables
communication patterns behaviour and movement Number of ties
prevalent in the different patterns using social network Average Degree
categories of space in the analysis to map out the social Betweenness Centrality
Hospital understudy networks in the different spaces Instrument
in the hospital and described CCTV cameras.
based on the results for the UCINET SNA software
interview survey.
2 Assess the Spatial layout A spatial analysis of the spatial Variables
of the Hospital space layout of the hospital (done in Size
based on Space syntax sections and as a whole) based Shape and Normalised
theory and methodology on Visibility Graph analysis depth of Spatial layout
and using Wagenaar and (Space Syntax Theory) Instrument.
Mens (2019) Typological Koutsolampros et al. (2019). Spatial Layout of
Model for Hospital Hospital,
Classification DEPTH MAP X software
for Spatial analysis
3 Harmonising Data A Statistical analysis using Instrument
collected (Social network Pearson's correlation and Microsoft Excel.
analysis and Spatial Multiple Regression) Spearman's correlation,
analysis) to assess the Multiple linear
relationships between the regression
concepts
Also, this study sought to grasp and investigate the dynamic relationship between
the spatial layout and communication patterns in hospital environments, thus the
use of the case study method. The aim was to have first-hand experience on the
prevailing communication patterns in Tertiary hospitals, which most researchers
argue to be universal. A summary of the research design is outlined in Table 1. This
is the approach proposed for the study.
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Criteria
The classification of healthcare in Nigeria (which is country-specific and population
dependent) is based on National Health care which is classified into a three-tier
structure based on the Federal, State and local governments prevalent throughout
the country (Cooke & Tahir, 2013).
Figure 3: The Nigerian Healthcare Pyramid
Figure 3 shows an illustration of the Nigerian Healthcare pyramid, which has the
Primary healthcare centres at the pyramid base and the Tertiary hospitals at their
apex. The state-level is responsible for secondary hospitals through the state
ministries of health (SMOH) and the regulation and technical support for primary
health care services. At the Federal level, the Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH) is
responsible for policy and technical support to the overall health system and
Health service provision through tertiary and teaching hospitals and national
laboratories. (Koce, 2018)
On paper, these three tiers have complementary roles, but in reality, the country's
practicality in the country is not as seamless as itemised. The three-tier government
healthcare delivery has been characterised by duplication and confusion of roles
and responsibilities (Innocent, Uche and Uche, 2014). As a result, the focus of this
paper was on tertiary hospital design.
The tertiary Hospital in Nigeria constitutes Teaching Hospitals, Federal Medical

Centers and Specialty Hospitals distributed across the six geopolitical zones in the
country. Out of the 60 tertiary hospitals, 27 (45%) are Teaching Hospitals, 20(33.3%)
are Federal Medical Centers and 13 (21.3%) are speciality hospitals. According to
Innocent, Uche and Uche (2014), in operationalising the 3 tiers of Healthcare
delivery policy, the Federal Government of Nigeria decided to establish at least one
tertiary Health institution in each state of the Federation, especially in areas that
don't have Teaching Hospitals. In selecting an appropriate case for the study the
research considered teaching Hospitals and federal medical centres. However, a
closer look at the theoretical framework pointed out that the medical student, a
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major stakeholder in Teaching Hospitals' communication patterns, was not

considered in developing a theoretical framework for this paper.
Furthermore, the Federal Medical Centres scale across the states did not fully
represent the complexity of social networks as highlighted by this study. On the
other hand, the National Hospital Abuja provided a reasonable scale compared to
the other Federal Medical Centres and represented to a greater extent the complex
heterogeneous social networks in a hospital environment. Also, the National
Hospital Abuja is regarded as a federal medical Centre and a speciality hospital.
This study selected the National Hospital Abuja to study and understand the
phenomena under consideration. This selection was because the Nigerian
Healthcare system is organised in three broad categories; the primary, secondary
and tertiary healthcare levels. While the local and state governments are
responsible for providing primary and secondary health care, the federal
government is responsible for providing tertiary care besides policy development
and regulation. The tertiary hospitals sit at the apex of the hospital pyramid in
Nigeria and serve as a reference for the primary and secondary health care units.
The National hospital, Abuja, a tertiary hospital, provides a platform for the various
aspects of communication in the hospital environment. It provides an environment
that can accommodate the numerous communication patterns in the healthcare
environment that both primary and secondary healthcare units cannot. Other
tertiary hospitals like teaching hospitals were considered for the case study but
could not be selected because of conflicting goals. Unlike the National hospital,
which has its primary goal as the efficient delivery of health, the teaching hospitals
have both the efficient delivery of care and teaching (knowledge delivery) as their
primary goals. Thus, the teaching hospitals, though tertiary, does not provide the
ideal for studying the concepts under consideration. Unlike the National Hospital
in, Abuja the student-doctors and student-nurses dictate the hospital environment
patterns largely. Furthermore, some communication in the teaching hospital
environment is tailored towards the teaching of medicine and would create a bias
in this research that is to teaching hospitals
The Architecture of the National Hospital, Abuja
Though there are many views on the architecture of hospitals, Verderber(2000,
2003, 2008), Wagenaar and Mens, (2018), Adams (2008), to mention a few, this
study assessed the National Hospital, Abuja based on Wagenaar and Mens (2018)
typical hospital configuration. This consisted of four (4) types namely; the Theme
Model, the Center Model, the Three-Flow Model and the Typological Model. The
National Hospital, Abuja falls under the Typological Model, which distinguishes
four types of spaces, namely; the "Factory" which houses technical functions, the
"Office", the "Hot floor" (treatment area), and the Hotel (Patient ward) in other
words, the spatial layout of the National Hospital was divided into 4 major
categories, namely,
1. The Outpatient and Emergency Departments (The office)

2. Treatment and diagnostics Areas (Hot floor- the core of the hospital spatial
layout))
3. Inpatient Wards (The Hotel)
4. Supporting Spaces-Mortuary, Restaurants, auxiliary spaces (The Factory
House).
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Ejeh, et al.
Plate 1 shows a google map of the National hospital Abuja, while figure 4 shows
the spatial layout of the National Hospital Abuja.
Plate 1: Google map view of National Hospital Abuja
Figure 4: Site plan of the National Hospital Abuja
Population, Sampling and Data Collection

It should be noted that the Population for this study focused on the Users within
the spatial layouts in the Hospital environment being studied. These users included
Doctors, Nurses, Patients, informal caregivers (specific to Nigerian hospitals) and
other healthcare professionals who offer healthcare with these spaces. Concerning
the samples, the social networks were observed at time intervals during peak work
hours. Social networks were observed every 15 mins for eight hours from 7 am to
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Ejeh, et al.
3 pm from Monday to Thursday for two weeks. This developed data of 32 social
networks daily and a total of 250 social networks for eight days.
Using a Reolink Wireless Closed Circuit Television, the social networks were
observed in the three distinct spatial layouts as opined by Wagenaar (2018). Social
network data were translated to *.csv format (Microsoft excel), visualised and
quantified using the social network measure as highlighted previously using
UCINET social network analysis software (Borgatti, Everett, & Freeman, 2002). Also,
using as-built drawings of the hospital's spatial layout, DepthMapX, a space syntax
analysing tool, was used to assess the spatial layout using three major spatial
syntax variables, namely, the size, shape and normalised depth of the spatial
layouts (Koutsolampros, Sailer, Varoudis, & Haslem, 2019). Using a Regression
Statistical Model, this paper assessed the relationship between the spatial layout
of hospitals and the observed communication patterns. The independent variables
included the Shape, Size, and Depth of the spatial layouts. The dependent variables
were the Number of Ties, the average degree, and observed social networks'
diameter.
RESULTS
The study developed data from three (3) independent but related sources. First,
using the concept of space syntax, as stated earlier, DepthmapX was used to
develop numerical data to characterise the spatial properties of three (3) categories
of spatial configuration studied (outpatient department, treatment and diagnostics
areas, and inpatient wards). The spatial metrics were focused on the size, shape
and depth of the spatial layout. Second, using social network analyses, this paper
focused on the number of ties, the average degree, and the diameter of the
observed social network to understand and characterise the prevailing
communication patterns in the investigated space categories identified previously.
The relationships between the two concepts of spatial configuration and
communication patterns were modelled using multiple linear regression.
Spearman's rank correlation between independent and dependent variables was
developed as a basis for developing a regression model. The study checked for
multicollinearity and homoscedasticity to develop an all-encompassing statistical
model.
The results from this paper are divided into three parts, namely
1. The spatial analysis of the spatial layout of the hospital environment
2. The analysis of the observed social networks in the three spatial categories of
the Hospital Environment
3. The regression analysis provided a peek into the relationship between the
spatial layout and communication in the Hospital environment.
Spatial Analysis
The results for the spatial analysis included three spatial layouts namely, the
Outpatient and Emergency Units, the Treatment and Diagnostics areas and the
Inpatient Wards. Table 2 illustrates a summary of the spatial characteristics of the
spaces reviewed.
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Ejeh, et al.
Spatial Spatial Std Sample

Mean Median Mode SD Kurtosis
layouts Metrics Error Variance
Connectivity Size 35.55 0.658 28 5 27.19 739.20 -0.13
Outpatient
and Visual Mean
Shape 5.53 0.039 5.54 1 1.60 2.56 2.13
Emergency Depth
Unit Visual
Depth 1.60 0.02 1.75 -1.00 0.75 0.57 -2.09
integration
Connectivity Size 73.30 1.84 62.00 10.00 55.89 3123.96 0.44
Trreatment
and Visual Mean
Shape 3.46 0.02 3.38 2.91 0.63 0.40 1.00
Diagnostics Depth
Areas Visual
Depth 3.13 0.02 3.06 3.82 0.73 0.53 0.12
integration
Connectivity Size 164.86 2.09 181.00 260.0 94.48 8925.65 -0.40
Inpatient Visual Mean
Shape 3.89 0.01 3.94 4.00 0.56 0.32 0.80
Wards Depth
Visual
Depth 3.13 0.02 3.06 3.82 0.73 0.53 0.12
integration
Also, this paper conducted a test to ascertain the intelligibility of the spatial layouts
in the hospital environment. The intelligibility is the correlation between the size
of the spatial layout and the privacy of the spatial layout in this case its integration
value. Table 3 compares the intelligibility value for the three distinct spatial layouts
of the hospital design.
Table 3: Intelligibility of the spatial layout in the National Hospital Abuja

Intelligibility (Correlations between
Spatial Layout P-Value
Connectivity and Integration ) P
1 Outpatient Department Connectivity – Integration 0.5
Treatment and Diagnostics
2 Connectivity – Integration 0.8
Areas
3 Inpatient Wards Connectivity – Integration 0.3
Source: Research Data 2020
Social network analysis

As stated previously, social networks were used to assess the prevailing patterns
of communication in the hospital under review. Table 4 below summarises the
key networks variables used in this paper.
Table 4: Social networks variables in the various spatial layouts

Network
Spatial Layout Day1 Day2 Day3 Day4 Day5 Day6 Day7 Day8
Variables
Outpatient and
Number of Ties 172 188 210 188 124 147.6 138.0 128.4
Emergency Units
Average Degree 3 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.4 3.8 3.9 4.0
Betweeness
40 38 44 46 57 57.6 61.8 66.0
Centrality
Treatment and
Number of Ties 88 88 104 118 132 141.4 153.2 165.0
Diagnostics
Average Degree 3.5 3.5 3.9 3.9 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.9
Betweeness
60 61 39 47 32 26.8 19.8 12.8
Centrality
Inpatient Wards Number of Ties 128 108 84 94 94 77.0 68.8 60.6
Average Degree 4.13 4.15 3.65 3.76 3.2 3.1 2.9 2.7
Betweeness
33 28 28 27 53 45.5 49.4 53.3
Centrality
Figure 5 illustrates an example of a visualised social network with data generated

from observations in the hospital environment
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Ejeh, et al.
Figure 5: Social Network observed in the Outpatient and Emergency unit in the National Hospital
Abuja.
Visualised by UCINET (Borgatti Everest & Freeman, 2002)
Relationships between spatial layout and communication patterns

To explore relationships between the spatial layout in tertiary hospital design and
the prevailing communication patterns in the hospital environment, a regression
model was developed with the spatial metrics as the independent variable and the
variable of the observed social networks as the dependent variables. Table 5 to
Table 7 shows the results of the regression statistics between the two concepts.
Table 5: Relationship between spatial layout and communication in multi-clinics and

laboratories unit
Social Network
cc Spatial Measure Spatial Metric P-Value Coeff. Variance
Measure
Number of Ties
Average Degree Global Mean Shortest
1 0.04 7.32 R2=0.04
Betweeness properties Path Distance
Centrality
Number of Ties
The shape of
Average Degree Isovist
2 Spatial 0.001 38.99 R2=0.15
Betweeness Compactness
Configuration
Centrality
Number of Ties
Average Degree Size of Spatial
3 Isovist Perimeter 0.026 0.045 R2=0.15
Betweeness Configuration
Centrality
Number of Ties
4 Visual Entropy 0.04 -6.73 R2=0.005
Centrality
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Ejeh, et al.
Table 6: Relationship between spatial layout and communication in the treatment and
diagnostics areas
Social Network Spatial P-
Spatial Metric Coeff. Variance
Measure Measure Value
Number of Ties
1 Isovist Perimeter 0.04 -0.021 R2=0.22
Centrality
Number of Ties
The shape of Isovist Max Radial 0.05 0.012
Average Degree
2 Spatial Point First Moment 0.01 -0.008 R2=0.07
Betweeness
Configuration Point Second Moment 0.02 0.192
Centrality
Number of Ties
Average Degree Normalised
3 Integration (HH) 0.02 -4.60 R2=0.07
Betweeness Depth
Centrality
Table 7: Relationship between spatial layout and communication in the inpatient wards
Social Network P-
Spatial Measure Spatial Metric Coeff. Variance
Measure Value
Number of Ties
Average Degree Shape of Spatial Isovist Max Radial 0.002 0.002
1 R2=0.099
Diameter of Configuration Point Second Moment 0.01 0.083
Network
Number of Ties
Average Degree Normalised
2 Integration (HH) 0.002 0.045 R2=0.095
Diameter of Depth
Network
DISCUSSION
Prevailing communication patterns
It was interesting to categorise the communication patterns prevalent in the
Tertiary Hospital based on the Typological differences of its spatial layout.
Based on the results and characteristics of the social networks observed, The
Outpatient Department had more Horizontal Communication Patterns due to the
allocation of spaces to the different roles in the clinics investigated in the
Outpatient Department and these patterns revolved around the Nurse roles which
was the link between other roles in the social network. The Vertical communication
patterns in the Treatment and Diagnostics areas was attributed to the specialised
healthcare given in its spatial layout. This study concluded that each Role identified
in the treatment and diagnostics area had interdependent activities which involved
other roles to achieve effective healthcare delivery. Also, the Vertical
Communication patterns in the Inpatient Wards highlight the routines of the
professional roles in achieving effective healthcare delivery. The communication
patterns revolved around the Patients social interaction on a routine basis with the
Nurse and Doctor Roles.
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Ejeh, et al.
Spatial analysis
The Outpatient Department comprises three distinct but connected units in the
National Hospital Abuja. They include the Emergency Unit, the Administrative Block
and the Multi-clinics and Laboratories Unit. The Multi-clinics and the Emergency
unit share similar Architectural Characteristics with a central octagonal shaped
open courtyard with eight (8) categories of space arrayed around the courtyard.
The Multi-Clinics and Laboratories Unit is made up of the Entrance and Waiting
Area, the Medical Clinic, Obstetrics Clinic, Gynae Clinic and Diagnostic Suites,
Paediatric Clinic, a Pharmacy and Service Area for Professionals and Recording
Keeping. The Visibility Graph of the Multi-Clinics and laboratories shows the
highest connectivity value of 110-112 in the Entrance and Diagnostics Suite. This is
because the Connectivity metric is highly correlated with the Isovist Area (0.999).
Thus, the size of the space and the position, in this case, allows the open spaces in
the Entrance and Diagnostics Suite to have the highest connectivity. This means
that in the spatial configuration of the Multi-Clinics and Laboratories Unit, the
transition Areas (corridors/lobbies) in the Entrance and the Diagnostic Suites are
important spaces due to their size and connection to other spaces in the unit.
However, these characteristics address the frequency of the people and movement
and do not necessarily translate to increased interaction within the said space. It
did not come as a surprise that restrooms and sanitary areas located at different
areas in the Multi-Clinics and Laboratories had the least Connectivity value ranging
from 1-4. The Consulting rooms had the second-lowest Connectivity values which
ranged from 6-24. The Spatial configuration of the Multi-clinics and Laboratories
suggest an evenly spaced connectivity value that cut across evenly the various
clinics in the Outpatient Area.
This is in line with this study which interprets the design of the Outpatient
Department based on its structure that is its pattern of spatial arrangement,
otherwise termed an Office Oriented Design.
As stated previously, the Treatment and Diagnostic Areas are at the core of the
National Hospital Abuja. The Spatial configuration of this core area is linear with
the major Hospital pedestrian passing through its centre. The Maternity Ward on
the Ground Floor and the Intensive Care Unit on the First Floor were analysed as
representations of the Treatment and Diagnostic area of the National Hospital,
Abuja. The maternity area is characterised by an array of spaces arranged based on
the processes in administering maternity treatment in the National Hospital, Abuja.
From the entrance, the waiting, the delivery room and the ward to the Obstetrics
theatre there is an intelligible line that maps out these processes chronologically.
From its Connectivity value, the corridor which spans across the entire building has
the largest connectivity value of 121. Though the spatial configuration of the
Maternity ward has high connectivity with a single corridor that links all other space
in the building, the spatial configuration has a high Visual Mean Depth that caters
for the chronological processes in the Maternity Ward. For example, though the
corridor spans the entire building, some of the spaces in the Maternity Ward can
not be accessed from the corridor. Thus, concerning the Visual Mean Depth and
Visual Step Depth, the Maternity Ward has high Visual Control especially with the
reduction of the Integration Value
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Ejeh, et al.
The Inpatient Wards in the National Hospital, Abuja is divided into three categories:
the Male Inpatient ward, the Female Inpatient Ward, and the Paediatric Ward
designed to cater to Children/Infants. The spatial configuration of the Inpatient
Ward in the National Hospital is similar. Both the Male and Female wards with the
Paediatric wards are all designed around a central core. For example, the Male and
Female Ward is an inverted T-shaped plan with three wards arranged around a
central core. Besides, the Paediatric Ward is an X-shape plan with the Paediatric
wards arranged around a central core. The Visibility graph of the Inpatient ward
has a very High Connectivity value of 324 compared with other spaces in the
Hospital environment. This value is shared between the ward and the corridor in
the inpatient ward. In other words, due to the high Isovist area in the Wards, the
Connectivity is also high. The Visual Mean Depth and Visual Step Depth strongly
correlate with the Inpatient Wards' Integration Value. The Visual Control is low
compared to the other two space categories of the hospital partly due to the fact
the wards can be accessed from more than an entrance. There is no strict space
demarcation in the wards thus, the Visual Clustering Coefficient is high and allows
for small groups to interact within the wards
Framework: spatial layouts and communication patterns in tertiary hospital

design
The framework outlines those aspects of the spatial configuration that are critical
in terms of achieving effective communications in the Hospital environment. Since,
this study assessed the National Hospital, Abuja, a tertiary Hospital based on the
Typological classification postulated by Wagenaar and Mens (2019), the framework
addresses the differences in the spatial layout by highlighting the key spatial
measures to looked out for in a bid to achieve effective communication between
and among all the players represented in the Hospital environment. As illustrated,
the framework addresses the three most distinct spatial types identified in the
Hospital spatial configuration in the National Hospital, Abuja. The proposed
framework addresses the design phase of a typical Tertiary hospital design and
highlights key spatial measures like the Shape and Size of the spatial layout that
affect the efficiency of communication patterns in the Hospital environment. The
proposed framework further highlights the prevailing communication patterns in
the different space categories in the Hospital environment. Figure 6 captures the
proposed evidence design framework for Tertiary hospital design. (See next page)

This paper set out to redefine spatial layout in tertiary hospital design by focusing
on the experience space offers, especially in hospitals. This was about Hillier and
Hanson (1984) social logic of space, which suggested that the experiential
dimension of space can be quantified. The focus was on communication patterns,
and this paper conceptualised it as a subset of the hospital's organisational culture.
Using the Hofstede (2015) concepts of organisational culture, this paper
interpreted communication patterns as social interactions in the hospital
environment, which can be seen in the hospitals' behaviours, attitudes, and values.
Using the specific spatial metrics namely the size, shape and depth of spatial
layouts in tertiary hospital design and the number of ties, average degree and
betweenness centrality which identify communication patterns (Horizontal and
vertical) through observed social networks in the Hospital environment, this paper
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Ejeh, et al.
explored the relationship between hospital spatial layout and the prevailing
patterns of communication. The following outlines the conclusions of this paper.
1. Communication Patterns is interpreted as the unique organisational

communication that has a structure that is dependent on the unique
Organisational Culture in the Hospital environment. This culture is expressed in
attitudes. Values and behaviour of the players in the Hospital environment and
can be classified into the Vertical and Horizontal Communication Patterns in
the Hospital environment.
2. All attributed to hospitals' spatial layout, namely its function, structure and
aesthetics, contribute to and determine the unique experience in each specific
layout. Thus, the Spatial layout of a Hospital has a significant influence on the
social constructs within the hospital environment. This experience caters to and
is responsible for the movement and interaction within the spatial layout.
3. The prevailing communication pattern in the Outpatient Department, which
comprises of the Emergency Unit and Outpatient clinics, is the Horizontal
communication pattern consisting mainly of Similar roles (Doctor-Doctor,
Nurse-Nurse and Patient-Patient roles).
4. The prevailing communication pattern in the Treatment and Diagnostics Areas
is a Vertical Communication Pattern consisting of all the three roles considered
in the observed social network.
5. The Inpatient Wards' prevailing communication pattern is a Vertical
communication pattern among Doctor and Patient roles and Nurse and Patient
roles. This is buttressed with the unique healthcare delivery, which is related but
more independent of the two roles.
6. The Treatment and Diagnostics areas in comparison to the Outpatient
Departments and Inpatient Wards in the wards studied has the strongest
correlation (r= 0.70, p<0.05) between the way its functional spaces are
connected (Connectivity) and the depth of its spatial layout (Visual Integration).
7. The Shape of the spatial layout can significantly predict the variance in
communication patterns in the Outpatient Departments (β = 0.21, p < .05,
r2=0.045), Treatment and Diagnostics Areas (β = 0.26, p < .05, r2=0.063) and
Inpatient wards (β = -0.31, p < .05, r2=0.10).
8. The Size of the spatial layout can significantly predict the variance in
communication patterns in the Outpatient Departments (β = 0.30, p < .05,
r2=0.15) and Treatment and Diagnostics Areas (β = 0.05, p < .05, r2=0.215).
9. The Depth of the spatial layout can significantly predict the variance in
communication patterns in the Treatment and Diagnostics Areas (β = 0.26, p <
.05, r2=0.07), and Inpatient wards (β = 0.308, p < .05, r2=0.10).
Based on the conclusion in this paper, the following are recommendations;

1. The spatial metrics outlined in each of the space categories studied should guide
Tertiary Hospitals' design.
2. The design of the Outpatient department, Treatment and Diagnostics Areas, and
Inpatient Wards with regard to effective communication in tertiary hospitals
should be done independently regarding the specific spatial metrics related to
its communication patterns.
77
Ejeh, et al.
This study is characterised as an interdisciplinary study with backgrounds in

Architecture and Sociology with a specific interest in Architecture and human
behaviour in Hospitals. Thus, this paper suggests that further study be directed
towards validating the findings in this paper through a comparative study of the
two concepts in a representative sample of tertiary hospital design. Also, it would
be interesting to explore the medical student as an additional player in the hospital
environment. This would provide another complex to the theoretical framework
proposed in this paper.
Figure 6: Proposed Design Framework showing the relationship between Spatial Layout and
communication Patterns in Tertiary Hospital Design.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH FOR THE EVALUATION OF

EXPANSION OPTION IN BUILDINGS
Yarima Sallau Lawal1, Aliyu Makarfi Ibrahim2, Mu’awiya Abubakar3 and Ziyadul
Hassan Ishaq4
1,2,3,4Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Expansion option (EO) in buildings is more valuable when it is easier to achieve.

Creating EO in initial building designs facilitate future expansion. However, this
requires additional investment and the future is unknown whether or not the option
would ever be exercised. This paper proposes an innovative approach for the
evaluation of EO in buildings to avoid under or over-investment. Mathematical
equations and algorithms were first developed based on the binomial method (BM)
of real options analysis which were then implemented on a computer system. An
algorithm was also developed for Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) and integrated
with the binomial model. To illustrate its applicability, a real-life project was used
to test the model. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to explore the influence of
input variables on expansion option value (EOV). The result shows that inflation
rate (i), borrowing rate (b), and rental value (Ri) are the most sensitive variables for
EOV. An increase in i and Ri by just 5% causes a corresponding increase in EOV by
16.26% and 10.60% respectively. While an increase in b by just 5% causes a
corresponding decrease in EOV by 14.61%. However, the least sensitive variables
appear to be the discount rate (r) and volatility (δ). An increase in r by 5% causes a
decrease in EOV by 6.9% while an increase in δ by 5% causes an increase in option
value by 5.85%. Also, the result shows that creating EO in the initial design adds
over 10% value to a building. More so, by integrating the BM with the MSC method,
EOV increases by 190%. The model builds upon a previously developed model for
evaluating building development option (DOV) which was found to have a result
accuracy of 80.77%. It was recommended that building investment decision-makers
should combine both BM and MCS to obtain more reliable and sustainable results.
Keywords: binomial method, building investment, expansion option, Monte Carlo

simulation, sustainable building development
INTRODUCTION
Investment in building projects is often capital intensive with a long investment
recovery circle amid multi-dimensional risks and uncertainties. According to
Ellingham and Fawcett (2006), for economically sustainable building projects, it is
1 yerimasallau@gmail.com
2 aliyuibrahimmakarfi@yahoo.co.uk
3 muawiyaabubakar1@gmail.com
4 ziyadishaq2@gmail.com
Lawal, et al. (2021) An innovative approach for the evaluation of expansion option in buildings In:
Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-
11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 81-98
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necessary to ensure optimal investment – avoiding under or over-investment.

Therefore, comprehensive evaluation of building projects is crucial especially in an
era of economic downturn. However, despite the existence of whole-life costing
(WLC) models, determining the economic benefits of buildings has been a difficult
task due to the lack of reliable data and the inherent limitations of the existing WLC
models (Tokede, Love & Ahiaga-Dagbui 2018). They added that the common
approaches to investment appraisal for building projects are the payback period
and discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques. The payback approach is unable to
capture the time value of money and the lifetime of the investment (Christersson,
Vimpari, & Junnila 2015). The DCF techniques include the net present value (NPV),
internal rate of return, return-on-investment, and benefit/cost ratio, (Tokede, Love
and Ahiaga-Dagbui 2018). The NPV method is the most widely used generally
accepted approach for investment appraisal (Akkoyun 2012; Ma et al. 2012; Kishk
et al. 2003; Boussabaine & Kirkham 2004). However, these traditional methods of
investment appraisal used in WLC are unable to take account of the value of
operational flexibility of a project and uncertainties in costs and benefits (Trigeorgis
1996; Cruz & Sanchez 2017; Peters, 2016; Fawcett 2011). Therefore, the need for
innovative approaches to overcome some of the limitations of the DCF techniques.
According to Tokede, Love and Ahiaga-Dagbui (2018), mathematical modelling has
been used for WLC which builds on the NPV method and it provides a relevant
framework to assess the investment potential of buildings. Many researches have
been conducted under the standard WLC approach and different models have
been developed. However, under the standard WLC approach, decisions are made
“now or never”. But, there is uncertainty in future costs, which include costs related
to future changes to building uses, changes to resource consumption, and
alterations to facilities throughout a building’s life (Ashworth & Perera 2013).
Although Kishk et al. (2003) argued that the principles of WLC are well developed
in theory, Tokede Love and Ahiaga-Dagbui (2018) encapsulated that there is
convincing evidence that this is not the case. They added that there is room for
improvement on the weaknesses of the standard WLC approach, especially in
emerging building typologies. This brought about the need for a new generation
WLC (Ellingham & Fawcett 2006) which uses lifecycle options (LCO) – flexible
strategies incorporated in the initial design of a building which allows for
alternative courses of action to be followed in the future (Fawcett, Hughes &
Ellingham 2012).
LCO is in line with real options (RO) approach (Ellingham & Fawcett 2006) which is
also another popular investment valuation method (Peters 2016; Tokede, Love &
Ahiaga-Dagbui 2018). According to Kodukula and Papudesu (2006), the RO
approach addresses the weakness of the DCF techniques. Katerina (2015) added
that the best way to value a development project is through RO valuation theory.
When using the RO approach, it is important to anticipate future trends (Tokede,
Love & Ahiaga-Dagbui 2018) which can be modelled using the binomial tree
approach (Menassa, 2011; Neroutsou & Croxford 2016). Therefore, this approach
can guide building investment decision-makers in making better decisions to
increase whole-life value (Ellingham & Fawcett 2013). Lawal and Ibrahim (2018)
identified the types of LCOs to include development or deferral option, expansion
or upgrade option, abandonment option, switching use option, option for new
technology, reconfiguration option, refurbishment option, contraction option,
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option to suspend project, and option to switch projects. This paper proposes a
model for the evaluation of expansion options (EO) in buildings.
According to Ellingham and Fawcett (2006), most buildings have EOs but some are
not recognised and incorporated in the initial design. They added that identifying
and creating EO in initial building design facilitates future expansion and thus
making it more valuable. Also, Stephen et al. (2016) stated that although the initial
cost is increased by creating EO, but the flexibility for future expansion will be
improved. Therefore it is obvious that EO adds value to a building but, it is created
for uncertain and distant benefits. Since, creating EO in initial building design
requires additional investment and the future is unknown whether or not the
option would ever be exercised, therefore, it is crucial to evaluate the option’s
value. Ellingham and Fawcett (2006) stated that though, EO is common, it is usually
not evaluated and mostly overvalued or undervalued. They further stated that
undervaluing EO happens when future expansion is made unnecessarily expensive
or impossible because EO was not initially created or retained, while overvaluing
EO happens when resources are committed for unlikely expansion possibility.
Hence, this paper develops a model for the evaluation of EO in buildings. The
objective of this paper is to present a model that quantifies the value of creating
EO in initial building designs.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Expansion Option (EO)
EO comes into play where an investment permits the present capacity to be
increased (Peters 2014) i.e. when a building is capable of being expanded
(Ellingham & Fawcett 2006). According to Cruz and Sanchez (2017), EO offers the
option of increasing the productive scale of a project by making additional
investment. Sun, Wang and Meng (2019) added that EO is a type of real option,
whereby an investor has the right, but not the obligation, to expand the project’s
scale as market conditions change. That is, a developer can invest further into a
project if conditions are favourable. Other authors pointed out that EO is equivalent
to an American call option, given that it allows for the consideration of making an
additional investment if a project is profitable (Copeland, Koller & Murrin 2000;
Peters 2016). Peters (2016) added that the exercise price of EO is equivalent to the
cost of creating the additional space discounted to the time of the option exercise.
Schwartz (2013) and Peters (2016) stated that an investor may even accept a
negative NPV on the initial evaluation of a project because of the possibility of high
positive NPVs in the future. Therefore, take account of future uncertainty, some
developers build on a small scale, and in the future if there is positive growth in
demand, the scale can be expanded. Panayi and Trigeorgis (1998) agree that this
“wait and see” approach significantly improves the project’s value. The major
decision under EO is to determine the value of creating EO and the right time to
exercise the option (Lawal 2020). Ellingham and Fawcett (2006), outlined five
factors upon which EO depends. These are:
1. Amount of uncertainty: EO is more valuable when there is high uncertainty.
2. Duration of option: EOs that are longer lasting or perpetual are more valuable.
3. Trigger point: EOs are more valuable if the probability of exercising the option
is high.
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4. Cost of exercise: EO is more valuable if the cost of exercising the option is low.
5. Resulting benefit: EO is more valuable if the resulting benefit is high when the
option is exercised.
Expansion Capacity (EC)

Expansion capacity involves the ability to increase facilities, space, or size over time
to meet increased demand (Stephen et al. 2016). Stephen et al. (2016) added that
the future expansion capability gives a building a real option that may be exercised
at any time or never. The future demand determines the optimal time to exercise
EO in the future. Stephen et al. (2016) suggested that EO should only be exercised
when it has a positive NPV, as shown in Figure 1. This allows a developer to guard
against the consequences of unfavourable circumstances and to benefit from the
possible opportunities that may arise during implementation (Stephen et al. 2016).
Figure 1: Positive NPV is needed to exercise expansion option (Source: Stephen et al. 2016).
Real Options (RO)

RO is the right but not the obligation to undertake certain business initiatives, such
as developing, deferring, abandoning, expanding, staging, or contracting a capital
investment project. Real options analysis (ROA) originated from financial options
and gained popularity after the development of the Black-Scholes option-pricing
model (Kwabena et al. 2018). The term “real option” was introduced by Myers
(1977). Copeland and Antikarov (2001) refer that an option holder has the right but
not the obligation to exercise an option until its expiration date. According to
Peters (2016), the common types of real options are the option to defer, option to
expand or contract and option to abandon or switch. According to Peters (2016),
the fundamental methods for ROA are the Black Scholes method (BSM) and the
binomial method (BM). Peters (2016) added that the other methods are either an
extension of these two or simulation-based models.
Lifecycle Option (LCO)
The options approach to whole-life costing (WLC) was proposed by Ellingham and
Fawcett (2006). The approach adopted the term ‘lifecycle options ’which provides
the basis for a new generation WLC. The principle behind LCO is that rather than
making decisions today when there is high uncertainty, it would be better if
decisions are made in the future when more information becomes available.
Fawcett, Hughes, and Ellingham (2012) defined LCO as a design feature that is
incorporated in the initial design and construction of a building, which allows for
alternative courses of action to be followed in the future. LCOs are an instance of
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the more general concept of RO and they provide opportunities to respond to

future changes (Fawcett, Hughes & Ellingham 2012). These future changes can
emerge from (Tokede, Love & Ahiaga-Dagbui 2018):
 Economic benefits: e.g. saving future costs of building maintenance.

 Technological benefits: e.g. harnessing new and evolving technologies such as
smart meters and control.
 Social benefits: e.g. response to legislative changes – asbestos ban
 Environmental benefits: e.g. minimising the embodied energy in buildings.
Figure 2: Mapping Whole-life Cost decisions in a Real-Options Framework (Source: Tokede, Love
& Ahiaga-Dagbui 2018)
Figure 2 shows the decisions in the standard WLC approach and the options-based
WLC approach. LCOs appraisal builds on scenario modelling and aims to foster the
creation of options that ensembles optimal and long-term performances in
buildings (Goh & Sun 2016).
Binomial Method (BM)
The BM was first proposed by Cox, Ross, and Rubinstein (1979) and provides a
general method for options evaluation (Peters 2016). The BM is suitable for
representing uncertainty that increases over time and it has the advantage of being
easy to build and understand (Lawal et al. 2021). Though it is sometimes
computationally stressful, but it can be successfully implemented on a spreadsheet
package. According to Mun (2002), although both BM and BSM are proven to
provide reliable results, BSM has limitations of being very difficult to derive and
highly specific (Mun 2002). Mun (2002), pointed out that the BM is easy to
implement and explain because it requires no more than simple algebra.
Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS)
Computer simulation can be used when there are uncertainties in input variables.
MCS is a widely recognized tool that was introduced in capital budgeting problems
by Hertz in 1968. According to Brealey, Meyers and Allen (2006), MCS can be used
to generate all possible combinations of inputs and therefore, capable of
generating the entire distribution of all possible outcomes. Loizou and French
(2012) added that MCS assists decision-makers to be more rational and consistent
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in their decisions and to gain a greater understanding of all of the risk factors in a
development project.
Call and Put Options

Peters (2016) and Ellingham and Fawcett (2006) stated that there are two basic
forms of financial options which can be grouped into call and put options.
According to Arnold (2014), a call option gives the option holder the right (but not
the obligation) to buy a stock at a particular price within a specified period while a
put option gives the option holder the right (but not the obligation) to sell a stock
at a particular price within a specified time. Hence, the put option can be viewed
as the opposite of the call option (Lawal et al. 2021). Arnold (2014) posited that the
exercise of an option prior to maturity can occur if the option is an American option
whereas a European option can only be exercised at maturity. Peters 2016) added
that for the American option, an option holder has the right to exercise the option
at any time during its life while for the European option, the option holder has the
right to exercise the option only at the end of its life.
METHODOLOGY
In this paper, an innovative model for the evaluation of EO in buildings has been
developed to improve the economic sustainability of proposed building projects.
Mathematical equations were developed based the on BM of real options analysis
(ROA) first developed by Cox, Ross, and Rubinstein (1979). The mathematical
equations were derived in line with ISO 15686-5 (Life-cycle costing) cost
breakdown structure. Kirkham (2015), pointed out that ISO 15686-5 has addressed
the issue of lack of standardization and lack of common cost breakdown structure
in WLC. The mathematical equations were used to develop an algorithm for
determining the value of creating EO in the initial building design. The algorithm
was then implemented on a computer system using excel spreadsheet software.
Besides, MSC was used to complement the BM which takes account of uncertainties
in input variables. Another algorithm was also developed in form of a flow chart
for the simulation which was also implemented on excel spreadsheet software. To
ascertain the robustness and reliability of the model, real-life data was collected
and used to test the model. Sensitivity analysis (SA) was conducted to explore the
influence of the input variables on expansion option value (EOV). SA allows the
evaluation of the relationship between different input variables and EOV and
examines what can actually happen to a project in different situations (Brealey,
Meyers, & Allen, 2006). SA is performed by changing some input parameters or
one parameter at a time in a certain range while keeping other parameters
unchanged and then calculates all the possible project values according to the
changed parameters (Sattarnusart, 2012). This process will enable the project
owner to identify all the key variables and to determine which input parameters
are most likely to deviate from the estimated values (Sattarnusart, 2012). In this
paper, SA was used to carry out a more in-depth analysis. However, the SA
performed in this paper does not focus on determining the optimistic or
pessimistic scenario of the project but rather, on studying how some of the input
parameters affect EOV.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Model Design and Development
The model was designed based on BM of ROA and in line with ISO 15686-5 (LCC)
cost breakdown structure. The BM was tweaked to accommodate BEO. Besides,
MCS was used to complement the BM.
Figure 3: A Recombining Binomial Tree Showing Steps and States (Source: Lawal et al., 2021)
Figure 3 shows a five time-steps recombining binomial tree showing Steps (y) and
States (n) as used in this work. Steps y represent the change in time on the binomial
tree. The vertical dotted lines from 0 to 5 represent the steps (step 0, step 1, etc.).
States n represents the number of nodes on each step. States (n) are represented
numerically with numbers from top to bottom. All nodes on the binomial tree are
represented as S (y, n). The highlighted node S (4, 2) is the node on step 4 and state
2. This applies to every node on the binomial tree.
Mathematical Equations
This work is in a series of research carried out by the authors. This paper builds
upon a previous model developed for building development appraisal (Lawal et al.
2021). Thus, the following were adopted for this work.
Equation [1] is used for computing Future Values (FV) on a binomial tree (Lawal et
al. 2021):
𝐹𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) = 𝑉0 × (1 + 𝛿)𝑦−(2𝑛−2) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … [1]
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐹𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) = 𝐹𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒; 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝0; 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝; 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒; 𝛿 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦.
A binomial tree can be discounted back to the present to obtain the Present Value
(PV). Equation [2] is used for calculating the discounted weighted average of all
entries on a binomial tree (Lawal et al. 2021):
𝑉((𝑦+1),𝑛) 𝑉(𝑦+1),(𝑛+1)
𝑃𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) = 𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) + [𝑃𝑢 × ] + [𝑃𝑑 × ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . . [2]
(1 + 𝑟) (1 + 𝑟)
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Lawal, et al.
Where; 𝑃𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) = PV at the node being studied, 𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) = The entry/value at node
(y,n), 𝑃𝑢 =Upward probability, 𝑃𝑑 =Downward probability, 𝑟 = Discount rate.
1. Development Option Value (DOV)
Equations [3], [4], and [5] can be used for determining net present value (NPV) of
development and development option value (DOV) (Source: Lawal et al. 2021).
𝑁𝑃𝑉𝑑(𝑦,𝑛) = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝐷(𝑦,𝑛) − 𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐷 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … . [3]
𝐷𝑉𝑣 (𝑦,𝑛) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥[𝑁𝑃𝑉𝑑(𝑦,𝑛) , 0] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . . … . [4]
𝐷𝑂𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥[𝐷𝑉𝑣 (𝑦,𝑛), 𝑉𝑑(𝑦,𝑛) ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … . … [5]
Where: LCCD = Lifecycle Cost of Development, LCBD = Lifecycle Benefit of

Development, DVc = Development Cost, NPVd = Net Present Value of
development, 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠, 𝑂 = 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑀 =
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
𝑀𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 , 𝐷𝑉𝑣 (𝑦,𝑛) = 𝐷𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒, DOV=Development

Option Value
2. Expansion Option Value (EOV)

EOV is the savings made whenever the expansion work is carried out (Lawal 2020).
Thus, the following equations were developed as follows:
 Cost of expansion without created option = Cost of creating the option at the
time of expansion + Expansion cost.
Let, CEw = Cost of expansion without created option, Cw = cost of creating the
option at the time of expansion, and Ec = Expansion cost. Thus;
𝐶𝐸𝑤 = 𝐶𝑤 + 𝐸𝑐 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … … … … … … . … … . . … [6]
 Cost of expansion with created option = Cost of creating the option in initial
design + Expansion cost.
Let, CEo = Cost of expansion with a created option, Co = Cost of creating the
option in the initial design, and Ec = Expansion cost. Thus;
𝐶𝐸𝑜 = 𝐶𝑜 + 𝐸𝑐 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . … [7]
 Expansion saving = Cost of expansion without created option ─ Cost of

expansion with created option.
Let, EOS = Expansion saving. Thus;

𝐸𝑂𝑆 = 𝐶𝐸𝑤 − 𝐶𝐸𝑜 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … . … … … … … … … … . . . … [8]
Using Equations [6], [7] and [8];
EOS = (Cw + Ec) ─ (Co + Ec)
EOS = Cw + Ec ─ Ec ─ Co
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Thus;
𝐸𝑂𝑆 = 𝐶𝑤─𝐶𝑜 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … . … … … … … . . . … [9]
Therefore, EOS is the difference between the cost of creating EO at the time of
expansion and the cost of creating EO in the initial design.
Equation [9] can be modified to suit Figure 3 as used in this work. This yields
Equation [10]:
𝐸𝑂𝑆(𝑦,𝑛) = [𝐶𝑧 (𝑦,𝑛) ─𝐶𝑜] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … . … … … … . … [10]
Also, let, EVw = value of expansion without created option, EVo = value of
expansion with created option, EOV(y,n) = value of creating EO in initial design,
LCBD = lifecycle benefit of development and LCCD = lifecycle cost of
development. From a whole-life perspective, EVw and EVo can be represented as
follows:
𝐸𝑉𝑤 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝐷 (𝑦,𝑛) − [𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐷 + 𝐶𝐸𝑤] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . . … [11]
𝐸𝑉𝑜 = 𝐿𝐶𝐵𝐷 (𝑦,𝑛) − [𝐿𝐶𝐶𝐷 + 𝐶𝐸𝑜] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … . … [12]
Thus, EOS in terms of the lifecycle benefits and costs can be represented in
Equation [13]:
𝐸𝑂𝑆(𝑦,𝑛) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥[𝐸𝑉𝑤 (𝑦,𝑛) − 𝐸𝑉𝑜 (𝑦,𝑛) , 0] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … [13]
The value of creating an expansion option in the initial design (𝐸𝑂𝑉(𝑦,𝑛)), is the
backward discounting of all values on 𝐸𝑂𝑆(𝑦,𝑛) binomial tree. This is the
cumulative weighted average of all entries on the 𝐸𝑂𝑆(𝑦,𝑛) binomial tree.
𝑒
Therefore, let 𝑉 (𝑦,𝑛) be the cumulative weighted average of all entries on the
𝐸𝑂𝑆(𝑦,𝑛) binomial tree. Using Equation [2] the value of creating EO in the initial
design can be represented in Equation [14]:
𝑉(𝑦+1,𝑛) 𝑉(𝑦+1),(𝑛+1)
𝑉𝑒 (𝑦,𝑛) = 𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) + [𝑃𝑢 × ] + [𝑃𝑑 × ] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … . . [14]
(1 + 𝑟) (1 + 𝑟)
Since we are concerned with only positive NPVs, all negative values are replaced
with zeros. Thus, expansion option value, EOV can be as follows:
𝐸𝑂𝑉(𝑦,𝑛) = 𝑀𝑎𝑥[𝑉𝑒 (𝑦,𝑛) , 0] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … … … … … … … … . … [15]
Model Algorithm
An algorithm was developed for computing the value of creating EO in the initial
design. The algorithm was formulated into modules to make it more
comprehensive. Figure 4 shows the algorithm for determining the value of creating
EO in the initial building design. The modules are presented in Figures 4.1 to 4.15
in the Appendix.
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Figure 4: Algorithm for determining the value of creating EO
Model implementation
The model was implemented on a computer system. Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet
Software was used for the implementation of the model with the aid of the
formulated algorithms.
Model evaluation and testing

A proposed building project was used to test the reliability and validity of the
model. The project has an approximate land area of 1,207.8m2 and an overall
building area of 529.60m2. An EO was created in the project. The EO is the option
to expand the building by creating an additional floor. The following data was
obtained and used in the model:
Construction Cost - ₦34,424,000 Volatility- 11.4%
Non Construction Cost- ₦8,850,000 Time Steps- 1
Maintenance Cost- ₦6,884,800 Borrowing Rate- 11.75%
Operating Cost- ₦504,455/year Inflation Rate- 11.25%
Expected Benefits- ₦1,600,000/year Terminal Cost- ₦1,988,800
Residual Value- ₦8,690,000 Analysis Period- 30years
Cost of creating EO in initial design- ₦11,782,200.00
Cost of creating EO at time of expansion- ₦15,972,200.00
Cost incurred due to non-creation of option- ₦1,000,000.00
At least 1 year of rental income to be lost- ₦1,600,000.00
Repair costs after creating option at the time of expansion- ₦1,500,000.00
Substructure- ₦9,084,500.00
Superstructure- ₦25,339,500.00
Roof- ₦6,282,400.00
Rental Value/ annum- ₦1,600,000.00
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The development option value (DOV) model was used to determine the lifecycle
benefit of expansion. From the results, the model suggests that EO should be
created in the initial design. The value of creating EO in the initial building design
over 30 years is 2.05 million. All through the option validity period, the value of
creating EO in the initial design is positive meaning that EO should be created.
Table 1: Value of creating EO in the initial design

EVw EVo EOV EVw EVo EOV (M EVw (M EVo EOV
Yr Yr Yr
(M ₦) (M ₦) (M ₦) (M ₦) (M ₦) ₦) ₦) (M ₦) (M ₦)
0 3.82 7.92 4.10
1 5.06 8.20 3.15 11 11.64 14.07 2.43 21 16.00 18.21 2.21
2 6.17 9.21 3.05 12 12.21 14.59 2.38 22 16.45 18.62 2.18
3 6.86 9.71 2.84 13 12.60 14.97 2.37 23 16.78 18.95 2.17
4 7.72 10.49 2.77 14 13.13 15.46 2.33 24 17.21 19.35 2.13
5 8.28 10.96 2.68 15 13.51 15.83 2.32 25 17.53 19.67 2.14
6 9.02 11.64 2.62 16 14.02 16.30 2.29 26 17.95 20.06 2.11
7 9.51 12.08 2.57 17 14.37 16.65 2.28 27 18.25 20.37 2.10
8 10.17 12.69 2.52 18 14.86 17.10 2.25 28 18.67 20.74 2.08
9 10.62 13.11 2.49 19 15.20 17.44 2.24 29 18.97 21.05 2.07
10 11.23 13.67 2.44 20 15.67 17.87 2.20 30 19.37 21.42 2.05
Table 1 shows the results for the value of creating EO in the initial building design.
The value of creating EO is higher in the early years and slightly reduces towards
the latter years of a building. This agrees with Ellingham and Fawcett (2006), who
concluded that EO depends on the duration of the option (longer-lasting options
are more valuable). Also, the result shows that EVo (value of design with EO) is ₦
21,415,951 and EVw is ₦ 19,365,116 (value of design without EO). This shows that
the value of creating EO in the initial design is ₦ 2,050,835 (the difference between
EVo and EVw). Therefore, EO creates an increase in the value of the building by
about 10.6%. This indicates that creating EO in the initial design is very valuable
because it adds over 10% value to a building project.
Sensitivity Analysis (SA)
The SA performed in this paper does not focus on determining the optimistic or
pessimistic scenario of the project, but rather on studying how some of the input
variables affect expansion option value (EOV). The uncontrollable variables were
changed to examine their effect on EOV. This was done by changing one variable
at a time and fixing the others. All input parameters were fixed according to the
base parameters in the project. From all the analyses, the effect of changing
different variables on EOV can be summarized in Table 3.
Table 2: Summary of the SA

Input Parameters EOV
Rental Value +
Volatility +
Borrowing Rate ─
Inflation Rate +
Discount Rate ─
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As shown in Table 2, an increase in rental value (Ri) positively affects the option
value. This agrees with Ellingham and Fawcett (2006), who stated that EO is more
valuable when there are higher benefits. An increase in Ri by just 5% causes a
corresponding increase in option value by 10.60%. Also, an increase in volatility (δ)
creates a positive change in option value. This is also in agreement with Ellingham
and Fawcett (2006), who concluded that EO is more valuable when there is more
uncertainty. An increase in δ by 5% causes a corresponding increase in value by
5.85%. However, the increase in EVw and EVo is the same (5.85% increase) which
means their difference (EOV) remains constant. This means that an increase in δ
creates an equal and positive increase in both EVw and EVo with constant EOV.
Moreover, an increase in borrowing rate (b) has a negative effect on the option
value. Since an increase in b will result in a higher cost of exercising EO, this also
agrees with Ellingham and Fawcett (2006), who concluded that EO is less valuable
if there is a high cost of exercising the option. An increase in b by just 5% causes a
corresponding decrease in option value by 14.61%. More so, an increase in the
inflation rate (i) has a positive effect on EOV. Since an increase in i will result in
higher expected benefits, this also agrees with Ellingham and Fawcett (2006), who
concluded that EO is more valuable if there are large benefits. An increase in i by
just 5% causes a corresponding increase in the option value by 16.26%. Lastly, an
increase in the discount rate (r) has a negative effect on the option value. An
increase in r by 5% causes a corresponding decrease in the option value by 6.9%.
Therefore, when evaluating EO in initial building designs, there are many variables
as the inputs and inflation rate (i), borrowing rate (b), and rental value (Ri) are the
most significant variables. This implies that building investment decision-makers
should carefully determine all the input parameters, especially the ones related to
i, b, and Ri to have a reliable result.
Simulation
To determine the expected EOV and all possible EOVs, a Monte Carlo simulation
was used. The objective of the simulation is to find the expected EOV and all
possible EOVs.
Simulation design
The design of the simulation follows the following steps:
1. Use the base values in the EOV model

2. Randomly select values for Rental Value (Ri), Volatility (δ), Borrowing Rate (b),
and Inflation Rate (i)
3. Calculate EOV
4. Repeat until 10,000 iterations are reached
5. Use the values to produce a frequency curve
6. Identify the most likely EOV
The procedure of running the simulation can be described by the flow chart in
Figure 5. MS Excel was used to run the simulation with the aid of the algorithm.
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Figure 5: Flow Chart of EOV Simulation
Simulation result and analysis – EO creation value

The possible values of EOV are plotted to examine the distribution of the results
and the key statistical measurements are calculated for the analysis of the results.
Figure 6 shows the distribution of all possible EOVs.
Figure 6: Distribution of Possible EOVs (EO Creation Value)
Table 3 shows the statistical results (EO Creation Value):
Table 3: Statistical Measurement of EOV Simulation (EO Creation Value)

Statistical Measurement Value
Maximum 38,791,649.01
Minimum 336,412.30
Standard Deviation 6,180,714.34
Average 5,948,189.92
Skewness 1.97
Kurtosis 4.17
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The result shows that the most likely EOV is ₦5,948,189.92. However, the EOV
obtained using only the BM is ₦2,050,385.00. This shows that by incorporating MCS
into the analysis, EOV increases by 190%. This difference has to do with the ability
of the MCS method to take account of uncertainty in input variables. MCS method
can generate all possible combinations of input variables. As such, the MCS method
should be used to complement the BM for more reliable results. Also, from the
result, the maximum EOV happens to be ₦38,791,649.01 while the minimum EOV
is ₦336,412.30. This provides the best-case and worst-case scenarios. The model
suggests that EO should be created in the initial design. The result from simulation
suggests a higher value than that derived from the binomial model only. As such,
there is the need to use both the BM and MCS together to make reliable and
sustainable building investment decisions. This paper has proposed an innovative
model capable of determining the value of creating EO in initial building design.
However, the major decision under EO is to determine the value of creating EO in
the initial design and the optimal time to exercise the option. Therefore, there is a
need to further expand the model to capture the value of exercising EO. Further
research is ongoing which is aimed at expanding the model to be capable of
predicting the most likely viable times over which EO could be triggered without
affecting the value of a building project. After completing the research, the model
should be capable of predicting the right times to exercise EO over a building’s
lifecycle. More so, to predict the optimal time of expansion, there is the need to
generally improve the model using artificial intelligence (AI). With high uncertainty
on the nature and times of possible future expansion, it is a difficult task to predict
the optimal time of expansion. As such, there is the need to improve the model
using AI-based algorithms.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposes an innovative model for evaluating EO in buildings. The
model, which is based on the BM of ROA, takes account of managerial flexibility
and volatility in costs and benefits over the lifecycle of a building. The model is
capable of determining the value of creating EO in initial building designs. The
study concluded that inflation rate (i), borrowing rate (b), and rental value (Ri) are
the most sensitive variables for EOV as an increase in i and Ri by just 5% causes a
corresponding increase in EOV by 16.26% and 10.60% respectively. While, an
increase in b by just 5% causes a decrease in EOV by 14.61%. However, the least
sensitive variables appear to be the discount rate (r) and volatility (δ) as an increase
in r by 5% causes a decrease in EOV by 6.9% while an increase in δ causes an
increase in option value by 5.85%. More so, creating EO in initial building design
is very valuable because it adds over 10% value to a building project. Moreover, by
integrating MCS and BM, EOV increases by 190%. The study recommends that
building investment decision-makers should use both the BM and MCS methods
together for reliable and sustainable decisions. Further research is required to
expand the model to be capable of predicting the right times to exercise EO. In
addition, the model needs to be improved by using machine learning algorithms.
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APPENDIX
Modules
Figures 4.1 to 4.9 are the modules as used in the Algorithm.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE SAFETY PERFORMANCE OF

PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN RELATION TO COMPLIANCE OF FIRE
SAFETY REGULATIONS: A CASE STUDY OF ASHANTI AND
GREATER ACCRA REGIONS OF GHANA
Samuel Asumadu Roberts1 and Humphrey Danso2
1Department of Building and Construction, Cape Coast Technical Institute, P.O Box Dl155, Cape
Coast, Ghana.
2Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education, Akenten Appiah-Menka University
of Skills Training and Entrepreneurial Development, P. O. Box 1277, Kumasi, Ghana
Ghana has experienced various forms of fire outbreaks emanating from domestic
buildings, public buildings, industrial activities, and forests. It has become almost
impossible to end a year in Ghana without recording incident of fire outbreaks that
result in the deaths of individuals and loss of property. This study therefore aims at
investigating the safety performance of public buildings concerning compliance
with fire safety regulations in the Ashanti and Greater Accra regions of Ghana. A
descriptive survey research design was adopted. The targeted population consisted
of housemasters in public Senior High Schools and fueling station managers in
Accra and Kumasi. Convenient and purposive sampling techniques were employed
in selecting 72 housemasters and 384 filling station managers, and a questionnaire
was used as a data collection instrument. The study found that the occupants of
public buildings in Ashanti and the Greater Accra Region do not comply with safety
regulations. It was also revealed that fire has caused many negative effects in Ghana
from an economic perspective, population, safety, and security. A positive and
significant relationship was found between compliance with fire safety regulation
and safety performance of the public building (F=127.293, df=308, p<0.01). It was
recommended that building owners should ensure that their buildings are well
equipped with active and passive firefighting equipment. Also, training on fire
safety, first aid, use of firefighting equipment, and evacuation procedure should be
made compulsory for all building occupants and at regular intervals. This implies
that compulsory compliance of fire safety regulation will give a positive effect on
public building structures in performing their required purposes.
Keywords: compliance, fire outbreak, public building, safety performance
INTRODUCTION
Fire is one of the major hazards which may occur due to natural or man-made
causes (Karake & Kulkarni, 2013). Fire posed great risk and challenges to early
1 samuelasumaduroberts@yahoo.com
2 hdanso@aamusted.edu.gh
Asumadu and Danso (2021) An investigation into the safety performance of public buildings in
relation to compliance of fire safety regulations: a case study of Ashanti and Greater Accra regions
of Ghana In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
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people, including the challenge of setting and controlling fires and grappling with
the threat of burn and wildfires. Fire continues to be a basic everyday element of
most people’s lives. However, improper handling and usage can lead to several
accidents in homes, offices, schools, other public places with very serious
repercussions (Ayarkwa, Danso & Adinyira, 2010). In 2019, Ghana recorded 5,673
fire outbreaks, 1,698 incidents were domestic fires as at the end of the third quarter
as compared to 1,622 figures recorded in 2018. Commercial fires followed with 631
cases recorded, 606 for Bush fires, 502 for electrical fires, and 480 cases for
vehicular fires. The report by GNFS in 2019 on fire outbreaks from January to
September recorded a total number of 4,287 compared to 4,531 cases recorded in
the third quarter of 2018. Figures from the Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS) have
revealed that as of December 21, 2020, the country recorded 5,966 fire outbreaks.
GNFS further noted that the recorded fire outbreaks represent a 4.9% increase
compared to a figure of 5,673 in the same period in 2019. GNFS (2020) disclosed
Ashanti Region recorded the highest number of cases and North East Region
recorded the lowest. The report revealed that, although the significant rise can be
attributed to the increase in domestic activities during the lockdown period, it also
shows the citizenry has still not given fire safety protocols the urgency and
attention it deserves.
According to Addai, Tulashie, Joe-Steve, and Yeboah (2016), Ghana happens to be

losing a lot of money and resources due to numerous fire outbreak cases. There
has been great emphasis on the provision of fire-fighting equipments for the fire
service offices in the country. Millions of money are spent to train fire-men in fire
combat, but little has been done to look at fire safety practices in buildings where
there is likely to be the occurrence of fire. In most times, fire-fighters are being
blamed for fire incident in a public building, and all this possible loopholes has
been seriously explored (Addai et al., 2016) but little has been said or explored
about the activity of the other stakeholders in the construction industry and usage
of public buildings, who oftentimes responsible for the causes of fire outbreak. Fire
safety regulation is an aspect that has suffered great neglect among designers and
users of public buildings, this may be due to uncared attitudes and ignorance on
the part of building owners and users. It has become almost impossible to end a
year in Ghana without recording an incident of fire outbreak which results in the
deaths of individuals and loss of property worth millions of Ghana cedis. From
Kumasi to Accra, Wa, and the rest of the country, there has been a series of reports
of deadly fire outbreaks. It is against this backdrop that an investigation of the
relationship between the compliance of fire safety regulations and safety
performance of public building is explored. The implementation of the findings
and recommendations can be the foundation of a structured approach to safety
management and minimizing the occurrences of fire outbreak in Ghana whiles
ensuring buildings perform their required purposes.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Building
A building is a structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently
in one place. Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and have
been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors (Economic Times,
2020). Buildings serve several societal needs-primarily as shelter from weather,
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security, living space, privacy, to store belongings, and to comfortably live and
work. Building can be for residential, or public commercial, industrial or other.
Residential buildings are for people to live like house, flat etc. Public buildings are
the cinema theatres, community halls, Railway station buildings, fueling stations,
hospitals, schools, Aerodrome buildings, government office buildings wherein
public persons will be visiting (Economic Times, 2020). Fire disasters experienced
at the various residential and public building in Ghana repeatedly caused
remarkable damages, which harmed the socio-economic development of the
affected communities (Gakpe & Mahama, 2014). Addai, Gabel, and Krause (2016)
indicated that fire incidents involving occupied premises often result in injuries,
loss of assets, business disruption, and sometimes death.
Concept of building fire
Fire is one of the major hazards which may occur due to natural or man-made
causes. Fire is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the
evolution of heat and light in varying intensities (Addai, et al., 2016). Fire starts in
various ways and acts as a destructive force in human livelihoods (Asori, Dogbey &
Dumedah, 2020). Building fires occur in buildings as a result of exposure to
combusting materials like fuel and other flammable materials. Building fires are
also classified based on materials, structures, and the building types (PAROC, 2017).
Building occupants ’evacuation in cases of fire incidences depends on the fire
resistivity of the material of construction. A building constructed mostly of
combustible material will allow only but a limited time for evacuation. Building fire
classification based on structure entails the response of the building elements or
components (walls, roof, floors, ceiling, and construction systems) to fire. National
Building Code of Finland (2011), also classified building fires into three classes (P1,
P2, and P3), which are identified by building elements, building materials, and roof
coverings. In building fire class P1, there is no restriction on the building height or
number of storeys and accommodates more than 50 occupants. On the other hand,
building fire class P2 may have either a single storey or two storeys and may
accommodate a maximum of 50 people, while P3 building fire class may only have
a single storey not having a height above 14 m. In a single building, different parts
may belong to separate fire classes as long as fire spread is curtailed by a fire wall.
Fire outbreak is the most serious threat nowadays in Ghana (Asori et al., 2020). Fire
outbreaks are generally caused by people through carelessness, ignorance,
negligence, malicious ignition among others. This happens when the person
handling the fire does not take it seriously and it gets out of hand. According Engel
(2020) common causes of fire outbreak are faulty electrical outlets and old,
outdated appliances, leaving gas and stove unattended whilst cooking, and
careless handling of candles. In addition, Aliyu and Abdulrahman (2016), attributed
the causes of fire to accident, faulty electrical equipment, fire spread and
carelessness.
Effect of fire outbreaks in Ghana

Fire has caused many negative effects in Ghana cutting from economic perspective,
population, safety and security threat in the last decade. In 2015, fire outbreaks
consumed the Goil fueling station at the Kwame Nkrumah circle in Accra. Over 150
people including woman and children lost their lives (Gadugah, 2016). Anane
(2016) affirmed that between January and September 2016, the country further lost
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approximately US $21 million in property damage, a 50% increase from the total
cost of items damaged in 2015. In the first quarter of 2016, the GNFS reported the
Ashanti region are the region with the highest reported cases of fire incidence
(Anane, 2016). In the latter part of 2016, the country was hit yet another major fire
at the Ghana international trade fair center resulting in size deaths (Ibrahim, 2016).
The central medical stores of the Ghana health service (GHS) in Tema which houses
medical supplies for distributive to medical facilities nationwide was destroyed by
fire in the early parts of 2015. An estimated US $81 million of medical supplies and
equipment was lost (Pharmaceutical Society of Ghana, 2016). In March 2016, over
110 shops and stores were totally destroyed during yet another fire outbreak.
Figures from the GNFS reveal that 33 people perished while 239 sustained varying
degree of injury in fire disaster in 2017(GNFS, 2017).
As indicated by GNFS, 2020, little less than 6,000 fires torched different parts of
Ghana destroying properties and lives in 2020. Significant places that were
destroyed by fire include Kantamanto Market, GCB Liberty House branch, shops in
Koforidua Market, UEW laboratory, shops in Takoradi Market, two halls of Accra
academy senior high school and many others. The damage the fire caused to
properties was estimated at GH¢28,421,058.18 (GNFS, 2020). In under year review,
fire outbreaks have resulted about hundreds of burned shops at Mallam Atta
Market, and also properties, livestock destroyed as fire burns down orphanage at
West Mamprugu. In the Kumasi Metropolis, fire destroys shops and houses at
Bantama leaving families distressed and uncertain about their future (Ghana News
Agency, 2021). Also fire engulfs the administration block of the Mampong College
of education were academic activities came to holds (Ghana News Agency, 2021).
Most of these fires whether domestic, industrial, institutional, commercial, vehicular
comes with devastating consequences, including loss of lives and properties.
Fire safety regulations in Ghana

To ensure the safety of all public, residential and industrial buildings across the
country, the government together with the Ghana Standards Authority (GSA)
established the Ghana Building Code. In exercise of the powers conferred on the
Minister responsible for Works and Housing by Section 63 of the Local Government
Act of 1993 (Act 462), and in consultation with the Minister responsible for Local
Government, the national building regulations of 1996 (LI 1630) were enacted on
27th of September, 1996 (Republic of Ghana, 1996). This code determines the
standards required for all construction works. In Areas where a naked fire is
predominant, it is not recommended to use timber for internal and external walls.
In earthquake prone areas, special attention must be given to foundation and
superstructure design and construction (Tettey, 2011). Roofs need to be wind/rain
storm resistant and concrete foundations are better in flood prone areas. All
electrical materials used must be approved by Ghana Standard Board or other
competent authority and electrical installations must be carried out by qualified
professionals. All buildings must have fire detection, fire alarm and firefighting
devices and be protected with a well-grounded lightning arrester. All portable L.P.G
bottles shall be located outside the building when in use (Tettey, 2011).
Ghana National Fire Service Legislative Instrument (LI) 1724, Act 53 Fire Precautions
Premises Regulations was enacted to ensure fire safety. Fire Precaution (Premises)
Regulations, (LI 1724) is a legislative instrument which makes it obligatory for
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certain premises to have fire certificates to meet fire safety standards (GNFS, 2016).
According to the LI, there is the need to ensure that there are adequate exits within
the premises for easy evacuation, serviceable fire-fighting facilities, among other
interventions. The LI is applicable to all non-domestic premises and the common
parts in some domestic properties. The LI 1724 places greater emphasis on fire
prevention in all non-domestic premises, including the voluntary sector and self-
employed people with premises separate from their homes. The Ghana National
Fire Service (GNFS) has deployed task force to ensure that institutions comply with
basic fire rules and regulations to curb the prevalence of domestic fires. This move
by the Service has become necessary due to the upsurge in fires at buildings in the
country.
METHODOLOGY
Research approach
Quantitative research approach was adopted for this study. The views of the
occupants of the public buildings in Ashanti and the Greater Accra Regions were
analyzed quantitatively. Quantitative research was employed because it aims to
make numerical predictions, establish facts and test hypotheses that have already
been stated.
Research design
Descriptive survey research design was employed. A survey research design was
used because it is fact finding in nature. This helped the researchers to analyse and
interpret the current state of the people involved in the study, provides analyses
and helped in the interpretation of data for the guidance of the future course of
action. Considering the nature of the study, the descriptive survey design was
deemed appropriate in terms of collecting data from a large group of respondents.
Population
For the purpose of the study, the target population consisted of all the 31 and 15
public Senior High Schools in the Greater Accra and Kumasi Metropolis
respectively, and 702 and 560 filling stations in the Greater Accra and Kumasi
Metropolis respectively. The accessible population consisted all the housemasters
in 6 public Senior High Schools, and 384 fueling stations at each Metropolis. The
selected population was based on the frequent usage and rate of fire cases on
facilities.
Sample size and sampling technique
In determining the sample size for the public schools in the Greater Accra and
Kumasi Metropolis, stratified sampling technique was used to select six schools
from each Metropolis. The researchers first divided the population into sub groups
(strata). The strata included girls ’schools, boys ’schools and mixed schools. After
dividing the population, a simple random sampling method was used to select two
schools from each sub group. From the target population, a sample of 72
housemasters were selected for the study from the six public schools in each
Metropolis using simple random sampling method. In selecting the fueling
stations, purposive sampling technique (Judgmental sampling) was used. Since
every fuelling station in the Metropolis cannot be reached, this study selected three
hundred and eighty-four (384) comprising 192 from each Metropolis using
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judgmental sampling. The researchers on the other hand used their value judgment
to select managers from each selected fuelling station from the population whose
opinions were relevant to make a valuable decision. The determination of sample
size was in line with Smith and Albaum (2005) equation for a very large population
size.
Data collection instrument
Questionnaire was used for collecting the necessary information from the
respondents. The questions developed were adapted from literature, and some
were confirmed in a series of interviews with the officials of GNFS. The
questionnaire was divided into two (2) sections A and B. Section “A” consisted of
personal information of the respondents, whereas Section “B” was made up various
questions that answer the developed research questions. The section B reflected
the constituents of the 5-Point Likert scale of which the occupants of the public
buildings were expected to respond to the statements raised.
Data analysis
The data collected was processed and analysed with the aid of Statistical Package
for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0. The following data analysis were used in the
study:
 Frequencies, percentages, Mean and standard deviation: This was used to

summarized the data.
 Exploratory factor analysis. For the purpose of validating the measurement
instrument an exploratory factor analysis was used.
 Correlation analysis. According to the presumption of the proposed impact
between fire outbreaks cases (FOC) and public building (PB), the test of
measuring the association of variable was Pearson correlation.
 Regression analysis. Regression analysis was used in order to analyze the
relationship between the dependent variable and independent or predictor
variables.
RESULTS
Compliance of safety regulations in the public building
This section of the paper addresses the extent to which public buildings in Ashanti
and the Greater Accra regions comply with fire safety regulations in Ghana. Mean
(X), and standard deviation (SD) were computed. Table 1 presents the results.
From Table 1, the respondents agreed that they avoid overloading of electrical
circuits(x=3.97, SD=1.064). Moreover, the respondents also agreed that the means
of escape is provided at the public buildings (x= 3.95, SD=1.018). Concerning
whether physical accessibility to building is provided, majority of the respondents
agreed to that (x= 3.95, SD=1.034). On whether more ventilation point is created
in public buildings, the respondents agreed to the statement(x=3.92, SD=1.041).
Whether the occupants are cautious when using naked flames, the respondents
agreed to that effect with a score of (x=3.90, SD=0.994).
On the other hand, the respondents disagreed to the provision of fire hydrant,
provision of emergency lightening system, availability of fire buckets, availability
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of fire blanket, availability of wet riser and provision of fusible link door at the
various public buildings. The respondents further disagreed to availability of fire
hose reel, provision of smoke detectors, availability of sprinkler, provision of halon
gas system, and provision of heat detector, at the various public buildings. These
statements failed to meet the cut-off point of 3.0. The result shows that the majority
of occupants of the public building do not comply with fire safety regulation in
Ghana.
Table 1: Responses on compliance of fire safety regulations in the public buildings

Std.
S/N Compliance of fire safety regulations Mean Decision
Dev.
1. Avoid overloading of electrical circuits are obeyed 3.97 1.064 Agreed
2. Means of escape is provided 3.95 1.018 Agreed
3. Physical accessibility to building is provided 3.95 1.034 Agreed
4. Creation of more ventilation point 3.92 1.041 Agreed
5. Cautious when using naked flames are complied with 3.90 .994 Agreed
Perimeter vehicle access for emergency vehicles are
6. 3.89 1.078 Agreed
complied with
7. Cautious switching-off all un-used electrical outlets 3.87 1.028 Agreed
8. Fire exits are provided 3.77 1.125 Agreed
Fire safety regulations on the provision of signs and
9. 3.72 1.166 Agreed
notices are adhered to
10. Fire alarm is available 3.53 1.226 Agreed
11. Portable fire extinguishers are available 3.44 1.314 Agreed
12. Fire hydrant is provided 2.36 1.177 Disagreed
13. Emergency lightning system is provided 2.26 1.145 Disagreed
14. Fire buckets are available 2.26 1.136 Disagreed
15. Fire blankets are available 2.24 1.177 Disagreed
16. Wet riser is available 2.19 1.116 Disagreed
17. Fusible link door is provided 2.14 1.000 Disagreed
18. Fire hose reel is available 2.10 1.041 Disagreed
19. Smoke detectors are provided 2.09 .982 Disagreed
20. Sprinkler system is available 2.07 .954 Disagreed
21. Provision of halon gas system is adhered to 2.02 .933 Disagreed
22. Heat detector is provided 2.00 .964 Disagreed
Note: X < 3.0=Disagreed; X > 3.0= Agreed
Principal factor analysis on compliance of fire safety regulations

An exploratory factor analysis was performed on all the 22 variables. The tests were
required for the appropriateness of the factor analysis for the factor extraction,
including the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling accuracy, anti-image
correlation, measure of sampling activities (MSA) and Barlett test of Sphericity. The
results of the KMO test showed a coefficient value of 0.915. The factor loading is
presented in Table 2.
After the Varimax Rotation converged in 22 iterations with a Kaiser Normalization,
all three factors were named (Table 2). The naming of the factors was done by the
researchers based on the variables association with literature. The main projections
of the statements offered in the questionnaire on the first factor (FI) are those
related to compliance of fire safety management. This encompasses motives such
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as means of escape is provided, cautious when using naked flames are comply,
perimeter vehicle access for emergency vehicles are complied with, cautious
switching-off all un-used electrical outlet, fire exits are provided, fire alarm is
available, fire hose reel is available, and emergency lightning system is provided.
Table 2: Factor loadings of compliance of safety regulations in the public buildings

Variance
Factor Eigen Cumulative
Item Factor Variables included in the factor explained
Loading value variance %
%
Means of escape is provided .709
Cautious when using naked
.671
flames
Perimeter vehicle access for
emergency vehicles are .825
complied with 7.637 34.713 34.713
Compliance
1 of fires safety Cautious switching-off all un-
.873
management used electrical outlet
Fire exits are provided .883
Fire alarm is available .713
Fire hose reel is available
Emergency lightning system is
.839
provided
Avoid overloading of electrical
.872
circuits are obeyed
Physical accessibility to building
.848
is provided
Creation of more ventilation 7.172 32.599 67.312
Compliance .857
point
of emergency
2 Fire safety regulations on the
communicati
provision of signs and notices .769
on systems
are adhered to
Provision of halon gas system is
.705
adhered to
Fusible link door is provided .936
Fire hydrant is provided .747
Fire buckets are available .736
Fire Blankets are available .786
Compliance Wet riser is available .776
of Portable Fire Extinguishers are
3 .867 1.083 4.922 72.234
firefighting available
equipment Smoke detectors are provided .632
Sprinkler system is available .872
Heat detector is provided .778
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization
*a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations
Note. Factor loadings < .30 are suppressed
The compliance of fire safety management factor explains 34.713% of the total
variance among the 22 fire safety regulation compliance by occupants of public
buildings. The second factor (FII), named compliance of emergency communication
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systems, is defined by statements such as avoid overloading of electrical circuits

are obeyed, physical accessibility to building is provided, creation of more
ventilation point, fire safety regulations on the provision of signs and notices are
adhered to, provision of halon gas system is adhered to, fusible link door is
provided, and fire hydrant is provided. Compliance of emergency communication
system accounted for 32.599% of the total variance among the 22 fire safety
regulation. The third factor (FIII), determined by fire safety regulation is named
compliance of firefighting equipment (fire buckets are available, fire blankets are
available, wet riser is available, portable fire extinguishers are available, smoke
detectors are provided, sprinkler system is available, and heat detector is provided).
As depicted in Table 2, compliance of firefighting equipment explained about
4.922% of the total variance among the items. On the variance-covariance matrix,
all the three extracted factors with an eigenvalue were greater than 1.0.
Safety performance of public buildings

The safety performance of public buildings in Ashanti and the Greater Accra
regions of Ghana were assessed. The mean (X), and standard deviation (SD) were
computed. Table 3 presents the results.
Table 3: Responses on safety performance of public buildings

S/N Safety performance Mean Std. Dev. Decision
Good condition without obvious defects of public
1. 4.20 1.069 Agreed
buildings
2. Non-destruction of public building property 4.10 .943 Agreed
3. Reduces insurance premium of public buildings 4.00 1.006 Agreed
4. Employee feels secured of public buildings usage 3.87 1.021 Agreed
5. Reduction in public building disaster risk 3.72 1.272 Agreed
6. Increases the prestige attached to the public buildings 3.62 1.272 Agreed
Safety and security of workers on the usage of public
7. 3.54 1.386 Agreed
buildings
8. Minimize property loss of public buildings 3.24 1.329 Agreed
9. Ensures standardization of public buildings 3.13 1.335 Agreed
Reduces cost in maintenance and purchasing new
10. 3.12 1.318 Agreed
equipment during fire outbreak
11. Continuous running of business in the public buildings 2.73 1.307 Disagreed
12. Permanent usage of public buildings 2.72 1.299 Disagreed
Increase profit margin generated from the public
13. 2.71 1.375 Disagreed
buildings
14. Increase in the employee performance 2.34 1.445 Disagreed
15. Increase the goodwill of the public buildings 2.29 1.068 Disagreed
16. Produces more efficient organizational structure 2.22 1.139 Disagreed
Note: X < 3.0=Disagreed; X > 3.0= Agreed
As depicted in Table 3, the respondents agreed that fire safety compliance leads to
good condition without obvious defect of public buildings with a scores (x=4.20,
SD=1.069). Moreover, the respondents agreed that fire safety compliance ensures
non-destruction of public buildings property with a scores(x=4.10, SD=.943). In
addition, a scores (x=4.00, SD=1.006) the respondents agreed that fire safety
compliance reduces insurance premium of public building. Furthermore, the
respondents agreed that the fire safety compliance makes employee feels secured
of public buildings usage(x=3.87, SD=1.021). Furthermore, the respondents agreed
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fire safety compliance reduces public buildings disaster risk with a scores (x=3.72,
SD=1.272). On whether fire safety compliance increases the prestige attached to
the public buildings, the respondents agreed to the statement (x=3.62, SD=1.272).
However, the respondents disagreed to continuous running of business in the

public buildings (x=2.73, SD=1.307), permanent usage of public buildings (x=2.72,
SD=1.299), increase profit margin generated from the public buildings (x=2.71,
SD=1.375), increase in the employee performance (x=2.34, SD=1.445), increase the
goodwill of the public buildings (x=2.29, SD=1.068), and produces more efficient
organizational structure (x=2.22, SD=1.139) as safety performance of public
buildings. These statements failed to meet the predetermined cut-off point of 3.0.
Principal factor analysis on safety performance of public buildings

Factor analysis was performed on the safety performance of public buildings
variables. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was found
to be .739. Factor loadings of 16 variables are depicted in Table 4.
Table 4 summarizes the varimax-rotated factor matrix with Kaiser Normalization,

which extracts three factors. Variables with loading <0.30 were dropped and items
with higher loadings were considered to be important and to have influence on
the label selected to present a factor.
Naming of the factors was original contribution of the researcher. The variables;
non-destruction of public buildings property, reduces insurance premium of public
buildings, employee feels secured of public buildings usage, ensures
standardization of public buildings, reduces cost in maintenance and purchasing
new equipment during fire outbreak, increase the goodwill of the public buildings,
produces more efficient organizational structure, permanent usage of public
buildings, and increase in the employee performance belong to the first factor (F1),
named reduce of cost of rebuilding and maintenance of public buildings. The
reduction of cost of rebuilding and maintenance of public building explained about
19.727% of the total variance among the items. Moreover, good condition without
obvious defects of public buildings, reduction in public buildings disaster risk,
increases the prestige attached to the public buildings, minimize property loss of
public buildings, and increase profit margin generated from the public buildings
belongs to the second factor (F2) and are described as ensure good condition of
public building.
The ensuring good condition of public building factor explains 17.695% of the total
variance among the 16 safety performance of public buildings variables. The third
factor (F3) named ensure safety and security of occupants; safety and security of
workers on the usage of public buildings, ensures standardization of public
buildings, reduces cost in maintenance and purchasing new equipment during fire
outbreak, continuous running of business in the public buildings, permanent usage
of public buildings, increase the goodwill of the public buildings. Ensuring of safety
and security of occupants accounted for 11.267% of the total variance among the
16 safety performance of public buildings.
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Table 4: Factor loadings of overall performance measurement

Variance
Factor Cumulative
Item Factor Variables included in the factor Eigenvalue explained
Loading variance %
%
Non-destruction of public
.862
buildings property
Reduces insurance premium of
Reduce cost .920
public buildings
of rebuilding
Employee feels secured of
and .905
1 public buildings usage 3.156 19.727 19.727
maintenance
of public Ensures standardization of
.557
buildings public buildings
Reduces cost in maintenance
and purchasing new equipment .479
during fire outbreak
Increase the goodwill of the
.408
public buildings
Produces more efficient
.532
organizational structure
Permanent usage of public
.663
buildings
Increase in the employee
.130
performance
Good condition without obvious
.493
defects of public buildings
Ensure good Reduction in public buildings
.787
condition of disaster risk
2 2.831 17.693 37.420
public Increases the prestige attached
buildings .824
to the public buildings
Minimize property loss of
.853
public buildings
Increase profit margin
generated from the public .712
buildings
Safety and security of workers
on the usage of public .915
buildings
Ensures standardization of
.359 2.194 13.711 51.131
public buildings
Reduces cost in maintenance
Ensure safety and purchasing new equipment .364
3 and security during fire outbreak
of occupants
Continuous running of business
.224
in the public buildings
Permanent usage of public
.524
buildings
Increase the goodwill of the
.613
public buildings
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization
*a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations
Note. Factor loadings < .30 are suppressed
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Relationship between fire safety compliance and safety performance of public

buildings
Correlation analysis
Correlation analysis was used to find out the relationship between the compliance
of safety regulation and safety performance of public buildings. Table 5 shows the
relationship that exists between the variables.
Table 5: Correlation matrix of fire safety compliance against safety performance

Construct 1 2 3 4 5 6
Compliance of fires safety
1 1
management
Compliance of emergency
2 .706** 1
communication systems
Compliance of firefighting
3 .894** .817** 1
equipment
Reduces the cost of rebuilding and
4 -.035 .041 .026 1
maintenance of public building
Ensure good condition of public
5 .669** .695** .711** .056 1
building
Ensures safety and security of
6 .754** .945** .853** .050 .724** 1
occupants
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Statistically, the study found a positive significant correlation between compliance

of fire safety management and good condition of public buildings (r= .669,
p<0.001), and safety and security of occupants of public buildings (r= .754,
p<0.001). The results of Pearson's correlation coefficient further show a positive
relationship between compliance of emergency communication system and good
condition of public buildings (r= .695, p<0.001), and safety and security of
occupants of public buildings (r= .945, p<0.001). Again, positive significant
correlation was found between compliance of firefighting equipment and good
condition of public buildings (r = .711, p<0.001) and safety and security of
occupants (r= .853, p<0.001).
Regression analysis
In order to address the relationship between the compliance of safety regulation
and safety performance of public building, regression analysis was conducted. The
study analysed the variations of safety performance of public building due to
compliance of fire safety regulation. The findings are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Model summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate
1 .744a .554 .549 .633
a. Predicators: (Constant), compliance of fires safety management, compliance of emergency
communication systems, compliance of firefighting equipment
According to the model summary output, the variables were significantly

correlated where R (coefficient of correlation) was a positive correlation of 0.744
indicating that the compliance of fire safety regulation were highly related to safety
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performance of public buildings. The identified independent variables (compliance

of fires safety management, compliance of emergency communication systems,
compliance of firefighting equipment), explains only 55.4% variation in the
dependent variable (safety performance of public buildings). Analysis of variance
was carried out and the findings are presented in Table 7.
Table 7: Analysis of variance

Sum of
Model df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Regression 153.176 3 51.059 127.293 .000b
1 Residual 123.542 308 .401
Total 276.718 311
a. Dependent Variable: safety performance of public building
b. Predictors: (Constant), compliance of fires safety management, compliance of emergency
communication systems, compliance of firefighting equipment
The relationship was significant at critical value (0.001) since the reported p-value
(0.000<0.01) was less than the critical value. This means that the safety
performance of public buildings was significant at 95%. This implies that there is a
positive significant relationship between compliance of fire safety regulation and
safety performance of public buildings in Ashanti and the Greater Accra regions
(F=127.293, df=308, p=000<0.01). The evaluation of a building performance in
terms of fire safety is always aimed at assessing its compliance with certain safety
standards.
Table 8: Regression coefficient

Unstandardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficients t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 1.218 .153 7.981 .000
Compliance of fires safety
.188 .076 .212 2.489 .013
management
1 Compliance of emergency
.333 .061 .359 5.419 .000
communication systems
Compliance of firefighting
.208 .096 .228 2.173 .031
equipment
a. Dependent Variable: safety performance of public building
From Table 8, the results indicated that a unit increase in average compliance of
fire safety management increases the average safety performance of public
buildings by 0.188 (β=0.188, t=2.489, p= 0.013<0.05). This implies that occupant
compliance of fire safety management is a significant predictors of safety
performance of public buildings (p-value < 0.05). The findings as shown on the
table reveal that a unit increase in average compliance of emergency
communication system positively and significantly increases the average safety
performance of public buildings (β=.333, t=5.419, p = 0.000<0.01). This implies
that occupant compliance of emergency communication system influences the
safety performance of public buildings. The finding also reveals that a unit increase
in average of compliance of firefighting equipment positively and significantly
increases the safety performance of public buildings (β=0.208, t=2.173, p =
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Asumadu and Danso
0.031<0.05). This implies that occupant compliance of firefighting equipment

could influence the safety performance of public buildings.
DISCUSSION
The result shows that fire hydrant, sprinkler system, halon gas system, heat
detector, emergency lightning system, fire buckets, and fire blankets are not
available at most of the public buildings in the Greater Accra and Ashanti regions
of Ghana. At the various public buildings, firefighting equipment are either not
available or where available they are not functional or that the occupants of the
buildings are not even sure of their availability and functionality. This finding aligns
with the report by GNFS (2020) which disclosed the citizenry has still not given fire
safety protocols the urgency and attention it deserves. The finding explains the
observation by Kahwa (2009) that there had been a trend of increasing incidences
of fires and their consequences in public institutions in Ghana between 1999 and
2006. This showed that, fire incidences in educational and commercial buildings in
Ghana resulted from negligence and non-compliance of fire safety regulation. The
finding is also a true reflection with physical observations made by the researchers
in some of the buildings visited in the course of the study. Fire hose reel, oftentimes
when available are mostly not functional, while most of the passive firefighting
equipment like sprinkler system, fire hydrant, risers, fusible link door and halon gas
system are mostly not available in public buildings occupied by the respondents.
This was also confirmed during the physical observation by the researchers. Apart
from portable fire extinguishers and fire alarm systems, all other fire equipment
was found to be below average rating of respondents in terms of availability and
functionality.
A positive significant relationship was found between compliance of fire safety
regulation and safety performance of public buildings in Ashanti and the Greater
Accra regions of Ghana. The coefficient of compliance of fire safety regulation was
positive and significant, meaning that it was a major variable that determined
reduction in the cost of rebuilding and maintenance of public buildings, good
condition of public buildings, and safety and security of occupants of public
buildings. The results of this study were in agreement with the findings of a study
by Taylor (2010). According to Taylor, it is reasonable for owners and managers of
buildings to comply with fire safety regulations, because it helps ensure good
condition of buildings, safety and security of workers. Windapo and Oladapo (2012)
affirmed that compliance of fire safety regulation eliminates or reduces injuries,
loss of materials and time, payment of compensation and payments to injured staff
when off duty, hence reducing the cost of production and affecting the profit
margin of the organisation. As such, to prevent destruction to buildings, reduce
the cost of production, improve productivity and maximize profits, many firms seek
to improve safety in their organisations and this includes compliance with fire
safety regulations (Windapo & Oladapo, 2012). This explains why Nzuve and
Lawrence (2012) posit that good condition without obvious defects of public
buildings, and prevention of destruction of public buildings often reflect on the
level of compliance with fire safety regulations. The finding also supports Idubor
and Osiamoje (2013), that organization compliance with fire safety regulation
improves safety performance of buildings.
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Fire safety practices is an aspect that has suffered great neglect among designers
and users of public buildings, this may be due to uncared attitudes and ignorance
on the part of building owner and users. The present study found that the
occupants of public buildings in Ashanti and the Greater Accra regions do not
comply with safety regulation. At the various public building, firefighting
equipment is either not available or where available they are not functional or that
the occupant of the buildings is not even sure of their availability and functionality.
The study found a positive and significant relationship between compliance with
fire safety regulation and safety performance of public buildings in Ashanti and the
Greater Accra regions of Ghana. Fire safety practices and awareness is very
necessary as it is anonymously said “to be forewarned is to be forearmed” adequate
knowledge of fire, cause, prevention and suppression are very important to all
building occupants, also provision of adequate firefighting equipment is very
important.
The study recommends that building owners should ensure that their buildings are
well equipped with active and passive firefighting equipment. Also, training on fire
safety, first aid, use of firefighting equipment, and evacuation procedure should be
made compulsory for all building occupants and at regular intervals. Government
of Ghana should revisit the fire code and resuscitate its administration and
implementation, compliance with fire code regulation should be made compulsory
for building owners, users, and occupiers of public buildings and any defaulters are
brought to book. Also, compliance with the fire code and issuance of fire certificate
should be approached right from the inception of the construction and appropriate
follow up ensured after completion and throughout the building’s life span. It is
recommended that Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS) and National Disaster
Management Organization (NADMO) should do the proper inspection of public
buildings to ensure compliance with fire safety regulation in the country.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE USE OF BUILDING

INFORMATION MODELLING AND ITS IMPACT ON
CONSTRUCTION PERFORMANCE WITHIN GHANAIAN
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Frederick Kwasi Wirekoh1 and Humphrey Danso2
1,2Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education, Aketen Appiah-Menka University
of Skills Training & Entrepreneurial Development, Kumasi-Ghana
Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a key computer aided technology that can
facilitate construction productivity enhancements through the removal of
numerous construction inefficiencies. This study investigates the use of BIM and its
impact on construction project performance in Ghanaian architecture, engineering
and construction industry. A cross-sectional survey design was adopted for the
study. Self-administered questionnaires were used for data collection from
architects, structural and civil engineers, project managers, quantity surveyors,
contractors and general foremen in Greater Accra, Ashanti and Western Regions.
Purposive sampling technique was used to elicit information from 300 participants.
Data was analysed through the use of multiple response analysis, relative
importance index (RII), principal component analysis and descriptively analysis. The
results indicated that experts in the construction industry obviously agreed that the
use of BIM has a great impact on construction project performance. Increase
productivity, improve product quality and create customer value, help in removing
barriers and constraints, reduce time of project design and shop drawings, improve
communication effectiveness, provide accurate cost estimation and take off
materials, reduce conflicts and number of claims, reduce defects in the construction
phase, increase collaboration in project design were considered by the respondents
as the most important factors for project performance improvement. It is
recommended that experts and stakeholders should encourage the use of BIM
technology in Ghanaian construction industry to improve construction project
performance to meet customer satisfaction and also boost the infrastructural
development.
Keywords: building information modelling (BIM), construction performance,

Ghana
INTRODUCTION
Information technology (IT) is one of the promising tools which have been
constantly deemed as a solution to save construction projects. Among those,
1 profred9@hotmail.com
Wirekoh and Danso (2021) An investigation into the use of building information modelling and its
impact on construction performance within Ghanaian construction industry In: Laryea, S. and Essah,
E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021,
Accra, Ghana, 115-136
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Wirekoh and Danso
computer-aided design (CAD) software applications have been playing the leading
role for more than three decades in the construction industry (CI). BIM-supported
software applications are the new generation of CAD software applications (Parvan,
2012). Building Information Model (BIM) is known as a shared digital representation
of the physical and functional characteristics of the facility in the Architectural,
Engineering and Construction (AEC) industry. The basic premise of BIM is to
improve collaboration and interoperability among the stakeholders of the facility
during its lifecycle. The 3D visualization is the basic essential feature of BIM.
However, BIM is not just a 3D CAD. It is more than the elaborated 3D renderings.
Also, it is more than delivering the project documentation in the electronic version.
It is about information use, reuse, and exchange, of which the digital format is just
one part (Parvan, 2012).
General Services Administration (GSA, 2007) BIM guide defines BIM as the
development and use of a multi-faceted computer software data model not to only
document a building design, but to simulate the construction and operation of a
new capital facility or a recapitalized (modernized) facility. BIM is the process of
generating, storing, managing, exchanging, and sharing building information in an
interoperable and reusable way (Vanlande, Nicolle & Cruz, 2008). BIM is a
revolutionary technology and process that has quickly transformed the way
buildings are conceived, designed, constructed and operated (Hardin, 2009). BIM
can also be referred to as a computer-integrated project due to its process and
technology application in project delivery (Azhar et al., 2012).
The building industry is under great pressure to provide value for money,
sustainable infrastructure, visual and analytical checks to enable better code
compliance and this has boosted the implementation of BIM technology (Mihindu
& Arayici, 2008). According to Ahadzie and Amoa-Mensah (2010) and Laryea
(2010), the Ghanaian construction industry faces challenges that include
inadequacy of finance and credit services for contractors, design constraints and
variation of works, poor preparation and supervision as well as low
computerization. A further challenge of construction management is the poor
estimation of project cost (Agele, 2012; cited in Akwaah, 2015). The industry is
changing and adopting new ways of working which include an increased
digitalization and implementation of BIM (Crotty, 2013, Bryde et al. 2013), supply
chain integration (Briscoe & Dainty, 2005) and productivity enhancement (Dubois
& Gadde, 2002). Stakeholders in the construction industry use variety of scheduling
methods, study as well as its application; however, they are not sufficiently
competent to fulfil the need of building parties. Thus, parties in AEC industries
make use of scheduling methods such as Critical Path Method (CPM) and Program
Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), Gantt Charts, Task List, Simulation and
others but yet have short comings in project delivery. There exists a huge
discrepancy among the implementation as well as plan (Allen & Smallwood, 2008).
Studies conducted on BIM in Ghana include Akwaah (2015), on the guideline for
building the capacity of contractors for adoption and implementation of BIM in
Ghana. Nani (2015) studied the guidelines for capacity building of construction
firms for BIM adoption in Ghana. Acquah, Eyiah and Oteng (2018) investigated the
acceptance of BIM, which was a survey of professionals in the construction industry
in Ghana. Akwaah and Nani (2015) investigated the fundamental requirements for
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the adoption and implementation BIM of by contractors, the state of BIM

implementation, the relevance of BIM implementation, and the challenges of BIM
implementation to construction firms in Ghana. Armah (2015) considered the areas
of implementing BIM in the construction industry, the benefits that come with the
adoption of BIM, and the barriers to BIM implementation in the construction
industry in Ghana.
All the above researches on BIM in Ghana did not consider the use of building
information modelling and its impact on construction project performance. This
gap necessitated the need to conduct a study on the use of building information
modelling and its impact on construction performance in the Ghanaian
construction industry since that aspect is lacking in BIM literature in Ghana. The
purpose of the study is to investigate the use of building information modelling
and its impact on construction performance within the Ghanaian construction
industry.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Building Information Modelling (BIM)
Alvarez-Romero (2014), described Building Information Modelling (BIM) as one of
the most promising technologies for the Architecture, Engineering, and
Construction industries. Building information models encapsulate and represent
the three-dimensional geometry of building objects and the corresponding
attributes of a physical facility. By its very nature, it promotes collaboration from
design and construction participants around the digital model of a facility. The core
of BIM is the building geometry, but also is a structured information base of non-
graphical data that provides detailed information about the identity of building
components and their properties, for example a wall element in a model exists as
a wall and is no longer represented by a set of drawn lines (Alvarez-Romero, 2014).
The National Building Information Model Standards (NBIMS) vision for BIM is an
improved planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance process
using a standardized machine-readable information model for each facility, new or
old, which contains all appropriate information created or gathered about that
facility in a format useable by throughout its lifecycle (NIBS 2008). This definition
implies a collaborative and integrated approach (see Figure 1). BIM is a tool used
by designers, engineers, and contractors to present the graphics and database of
a construction project to enhance the communication between all project
stockholders (Krygiel & Nies, 2008).
Katez and Gerald (2010) define BIM as a “multi-faceted computer software data
model to not only document a building design but to simulate the construction
and operation of a new capital facility or a recapitalized facility” (p. 26). Meanwhile,
Krygiel and Nies (2008) define BIM as “the creation and use of coordinated,
consistent, computable information about a building project in design-parametric
information used for design decision making, production of high-quality
construction documents, prediction of building performance, cost estimating, and
construction planning” (p. 27). The BIM model presents the actual building
construction and assemblies and two-dimensional drawings (Azhar, 2011).
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Figure 1: Collaborative and Integrated view of BIM through the project lifecycle, Image Source:
Alvarez-Romero (2014).
Figure 2 shows a 3D external model for a commercial building design in Iraq

presenting the final design concept and the finishing materials of the building.
Figure 2: A 3D BIM model for a commercial building design in Babylon city- Iraq
Source: Hussein and Zaid (2016).
BIM has created a new development revolution in the design and construction
industry. It is causing a major paradigm shift in the Architectural, Engineering and
construction industry while creating wider and newer opportunities for young
professionals (Uddin & Atul, 2014). While this creates a positive drive and focuses
on this industry, it is also important to fully understand what BIM encompasses.
BIM is expansive (Turk, 2016). Turk’s study discusses the structural, functional and
behavioural attributes of BIM which indicate its complex nature. Roles such as BIM
managers, BIM coordinators and BIM specialists are becoming increasingly popular
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and sought after for BIM assisted construction projects. The complex nature of BIM
can be seen in a study that identified the motivations for adopting BIM were multi-
dimensional (Dongping, 2016). BIM consists of several dimensions, 3D BIM models,
4D BIM adds time-related information to 3D to enable detailed scheduling of the
construction process. 5D BIM adds costs to BIM components to assist the
calculation of total project costs. 6D BIM includes lifecycle properties to enable
optimised asset management. This makes the entire process complex in nature
Therefore, a limited understanding of its capability and resultant impacts would

mean that the industry would not be maximizing the benefits of BIM and in some
instances could harm the progress and expansion of BIM.
The pursuit to better understand and define BIM has prompted studies to establish
a standard for effectively measuring and understanding Building Information
Modelling Maturity (BIMM). Chen (2013) explores BIMM and investigated the
indicators and related factors that would capture a more comprehensive
understanding of BIM as it relates to its maturity (Chen, Hazar Mark, & Mihaela,
2016). The study by Chen proposes that BIMM can be grouped under Technology,
Information, Process and People. Succar identifies the factors proposed by Chen
but also includes Policy as a factor of BIM (Succar, Sher, & Williams, 2012).
Therefore, the literature review indicated that the comprehensiveness of BIMM can
be measured through Information, Technology, Process, People and Policy
Management. Maturity is synonymous for effectiveness and performance as the
Building Information Modelling is composed of dimensions such as Technology,
information, process and people. The application of software’s, information
delivery methods, Process & Technology Innovation as well as competency profile
of teams in the AEC industries determines the output of work.
Chen (2013), presented a table listing the dimensions/factors and grouped

indicators under the relevant dimensions as seen in Table 1. Collaboration among
project participants is important for aspects of Productivity. However, it seems that
software interoperability has been a significant issue in the application of BIM
(Bynum, 2013). Project delivery is a team work which includes the client’s team,
construction team, statutory personals and designers. BIM usage brings on board
all the various stakeholders or persons together and as such, each of the team
performs a unique function to realize an effective delivery of project amounting to
its general performance. A critical success factor for the successful implementation
of BIM is the willingness of participants to share information (Won et al, 2013). BIM
can be used as an effective platform for collaboration by changing the way
construction is performed and documented (James & Meadati, 2008). For
collaboration in practice, a case study showed that there was an expectation for
participants on BIM projects to drive collaboration, as opposed to having an
expectation of a collaborative organizational structure (Dossick & Neff, 2010).
These studies refer to BIM being a platform for collaboration and as a result a
means of achieving productivity. However, the studies indicate a necessity to
improve elements such as software interoperability of BIM, while also improving
leadership from the participants to share information and collaborate.
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Table 1: BIMM Dimensions and Indicators

BIMM Dimension BIMM Indicator
Software Applications
Technology Interoperability
(Chen, 2013; Jung and Joo, 2011; Succar 2010) Hardware Equipment
Hardware Upgrade
Information Delivery Method (IDM)
Information Assurance
Data Richness
Information Real-Time Data
(Chen et al. 2014; Information Accuracy
CIC 2011; Graphics
NIBS 2007) Geospatial Capability
Work Flow
Documentation and Modeling
Standards (DMS)
Process
Process & Tech Innovation (PTI)
(Giel & Issa 2013; Gu
& London 2010; Mom et al. 2011) Strategic Planning
Lifecycle Process
Change Management
Risk Management
Standard Operating Process (SOP)
Quality Control
People
Senior Leadership
(Chen, 2013; Computer Integrated
Construction, 2013; Gu & London, 2010; Gu, Singh, Role
& London, 2014) Reward System
Competency Profile
Training Delivery Method (TDM)
Source: Chen (2013)
Understanding BIM
From a technology perspective, a building information model is a project
simulation consisting of the 3D models of the project components with links to all
the required information connected with the project planning, design, construction
or operation as depicted in Figure 3 (Kymmell, 2008). The BIM technology hailed
from the object-oriented parametric modelling technique (Azhar et al., 2008). The
term “parametric” describes a process by which an element is modified and an
adjacent element or assembly (e.g. a door attached to a wall) is automatically
adjusted to maintain a previously established relationship (Stine, 2011).
BIM as technology
From a technology perspective, a building information model is a project
simulation consisting of the 3D models of the project components with links to all
the required information connected with the project planning, design, construction
or operation as depicted (Kymmell, 2008). The BIM technology hailed from the
object-oriented parametric modelling technique (Azhar et al., 2008). The term
“parametric” describes a process by which an element is modified and an adjacent
element or assembly (e.g. a door attached to a wall) is automatically adjusted to
maintain a previously established relationship (Stine, 2011).
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BIM as a process
BIM can be viewed as a virtual process that encompasses all aspects, disciplines,
and systems of a facility within a single, virtual model, allowing all team members
(Owners, architects, engineers, contractors, subcontractors and suppliers) to
collaborate more accurately and efficiently than traditional processes. As the model
is being created, team members are constantly refining and adjusting their portions
according to project specifications and design changes to ensure the model is as
accurate as possible before the project physically breaks ground (Carmona & Irwin,
2007).
BIM as people
Competencies may be expressed as “behaviour that an individual need to
demonstrate”, or they may be expressed as “minimum standards of performance”.
BIM competency represents the ability of users to fulfil all the important areas of
an effective BIM implementation to deliver value and achieve the expected BIM
product/service. BIM implementation process can produce valuable benefits to BIM
users by having the ability to introduce and implement changes effectively (Giel
and Issa, 2013c; Nepal et al., 2014; Succar, 2010a). The skills, knowledge and
behaviour of people leads to successful performance. These skills, knowledge and
behaviour are required to deliver certain activities for successful performance.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A cross-sectional survey was employed for the research design as it permitted the
researchers to study the participants once and therefore not necessitating follow-
ups (Shuttleworth, 2010). In turn, this design was used to determine the key drivers
for acceptance and implementation of BIM in the construction industries in Ghana,
explore the most important factors of improvement in performance on
construction projects as a result of adoption and implementation of BIM in the
construction industry in Ghana. Creswell and Plano (2011) defined the research
population as a large well-defined collection of individuals having similar features.
The target population for this study consisted of experienced professionals from
the architectural consultancy firms, quantity surveying firms, and structural
engineering firms operating within the Kumasi, Accra, and Sekondi-Takoradi
metropolises in Ghana.
The sampling frame used for the study was well-established firms registered by the
Architectural Registration Council-Ghana, Ghana Institute of Surveyors and Ghana
Chamber of Construction. Bryman (2004) opined that sampling techniques tell us
how part of the population used in data collected is carefully chosen. The study,
therefore, employed purposive sampling to select the firms from the sampling
frame as well as the respondents engaged in the study. This technique was chosen
specifically because the number of construction projects who had adopted BIM
technology greatly overshadowed the number of projects not into this technology,
so it facilitated the ease in reaching such firms. Again, this technique ensured
participants selection was based on the participant’s organization’s knowledge on
BIM (Saunders et al, 2012). In effect, the survey sample consisted of professionals
such as architects, engineers, quantity surveyors, contractors and general foremen
drawn from 300 participants sampled from the study population.
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A close-ended questionnaire was used for collecting data. This is essentially

because this tool has the track record as the most reliable technique that helps
collect important and valid data (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). In the design, the
questionnaire was supported by literature and thereafter categorized into five main
broad headings. The process equally permitted respondents to either rate
responses on a seven-point Likert scale and also make multiple choices when it
was necessitated. The first part constituted the demographic characteristics of the
respondents. The second part was composed of determining the key drivers for
acceptance and implementation of BIM in the construction industries in Ghana.
Exploring the most important factors of improvement in performance on
construction industry in Ghana made the third part as the fourth part highlighted
on measuring the relevance of BIM maturity in the Ghanaian construction industry.
The fifth and final part focused on determining the various softwares available for
BIM essential.
Conca et al. (2004) contended that validity explains the extent to which a test item
or an instrument measures what it is purposed to measure. To ensure that the
instrument captured all the relevant areas of using BIM technology and the whole
proposed survey instrument was well worded and understood; thus, content
validity, the questionnaire was sent to two lecturers well versed in BIM technology
to check the comprehensiveness of the items under each construct. This helped to
improve the content, thereby eliminating ambiguity and ensuring its ease of
understanding. To maximize the reliability of the questionnaire, the items
generated were pretested on a sample of 20 professionals sharing similar
characteristics as the study sample and also in the construction industry at Obuasi
Municipal. Reliability refers to the extent to which an instrument measures the
same way each time it is used under the same conditions with the same subjects
(Naoum, 2007). This sample is consistent with a study by Patton (2002) that
suggests that the sample size for a pilot study should be at least 20 respondents.
This pre-test aimed to ensure that quantitative measurements corresponded with
expected results from interaction with construction consultants. The Cronbach’s
alpha values of the measurement used met the threshold of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2003;
Pallant, 2007) as shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Reliability Analysis

Objective Cronbach’s Alpha No. of variables
Key drivers for acceptance and implementation of BIM
0.878 36
in the construction industries in Ghana.
Most important factors of improvement in
0.821 13
performance on construction projects.
Measuring the relevance of BIM maturity in the
0.871 28
Ghanaian construction industry.
Various software’s available for BIM essential for the
Ghanaian Architectural, Engineering and Construction 0.846 23
(AEC) companies.
The questionnaire was self-administered over a period of about six months in the
towns of Kumasi, Accra and Sunyani respectively to the targeted respondents to
seek the necessary information in determining the key drivers for acceptance and
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Wirekoh and Danso
implementation of BIM in the construction industries in Ghana. This was preceded

by previewing respondents on the necessary arrangements regarding the date,
time and place where applicable. Respondents were also informed about the
confidentiality of their responses. The quantitative data collected from the field
survey through the use of closed-ended questionnaire items were analysed on the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 and Microsoft excel
software.

Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data subsequently. 214 well-
answered questionnaire items were received from a total of 300 items self-
administered. This thus approximates the response rate to about 71%.
Key drivers for acceptance and implementation of BIM in the construction

industries in Ghana.
Aimed at determining the key drivers for acceptance and implementation of BIM
in the construction industry, the respondent’s views were subjected to multiple
response analysis and ranked subsequently. This was established based on the fact
that respondents were presented with items that demanded more than a single
response and had the option to select any that they deemed appropriate. The items
were tabulated as a dichotomy group at a value of 1 (Yes), a threshold set as the
selected item of preference with value 2 (No) as otherwise. The number of “Yes”
responses were only tabulated and ranked consequently against the “No”
responses from the participants. Again, the key drivers as stated earlier in the
objective explained the need and urge as well as the benefits accrued in the use of
BIM in the construction industry. They were classified in terms of their advantages,
stakeholder’s involvement, capabilities and functions and types of buildings
affected as shown in Table 3.
In dealing with a data set that offers respondents the liberty to select more than a
response at the same time, multiple response analyses stand significant (Simon,
2013). In this respect, the technique was used in determining the key drivers for
acceptance and implementation of BIM in the construction industries in Ghana. Six
main drivers were identified in this effect. These are; capability and function to
create drawings, the involvement of architect/engineers as stakeholders,
advantage gained as a result of enhanced productivity, capability and function in
providing quality take-off, the involvement of construction managers as
stakeholders and its usage in commercial building projects. The capability and
function to create drawings came up as a key driver in determining the key drivers
for acceptance and implementation of BIM in the construction industries in Ghana.
According to Azhar (2011), building proposals can be rigorously analysed,
simulations performed quickly, and performance benchmarked, enabling improved
and innovative solutions to generate a better design.
Inevitably, stakeholders like architects as well as engineers form a core component
in determining the key drivers for acceptance and implementation of BIM in the
construction industries in Ghana. This assessment was clarified by Azhar et al,
(2012), who claimed that the project architects and engineers can take advantage
of BIM in schematic and detailed design; and construction detailing phases.
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Wirekoh and Danso
Table 3: Key drivers for the acceptance and implementation of BIM in the construction industries
in Ghana.
Responses Ranking by Overall
Drivers
N Percent category ranking
Advantages
Enhance productivity 167 30.5% 1 3
Competitive Advantage 140 25.6% 2 8
Exploring and adopting new trends 91 16.6% 3 14
Required by owners or contracts 75 13.7% 4 19
Success stories of others using BIM 74 13.5% 5 20
Total 547 100.0%
Stakeholders
Architect/Engineers 183 35.9% 1 2
Construction Managers 155 30.4% 2 5
General Contractors 77 15.1% 3 17
Owner/Developers 43 8.4% 4 25
Consultants 31 6.1% 5 28
Subcontractors 18 3.5% 6 33
Software Vendors 3 0.6% 7 36
Total 510 100.0%
Capabilities and Functions
Create drawings 191 15.9% 1 1
Quantity Take-off 159 13.2% 2 4
Site Planning 120 10.0% 3 9
Clash Detection 119 9.9% 4 10
Scheduling and sequencing 83 6.9% 5 15
Costing and Budgeting 80 6.7% 6 16
Improve project controls 74 6.2% 7 20
Communication 69 5.7% 8 21
Facility management 55 4.6% 9 22
Facilitate decision making 48 4.0% 10 23
Equipment management 46 3.8% 11 24
Waste management 41 3.4% 12 26
Labour resource allocations 35 2.9% 13 27
Collaboration with stakeholders 30 2.5% 14 30
Energy analysis 21 1.7% 15 31
Code compliance 19 1.6% 16 32
Virtual meeting capabilities 11 0.9% 17 34
Total 1201 100.0%
Types of Building Projects
Commercial 153 22.3% 1 6
Industrial 148 21.6% 2 7
Residential 118 17.2% 3 11
Educational 93 13.6% 4 12
Institutional 93 13.6% 5 12
Healthcare 77 11.2% 6 17
Transportation 4 0.6% 7 35
Total 686 100.0%
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Wirekoh and Danso
The construction industry in developed countries is experiencing a major move

from the traditional methods of intensive manual Laboure towards the utilization
of automation that has been made possible through the use of information
technology. This trend results in enhanced construction efficiency leading to
improved productivity in terms of reduction in wastage, errors, and rework Nath et
al. (2015). Provision of quantity take-off as a function and capability of BIM greatly
impacts the essence for the acceptance and implementation of BIM in the
construction industries in Ghana. Efficient and accurate quantity take-off and cost
estimation are pivotal to a project’s success (Staub-French, 2003). Aram et al. (2014)
emphasized the conditions for successful BIM use in ensuring quality take-off.
The involvement of construction managers as stakeholders forms a major element
as a key driver for the acceptance and implementation of BIM in the construction
industries in Ghana. Construction managers or general contractors can use BIM to
extract quantities of work to prepare cost estimates (Hergunsel, 2011). Complex
construction projects require inter-organizational associations (Maurer, 2010). To
ensure success in inter-organizational project ventures, trust between the different
project partners is acknowledged as a key success factor (Kadefors, 2004; Maurer,
2010). Because of the nature of work in these inter-organizational ventures, there
is a well-recognized need for better integration, cooperation, and coordination of
construction project teams (Cicmil & Marshall, 2005, cited in Maunula, 2008).
Most important factors of improvement in performance on construction projects
as a result of the adoption and implementation of BIM in the construction
industry in Ghana.
In exploring the level of improvement in performance on construction projects as
a result of adoption and implementation of BIM in the Ghanaian construction
industry, opinions of respondents were analysed using the Relative Importance
Index (RII) and subsequently ranked according to their relative importance. This
was based on a seven-point Likert scale from strongly important (=7) to strongly
unimportant (=1). According to Akadiri (2011), the criticality of RII is defined as
follows; strongly unimportant ( ), very unimportant (0.15 – 0.29),
unimportant (0.30 – 0.44), moderately important (0.45 – 0.59), important (0.60 –
0.74), very important (0.75 – 0.89) and strongly important ( ). Data obtained
from respondents therefore were used to calculate the importance of each level of
improvement in performance as the basis of the ranking (Table 5). This may be
calculated using the formula;
Where RII (Relative index) is used for ranking indicators (degree of importance), W
is the weight given to each item by respondents on a scale of one to seven with
one implying the least and seven the highest, A is the highest weight (7 in our case)
and N is the number of respondents (Akadiri 2011). Table 4 displays the Relative
Importance Index (RII) of the level of improvement in performance on construction
projects as a result of adoption and implementation of BIM in the Ghanaian
construction industry with their associate rankings concerning their mean values.
The threshold for the key levels of performance improvement was set at a range of
0.75 – 0.89 and any level below this range was not deemed prime. It was evident
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Wirekoh and Danso
per the criticality of the RII that ten levels of performance improvement (falling
within the range 0.75 – 0.89) were identified as “very important” which are
interpreted as key levels regarding the level of improvement in performance on
Ghanaian construction industry. These levels with their corresponding RII
accordingly are; increases productivity (0.81), improves product quality and creates
customer value (0.81), helps in removing barriers and constraints (0.80), reduces
conflicts and number of claims (0.79), reduces the time of project design and shop
drawings (0.79), improves communication effectiveness (0.79), provides accurate
cost estimation and take off materials (0.77), reduces conflicts and number of
claims (0.77), reduces defects in the construction phase (0.76) and increases
collaboration in project design (0.75).
Table 4: Level of improvement in performance of construction projects as a result of adopting

and implementation of BIM
Level of improvement in RESPONSES (RANKING) TOT
∑W MEAN RII DESCRIPTION
performance 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 AL
Very
Increases productivity 2 0 12 15 50 79 56 214 1214 5.67 0.81
important
Improves product quality
Very
and creates customer 0 1 1 20 80 61 51 214 1208 5.64 0.81
important
value
Helps in removing barriers Very
1 2 1 24 67 80 39 214 1192 5.57 0.80
and constraints important
Reduces the time of
Very
project design and shop 2 1 0 23 69 73 44 214 1187 5.55 0.79
important
drawings
Reduces the time of
Very
project design and shop 0 1 0 19 87 76 31 214 1186 5.54 0.79
important
drawings
Improves communication Very
0 1 14 31 56 54 58 214 1178 5.50 0.79
effectiveness important
Provides accurate cost
Very
estimation and take off 0 0 1 33 87 67 26 214 1154 5.39 0.77
important
materials
Reduces conflicts and Very
1 1 1 16 112 61 22 214 1150 5.37 0.77
number of claims important
Reduces defects in the Very
2 3 1 52 38 100 18 214 1135 5.30 0.76
construction phase important
Increases collaboration in Very
3 1 0 62 41 77 30 214 1130 5.28 0.75
project design important
Reduces uncertainty
inherent in the 1 15 2 27 84 78 7 214 1082 5.06 0.72 Important
construction phase
Generates and evaluates
alternative construction 1 1 26 43 69 44 30 214 1072 5.01 0.72 Important
plans
Aids in just in time
delivery of materials and 0 1 8 57 96 41 11 214 1057 4.94 0.71 Important
parts
An increase in productivity came up as an important factor in the improvement in

performance on construction projects as a result of the adoption and
implementation of BIM in the construction industry of Ghana. It is perceived to
have the potential to significantly change and improve performance and
documentation in the AEC industry by reducing inefficiencies, enhancing
productivity, and increasing collaboration and communication (Campbell 2007;
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Wirekoh and Danso
Goedert & Meadati 2008). Improvement of product quality and creation of

customer value emerged also as one of the important factors in performance on
construction projects as a result of adoption and implementation of BIM. This is
advocated by Jylhä and Junnila (2012) who claim that customers are the nursing
companies and their nursing staff; special focus is given to the value potentials that
BIM, as well as improved environmental performance, might offer to the customers.
From this perspective, it could be said that, to improve product quality and
customer value by using processes and systems which aim to fulfil the customer's
requirements, enhance customer satisfaction, monitor against applicable quality
standards have a great impact on the performance on a construction project.
Another factor obtained is the improvement in product quality and creating of
customer value. Czmoch and Pękala (2014) attested that the construction process
enforces the final and accurate decision to be taken. They emphasized further that
the BIM model requires accuracy in modelling from the very beginning and that
strict standards and rules have to be set within the team to work according to BIM
standards as this affects the whole designing teamwork and its efficiency. BIM
technology requires the members of the design team to abandon the individual
working schemes, so characteristic for each person and specific for discipline or
design office.
Reduction of time of project design and shop drawings found itself among the
most important factors geared towards improvement in performance on
construction projects as a result of adoption and implementation of BIM. Azhar
(2011) postulates that BIM can do faster drafting without compromising quality.
Linderoth (2010) maintains that the result of using BIM is improved project
coordination, minimised errors, as well as reduced delays and conflicts, which could
lead to a potential saving in construction cost.
Measuring the relevance of BIM maturity in the Ghanaian construction industry.

To ascertain the suitability of the data for factor analysis, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) and a Bartlett's Test of Sphericity were
performed (Table 5). As a rule of thumb, a KMO value of 0.5 or higher necessitates
the need to proceed with factor analysis. Therefore, obtaining (Chi-square =
6434.809, df = 231, p < 0.000) signifies that it is worth continuing with factor
analysis as there is a relationship to investigate.
Table 5: KMO and Bartlett's test

KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.856
Approx. Chi-Square 6434.809

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 231
Sig. 0.000
To better appreciate the opinions of respondents in measuring the relevance of

BIM maturity in the Ghanaian construction industry, their views were subjected to
factor analysis (Table 6). In effect, five main factors came up regarding the precepts
underlying the use of this statistical tool. Again, an accumulated value of about
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Wirekoh and Danso
80% emanating from five factors met the criteria of explaining variance of 5%.
Further, these five had considerable theoretical backing thus making them
interpretable. However, two factors fell outside the scope of this bracket and were
eliminated eventually. Concerning their variance explained, their percentages were
53. 625%, 15.409%, 6.281% and 5.266% and subsequently ascribed to component
1, component 2, component 3 and component 4 respectively (Table 6).
Table 6: Total Variance explained

Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Component
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 11.797 53.625 53.625 6.262 28.466 28.466

2 3.390 15.409 69.033 5.266 23.937 52.403
3 1.382 6.281 75.315 3.555 16.160 68.563
4 1.163 5.285 80.600 2.648 12.036 80.600
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
Varimax rotation method was used to obtain the factor loadings with their
corresponding components in measuring the relevance of BIM maturity in the
Ghanaian construction industry (Table 7).
Table 7: The relevance of BIM maturity in the Ghanaian construction industry

Component
Relevance
1 2 3 4
Interoperability 0.847
Software Applications 0.697
Hardware Equipment 0.693
Information delivery method 0.578
Information Accuracy 0.874
Graphics 0.865
Real-time Data 0.834
Senior Leadership 0.790
Process and Technology Innovation 0.780
Data Richness 0.700
Information Assurance 0.689
Strategic Planning 0.688
Geo-spatial Capability 0.660
Specification 0.904
Quality Control 0.889
Documentation and Modeling Standards 0.811
Standard Operating Process 0.801
Work Flow 0.765
Life Cycle Process 0.737
Training Program 0.844
Competency Profile 0.777
Training Delivery Method 0.771
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
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Wirekoh and Danso
Component one: information related factors

The principal component explained 53.625 % of the total variance with nine factors
loading unto it. These factors were; information accuracy, graphics, real-time data,
senior leadership, process and technology innovation, data richness, information
assurance, strategic planning and geo-spatial capability. According to Eastman et
al. 2008, BIM provides information on the ability to evaluate the impact of design
changes on construction in a visual manner that is not possible with traditional 2D
drawings. Regarding information accuracy, they reiterated further that automated
quantity take-off which is linked to the BIM model is more accurate as there are
fewer chances of human error; hence, it improves flow by reducing variability.
Making information from the BIM especially with the increasing complexity of
projects denotes such an improvement beneficial to better control its related
complexity issues (Hamdi et al., 2012). Upon the submissions churned out,
information related factors are very essential as it prevents doubts, clients and
other parties in the Architecture, Construction, Engineering industry rely on
requisite information in decision making on projects.
Component two: process-related factors
Process related factors had their principal component explaining 15.409 % of the
total variance with six factors loading unto it. These included, specification, quality
control, documentation and modeling standards, standard operating process, work
flow and life cycle process. Pas (2013) hints that and BIM defines how the
information modelling aspects of a project will be carried out and clarifies roles
and their responsibilities, standards to be applied and procedures to be followed.
Giel et al. (2013) attested that, in terms of the BIM specification process, it has
specific metrics well defined and serve industry-specific assessment purposes.
Quality control, an inevitable process in BIM was clearly explained by Aranda‐Mena
et al. (2009) who advocates that with building information modelling
implementation, quality control ensures that the activities conducted, the
mechanisms or techniques used for a project meet the requirements for the
product or service are used.
Component three: Technology-Related Factors

The principal component defined 6.281 % of the total variance as four factors
loaded unto it. The factors were interoperability, software applications, hardware
equipment and information delivery method. NIBS (2007) advanced that BIM serves
as an eminent technology with its interoperability properties. Expanding further,
they explained that software interoperability is seamless data exchange among
diverse applications which each may have its internal data structure. Data usage,
storage and exchange are well defined within organisations and project teams
therefore signifying that interoperable data exchanges are defined and prioritized
(Succar, 2010). This in effect affirms that technology field BIM representing the
availability, accessibility and affordability of hardware, software and network
systems; also, the availability, usability, connectivity and openness of information
systems have an impact on the construction project performance.
Component four: People Related Factors
People related factors under this principle component explained 5.285 % of the
total variance. Three main factors were loaded unto it which were, training
program, competency profile and training delivery method. Gu and London (2010)
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Wirekoh and Danso
suggested that, in reaching the level of BIM maturity to better understand and
facilitate its adoption in the AEC industry, training should be organized for its
users ’overtime. They directed that this training should be dedicated to the use of
BIM software tools and the workflows associated with them to be competent in its
usage in project delivery. In defining this competency involved through training of
the people concerned Dakhil et al. (2019).
4.4 Various software available for BIM essential for the Ghanaian AEC companies
Pursuance to determining the various software’s available for BIM essential for the
Ghanaian AEC companies, respondent’s views were descriptively examined. The
outcome of the analysis was based on the precept that mean values of (≥ 3.5) were
tagged as “ Most available”, those within the range (3 – 3.49) as “Available”, so as
those within (2.5 – 2.99) as ” Somewhat available” and those falling under ( 2.0)
also classified as “Rarely available (Table 8).
Table 8: Software’s available for BIM essential

Software’s Mean SD Description
Revit Architectural 4.02 1.138 Most available
AutoCAD Architectural 3.88 1.293 Most available
SketchUp 3.81 1.028 Most available
ArchiCAD 3.72 1.153 Most available
AutoCAD Civil 3D 3.52 1.244 Most available
AutoCAD 3.52 1.244 Most available
AutoCAD Design Suite Premium 3.36 1.146 Available
Bentley Systems 3.23 1.127 Available
Revit Structure 3.21 0.722 Available
ARCHline 3.18 0.988 Available
Revit MEP 3.18 1.099 Available
Chief Architect 3.11 1.445 Available
Edificius 3D Architectural 3.04 0.978 Available
3D Ultimate 3.00 1.179 Available
Tekla 2.92 1.221 Somewhat available
Autodesk Navisworks 2.91 1.600 Somewhat available
AutoCAD MEP 2.91 1.436 Somewhat available
Vector Works 2.78 1.246 Somewhat available
Autodesk Navisworks 2.64 1.149 Somewhat available
Twinmotion 2.53 1.741 Somewhat available
Lumion 2.12 1.252 Rarely available
With over twenty variables opened to participant’s opinion specifically on deducing

the various software’s available for BIM essential for the Ghanaian Architectural,
Engineering and Construction (AEC) companies, six of these software’s came up as
the most available softwares. Interesting, Revit architecture emerged as the most
available software for BIM essential for the Ghanaian AEC companies. Revit
architecture software is used used for 3D architectural modelling and parametric
design (Reinhardt, 2009). Guan-Pei, (2010) accentuated that, Revit architecture
assumes this enormous patronage because it contains a set of tools, techniques
and concepts that allow realizing the BIM approach toward general construction
design. AutoCAD architecture similarly surfaced as one of the most available
software for BIM essential. Confirming this assertion is AutoCAD (2009), which
reckoned that AutoCAD Architecture is the version of AutoCAD software for
architects. Drafting and documentation are much more efficient with the software’s
130
Wirekoh and Danso
intuitive environment and purpose-built tools for architects. Another significant

software that fell within the bracket of the most available software for BIM essential
was SketchUp. According to Ying et al. (2011), SketchUp is used to automatically
construct 3D models with attributes and thematic information from 2D survey
plans. They stressed that spatial topologic relationships and operations are
analysed with the programming and development of the Ruby language.
ArchiCAD similarly remained as another most available software for BIM essential.
ArchiCAD allows its users to create 3-D structures with “smart objects” such as
walls, slabs, roofs, doors, windows and furniture. 2-D drawings (plan and elevation
views) can be created from 3-D creations (KIA 2013). Jiang, (2011) indicated that
ArchiCAD is the Virtual Building Explorer, a real-time 3D navigation that is
enhanced with gravity, layer control, fly-mode, egress recognition and pre-saved
walkthroughs. AutoCAD Civil 3D equally emerged as one of the most available
software for BIM essential. Varela-González (2013) suggests that AutoCAD Civil 3D
software is a BIM solution for design and documentation in the civil engineering
field from Autodesk. AutoCAD Civil 3D supports BIM and helps reduce the time it
takes to design, analyse, and implement changes (Autodesk, 2017). Convincingly,
AutoCAD was one of the most available software for BIM essential. Autodesk (2017)
hints that AutoCAD software provides the power and flexibility to help drive your
projects from concept through creation quickly and efficiently; visualize design
concepts within a 3D environment, quickly and accurately document designs, and
collaborate with clients and contractors to save time and money. The study
conducted by Danso (2012) found that the most known general CAD software
program in the Universities in Ghana offering civil engineering and related
programs is AutoCAD.
CONCLUSION
The study sought to investigate the use of BIM and its impact on construction
performance within the Ghanaian construction industry. With regards to the levels
of importance of improvement in performance on construction projects as a result
of adopting and implementation of BIM in the construction industries in Ghana,
nine of the levels considered to be very important were: increases productivity,
improves product quality and creates customer value, helps in removing barriers
and constraints, reduces the time of project design and shop drawings, improves
communication effectiveness, provides accurate cost estimation and take off
materials, reduces conflicts and number of claims, reduces defects in the
construction phase, and increases collaboration in project design. The study,
therefore, concludes that stakeholders in the Ghanaian construction industry have
a competitive advantage over other non-BIM users as the BIM application in
construction projects reduces. The study recommends that experts and
stakeholders should encourage the use of BIM technology in Ghanaian
construction industry to improve construction project performance to meet
customer satisfaction and also boost the infrastructural development.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ANALYTICAL NEXUS OF URBAN LIVEABILITY, LIVEABLE

COMMUNITIES AND PLACE-MAKING IN AFRICAN CITIES
Samuel Medayese1, Hangwelani Magidimisha-Chipungu2, Ayobami Popoola3 and
Lovemore Chipungu4
1,2Department of Town and Regional Planning, School of Built Environment and Development
Studies, University of KwaZulu Natal, Durban, South Africa
3School of Built Environment & Development Studies, College of Humanities, University of
KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

4Department of Housing, School of Built Environment & Development Studies, College of
Humanities, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
Literature suggests that there are sets of standard variables that can explain urban
liveability differentials. These variables used to examine liveable city spaces are and
contribute to the constructs for urban development. Therefore, the purpose of this
paper is to analyse empirical linkages within urban liveability, place-making, and
Liveable communities in Africa using a partial least squares path analytic method.
This study examines the interrelationship within three important constructs using a
questionnaire survey to obtain data from 390 residents across twelve (12) country
capitals in the four major geographical zones in African. Using a path analytic
approach, the paper examines the relationship between the constructs discussed
in the study. The data analysis findings show that place-making influences Liveable
communities and urban liveability. Therefore, the results indicate that cities that
prioritise place-making have better liveable community spaces over those that do
not. The study findings have implications for liveable communities, as it could help
city development planners acknowledge the influence of place-making on urban
liveability and liveable communities. The study contributes to the current debate
on measuring urban liveability within the African City Space.
Keywords: Africa, liveable communities, place-making, quality of life, urban

liveability
INTRODUCTION
Liveability is a composite of interrelated social, economic, and ecological indicators
that promote and enhance life and sustainability quality. It is a dynamic concept
that is related to time and space. It connotes the challenges to the lifestyle of
individuals and communities. According to Economic Intelligence Unit (2019), the
liveability assessment quantifies the challenges presented to an individual's
1 medalandgroup@gmail.com; +2348033033184
2 magidimishah@ukzn.ac.za
3 bcoolay2@yahoo.com
4 Chipungu@ukzn.ac.za
Medayese, et al. (2021) Analytical nexus of urban liveability, liveable communities and place-making
in African cities In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
(WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 137-162
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lifestyle. Urban liveability measures the quality or otherwise of living in urban areas
or cities. Urban quality of life is based on assessments of stability, healthcare,
culture and environment, education, and infrastructure (EIU, 2019). A high level of
liveability ranking has been established to be positively associated with health
outcomes and behaviours, including increased physical activity and improved
mental health.
Further, there is a distinction between the definition of liveability in urban areas in
high-income countries and low-to-middle-income countries (Alderton et al., 2019).
This distinction in definition is essential as more than 95 per cent of African
countries fall within low or middle-income countries. Besides, the definitions and
measurement indicators of liveability are skewed to high- income countries that
include indicators such as "safe, attractive, socially cohesive and inclusive, and
environmentally sustainable, with affordable and diverse housing linked to
employment, education, public open space, local shops, health and community
services, and leisure and cultural opportunities, via convenient public transport,
walking, and cycling infrastructure (Badland et al. 2015). On the other hand, the
priorities and context in Africa present a different scenario. For instance, most
urban areas in Africa live in informal settlements and have limited access to clean
drinking water and sanitation (Smit et al., 2011).
On the other hand, the idea of 'Placemaking' from the 60s, as presented by Jane
Jacobs and William H. Whyte's, brought city dwellers and social aspects into
attention and offered designing cities sociable public spaces the human
perspective and for people. They emphasised the importance of lively
neighbourhoods and inviting public spaces. Jacob (1969) mentions the 'eyes' on
the street that means more active and face-to-face social interaction. 'Placemaking
is a multi-faceted approach that 'takes advantage of on a local community's assets,
inspiration, and potential, ultimately creating good public spaces that promote
people's health, happiness, and well-being' (PPS, 2009). Planning for high-quality
public spaces to share and exchange their life, is not conducted by making huge
open spaces. Flexible activities in urban places need to be defined; each open space
does not ensure a liveable space. Squares have this potential to change into a
desirable place with low-cost and high-impact improvement through placemaking.
It is a process that 'incorporates the needs and desires of a diverse community that
can go a long way to catalyse quick improvements and promote true liveability'
(PPS, 2009).
Though the notion of 'place' has examined from various perspectives, it iterates
people's engagement with the physical environment. The place is assumed as a
pause in movement that reflects upon human experience; it is also believed to be
structured according to human environmental experiences and relationships of the
physical environment and behaviour (Tuan, 1977; Relph, 1976; Canter, 1977;
Cresswell, 2014). He also highlights the importance of perception of the place to
understand it and be aware of its stimulus. As urban planner, (Lynch, 1969; Buys, et
al., 2013; Haarhoff et al., 2016) mentions the image of the place that makes it
unique. As an urban designer, Gehl (2010) defines outdoor activities as' social
characteristics' of an environment. He highlights that proper physical conditions
can increase social activities. Urbanist Whyte (1980) defines 'intimate experiences'
that can communicate, such as sitting or eating. He believes that these experiences
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attract more people. He also highlights 'bridge activities' (triangulation) as linkage,

connecting strangers, and making interactions between them.
Gehl (2010) identifies a broad picture of the physical attributes of an urban

environment. He mentions the importance of size, scale, and proportion of
buildings and spaces between buildings and corners of streets, reinforcing social
communication. Whyte (1980) states that if physical attributes are well designed
and well located, people can 'experience' them and perceive the place with a strong
'image.' Activities happen in an urban environment are the social characteristics of
a place. The theories addressed that diverse activities and mixed-use buildings
increase the life quality of public spaces. Intimate experiences that are the result of
users' senses engagement highlights the vital role of edges around; especially at
the level of the ground floor that is the zone most of the interactions between
people occur (Gehl, 2010) 'Experience' of a place depends on 'the level of intention'
between a person and an environment (Relph,1976).
Hashem et. al. (2013) also defines this experience as an 'environmental role,' which
involves individuals in the place (p178). They both highlight that 'place' is
'experienced by users in different levels and roles, making different perceptions
and 'images.' Lynch (1969) focuses on this image and its power to make 'place
identity. Relph (1976) mentions the symbolic meaning of an urban environment,
which results from human experiences. It is the contribution of observed activities
and physical attributes that make 'place identity. Gifford (2002), psychologist and
environmentalist, marks that we identify ourselves with the place we belong to; it
is called a 'sense of attachment.' When a group of people has a sense of attachment
to an environment, it provides a sense of belonging to a community that people
are proud of. It causes a sense of satisfaction and comfort, resulting in dynamic
interaction and social communication between people.
The interrelationship and linkages within the concepts of Place-making, Urban

Liveability, and Liveable communities have a dearth of literature as related to
African Cities. Most literature tends to take each of these concepts at the individual
level and presented them on a literature basis. However, this research explores the
three concepts' analytical linkages from a partial least square standpoint as an
empirical method measuring the concepts' linkages. The research employed the
partial least square (PLS) approach to determine the effect size of the indicators
employed to measure each of the concepts and analyse the indicators variables'
predictive value related to the concepts' linkage across African Cities.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theorising urban liveability from the modernisation spectrum
Discussions on liveability within planning networks often draw on both
conservative and progressive impulses. Liveability is a complex and unstable set off
understandings combining nature, society, urbanity, and nostalgia; this marks
liveability as neither inherently inclusive nor revanchist. Examining liveability
articulations provides an avenue for researchers to interrogate the redevelopment
of historic industrial landscapes, the knowledge of urban planning and design, and
their consequences, without necessarily retreating to a deterministic reading of
particular projects, processes, or motivations.
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Pinning down a definition for 'liveability' proves difficult, as it has become a highly
mutable term. Definitions of liveability have evolved from focusing on a city's visual
aesthetics to revitalisation through amenity creation. In current policy, usage is
being stretched to include all manner of job creation or creative economy
initiatives (Hagerman, 2007). Criteria that define a place as liveable are easier to
come by and reflect a focus on urban design, environmental quality, and human
and economic development. Initially, liveability discussions focused on central
cities and ways to reclaim the economic, retail, and social centrality of downtowns.
During the 1990s, increasing attention paid to urban sprawl brought together
several criticisms of suburban development—it ate up open space, was racially and
economically homogenous, socially deadening, poorly designed, automobile-
dependent, and environmentally destructive, from the scale of wetland habitat
adjacent to a subdivision to global warming caused by automobile emissions.
Sprawl became a foil for liveability. A liveable community, then, does not sprawl—
it has a distinct centre, coordinates land use and transportation, is socially inclusive,
and focuses on environmental preservation.
At the root of the interest in creating and tracking liveability is a condemnation of
industrial modernism and post-war urban form. The factories and industrial uses
that spawned massive urban growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
destroyed the City's liveability, and suburbanisation was an attempt to find it
outside the City. Now coping with the loss of population and industry, central cities
seek to focus on the new 'creative' or 'knowledge economy,' which completes the
removal of industrial landscapes, replacing them with new neighbourhoods for
residents returning from their exile in the 'burbs.' The social, environmental and
economic consequences of modern urbanism and sub-urbanism are the backdrop
to the calls for increasing liveability, concerning historic forms reflecting an
uncritical nostalgia for landscapes from the pre-modern past.
Under a variety of labels, such as new urbanism and neo-traditionalism, planners,

architects, and designers have valorised the urban forms that pre-dated the
automobile era of American cities, conceiving a more liveable landscape in terms
of reduced automobile dependence, walkable neighbourhoods, and more
excellent proximity to transit, shopping, and entertainment. The return to these
ideas of a (perhaps only imagined) bygone era responds to a perceived lack of
sociability in the modern suburb (Chauvet et al., 2017) a perception that there has
been a breakdown of civility in the inner City (Beauregard, 1993; Smith, 1996) and
nostalgia for a bygone pre-industrial relationship between culture and nature
(Gandy, 2002). The polluting industrial uses that dominated the waterfronts of that
era are not included in these visions. Instead, access and reclamation of waterfront
nature figures prominently into assessments of a metropolis's liveability, broadly
defined but distanced from the environmental and social disruptions that
accompanied the industrial past.
In many ways, liveability could encompass a wide range of issues related to the
overall 'quality of well-being and life.' It is instinctive to understand this as a 'place-
based concept. Generally, it refers to the fundamentals of a home, neighbourhood,
or City that can contribute to a better quality of life and well-being. Quality of life
and well-being are so close in terms and related concepts related to the extent to
which an individual's living condition can be measured and analysed. They can
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range from more objective indicators of economic well-being, such as human

capital, to the more subjective quality of life indicators that include social capital,
qualitative expressions of personal satisfaction, and the like (Ley and Newton,
2010).
From Woolcock (2009), we can see that the linkage between liveability and
sustainable development is not very clear either. In some cases, these two terms
are being used interchangeably, while in some other contexts, liveability is
considered a subset of a sustainable city (Lewandowska & Szymańska 2021). Even
the definition for 'sustainable cities' is still vague to many people (Eastaway & Stoa
2004; White 1994), especially concerning what is to be sustainable. One way to
come to a grip with the sustainable City is to ground it on the people's life and
activities, hence using a 'liveable city' to capture the serene but rewarding life of
city people.
'Liveable' City nonetheless is a very subjective word also. What more if it concerns
a liveable city. It is very much similar to an old proverb, ' beauty lies in the eyes of
its beholder.' Different people have different opinions about what they call a
liveable city. Shortell (2005) points out that whether it is meaningful or not depends
very much on the country's status, whether it is a developed or developing country.
This view coincides with Mahapatra (2017). description of a liveable city that reflects
the 'quality of life (wealth and beyond) experienced by the city residents.
In comparing a liveable city to a sustainable city concept, Douglass et al. (2004)

maintain that a liveable city concept is more health, social and human-centred. This
was buttressed by Aziz and Hadi, (2007), that described the liveable City as having
healthy and walkable neighbourhoods, a network of attractive public spaces and
buildings, affordability, clean, vibrant with diverse street culture.
It is seen that the top cities are mostly mid-sized, in wealthier countries, and with
a population density that is relatively on the lower side, the report states. "These
can foster a range of recreational activities without leading to high crime levels or
overburdened infrastructure," it also adds. "Six of the ten top-scoring cities are in
Australia and Canada, which have, respectively, population densities of 2.9 and 3.7
people per square kilometre. Nevertheless, in the top 10, Finland and New Zealand
have densities ranging between 15 and 18 per square km of land area. On the other
hand, the global average density is 57 people/sq km.
"Though Austria has a density of 106 people per square km, comparing with
megacities like New York, London, Paris, and Tokyo, Vienna's population of nearly
1.8m (2.6m in the metropolitan area) is comparatively small. New York, London,
Paris, and Tokyo are all prestigious hubs with a wealth of recreational activities and
other cooperative things for their country's people. However, all these cities are
suffered from higher levels of crime, congestion and public transport problems"
(Oliver, 2017).
Australian cities are doing well in the known international liveability rankings of
cities worldwide because of comparatively lower crime rates, high amounts of
public open space for its inhabitants, fairly good transport systems, and the
accessibility of good educational opportunities (David & Melanie, 2013). Vienna
has excellent infrastructure which has been designed to fulfil the changing needs
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of the City. Vienna scores mainly in terms of its public transport and public housing.
The City has provided its inhabitant's affordable housing. It has made an excellent
bicycle route map that keeps the traffic on the lower side and discourages people
from using private cars as it is a better way to improve the air quality.
Population growth is visible in developing countries' fast-growing cities (Kolkata,
Dhaka, Mumbai, Delhi, Pune, Bangalore, Karachi, and Islamabad). A sense of the
population growth rate can be found by observing Asian developing countries'
growing cities. In 1950, these cities' population was 306 million, which could be
around 3500 million in 2030. As per percentage, it could be about 57 per cent of
these countries' total population (Cohen, 2006). For the fast-growing population,
these cities have to face many adverse conditions in increasing the living standard.
Furthermore, to deal with this situation, the living standard of these cities is
declining. This is due to the declining or low quality of civic facilities (Douglass,
2002). This condition is further iterated by the city housing backlog and demand
of over a 2.7billion city resident (rural immigrant inclusive) in developing countries
by 2050 (Oehlers, 2006; World Bank, 2013).
Modernisation theory is an economic theory rooted in capitalism that evolved in

the 1950s and 1960s. Modernisation is a comprehensive theory that deals with a
nation's whole process to transform from a primitive to a modernised society. The
modernisation consists of a gradual process of specialisation and separation of
social structures to promote efficiency in any society's developmental process.
Modernisation theory operates on economic-oriented principles that posit that
capital formation and investment are the major determinants of economic growth
and development. (Adah & Abasilim, 2015; Ifeoma et. al., 2020). The theory of
modernisation is the stage model, which views development as a process that
passes through various evolutionary phases. The stage model's primary focus is
that development follows specific stipulated frameworks; thus, nations who seek
to achieve economic growth must adhere to this framework. The stage model
described by Foster-Carter, (1976) and Ish-Shalom, (2006). is divided into five
stages: the traditional society, the precondition for the take-off stage, the take-off
stage, the maturity stage, and the stage of high-mass consumption.
The traditional stage is an agrarian society that is not aware of its capability to
transform its society into a modern community. They are, therefore, not willing to
take advantage of the potential of modern science and technology. At the
precondition stage for take-off, society becomes aware of its transformative
potential and applies modern science and technology to agricultural and industrial
practices. The opportunity for investment and commerce, therefore, increases at
this stage. The take-off stage places emphasis on the eradication of traditional
obstacles, which hinders economic growth and development. At this stage, the
commercialisation of agriculture is introduced, and investment rises to a maximum
level. The drive to maturity stage is when the economy shows the capacity to
extend beyond the original industries that served as its pivot for take-off. The final
development stage is high mass consumption; it produces durable consumer
goods and services, marked by a rise in real income. Implicit in the stage model
assumes that some countries are developed because of their strict adherence to
this evolutionary developmental process.
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Modernisation is a complex process involving all human thoughts and behaviour

and cannot be reduced to a single factor or dimension. Its component includes
industrialisation, urbanisation, social secularisation media mobilisation, expansion
of political participation, and increasing literacy (Jhingan, et. al. 2008).
Modernisation is a systemic process: it is holistic, meaning that change in one
phenomenon could change other phenomena such as literacy, leading to increased
awareness. Modernisation is a global process that started around Europe but has
become a worldwide phenomenon. This was primarily brought about by
integrating modern ideas and techniques from the European countries to the
peripheries and different countries' internal development. Modernisation is a
lengthy process such that it took Western Europe and other societies several
centuries to modernise; however, it can take a contemporary society a lesser time
to modernise. Modernisation is a phased process meaning that it is possible to
distinguish between different levels or phases of modernisation through which all
societies will move.
Modernisation is a homogenising process: modern societies have universal values
and share some basic similarities, and are interdependent—for example,
interdependence among EEC countries. Modernisation is an irreversible process- it
does not rewind. Modernisation is a progressive process: although the cost of
modernisation is painful, modernisation is necessary and desirable because it
brings material well-being to society. Modernisation is a historical process: it is
characterised by a step-by-step development in the social system element. The
process has reached a stage in some parts of the world, and this part serves as a
model for understanding the nature of the modernisation process. Incidentally, this
part of the world is described as the West. However, modernisation is not
westernisation since every process of modernising has its own culture and
environmental uniqueness.
Simmel (1903) posited urban life as a critical subject of social science study. Bielo
(203) noted how well his analysis of urban characteristics has held up over the last
100+ years; that urbanism is characterised by humans' connection to the built
environment, the economic efficiency and psycho-social implications of short
functional encounters, the overload of the senses and subsequent screening of
sensory attention, the anonymity that leads so often to indifference and alienation,
the cosmopolitanism of diversity, and the City as the epicentre for cultural
development. The expansion of cities in the aftermath of the industrial revolution
led many to associate urbanisation with secularisation, implying that urbanisation
and secularisation were viewed as a part of modernisation (Williams 2011: 87). As
urbanisation grew, the number of people in cities increased, which offered greater
exposure to varied lifestyles and greater dependence on rationalisation due to
urbanisation's materialism and market fundamentalism. Nevertheless, as with the
fate of most other secularisation forecasts, any strict correlation between rising
urbanism and rising secularism has failed to materialise (Casanova 1994).
Conceptual framework and hypothesis development

Liveable communities and urban liveability
The National Research Council (2002) defined liveability as a concept that
encompasses sustainability, quality of life, place identity and health space. This
ideology placed within an urban space provokes urban liveability thinking and
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improves a space's ability to be liveable. As a term that endues the need for human
needs to be meet, the understanding is that collection of liveable communities of
various hierarchy makes up a city or urban settlement that is liveable. The character
of a place considers some of these same attributes as bundles of features linked to
particular places (e.g., how a community's health is affected by air quality or access
to health services). The character of a place considers some of these same
attributes as bundles of features linked to particular places (e.g., how a
community's health is affected by air quality or access to health services) (National
Research Council, 2002:24). It is reported that human settlements' quality exerts a
significant influence on human health and well-being (Liang et al., 2020), especially
in a micro-macro settlement relationship (Popoola et al., 2020). The lifestyle
identifiers or indicators of a micro-community is thus essential to understand
macro-city/urban area. Part of the push toward more liveable communities is
related to social well-being concerns (distribution, rather than economic resources
allocation), another composite concept (Smith, 1973). This allocation capacity of
the social good is dependent on the decision-makers within the urban sphere as
the micro-community experience is an overflow of the urban social allocation.
Kashef (2016:242) mentioned that humans and their surrounding physical

environments (communities) interact to create a state of equilibrium that has been
sustained over a long period. Liveable environments integrate physical and social
well-being parameters to sustain a productive and meaningful human existence;
productive in the sense that the social clustering of humans yields considerably
more than the total of individual productivity, and meaningful in the sense that
humans need, by their very nature, to participate in forming thriving and self-
sustaining social systems (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, 2015; Kashef, 2016).
Chiu (2019:1) pointed out that urban liveability speaks to all classes' quality of life
and city dwellers' groups within the dynamic and heterogenous urban and City
setting. That is the individualistic social expression of a person or a community
within a larger urban space. These city groups and dwellers often is a collection of
dependent communities. The perception is that communities are not independent
entities away from the urban spaces. After all, the evolution of local communities
is what translates into urban. This was further buttressed in Higgs et al. (2019) and
Alderton et al. (2019), where the Melbourne Australia and Low and Middle-income
countries experiences present the neighbourhood (smallscale communities)
functioning in a city area.
The validation was that urban liveability (as measured in availability and
accessibility) is essential to creating more liveable communities. The view was that
such interaction could produce co-benefits for public health, the environment and
managing traffic congestion. The study concluded that urban liveability is
imperative in measuring liveable neighbourhoods (small communities, as the case
may be). The ideology was that urban liveability evaluation and framing is critical
to policy, plan or programme deliverable along with more minor spatial-regional
interests. For instance, Alderto et al. (2019) exemplified that neighbourhood
walkability as a micro-determinant or indicator of liveability is essential to
managing the City's climate change effect. These community indices will help
mitigate climate change (manage urban heat island effect, reduce traffic through
reducing car dependence and greenhouse gas emissions) in urban areas. Thus, the
study hypothesises that:
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H1: There is a positive relationship between liveable communities and urban

Liveability
Place-making and liveable communities

Spatially, the place is critical to the quality of life and community livability. In
providing an understanding of the relationship between placemaking and liveable
communities, Institute for Public Administration (2021) wrote that creating a
liveable community envisioned as inclusive and sustainable, community residents'
views could not be downplayed. The view was that in creating a sense of
community character, placemaking encourages citizens to improve their
environments, especially those they share with their neighbours. Placemaking as
an economic development strategy, also called place-based economic
development, uses a community's public amenities to make economic progress.
This approach focuses on the unique features of particular places, building on
existing assets, and using them to attract new investment and strengthen existing
businesses.
Placemaking as an economic development strategy is particularly relevant in
today's age of globalism. Jobs tied to this form of economic development are tied
directly to specific places and cannot be outsourced. When communities commit
to using placemaking as an economic development method, the benefits extend
far beyond enticing visitors, entrepreneurs, small businesses, and corporations. To
local economies recovering from a loss of conventional industry, placemaking is a
method for capitalizing on existing strengths rather than inventing new ones to
develop a more robust economy. This process of communities' involvement in
making their places liveable, according to the American Planning Association
(2021), is termed creative placemaking. In the concept of creative placemaking,
communities through collective engagement, residents' participation and shared
responsibility are applied to economic development and community revitalization
towards making the communities liveable.
Place-making, through layout and design, is an integrative planning approach in
creating sustainable communities. Place-making is fundamentally a strategy to
create one or more places in an area that serve as focal points for people's
economic and social activities (Schlebusch, 2015: 59). Such places will contribute
to the quality of life in a community and encourage more people to visit the area.
Schlebusch (2015: 62) further narrated that an effective Placemaking process
capitalizes on a local community's assets, inspiration, and potential, ultimately
creating suitable public spaces that promote people's health, happiness, and well-
being". Thus, place-making is a continuous process, which encapsulate peoples'
ideas and through which their needs in terms of liveability and quality of life are
fulfilled by using effective planning, layout and design or redesign of their
environment (Project for Public Spaces, 2007). The collective envisioning and
triangulation approach aims to discover the local community's needs and
ambitions towards a liveable community. Aligning to how the immigrant
community makes their place liveable, Main and Sandoval (2015) valued that
identity relevance was critical in the configuration and arrangement of
communities to be liveable. In their study, local community placemaking was
perceived as the globalization (which is embedded in liveability) of the local
communities. To this end, Borrup (2016:50) said placemaking builds on local
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human, physical, and cultural assets to enhance the social and civic fabric. These
assets and fabric are the foundation for a liveable community. As Wyckoff (2014)
said, placemaking will directly help enhance the neighbourhood and indirectly
promote living quality in communities. This is because the creative process of
making communities (placemaking) is somewhat targeted at community
development (liveability) (Ellery & Ellery, 2019). To this end, this study arrived to
test the hypothesis (H2) that:
H2: There is a positive relationship between place-making and liveable

communities
Place-making and urban liveability
Friedmann (2010:150) states that the literature on the City is filled with references
to desolate placelessness and a yearning for place, for some solid connection to
the earth, to cities' palpable physicality, the everyday need for social contact. This
is why the author arguing from Lefebvre's right to the city' provokes the thinking
for a collaborative and collective engagement among planners and other city
stakeholders in the configuration of places towards liveability. The role of
stakeholders in forming a place identity called 'place-making remains critical to
cities' planning framework. The International Experts for Research Enrichment and
Knowledge Exchange (2016) posted that place-making is a people-centred
approach in planning and designing public spaces in cities. This approach pays
attention to the opinions of the people living in a particular place and to discover
their needs from this place and their aspirations towards it. The central perspective
of using place-making in urban planning is to create places where the citizens feel
engaged. They alluded that place-making plays a vital role in achieving sustainable
societies by empowering communities and inclosing between cultures and
societies.
The liveability of places is set by many factors, which are in turn influenced by a
variety of tangible and intangible elements - such as good quality design and
materials, place identity, accessibility, and so on - concerning the area in question
and its surrounding (AAVV, 2017; Appleyard, 1981; Francis, 2016, Kyttä et al., 2015;
Burns, 2005). Urban environments are increasingly designed to be distinctive,
creating memorable sensory experiences and giving happiness to the people who
use them. Through the analysis of places, a more detailed and qualitative
interpretation of the City is carried out. This is not circumscribed to its aesthetic
essence or physical geometry (Gehl, 2010; Kyttä et al., 2015; Lynch, 1960;
Madanipour, 2003). The functional and symbolic interpretations of a place's
elements are the fundamental factors for understanding its meaning. Moreover, "as
society changes, so do signification (McCay, 2017; Montgomery, 1998, 2013).
Meanings attached to the built environment become modified as social values
evolve in response to changing patterns of socio-economic organisation and
lifestyles" (Porteous, 1977; Carmona, et. al., 2010).
Nowadays, new attention to urban liveability has been given but often in terms of
theoretical sense or an observational point of view. Indeed, the definition of urban
liveability is strongly interwoven with social, environmental, economic,
philosophical studies and, according to with new crisis and the consequent
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transformation of lifestyles, needs, and habits, the definition is in continuous

change (Wang et al., 2016; Whyte, 1980; Zelinka et al., 2001).
Presenting the Pacific Asia argument, Ho and Douglass (2008:199) presented the
view that inserting local communities' place-making efforts in creating liveable
urban environments cannot be downplayed in the global city research agenda.
They state that such an approach argues for a shift in focus from examining the
City in terms of its economic competitiveness to better understand the City's local
textures by incorporating social and political processes (p.199). If that is so, the
potency of place-making as a grassroots tool is critical to the urban liveability
concept is unbundling. Kneeshaw (2017) posited that the process of placemaking
itself requires both' hardware' – landscaping, lighting, parks, planting, street art
and 'software'- the all-important programming of activity that attracts people to
spaces and brings them to life. This hardware is a critical configuration towards a
liveable urban area. The argument was that city makers must understand that
stakeholders' place-making capacity in a collaborative approach remains
imperative to city liveability and sustainability.
According to Sepe (2017), the liveability of places is set by many factors, which are
in turn influenced by a variety of elements - both tangible and intangible -
concerning the area in question and its surroundings. One of these factors is
constituted by urban happiness, which, together with the term sustainability meant
in its broad meaning, constitutes a key concept in placemaking. Drawing
experience from HafenCity, Hamburg revealed that urban regeneration, which
promoted new public spaces and city change, improved city liveability among
indigenous settlers and immigrants (Sepe, 2017). This is further buttressed by the
notion that physical content that captures places' making is critical to life quality
and liveability. Thus, drawing from an African perspective hypothesises a
relationship between place-making and urban liveability. Given the interlinks
between place-making and urban liveability, which tends to establish the fact that
liveability is strongly linked to the extent of modification of spaces within the urban
environment to give comfort and happiness to inhabitants, this research, therefore,
hypotheses that:
H3: There exists a positive relationship between place-making and urban liveability
From the three hypothesis advanced above, a conceptual framework which shows
the linkages and interactions within the three measured constructs is shown in
Figure I and it is on the basis of this conceptual nexus that the model for the
analytical nexus of urban liveability, liveable communities and place-making is
premised.
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Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for the linkage of Urban liveability-Liveable communities-Place-

making
Source: Author’s Design, 2021
This study followed a quantitative analysis approach to evaluate the theories
formulated. This research is based on a post-positivism model, which depends on
respondents' experience as a legitimate source of information from which the
world is perceived. This study thus aligns with the ontological role of objectivity,
and thus, from the epistemological point of view, there was no relationship
between the study and the researchers. This research was value-free, based on
Isenhower, et. al. (2010) assumptions. This study performed a comprehensive
literature review to define the variables used to test each of the conceptual
structure's essential constructs. Bowen et al. (2010) used the method where a
sectioned questionnaire was used using closed-ended questions. There are three
sections contained in the survey questionnaire. Section A deals with place-making
indicators, B is the liveable communities' indicators, and C is the Urban Liveability
indicators. This included questions about the structures of the City's constituent
variables, which were structured to examine place making's interrelatedness and
its effect on community liveability and overall urban liveability factors. The
questions were intended to collect data on the respondents' perceptions of
placemaking as an endogenous variable that drives liveable communities and
urban liveability as the exogenous variables. The respondents were asked to rate
the responses on a scale of 1-5, where one was "strongly disagree" with 5 "strongly
agree." Table 2 illustrates the observed latent structures and the metrics used in
the analysis. The research structure out Africa into four regions (South Africa, West
Africa, North Africa and East Africa). Three Countries were purposively selected
within each region and the questionnaires were administered in the capital city of
the selected country. Table 1 shows the selected cities and the number of
questionnaires administered.
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Table 1: Structure of Cities Selected and Number of Questionnaires Administered

Number of Questionnaires
Region Selected Countries Capital Cities
Administered
South Africa Durban 30
Southern Africa Zimbabwe Harare 30
Malawi Lilongwe 30
Nigeria Abuja 40
Western Africa Gambia Banjui 30
Ghana Accra 30
Uganda Kampala 30
Eastern Africa Kenya Nairobi 40
Namibia Windhoek 30
Morroco Rabat 30
Northern Africa Egypt Cairo 40
Algeria Algiers 30
Total 12 12 390
Data collection
Data were collected using an online survey google form sent to different
respondents across African Cities using multiple samples of purposive and
snowball sampling approach, which allows for targeted (African origin respondent)
linkage from person to person based on recommendation available information.
Most of the respondents sampled through this medium were academics and
information and communication technology inclined respondent across s Africa.
Most of the respondents sampled have social media presence for over five years,
most especially on Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, and LinkedIn. Structured
questionnaires were sent to these respondents through the various media listed
above, and a total of 400 respondents were self-administered. This method of data
collection allowed for clarification and ensured a high-response rate. As the
variables used in the study were adapted, there was no need for a pilot study to
demonstrate that all questions were clearly understood. A total of 390 responses
were obtained. The survey response of 390 was considered good enough for the
data analysis method adopted, thus, considered suggestive and appropriate for
exploratory research. Table 2 shows the sources of measurement indicators
adapted for the survey.
Table 2: Measurement Indicators and Sources in Literature

SN Latent Variables Indicators Sources of Measurement Indicators
Increase in Property Value
Improved Connectivity Dempsey and Burton, 2012; Lynch,
1 Urban Liveability Security 1960; Carmona et al. 2010; Jacobs,
Well-being 1961
Sense of belonging
Racial Justice, Social Inclusion,
Crowe, 1995; Heidegger, 1971;
Network Establishment amongst
2 Placemaking Carmonia et al. 2010, Groat & Wang
residents; Social networks and
(2013).
capital, Visual Aesthetics
Social, environmental, and
Liveable economic aspects of the urban Malek and Idris, 2016; Badarulzaman,
3
Community space, entrepreneurship, Smart 2011, Ge and Hokao, 2006
living
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DATA ANALYSIS
The survey data was analysed using the structural equation modelling of partial
least squares (PLS-SEM). The partial least squares (PLS) approach to structural
equation modelling (SEM) was adopted in this analysis to analyse the reliability and
validity of the latent variables and evaluate the formulated hypotheses. For some
purposes, PLS-SEM was selected; however, Rigdon (2014) argued that some of the
reasons for using the PLS approach in research could not be used as justification.
PLS manages knowledge that is typically not distributed due to the simplicity of
distribution assumptions (Henseler et al., 2009). Hair et al. (2014) underscored this
claim, claiming that PLS-SEM for non-normally distributed data and limited sample
sizes is stronger than CB-SEM. This is because PLS provides a higher degree of
statistical power and demonstrates enhanced convergence activity (Henseler and
Fassott, 2010; Reinartz et al., 2009). PLS has been used by previous social media
studies to test route models (Parveen et al., 2016; Mahmoudi et al., 2015) and test
theory (Chin, 1998). Thus, SmartPLS v2.0 was used in this research to assess
discriminant validity, convergent validity and test the hypotheses mentioned. Table
3 shows the indicator codes and factor loadings with the interpretation of indicator
questions asked in the research.
Table 3: Indicator Codes and Factor loadings
Indicator Code Indicator Factor Loading

Placemaking
PL 4 City Connectivity 0.768
PL 5 Ease of obtaining help in terms of healthcare 0.812
PL 6 Ease of visitor's access to accommodation in your City 0.814
PL 7 Ease of obtaining financial help in your City 0.744
PL 8 Ease of obtaining help in terms of healthcare 0.800
PL 9 Ease of financial flow network in case of need in your City 0.785
Liveable Community
LC13 City or area accessible in terms of transportation 0.781
LC14 Area aesthetics 0.771
LC15 Area correctly linked by transport infrastructure 0.726
LC16 Social opportunities in your area 0.815
Urban Liveability
UL 1 Social Cohesion in the City 0.753
UL 2 Economic Viability of the City 0.724
UL 3 Environmental Justice in the City 0.778
Measurement Model
The analysis was conducted using SmartPLS (version 2.0 M3) software to test the
model's predictive power by using PLS-SEM in evaluating the measurement
dimensions of the latent explanatory constructs. The SmartPLS software was
adopted due to the unique features that allow for unobserved heterogeneity
through the finite mixture routine technique (Sarstedt and Ringle, 2010; Ringle et
al., 2010). The latent variables' reliability and validity were examined to assess the
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measurement model. This study measured the internal consistency reliability using
composite reliability, whereas indicator reliability was assessed through the outer
loadings. According to Hair et al. (2017), the convergent validity, which explains the
degree of agreement between two or more indicators of the same latent variable,
was evaluated by examining the average variance extracted (AVE). Hairs et. al.
(2011) suggested that AVE should be above 0.5 thresholds exhibited by all the
latent variables included in the model. All the latent variables' composite reliability
surpassed the recommended threshold of 0.7 (Gefen et al., 2000). Table 3 shows
the indicators loading, indicator reliability, composite reliability, and AVE. To
evaluate the discriminant validity, Vinzi et. al. (2010) suggested that it must explain
at least 50% of the constructs' variance. It was further argued that AVE's value when
square rooted should be greater than the level of the inter-correlations of the
constructs with other constructs in the research model (Chin, 2010). Therefore, it
could be concluded that the measurement model was acceptable and offered
evidence that it was sufficient concerning its reliability, composite reliability, and
discriminant validity. Table 3 indicates the latent variables and the composite
reliability of the computed indicators.
Table 4: Results Summary for Reflective Outer Models
Latent Indicators Composite P- Cronbachs

Indicators Loadings AVE
Variable Reliability Reliability values Alpha
LC13 0.7877 0.6205

LiveCom
LC14 0.7300 0.5329 0.8577 0.6016 0.7785
LC15 0.7644 0.5843
LC16 0.8177 0.6686
Place-
PL 4 0.7714 0.5951
Making
PL 5 0.8116 0.6587
PL 6 0.8267 0.6834 0.9074 0.6206 0.8779
PL 7 0.7372 0.5435
PL 8 0.7951 0.6322
PL 9 0.7817 0.6111
UL 1 0.8382 0.7026
UrbanLiv
0.7913 0.5601 0.6174
UL 2 0.7060 0.4984
UL 3 0.6925 0.4796
The analysis shows that the AVE for Liveable communities is 0.6016.
Placemaking/Shaping is 0.6206, and Urban Liveability is 0.5601, which all agrees
with Bagozzi and Youjae (1988) stipulates that for AVE to be significant, it must be
above 0.5. The model construct's indicator loadings also show that they are all
significant. They all measured above 0.7; the composite reliability for the liveable
community is 0.8577, Place-making is 0.9074, and Urban Liveability is 0.7913,
prescribed by Ringle et al. (2015). The Cronbach's Alpha which is the internal
reliability value for the three constructs of the model were also computed. It shows
that Liveable communities have a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.7785, Place-making
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0.8779, and Urban Liveability is 0.6174. All these agree with Leby and Hashim's
(2010) established literature, which stipulated a 0.07 Alpha value to be a significant
difference in the model constructs' internal reliability. All these values and
computations are shown in Table 4, indicating all the stated variables and
outcomes for Urban Liveability analysis from liveable communities and Place-
making.
Table 5: Fornell-Larcker Criterion Analysis for Checking Discriminant Validity
indicates that Liveable communities have discriminant validity of 0.7756,
Placemaking is 0.7878, and Urban Liveability is 0.7484, which are all significant
according to the study by Heirs et al. (2017). This analysis shows that the various
liveable communities, place-making, and the resultant urban liveability are
observed to have significant discriminant validity above 0.7 as established in the
literature.
Table 5: Fornell-Larcker Criterion Analysis for Checking Discriminant Validity

LiveCom Place-Making UrbanLiv
LiveCom 0.7756
Place-Making 0.2865 0.7878
UrbanLiv 0.6865 0.223 0.7484
Structural model
To assess the structural model in PLS-SEM, this study examined the path
coefficients, their significance and variance explained (R2). The assessed values for
path associations in the structural model were estimated in terms of sign and
magnitude (Parveen et al., 2016). As established in the Literature, R2 values of the
endogenous construct assess the predictive strength of a structural model; thus, if
the R2 value ranges from 0.35 to above 0.67, it is said to be substantial, 0.33 is
moderate, while 0.19 is small or weak for endogenous latent variables in the inner
path model, as stated by Ringle et al. (2015).
Figure II: the model's path coefficient
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Source: Authors SmartPLS Test Analysis
Figure II shows the R2 value of Liveable Communities as 0.5970. Place-making is

0.6204, and the R2 values of Urban Liveability are 0.5938, which are all considered
substantial. The effect Size F2 and predictive relevance Q2 and q2 were also
computed. The bootstrapping was used to examine the significance of the paths
and test the model's hypotheses, as shown in Figure III.
Figure III: The structural model
Source: Authors SmartPLS Test Analysis
Therefore, to test the significance of the hypothesised relationship, bootstrapping

was applied. The bootstrapping procedure provides the t-values, which indicates
whether the corresponding path coefficient is significantly different from zero
(Hairs, 2020). According to Oyewobi (2014), if the t-values are above 1.65, this
indicates that the path coefficient is significant at p # 0.10. If the t-values are more
significant than 1.96, the path coefficient is significant at the p # 0.05 significance
level, and when the critical t-value is above 2.57, it can be said to be significant at
p # 0.01. Also, the computation of the effect size F2 of the model was computed
using the formula in Equation (1)
f 2 = R2 included-R2 excluded (1)
1-R2 excluded
The effect Size F2 for Place-making is 0.011. To further evaluate the predictive
significance of the structural models, the SmartPLS blindfolding procedure was
used to calculate Q2. The Q2, according to Sarstedt et al. (2014), is based on the
blindfolding procedure that allows for the omission of a certain part of the data
matrix, which then calculates the model variables to predict the excluded part using
the previously calculated estimates. However, Rigdon (2014) and Sarstedt et al.
(2014) viewed Q2 as a measure of out-of-sample prediction, where Sarstedt et al.
(2014) suggested that the lesser the difference between original and predicted
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values, the higher the Q2 and the greater the predictive relevance of the model. In
assessing the model presented here, the Q2 was calculated by omitting the
distance of seven, which generated both cross-validated redundancy (CV Red.) and
cross-validated communality (CV Com.) for the three constructs. However, cross-
validated redundancy was suggested as the best approach (Hair et al., 2014).
Therefore, for Place-making, endogenous construct (CV Red: 0.598; CV Com: 0.598);
for Liveable Communities, (CV Red: 0.290; CV Com: 0.660) and Urban Liveability
(CV Red: 0.307; CV Com: 0.674) were suggested. The values for all the endogenous
constructs were above zero. As a rule of thumb, a Q2 value higher than zero for a
specific endogenous construct shows that the path model's predictive accuracy is
acceptable for that construct. Evaluating from Sarstedt et al. (2014), the coefficient
sizes, relevance, and significance of the relationships depicted by the structural
model were examined.
DISCUSSION
This paper addressed the analytical nexus of liveable communities, Placemaking,
and Urban Liveability across African Cities. This study established a conceptual
framework that was empirically evaluated using PLS-SEM. The results of this study
showed that Liveable Communities have a significant positive relationship with
Urban Liveability. There is a significant positive relationship between liveable
communities and urban liveability when place-making is a redundant variable. The
research further shows that a significant positive relationship exists between place-
making and liveable communities when urban liveability is a redundant value.
These findings align with the previous results stated by Iyanda et al. (2018). The
finding is also corroborated by Adewale et al. (2013), who posited that Place-
making positive effect using liveable communities on Urban Liveability existed.
This, according to Iyanda et al. (2018), means that the use of place-making as a
measurement yardstick has enabled cities to strengthen the level of liveable
community that can be achieved with a corresponding increase in overall urban
liveability.
Table 6: Path coefficient and hypothesis testing

Path Hypothesis Path T P-values Remark
relationship coefficient Statistics
H1: There is a positive

relationship between liveable
LiveCom -> Communities and Urban
UrbanLiv Liveability 0.6782 23.1020 0.000 Supported
H2: There is a positive

relationship between
Place-Making - placemaking and liveable
> LiveCom communities 0.2865 5.4602 0.000 Supported
H3: There exists a positive

relationship between
Place-Making - Placemaking and Urban 0.7887
> UrbanLiv Liveability 0.0287 0.000 Supported
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Three hypotheses were set, and the model's path coefficient, as shown in Figure 2,
and the T-statistics in the structural model shown in Figure 3. The analysis shows a
significant positive relationship between liveable communities and urban
liveability as the path coefficient is 0.0.682, which is greater than the P-value set at
0.000. The T-statistics for the liveable communities and urban liveability is 23.1020,
which is also above the P-Value of 0.000. This supports the hypothesis that a
significant positive relationship exists between Liveable Communities and Urban
Liveability within African Cities. The study also shows that the hypothesis set
indicates a significant positive relationship between Place-making and Liveable
Communities was supported as the calculated value of 5.4602 is greater than the
P-value=0.000. These and the other hypotheses are shown in Table 6.
Implication
There are a lot of theoretical and practical implications for academics and
practitioners in this study. In the first place, this study represented a conceptual
linkage within urban liveability, liveable communities, and place-making within
African Cities. A deficiency of literature considers urban liveability applying the
partial least square structural equation modelling to determine the correlation
between liveability indicators. This paper addressed the intricate linkages within,
Liveable communities (LC), Urban Liveability, and Place-Making (PL) to understand
the theory better. These were viewed from the strength of three theoretical points:
UL, LC, and PL. Although the adoption and application of Placa-making as a
measure of Urban Liveability has received considerable attention from researchers
in city development, the same attention is lacking in the analytical nexus of within
Urban Liveability (UL), Placemaking (PL), and Liveable communities (LC) research.
Most of the previous studies have focussed more on communities and
neighbourhoods. However, this study deals with a cross-evaluation of a broader
spectrum of cities across Africa that were reached by administering online google
survey questionnaires administered through the author's various contacts across
higher learning institutions with the African Continent employing a Snowball and
purposive sampling technique. This research also presented a conceptual
framework tested to establish the various relationships within the two indicators
(place-making and liveable communities) on urban liveability within the city space.
City development experts could leverage urban liveability from liveable
communities and place-making as the indicators. It is believed that the study
presented in this paper will provide a reasonable basis for further work by
academics on how place-making and liveable communities could have an impact
on liveability in urban spaces when practical place-making efforts are put in place.
Limitations of Study
The respondents surveyed and sampled carried the City's opinions they have lived
in or currently reside without an in-depth knowledge of other cities across the
continent of Africa, which may not represent a general view of residents in cities
across Africa. This potential weakness in survey research will be addressed in future
research using the multi-case research approach to triangulate the primary data
and provide an opportunity for further exploration of relevant issues. Secondly, this
research used cross-sectional data to investigate urban liveability's effect,
placemaking on liveable communities in Africa. However, we recognised that the
impact was complex; longitudinal data for future studies are encouraged.
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CONCLUSION
This study revealed the lines of connections within Place-making, Liveable
communities, and Urban Liveability and also identified latent variables that could
boost the cities 'liveable spaces' future. This study, therefore, provided a tested
conceptual structure. PLS-SEM was used to evaluate the hypothesised paths. The
findings showed support for the formulated hypotheses. This study showed that
Urban Liveability, Placemaking, and liveable communities are analytically linked.
The study also revealed that residents believe that placemaking and Liveable
Communities can influence the overall liveability within the City Space in Africa.
Nevertheless, in the mainstream spatial urban study, the use and implementation
of Liveable communities through place-making have gained some measure of
significance. However, the overall linkages of liveable communities and place-
making and their overall effect on urban liveability lack the same consideration.
Consequently, striving to improve residents' liveability within the city space
requires that liveable communities are established through practical Place-making
endeavours and are still fussy and unpopular amongst city development planners.
Most previous studies were more centred on using quality of life as an indicator of
urban liveability with little effort to strengthen the links between Place-making and
liveable communities.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ANFIS MODEL OF THE UCS OF MODIFIED SOIL FOR

CONSTRUCTION PURPOSES
Udeala, R. C.1, Onyelowe, K. C.2, Uranta, J. D. C.3, Keke, E. O.4 and Alaneme, G. U.5
1,3Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Federal Polytechnic Ukana, Akwa Ibom State,
Nigeria
2,5Department of Civil Engineering, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria
4Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology, Federal polytechnic Ukana, Akwa Ibom State,
Nigeria
Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), which integrates both Takagi-

Sugeno fuzzy logic and neural network principles and also captures their benefits
in a single framework was deployed for the modelling of the unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) of expansive clayey soil treated with hybrid binder (HB).
The compaction properties, consistency limits and the HB were the predictors while
UCS was the target in the evolutionary model. The advantages of artificial
intelligence techniques deployment in geotechnical research is to deal with the
complex challenges associated with effectiveness in the utilization of construction
materials so as to achieve optimal assessment of geotechnical materials ’behaviour
and sustainable engineering design. ANFIS model development was carried out
with 35 data sets derived from the experimental responses with respect to varying
proportions of HB treatment from 0% to 12%. 10 and 25 datasets were used for
training and testing the network respectively. The UCS was the target response
while the HB replacement ratio, compaction and consistency limits properties were
the input variables of the developed model. The model evaluation results obtained
using statistical tools showed mean absolute error (MAE) of 0.7196, root mean
square error (RMSE) of 0.9004, mean square error (MSE) of 0.811, and coefficient of
determination (CoD) value of 0.9992 for UCS response parameters. The results
obtained indicate a very good performance in terms of prediction accuracy. This
shows that ANFIS provides the flexibility in achieving sustainable geotechnical
materials integration in the built environment.
Keywords: adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system(ANFIS), hybrid binder, soft

computing, soil stabilization, unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
INTRODUCTION
ANFIS modelling system is the learning and training of the network where the
associated membership degrees are automatically adjusted using Neural Network
1 richard.udeala@fedpolyukana.edu.ng
2 kennedychibuzor@kiu.ac.ug; konyelowe@mouau.edu.ng
3 urantacaptain@gmail.com
4 kekeeverest@gmail.com
5 tinz2020@gmail.com
Udeala, et al. (2021) ANFIS model of the UCS of modified soil for construction purposes In: Laryea,
S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11
August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 163-176
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(NN) capability, which removes the burden of manual adjustment of the

membership function parameters. ANFIS is an artificial intelligence (AI) or soft
computing modelling tool, which has become attractive and desirable due to a
combination of linguistic variables transparency from the Fuzzy logic method and
leaning capability of ANN techniques (Shahin et al. 2001). Through the utilization
of the ANN’s learning and generalization capability to update and process Takagi-
Sugeno fuzzy inference System (FIS) type provides ANFIS with the learning ability
similar to ANN through data training. It is able to process and model behaviour of
complex system such as mixture experiments optimization. The results generated
can therefore be mapped into FIS described in linguistic labels. Thus, the hidden
layer and learning processing parameters are determined by FIS in the ANFIS
network which removes the conventional challenges faced in ANN-modelling for
the determination of hidden layer parameters and also the determination of
membership function parameters and Fuzzy if-then rule generation in Fuzzy logic
modelling. Its major advantages over complex mathematical model computations
are not involved, it is rather robust, adaptive and perform data generation faster
with higher efficiency Jang et al. 1997). In this work, the ANFIS learning techniques
has been used to predict the UCS of a treated problematic soil.
Various kinds of soil are used for geotechnical engineered construction works and
more of serious concerns are the problematic soils. Most commonly used soil
deposits in their natural form support civil structures effectively without treatment
while others require treatment in order to be suitable for construction works such
as expansive clayey soil. These soils are expected to be removed and replaced with
materials with better properties to avoid failure, or by the modification of its
mechanical and swelling properties in order to improve its performance (Basma
and Kallas, 2004; Dutta et al. 2019). Expansive soil tends to produce serious
challenge when utilized for civil foundation works due to poor mechanical
behaviour of the clay minerals composition, which makes them possess and display
shrink-swell properties during drying and wetting cycles (Salahudeen et al. 2018).
It tends to suddenly expand and swell when in contact with water and shrink when
it losses moisture due to its physicochemical properties (Onyelowe et al. 2019a; K.
C. Onyelowe et al. 2021a and 2021b). With the above characteristic features of
problematic soil utilized as foundation materials, there has been a necessity to
forecast the engineering properties associated with the erratic construction
materials. This is to overcome the rigors or time needed to repeatedly visit the
laboratories to obtain results needed for earthwork designs and construction.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Clayey soil was obtained from a depth of 1 meter from a borrow pit located at
Ndoro Oboro, Abia State. It was observed as smaller fragments in broken form, it
was thus air dried, pulverised and as well sieved with BS sieve No. 4 (4.75mm
aperture). It was prepared in accordance with British Standard International BS1377
(1990) and stored for the laboratory work at room temperature. And the treated
soil was prepared in accordance with British Standard International BS1924 (1990).
Rice husk ash utilized as the stabilizing agent was gotten by the direct combustion
of rice husk collected from rice mills in Abakaliki, Nigeria in a controlled
incineration system to avoid air pollution (K. C. Onyelowe et al. 2019; K. C.
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Onyelowe et al. 2020). The ash samples obtained according to relevant literature,
satisfies the requirements of a pozzolanic material in accordance with British
Standard International BS 8615-1 (2019) and American Standard for Testing and
Materials ASTM C618 (1978) due to the presence of Al2O3, SiO2 and Fe2O3 in its
chemical oxides ’composition. The release of alumina-silica from the activated rice
husk ash enables pozzolanic reaction in the clayey soil adsorbed complex interface
through calcination and hydration to achieve stabilization of the problematic soil
(Attah et al. 2020). Hydrated-Lime (Ca(OH)2) is quicklime chemically combined with
33-34% magnesium oxide (MgO), 46-48% (CaO), and 15-17% chemically combined
water. Its density is less than that of quicklime at 3.34g/cm3 because it’s in more
aqueous condition, which created pores in the structure of the solid; and also
caustic possessing a pH of 12.8 and pozzolanic behavior. This makes it a good
supplementary or alternative binder for earth works construction. It meets the
standard conditions stipulated in the appropriate design codes (Alaneme et al.
2020).
By mixing 5% of hydrated lime by weight of RHA with the ash under laboratory
conditions, the hydrated-lime activated rice husk ash (HARHA) used for the
stabilization process was achieved.
Methods
Laboratory experiments were carried out on the collected test material samples so
as to derive its general engineering behavior namely; sieve analysis test,
compaction test, Atterberg limits test, California bearing ratio and specific gravity
of soil test to enable the characterization of the representative RHA and
problematic soil. Following the required laboratory conditions in accordance with
the British Standard International BS1377 (1990), these basic tests were conducted.
RHA was then activated with the three compounds of calcium in accordance with
the requirements of Davidovits (Segad et al. 2010). The rice husk ash mixture was
thus activated with caustic solution of Ca(OH)2 (5% by weight of RHA), it was then
used in blending with ratios of 0% (the control test), to 12% by weight of soil to
improve the expansive clayey soil mechanical, swelling and compaction behavior.
Atterberg limits (plastic limit and liquid limit) behavior of problematic clayey soil
blended with quicklime activated RHA were observed by experimentation using
the Casagrande apparatus in accordance with design standard. From the observed
test results, the plasticity index (𝐼𝑃 ) and activity of clay was computed.
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS)
UCS test involves a cylinder of soil without lateral support is tested to determine
failure stress in axial compression, at a constant rate of stream. The compressive
force per unit cross-sectional area which is required to fail the test soil specimen is
called unconfirmed compressive strength of the soil in accordance with BS 1377
(1990). The test was also carried out with respect to varying proportions of HARHA-
soil blend from 0% to 12% and the test soil mixtures were compacted using BSL
and cured for seven days. The test soil specimens were then placed inside the
loading frame of the UCS testing machine after the curing exercise (Kalkan et al.
2009; Onyelowe, 2017).
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ANFIS modelling algorithm flow chart

After derivation of results from the laboratory, the data generated are logically
sorted so as to obtain the model variables. The data base for the model
development are divided into two parts for training and testing of the ANFIS
network with 70% and 30% allotted respectively. The research study flowchart is
presented in Fig. 1 showing the sequential flow of events, training, testing and
ANFIS model validation using statistical computational technique. The loss
function parameters namely; Root mean square error (RMSE), mean square error
(MSE) and coefficient of determination (R2) were utilized for performance
evaluation of the ANFIS model Wang and Rahman, 2002).
Fig. 1: Research Study Flowchart
Data base for ANFIS model development

The data generated from experimental laboratory results, relevant literature and
expert knowledge, from which investigates the compaction, consistency limits and
mechanical strength properties of treated expansive clayey soil with respect to
varying ratio of replacement partially by HARHA from 0 % to 12 % (Onyelowe et al.
2019b). The ANFIS network’s input parameters constitute the replacement ratio by
HARHA, the Atterberg limits and compaction properties of the soil mixture
combinations, while the output variable of the network is the unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) of the stabilized soil.
The descriptive statistics of the experimental results generated from the laboratory
tests which was further utilized for ANFIS model development are presented in
Table 1.
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Table 1. Descriptive Statistical of data sets used for training and testing the ANFIS Network
Standard Standard Sample
Variables Mean Range Minimum Maximum
Error Deviation Variance
Soil (%) 94.000 0.736 3.680 13.542 12 88 100
HARHA
6.000 0.736 3.680 13.542 12 0 12
(%)
Liquid
Limit (WL) 47.900 2.419 12.097 146.333 39 27 66
(%)
Plastic
Limit (WP) 17.160 0.512 2.561 6.557 8 13 21
(%)
OMC (%) 17.964 0.171 0.853 0.728 3 16 19
MDD
1.683 0.050 0.252 0.064 0.74 1.25 1.99
(g/cm3)
CBR (%) 24.068 2.421 12.105 146.526 36 8 44
UCS
172.720 6.535 32.677 1067.793 105 125 230
(kN/m2)
ANFIS MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND RESULT DISCUSSION

Materials characterization
From preliminary results, it was deduced that the clayey soil sample possesses 45%
of its particles passing sieve size 0.075mm, with a natural moisture content of 14%
and liquid limit of 66%. Based on the derived experimental results, the soil
specimen was further classified using AASHTO classification as A-7-6 soil and
poorly graded with high clay content (CH) according to USC system. Furthermore,
the plasticity index of 45% indicates a highly plastic soil which breaks easily upon
the load application and that the representative clayey soil also has a swelling
potential property, with a plastic limit of 21% and this means that the soil is highly
expansive. The maximum dry density of the soil was observed to be 1.25g/cm3 at
an optimum moisture content value of 16%. These properties have characterized
the clayey soil as a high expansive and problematic soil which is very unsuitable for
civil construction works (Salahudeen et al. 2020; Segui et al. 2013).
The chemical oxides composition of the representative test clayey soil and the rice
husk ash indicates that the soil has high oxide composition (34.33%) of Na2O,
18.09% of Al2O3 and 12.45% of SiO2 by the test soil sample’s weight. These
elemental oxides contribute to the expansive condition of the soil. The ferrite
composition shows its rich in the red color of the clayey soil and plays active role
during pozzolanic reaction. This property supports the high swelling potential of
the clayey soil. However, RHA has high alumina-silicates content, which fulfills the
minimum requirements of pozzolanic materials in accordance with specified
design standards and previous studies (ASTM C618, 1978; Herve et al. 2009;
Onyelowe et al. 2019c).
Experimental responses of clayey soil modified with calcined rice husk ash
The incorporation of chemical additive (HARHA) for mechanical properties
modification of problematic expansive clayey soil was evaluated in this study to
improve its engineering performance for civil construction purposes. From the
obtained laboratory results presented in Fig. 2, the soil’s Atterberg limits properties
reduced with higher percentage addition of HARHA. Moreover, for the compaction
test of the, the OMC for the control mix is 16% and the moisture content result
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increased to maximum limit of 19% at 4% replacement while the OMC results

decreased subsequently, slightly at further addition of HARHA to 17% at 12%
replacement by HARHA. However, MDD results increased linearly as HARHA
addition increased from 1.25g/cm3 for the control to maximum value of 1.95g/cm3
at 12% replacement by HARHA. Moreover, from the mechanical strength properties
of the blended soil namely; California bearing ratio (CBR) and unconfined
compressive test (UCS) increased from 8% and 125kN/m2 respectively at control
mix to 40% and 230kN/m2 for CBR and UCS respectively at 11% replacement. This
mechanical strength improvement is achieved due to binding effect of the
hydrated lime and alumina-silicates from the blended rice husk ash (Onyelowe et
al. 2019c; Louafi et al. 2015).
Fig. 2: Graphical Plot of Experimental Results
ANFIS model development

Data obtained from relevant literatures and expert judgement were utilized for
appropriate model input-output pattern structure formulation; the input
parameters of the ANFIS network were the soils ’replacement ratio by HARHA,
compaction and consistency limits characteristics while the output variables was
the mechanical strength property of the treated soil sample (UCS). The network
architecture is presented in Fig. 3 showing the model variables and processing
parameters of the network (Ghorbani and Hasanzadehshooiili, 2018).
Using ANFIS toolbox in MATLAB software for the model simulation, testing training
and validation, the data sets was loaded from the workspace, and using sub
clustering method of fuzzy inference system (FIS) generation which is very suitable
for multiple inputs complex systems. Furthermore, hybrid optimization method
was utilized for training of FIS at 100 epochs. For Sub clustering membership
function generation, the following parameters were selected as presented in Table
5.
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Fig. 3: ANFIS Model Variables
Training and testing of the ANFIS network

As the ANFIS network is fed the datasets, appropriate FIS parameters and hybrid
training methods were then selected. The loaded datasets for the ANFIS network
training, which possess 25 index numbers in the x-axis plotted against output
variables at y-axis for UCS response is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 4: ANFIS Training Datasets Plot
The ANFIS network was further trained after loading the datasets and setting the
appropriate training and testing parameters. For the UCS response was
the obtained training error as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: ANFIS Training Error Plot
After training the network with the sorted datasets, the indexed points which were
initially open circle now has a red asterisk inside the circle to show that the ANFIS
network is trained with given sets of data as shown in Fig. 6.
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Fig. 6: Training Data Plots
The testing data sets are then loaded from the workspace after end of ANFIS data
training. 30% of the system data base is allotted for this stage as the remaining
70% was utilized for training of the network. The loaded testing datasets were
plotted with the trained data sets in blue dotted color with 10 index points as
shown in Fig. 7 for the UCS response (Rutkowski, 2004).
Fig. 7: ANFIS Training and Testing Datasets Plots
The network is further tested with the loaded testing datasets using the initially
prescribed training and FIS parameters to ensure better model prediction
performance. A testing error of was obtained for UCS response as shown in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8: Plotted Testing Data
Developed ANFIS network architecture

The developed ANFIS architecture after training and testing with the datasets fed
to the network is shown in Fig. 9. Showing the complex connections of the input
variables, the fuzzification node, the inputs weight signals aggregations, network
firing strength normalization, fuzzy if-then rule automatic generation and output
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nodes overall summation function. The architecture clearly shows that we have six
input variables namely effective soil proportion (%), HARHA replacement ratio (%),
liquid limit (%), plastic limit (%), optimum moisture content (%) and maximum dry
density (g/cm3) with one output parameter the UCS (kN/m3) (Ceylan et al. 2010).
Fig. 9: ANFIS Network Architecture
Graphical expression of ANFIS model variables relationships

The ANFIS network learns the generalization of data sets fed to it using hybrid
learning method, and is able to map a given input space with the corresponding
output response. The network variables ’relationships can be assessed through 3D-
surface plot after testing and training of the ANFIS network as shown in Fig. 10.
The effects of clayey soil replacement by HARHA, its Atterberg limits and
compaction properties in respect to UCS response were observed (Erdirencelebi
and Yalpir, 2011).
Fig. 10: ANFIS Model Variables ’Surface Plots
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Model validation
For optimization of the given laboratory response values, the training and testing
datasets were fed into the ANFIS model for mechanical behavior prediction of the
soil-additive blend. After development of the model, the experimental or actual
results were statistically compared with the ANFIS model results using loss function
parameters RMSE, MSE, MAE, and also coefficient of determination so as to rate the
prediction accuracy performance of the developed ANFIS model. The statistical
computation was carried out with Microsoft Excel software and the results are
presented in Table 2. The obtained statistical results indicate existence of no
significant difference between the actual values and the ANFIS model results with
MAE of 0.7196, RMSE of 0.9004, MSE of 0.811, and coefficient of determination
value of 0.9992 for the UCS response parameters (Kim and Heeyoung, 2016; Colin
and Windmeijer, 1997).
Table 2: ANFIS model performance evaluation

Response Statistical
Requirements Computed Results Remarks
Variable Parameter
MAE To be close to 0 0.7196 Satisfactory

RMSE To be close to 0 0.900362 Satisfactory
UCS
MSE To be close to 0 0.810652 Good
r-sq > 0.8 0.9992 Excellent
From the computed results which provide sufficient assessment of the developed
ANFIS model performance showing satisfactory results as compared with model
performance result obtained by (Alby and Shivakumar, 2018; Sobhani et al. 2010).
The slope of the regression line of ANFIS model results vs. actual results is
presented in Fig. 11. The plot shows the steepness of the line of fit which is the
straight line that best predicts the provided sets of data. The line of fit equation for
the output variable namely, UCS is presented in Eq. 1.
(1)
Fig. 11: UCS-ANFIS Model Line of Fitness Plot

Where y is the UCS and x is the varying proportions of HARHA.
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CONCLUSION
Soft computing technique method known as ANFIS was adapted for the modelling
of the compaction, consistency limits and mechanical properties of expansive clay
soil treated with HARHA from 0 % to 12 % replacement ratio. The following
conclusions can be drawn from the research study;
The preliminary soil’s test indicated a poorly graded, expansive clayey soil, which
is classified as CH according to unified soil classification system; these properties
fall off the required specification as a construction material. However, the
incorporation of HARHA enhanced the problematic soil’s mechanical behavior
making it suitable for engineering purposes.
Moreover, the obtained experimental responses were utilized as the system data
base for ANFIS model development which provides a better assessment of the
problematic clayey soil-HARHA blend deformation and mechanical strength
behavior. In order to achieve testing and training of the ANFIS network, the system
datasets were divided into two with the former and later receiving 30% and 70%
respectively.
Furthermore, the developed ANFIS model performance in terms of accuracy of
prediction were evaluated using loss function parameters RMSE, MSE, MAE, and
also coefficient of determination (R2). The ANFIS model evaluation results indicate
MAE of 0.7196, RMSE of 0.9004, MSE of 0.811, and coefficient of determination
value of 0.9992 for UCS response parameters.
Finally, the deformation behavior of expansive clayey soil treated with HARHA were
evaluated through model development using ANFIS soft computing method which
has the capacity to deal with complex relationships among variables and predict
the output parameters with good accuracy. The results obtained from this research
show clearly the flexibility of ANFIS method application in soil-additive blend
engineering behavior modelling for sustainable development.
ABBREVIATIONS
1. ANFIS- Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system
2. HARHA-Hydrated Lime Activated Rice Husk Ash
3. MSE-Mean Square Error
4. RMSE-Root Mean Square Error
5. MAE = Mean Absolute Error
6. WL = Liquid Limit
7. WP = Plastic Limit
8. IP = Plasticity Index
173
Udeala, et al.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
APPLICATION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF HEALTH AND
SAFETY MEASURES BY CONSTRUCTION FIRMS IN ABUJA,
NIGERIAERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
Abdullateef Adewale Shittu1, Anita Dzikwi Adamu2, Abel John Tsado3, Lois
Adedamola Arowolo4 and Shakirat Remilekun Abdulazeez5
1,2,3,4Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria
5Department of Estate Management, Waziri Umaru Federal Polytechnic, Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria
The Nigerian construction industry contributes 12% of Gross Domestic Product

(GDP) to the nation’s economy. In spite of this, studies have shown that health and
safety (H&S) measures are poorly implemented by construction firms in Nigeria.
Therefore, this study assessed the application of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) on the implementation of H&S measures by construction firms in
Abuja, Nigeria. The study employed the use of quantitative research approach with
the aid of questionnaire survey to obtain data from 25 construction firms in Abuja
that are registered with Federation of Construction Industry (FOCI). Analysis of data
was undertaken using Mean Item Score (MIS) and Relative Index (RII). Findings from
the study show that H&S measures mostly requiring the use of ICT tools for proper
implementation on construction sites which are Creating safety and health
regulation and hazard identification, prevention and control (RII = 0.99). Site
surveillance technologies (CCTV) is the ICT tools mostly required for monitoring the
level of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites (RII = 0.98). The impact
of ICT tools on the level of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites is
significant (MIS = 4.46). Contractors ’compliance with safety regulation is the most
effective strategy for enhancing the safety performance of construction firms on
construction sites with the use of ICT tools (MIS = 4.44). It was concluded that use
of ICT tools has significant impact on the level of implementation of H&S measures
by construction firms. It was recommended that construction firms should set up
workable mechanism for effectively implementing the strategies required to
enhance the H&S performance of construction firms through the use of ICT tools.
Keywords: construction firms, health and safety measures, information and

communication technology
1 latishittu74@gmail.com; funsho@futminna.edu.ng
2 ninadzi@futminna.edu.ng
3 tsado@futminna.edu.ng
4 greatoyin@gmail.com
5 shakiratabdulazeez25@gmail.com
Shittu, et al. (2021) Application of information and communication technology for the
implementation of health and safety measures by construction firms in Abuja, NigeriaError!
Bookmark not defined. In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 177-194
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Shittu, et al.
INTRODUCTION
The construction industry has recently witnessed a paradigm shift from traditional
paper-based method of service delivery to electronic information exchange using
Information and Communication Technology (ICT), at least in the western world
like UK and even in developing countries like Nigeria (Ibironke et al., 2011). It is
therefore evident that the adoption of ICT can enhance construction productivity
and improve communications for effective decision-making and coordination
among construction participants and reduce H&S risks on construction sites if it
can be applied. Interestingly, ICT has been embraced in every sector of the
economy including some aspects of the construction sector in ensuring that
various tasks are carried out more efficiently and effectively. Unfortunately, in the
domain of H&S, the use of ICT has not been adequately explored especially in the
areas of H&S site inspection and supervision in order to ensure strict compliance
(Ahmad, 2019).
Studies in H&S have only been able to discover low level implementation and
compliance to H&S measures on construction sites and suggested strategies for
improvement (Shittu et al., 2016; Shittu et al., 2017; Eze et al., 2018; Ahmad, 2019).
These strategies have not been able to effectively reverse the trend significantly.
The use of ICT to facilitate the level of compliance to the H&S measures has
therefore not been addressed. In view of the fact that ICT is comprised of tools that
use Artificial Intelligence (AI) to carry out tasks more safely, efficiently and
effectively, it is a better option worthy of being adopted for enhancing the level of
compliance to H&S on sites. This is due to the fact that the use of ICT tools is better
for the monitoring and evaluation of implementation of H&S measures on
construction sites as compared with the conventional approach which had been
suggested by previous studies and have failed to yield the desired outcome. On
account of this, Pamulu & Bhuta (2004) reported that technological advancement
can no longer be viewed as an enhancement of traditional business procedures but
rather as an innovation agent that enables new and different alternatives to
operation of business organisation. It is on this premise that this study assessed
the application of ICT for implementation of H&S measures by construction firms
in Abuja. Therefore, in the context of this work application of ICT means the use of
ICT for the implementation of H&S measures on sites.
In view of this background, this study addressed the problem of lack of proper
implementation of H&S measures on construction sites which leads to increase in
the rates of accidents, injuries and fatalities on sites. The resultant effect is poor
H&S performance of construction firms in terms of cost due to compensation to
injured workers. It is therefore imperative to assess the application of ICT on the
implementation of H&S measures by construction firms in Nigeria using Abuja as
the study area. Abuja was chosen as the study area because a reasonable number
of construction activities take place in Abuja because it experiences rapid
population increase and new developmental projects daily as a result of rapid
urbanisation and rural-urban migration since it is the capital city of Nigeria (Kadiri
et al., 2014).
In order to proffer suggestions towards addressing the research problem

identified, the study aimed at assessing the application of ICT for implementation
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of H&S measures by construction firms in Abuja with a view to enhancing the safety
performance of construction firms. The following objectives were therefore
pursued in order to achieve the aim of the study:
1. To identify and examine the H&S measures mostly requiring the use of ICT tools
for proper implementation on construction sites.
2. To identify the ICT tools mostly required for monitoring the level of compliance
to H&S measures on construction sites in Abuja.
3. To determine the impact of the identified ICT tools on the level of compliance
to H&S measures on construction sites.
4. To propose strategies for enhancing the safety performance of construction
firms through the use of ICT tools for monitoring and evaluation of compliance
to H&S measures on construction sites.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

H&S measures requiring the use of ICT tools for proper implementation on
construction sites
Construction H&S measures are best site practices that should be implemented
towards ensuring the health, safety and welfare of individuals involved in work
employment. Idoro (2011) revealed that all categories of contractors working in the
Nigerian construction industry do not perform better than one another as regards
H&S and therefore calls on stakeholders within the industry to develop and
enhance their H&S performance. Hence, the use of ICT can increase the level of
implementation of H&S measures by workers on construction sites, thereby
improving the safety performance of construction firms in the Nigerian
construction industry.
In order to achieve these past studies have identified the H&S measures requiring
the use of ICT tools to include: Creating safety and health regulation; Identify
hazard; Worker safety training; Design for safety; Safety planning (job hazard
analysis and planning); Accident investigation; and Facility and maintenance phase
safety; Assess and evaluation risk; Decide precautions; Record findings; and Review
and update (Rajendran & Clarke, 2011; Charehzehi & Ahankoob, 2012; OSHA, 2016;
Lekan & Charles, 2017; Webb & Langar, 2019)
ICT tools required for monitoring level of compliance to H&S measures on
construction sites
AHT Group (2014), Bromley et al. (2014) and Zhang et al. (2017) reported that
Remote Sensing (RS), in combination with modern Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) can be used to effectively monitor the level of
compliance of workers on site at a low cost and with time saving in construction.
These RS tools are identified as: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV); GPS navigation
system; Mobile telecommunications interception equipment; Intrusion software; IP
Network Surveillance; Monitoring; Lawful Interception (LI) systems; Data retention
systems; Digital forensics; Probes; Deep Packet Inspection (DPI); Radio frequency
identification (RFID), WLAN, UWB, Zigbee; Ultrasound Modelling and visualization
(3D-CAD, 4D-CAD); Electronic document management system (EDMS); Site
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surveillance technologies (CCTV); Video conferencing; Project specific websites

(Extranets); Electronic tendering; Electronic purchasing; Tele conferencing; and
barcodes. The contributions of According to Mohan & Varghese (2019) revealed
that with the help of Artificial Intelligence (AI), safety in construction sites can be
monitored at ease. An example of this is the AI Enabled Building Information
Modelling (BIM).
Impact of ICT Tools on the level of compliance to H&S measures on construction
sites
According to Idoro (2011), best site practices on H&S protect co-workers,
employers, customers, suppliers and members of the public influence by the
workplace environment. In addition to this, Ikechukwu et al. (2011) reported that
different government and private boards within have made regulations and code
of conduct in consideration of the importance and need for efficiency and the
effective use of ICT. The evolution of technology which has led to the invention
and development of telephones, computers, electronic and electrical equipment
are all fundamental in the present day construction industry. The value is very
important as construction projects involve a large flow of construction
documentary information linking project participants during both design and
construction phases.
According to Eastman et al. (2011), Cheng & Teizer (2013), Tahir et al. (2015), Azmy
& Zain (2016), Park et al. (2017), Zhang et al. (2017), Uchenna et al. (2018) and
Webb & Langar (2019) in an effort to improve construction processes, the
application of innovative wireless communication technology such as the RFID
technology can be employed to minimise accident and improve H&S on
construction sites. In a similar view, Alomari et al. (2017) reported that an added
benefit of BIM as an ICT tool is ease of communication and collaboration among
stakeholders.
Strategies for enhancing safety performance of construction firms through the
use of ICT tools
The major strategies for enhancing the safety performance of construction firms,
as identified by past studies (Sawacha et al., 1999; Teo et al., 2005), are that project
managers should focus more attention to provision of sufficient company policies,
safe procedures, positive attitudes of construction personnel, high efficiency in
management commitment and adequate safety knowledge and training of staff. In
addition, one of the main elements for improving safety performance in
construction projects identified by Charehzehi & Ahankoob (2012) and Tahir et al.
(2015) are: Risk Analysis in the Design Stage; Training Strategy; Reward Policy;
Management Commitment to the Implementation of Safety Culture; Contractor
Comply with Safety Regulation; Providing Safe Equipment and Tools; Personnel
Selection; Take a Responsibility to Report Near-Miss Accident; and Creating safety
and health regulation.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY

Studies on H&S management have designed various implementable framework for
improving safety performance of workers and employers in construction projects.
Some of the ones applicable to this study are: H&S performance measurement
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model (Health and Safety Executive, HSE, 2001); Construction competency and
H&S performance framework (Dingatag et al., 2006); and Construction safety
implementation framework (Ahmed & Abid, 2013). It is based on these theoretical
frameworks that this study’s conceptual framework was developed as presented in
Figure 1.
Figure 1: Conceptual framework for the study
The quantitative research approach was adopted in this study. The use of
structured questionnaire was employed for data collection in order to achieve the
study’s objectives. The data collected were analyzed with the use of Relative
Importance Index (RII) and Mean Item Score (MIS). MIS and RII were employed
because it is the perception of safety officers that was sought with the
questionnaire.
The population for the study is made up of construction firms registered with
Federation of Construction Industry (FOCI) with Abuja’s business address. FOCI was
incorporated in 1954 and it is a mixture of indigenous, indigenized and foreign
enterprises (FOCI, 2012). It is the umbrella of construction companies in Nigeria. Its
membership is comprised of both construction active (full time) and non-
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construction active (part time) members. FOCI has more than 100 members. Only
about 84 of these are full time members which are construction firms across
Nigeria. Of this 84, only 25 are active or domicile in Abuja (FOCI Directory, 2019).
Since the study area is Abuja, then the 25 construction firms registered with FOCI
and based in Abuja were considered for the study. The research population size is
therefore 25.
The list containing information about the construction firms registered with FOCI
in Abuja constitutes the study’s sampling frame. This gives the features of the
construction firms for easy access to aid the data collection process for the study.
The sample size for the study is the same as the population size (that is 25).
Therefore, all the 25 construction firms registered by FOCI in Abuja were
considered for data collection. In view of the fact that the population size is not
large, the study took a census of the whole 25 construction firms for data collection.
This is in line with the assertion of Watson (2001) that if the population size is small
(200 or less), then it is preferable to take a census of the total population.
The questionnaire (designed on a five-point Likert’s Scale format) is comprised of
five sections. The first section addressed issues relating to the profile of
respondents. The last four sections addressed issues relating to the research
objectives respectively. For the site observation, the use of a checklist form was
employed to record what was about the firms ’provision of pro-active and reactive
H&S measures on site as detailed out in the results section. The site observation
took an average of 5 days for each construction firm. Twenty – five copies of
questionnaire were administered (one copy to the safety officer of each firm). All
the questionnaire copies distributed were returned and useful for analysis.
In order to validate the research instrument used, a reliability test was carried out
on the data collected. The result of the reliability test shows a Cronbach’s Alpha of
0.848 which was very high and close to 1.000. The Cronbach’s Alpha based on
standardized items is 0.849 and is of a higher value and closer to 1.000. This shows
that the research data are reliable and hence the research instrument is valid. The
decision rule adopted for the RII and MIS are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: Decision rule for RII and MIS analyses

Scale Cut-Off Point Interpretation
Level of Level of Level of
RII MIS
Importance Significance Effectiveness
5 0.81 - 1.00 4.51 - 5.00 Very Important Very Significant Very Effective
4 0.61 - 0.80 3.51 - 4.50 Important Significant Effective
3 0.41 - 0.60 2.51 - 3.50 Fairly Important Fairly Significant Fairly Effective
2 0.21 - 0.40 1.51 - 2.50 Less Important Less Significant Less Effective
1 0.00 - 0.20 1.00 - 1.50 Least Important Least Significant Least Effective
Source: Adapted and Modified from Shittu et al. (2015b)
The study chose 3.51 – 5.00 as the cut-off point for the important H&S measures
due to the fact that H&S, being a crucial issue to the well-being of workers and
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success of a project, requires best practices in order to bring about improved

performance. Based on the scale used (1 - 5), best H&S measures should be far
above average. In addition, in the study of Agumba & Haupt (2014) the mean score
of the identified important H&S practices ranged between 3.80 and 4.60. Within
the same context, the studies of Eze et al. (2016), Shittu et al. (2017) and Shittu et
al. (2020) also used a cut-off point of 3.50 – 5.00 for the important H&S measures
on construction site. This therefore justifies the choice of 3.50 – 5.00, used in this
study as the cut-off point for the important H&S measures requiring the use of ICT
tools for proper implementation, significant impacts of ICT tools on H&S measures
implementation, and effective strategies for improving the implementation level of
H&S measures on construction sites.

Results and discussion on H&S measures mostly requiring the use of ICT tools for
proper implementation on construction sites
Table 2 presents the result of the H&S measures mostly requiring the use of ICT
tools for proper implementation on construction sites.
Table 2: Results of H&S measures mostly requiring the use of ICT tools for proper
implementation on construction sites in Abuja
Code H&S Measures RII Rank Decision
C1 Creating safety and health regulation 0.99 1st Very Important
C2 Hazard Identification 0.98 2nd Very Important

C3 Hazard prevention and control 0.98 2nd Very Important
C4 Facility and maintenance phase safety 0.97 4th Very Important
C5 Risk Assessment and Evaluation 0.96 5th Very Important

C6 Education and training 0.96 5th Very Important
C7 Precautions Decision Making 0.94 7th Very Important
C8 Management leadership 0.94 7th Very Important
Communication and coordination for

C9 0.94 7th Very Important
employers on multiemployer worksites
C10 Design for safety 0.94 7th Very Important

C11 Record findings 0.92 11th Very Important
C12 Review and Update 0.92 11th Very Important
Accident investigation, Facility and
C13 0.90 13th Very Important
maintenance phase safety
C14 Worker participation 0.86 14th Very Important
C15 Program evaluation and improvement 0.85 15th Very Important
Average RII 0.94 Very Important
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Table 2 reveals fifteen (15) identified H&S measures mostly requiring the use of
ICT tools for proper implementation on construction sites which are all very
important with MIS ranging from 0.85 – 0.99. The most important H&S measure is
Creating safety and health regulation (MIS = 0.99), while the least important one is
Program evaluation and improvement (MIS = 0.88). The average MIS value shown
is 0.94. This also reveals that all the identified H&S measures mostly requiring the
use of ICT tools for proper implementation on construction sites are very
important. This is in line with the finding of Charehzehi & Ahankoob (2012) where
it was revealed that these H&S measures are guidelines to assist the team members
in the construction industry to manage their safety in their workplaces with the use
of ICT tools. OSHA (2016) also identified these measures as good H&S practices
where the use of ICT tools are required in support of the finding of this study.
Rajendran & Clarke (2011) also identified most of these H&S measures as vital
areas in which BIM can prove useful. Other previous studies which support the
finding of this study are Lekan & Charles (2017); Amusan et al. (2018); and Webb
& Langar (2019). All these studies emphasize the need to for stakeholders within
the construction industry to develop and enhance their H&S performance (with
respect to these H&S measures) through the use of ICT tools. Hence, the use of ICT
can increase the level of implementation of H&S measures by workers on
construction sites, thereby improving the safety performance of construction firms
in the Nigerian construction industry.
Results and discussion on ICT tools mostly required for monitoring the level of
compliance to H&S measures on construction sites in Abuja
The use of Relative Importance Index (RII) was employed to examine the ICT tools
mostly required for monitoring the level of compliance to H&S measures on
construction sites in Abuja. The result of the analysis is presented in Table 3.
Table 3 shows the 18 ICT tools mostly required for monitoring the level of
compliance to H&S measures on construction sites. It was shown that Site
surveillance technologies (CCTV), Remote Sensing (RS) standard cellular phones,
smart phones or tablets, Mobile Radio Systems, Electronic document management
system (EDMS), and Email and short message services (SMS) are the most important
ICT tools with RII values of 0.98, 0.96, 0.94, 0.92 and 0.90 respectively. Five (%) other
ICT tools are also very important. These are Radio Frequency Identification Device
(RFID), GPS (Global Positioning System), Modelling and visualization (3D-CAD, 4D-
CAD), Ultra-wideband (UWB), and 3D and 4D visualization technology with RII
values of 0.89, 0.86, 0.85, 0.84 and 0.83 respectively. The remaining eight (8) ICT
tools (in descending order) are also important with RII values ranging from 0.80 –
0.62. On the average, all the identified ICT tools are required for monitoring the
level of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites in Abuja are very
important with average RII value of 0.83. The finding here agrees with the finding
from the study of AHT Group (2014) which reported that RS, in combination with
modern ICT, provides an excellent means for the collection and analysis of spatial
data on “real world phenomena”, making these tools particularly valuable for
project planning and monitoring in the development cooperation context. The
finding of this study is also supported by that of Tahir et al. (2015) where it was
stated that that wireless sensing technology, such as the RFID, can be used to
examine H&S of individuals and equipment on site. This is because RFID tags
transmit wireless data to a system with RFID reader which in turn develops a
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Shittu, et al.
warning system that alerts construction workers of potential threats. Other studies
such as Bromley et al. (2014); Azmy & Zain (2016); Zhang et al. (2017); and Mohan
& Varghese (2019) also confirms the importance of these ICT tools to H&S
compliance. It is therefore important to emphasize that for a safe and healthy
construction workplace, the use of ICT tools for monitoring compliance to H&S
rules is important.
Table 3: Results of ICT tools mostly required for monitoring the level of compliance to H&S
measures on construction sites in Abuja
Code ICT Tools RII Rank Decision
B1 Site surveillance technologies (CCTV) 0.98 1st Very Important
Remote Sensing (RS) standard cellular
B2 0.96 2nd Very Important
phones, smart phones or tablets.
B3 Mobile Radio Systems 0.94 3rd Very Important
Electronic document management system
B4 0.92 4th Very Important
(EDMS)
B5 Email and short message services (SMS) 0.90 5th Very Important
Radio Frequency Identification Device

(RFID)
B7 GPS (Global Positioning System) 0.86 7th Very Important
Modelling and visualization (3D-CAD, 4D-
CAD)
B9 Ultra-wideband (UWB) 0.84 9th Very Important
B10 3D and 4D visualization technology 0.83 10th Very Important
B11 Video conferencing 0.80 11th Important
B12 IP Network Surveillance 0.78 12th Important
B13 Wireless local area network (WLAN) 0.78 12th Important
Zigbee (two-way wireless communication
B14 0.78 12th Important
technique)
B15 Ultrasound positioning system 0.77 15th Important
B16 Artificial Intelligence Enabled BIM 0.72 16th Important
B17 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) 0.70 17th Important
Real-Time tracking system, RFIDs,
B18 automation and remote sensing 0.62 18th Important
technology
Average RII 0.83 Very Important
Results and discussion on impact of ICT tools on the level of compliance to H&S
measures on construction sites
Table 4 gives a summary of the MIS ranking results of the impact of ICT tools on
the level of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites in Abuja based on
respondents ’perception.
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Shittu, et al.
Table 4: Results of impact of ICT tools on the level of compliance to H&S measures on
construction sites in Abuja
Impact of ICT Tools on the Level of Compliance to H&S
Code MIS Rank Decision
Measures
D1 Providing a high level of safety training for employees. 4.80 1st Very Significant
Avoid the direct and indirect costs of worker injuries and
D2 4.80 1st Very Significant
illnesses, and promotes a positive work environment.
Enable management to avoid accidents and eliminate H&S
D3 hazards so as to reduce the difficulty of employees as well as 4.76 3rd Very Significant
minimising their loss.
Reduce lots of fatalities and improve productivity by
providing solutions and remedy to H&S problems and also
D4 4.76 3rd Very Significant
providing workers on site with potential occurrence of
existing danger on construction site.
Aid operational improvement through communication of
D5 construction information for effective decision-making and 4.72 5th Very Significant
coordination.
BIM tools allow project stakeholders to share information
about sequencing, physical site topography, and clash
D6 detection; improve communication among the project 4.68 6th Very Significant
stakeholders; and identify potential locations and times of
hazardous and non-hazardous construction project activities.
The virtual planning of work sequencing to incorporate
D7 4.68 6th Very Significant
necessary safety equipment and measures.
Create a detailed Environmental Safety and Health (ES and H)
plan to be dispersed among all workers.
Providing new methods in construction and planning such as
D9 Building Information Modeling methodology and IBS 4.64 9th Very Significant
technology.
Increase the level of implementation of H&S measures by
workers on construction sites.
Verification that all structures can be constructed safely and
productively.
Integration of client, designer and contractor in design stage
to eliminate adversarial nature and preventing conflict in
early stage of projects which lead to mitigate the destructive
risk during building process.
Offer opportunities to enhance communication between
D13 participants in construction projects and to enable more 4.52 13th Very Significant
effective and efficient communication.
Decrease time for data processing and communicating
information.
D15 Improvement of site condition 4.52 13th Very Significant
Avoiding the use of outdated equipment and plants during
construction stages.
Harnessing the capability to improve safety training as
D17 workers can “walk through” a job site or building increases 4.52 13th Very Significant
understanding and helps prepare for the sequencing of tasks.
Obtain timely information regarding work progress to
D18 4.32 18th Significant
manage workflows.
Reduce the need for co-workers to be located in the same
D19 4.16 19th Significant
venue.
Protect co-workers, employers, customers, suppliers and
D20 members of the public influence by the workplace 4.12 20th Significant
environment.
Intelligence of sensor-based technology helps construct an
interactive management platform, which is the integration of
D21 hardware and software for data processing, significantly 3.88 21st Significant
improving the construction site monitoring capacity and
providing guarantees for construction safety.
Capacity building in Remote Sensing (RS) and ICT is key to
D22 attain sustainability by ensuring an adequate and professional 3.68 22nd Significant
use of these techniques in the post-project period.
Have shaped substantially the mode of workers’ interaction,
D23 business process, entertainment, learning and 3.64 23rd Significant
implementation attitude.
Average MIS 4.46 Significant
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Table 4 revealed 23 main impacts of ICT tools on the level of compliance to H&S
measures on construction sites. The first seventeen (17) impacts are very significant.
These range from Providing a high level of safety training for employees (MIS =
4.80) to Harnessing the capability to improve safety training as workers can “walk
through” a job site or building increases understanding and helps prepare for the
sequencing of tasks (MIS = 4.52). The most significant impacts of ICT tools on the
level of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites are Providing a high
level of safety training for employees and Avoid the direct and indirect costs of
worker injuries and illnesses, and promotes a positive work environment (MIS =
4.80 respectively). The remaining six impacts are also significant. These range from
Obtain timely information regarding work progress to manage workflows (MIS =
4.32) to Have shaped substantially the mode of workers ’interaction, business
process, entertainment, learning and implementation attitude (MIS = 3.64). On the
average, all the identified impacts of ICT tools on the level of compliance to H&S
measures on construction sites are significant (average MIS = 4.46). The finding of
Ikechukwu et al. (2011) supports this study’s finding by emphasizing that the rapid
evolution of ICT offers opportunities to enhance communication between
participants in construction projects and to enable more effective and efficient
communication. Webb & Langar (2019) also reported that the onus of safety
management and site accident mitigation is shifting with the development of
technology by incorporating BIM into project planning in support of this study.
Therefore, the use of the intelligence of sensor-based technology helps construct
an interactive management platform, which is the integration of hardware and
software for data processing, significantly improving the construction site
monitoring capacity and providing guarantees for construction safety.
Results and discussion on the strategies for enhancing the safety performance of
construction firms on construction sites
The result of the MIS analysis carried out to rank the perception of respondents on
the identified strategies for enhancing the safety performance of construction firms
is presented in Table 5.
It Is shown from Table 5 that ten (10) out of the twelve (12) identified strategies for
enhancing the safety performance of construction firms on construction sites in
Abuja are effective. These range from Contractor Comply with Safety Regulation
(MIS = 4/44) to Proper implementation of fatalities and incidence
reporting/investigation with the application of innovative communication
technology such as the RFID technology (MIS = 3.64). The two least ranked
strategies are fairly effective. These are Development of Framework for Enhancing
Strategies for Implementing Training and Re-training for Workers on Compliance
to H&S (MIS = 3.44) and Introduction of Risk Analysis in the Design Stage (MIS =
3.20). On the average, all the identified strategies for enhancing the safety
performance of construction firms on construction sites in Abuja are effective
(average MIS = 3.96). The studies of Charehzehi & Ahankoob (2012) and Tahir et
al. (2015) are in line with the finding from this analysis because these past studies
emphasize that these strategies can improve H&S on site and thus minimising
accidents occurrence such as accident due to heavy equipment’s and tools and also
collision between workers and heavy operating equipment; which are considered
as one of the most occurred on site. It is therefore important to note that for
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Shittu, et al.
construction firms to execute projects safely on construction sites, these effective

strategies must be implemented to the latter.
Table 5: Result of strategies for enhancing the safety performance of construction firms on
construction sites in Abuja
Strategies for Enhancing the Safety
Code MIS Rank Decision
Performance
Contractor Comply with Safety
E1 4.44 1st Effective
Regulation
E2 Site Personnel Selection 4.36 2nd Effective
E3 Creating safety and health regulation. 4.32 3rd Effective
Hiring contractors who have proved a
record of good safety performance
E4 during the processes of qualifying 4.16 4th Effective
contractors for bidding work and
ranking contractors for a contract award.
E5 Providing Safe Equipment and Tools 4.16 4th Effective
E6 Establishing a Reward Policy. 4.08 6th Effective
Management Commitment to the
E7 4.08 6th Effective
Implementation of Safety Culture
Establishment of effective company
policies that will promote safe
procedures, positive attitudes of
E8 construction personnel, high efficiency 3.88 8th Effective
in management commitment and
adequate safety knowledge and training
of staff.
Take a Responsibility to Report Near-
Miss Accident.
Proper implementation of fatalities and
incidence reporting/investigation with
the application of innovative
communication technology such as the
radio frequency identification (RFID)
technology.
Development of Framework for
Enhancing Strategies for Implementing
E11 3.44 11th Fairly Effective
Training and Re-training for Workers on
Compliance to H&S
Introduction of Risk Analysis in the
E12 3.20 12th Fairly Effective
Design Stage
Average MIS 3.96 Effective

The study revealed that the identified ICT tools required for monitoring the level
of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites in Abuja are very important.
The identified H&S measures mostly requiring the use of ICT tools for proper
implementation on construction sites are very important. The most significant
impacts of ICT tools on the level of compliance to H&S measures on construction
sites are: providing a high level of safety training for employees; and avoiding the
direct and indirect costs of worker injuries and illnesses, and promotes a positive
work environment. In addition, all the identified impacts of ICT tools on the level
of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites are significant. The identified
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Shittu, et al.
strategies for enhancing the safety performance of construction firms on

construction sites in Abuja are effective. It can therefore be concluded that the
application of ICT tools has a significant impact on the level of implementation of
H&S measures by construction firms in Abuja. There is therefore the need for
construction firms to embrace the use of ICT tools to monitor the implementation
of H&S measures on site in order to improve the level of compliance to H&S
measures and hence improve the safety performance/practices of employees and
construction firms.
In view of the findings and conclusions of this study, the following

recommendations were made:
1. The management of construction firms should invest in training their safety

officers or anybody so assigned H&S responsibility on the use and application
of Remotes Sensing tools in combination with modern ICT in order to be able
to effectively plan and monitor site activities in a safety and health compliant
manner. This will bring about improved H&S compliance of workers on site.
2. Regular and periodic education and training programmes should be used to

communicate the importance of the identified H&S measures mostly requiring
the use of ICT tools for proper implementation on construction sites to
workers. This will build up positive attitude of employers and employees
towards H&S practices on site and hence the improvement of H&S measures
implementation level.
3. Construction firms should facilitate H&S communication by using the
intelligence of sensor-based technology in order to construct an interactive
management platform, which is the integration of hardware and software for
data processing, significantly improving the construction site monitoring
capacity and providing guarantees for construction safety. This is because the
study has established that there exists a positive relationship between the use
of ICT tools and level of implementing H&S measures on construction sites.
4. All the afore mentioned recommendations should be harmonised in order to

put up a workable mechanism for the effective implementation of the
identified strategies for enhancing the safety performance of construction
firms on construction sites in Abuja. This is because the study found that these
strategies are effective.
The findings of this study has contributed to the body of knowledge in the built
environment in various ways. The study revealed that for a safe and healthy
construction workplace, the use of ICT tools for monitoring compliance to H&S
rules is important (average RII = 0.83). The study also showed that the use of ICT
tools can increase the level of implementation of H&S measures by workers on
construction sites (average RII = 0.94). It was also revealed that the impacts of ICT
tools on the level of compliance to H&S measures on construction sites are
significant (average MIS = 4.46).
In view of the limitations of this study, some areas have been suggested for further
studies. Researchers can study the effect of safety officers ’leadership quality on
the adoption of ICT tools and Artificial Intelligence for enhancing the level of
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Shittu, et al.
implementation of safety measures on construction sites. The effect of

organisational characteristics on the on the application of ICT tools and Artificial
Intelligence on the implementation of safety measures on construction sites can
also be studied.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ASSESSING THE CAUSES OF MATERIAL WASTAGE AS IT

AFFECTS VARIOUS BUILDING MATERIALS ON NIGERIAN
CONSTRUCTION SITES
A. A. Salihu, S. Gambo, M. M. Sa’ad, F. M. Oyeleke and J. Usman
1,2,3,4,5Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
There is an increase in quantity of waste being generated by construction activities

and this has caused major concern for the construction industry. An ineffective
planning and control of materials on site could lead to poor performance and
undesirable project outcomes which in turn affects the overall cost of a project.
Previous researchers have tried to study the most wasteful material on building
construction site and also established general causes of material wastage. However,
no attempt has been made to bring a synergy between the causes of waste and the
type of materials been wasted. Hence, this paper aimed at studying the causes of
material wastage as it affects each building construction material used on site with
a view to having an effective cost control. A quantitative approach involving the
use of a structured questionnaire was used to collect data on a five (5) point Likert
scale of 1- strongly disagree to 5- strongly agree. Responses from the administered
questionnaire were collated, interpreted and analyzed using descriptive statistics
and results presented in tables. Results indicated that poor handling of materials is
the major factor resulting to materials wasted during timber formwork, concrete
works and ceramic/vitrified tiling works with mean value of 4.46, 3.74 and 3.64
respectively. Furthermore, poor supervision of operatives is the major factor
causing material wastage in POP works and mortar for rendering with mean value
of 3.87 and 3.85 respectively. Poor handling of materials, poor supervision of
operatives and misuse of materials are the major causes of waste on construction
sites irrespective of the building materials involved. These factors could result to
cost overrun and undesirable project outcomes. Therefore, proper material
handling and high level of supervision should be given consideration when using
timber, concrete, ceramic tiles, plaster of paris (POP) and mortar in construction
sites. The study has affirmed the need for studies to focus on developing viable
strategies/techniques that would bring about improvements in material handling
when using timber, concrete and ceramic tiles in construction sites.
Keywords: building materials, construction sites, plaster of Paris (POP), project,

wastage
INTRODUCTION
Waste is defined as any unskillfulness resulting from lack of efficiency that results
in the use of equipment’s, materials, labour, or capital in larger quantities than
those considered as necessary in the production of a building, in other words waste
Salihu, et al. (2021) Assessing the causes of material wastage as it affects various building materials
on Nigerian construction sites In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
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is any losses produced by activities that generate direct or indirect costs but do not
add any value to the product (Apte, 2012).
Odesola and Adewuyi (2015) view construction waste as construction Materials that
are lost in transit on or off site, discarded without adding value to the project for
which it was procured including over production or left over from newly
constructed facility. A simple way to define waste according to Oladiran and Joseph
(2009) is that which can be eliminated without reducing customer value, it can be
activities resources or rule.
Rapid growth in construction activities as a result of increasing population and
urbanization in many parts of the world generates a large amount of waste in
construction. To minimize and effectively manage these wastes, a detailed
understanding of the causal factors is required. (Luangcharoenrat et al., 2019).
Odesola and Adewuyi (2015) emphasized that the increasing quantities of waste
have created a bad image for the construction industry, in addition, an ineffective
planning and control of materials on sites could lead to poor performance and
undesirable project outcomes.
According to Enshassi (2009) construction materials is the major cost of
construction project; therefore, material wastage has adverse impact on
construction cost, contractor’s profit margin, construction duration and can be a
possible source of dispute among parties to a project.
Materials constitutes a major cost component in any construction project, the
entire cost of installed material may be 60% or more of the total cost of a project,
so for a contractor to have more profit and to complete project on time there must
be need to minimize waste to a minimal level. Waste on site can only be minimized
but can never be eliminated completely (Aditya and Sabihuddin, 2015).
Ayodele and Alabi (2014) defined cost control as all methods of controlling the
cost of building and civil engineering projects within the limits of a predetermined
sum throughout the design and construction stages. Studies from different parts
of the world has shown that material waste from the construction industry
represents a relatively large percentage of the production cost.
Consequently, the poor management of materials and waste leads to an increase

in the total cost of building projects (Ameh and Itodo, 2013).
Material wastage has become a serious problem and requires urgent attention in
the Nigerian construction industry. The constraints negatively affects the delivery
of many projects (Adewuyi and Otali, 2013). Ping, Omran and Pakir (2009) also
observed that extra construction materials are usually purchased, due to the
material wastage during the construction process.
(Chu, 2004; Formoso et al, 2002; Tam, Shen and Tam, 2007; Gihan, Ahmed and Adel,
2010) in their research have all tried to identify the percentage contribution of
various construction material to waste on site. However in a more recent
development Ameh and Itodo (2013) investigated building materials involved in
waste and came up with the most wasteful ones where plastering/rendering
topped the list.
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In a separate development (Oladiran 2009; Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011;

Abdulazeez, 2000; Apte, 2012; Aditya and Sabihuddin, 2015) all tried to identify the
causes of waste in construction sites.
However, based on literature search no research so far have tried to bring a synergy
between the various types of building materials leading to waste and their causes.
Hence the need to review the causes of material wastage as it affect various
building materials on construction sites.
The objectives of this research are therefore to identify the causes of materials
wastage on construction site and determine the effect of these causes on various
building materials with a view to identifying the major causes of waste on varying
building materials. For the purpose of this study, only building materials that had
being previously identified by researchers as major waste contributors were
considered. The impact of causes of waste on project cost was not considered in
the study. The study could not consider construction professionals in all the states
in Nigeria however, Abuja being the construction hub of the country was used.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Material wastage on construction site
According to Napier (2012), waste in construction occurs in various construction
stages ranging from foundation works to finishing and they emanate from wooden
materials, concrete, gravels, aggregate, masonry, metals, plastics, plumbing and
electrical fixtures, glass and materials handling. A more recent study in the United
State between (2009-2010) from the processing of 20,000 tons of construction and
demolition waste identified the following percentage wastage of some building
materials; wood 30%, concrete 5%, gravels, aggregate and fines, 20%, dry wall 3%,
asphalt roofing 5%, ferrous and non-ferrous metals 9%, plastic 1%, cardboard and
paper 3% and disposal as refuse 5%. Although the study concluded that the
predominant waste stream in the United States comes from wood, wood however
presents a high potential for reuse in construction and in other industry such as
manufacturing. The US government in its effort to reduce the impact of building
material waste on the environment has implemented the green rating criteria for
all building project to further improve the environment performance (Amatruda,
2010).
According to Dania et al (2007), waste can never be eliminated but can be reduce
to a minimum level, waste on construction site occurs whether directly or indirectly
depending on the construction process. Waste occur at all stages of construction
process right from design and documentation, excavation, renovation,
refurbishment, ordering of materials, materials handling on site, up to the process
of fixing. It has been observed that the construction industry remains a major
economic sector, but the pollution generated from construction activities
continuously present a major challenge to environmental management (Tam et al,
2007).
Abdul-azeez (2000) said there is a considerable waste allowance which is usually

included when pricing, some material waste may occur under ideal conditions of
production, but on many sites the waste of materials is far in excess of negligible
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waste. He further stated that waste do occur in many ways but can be categorized
into direct and indirect types, the most common materials being wasted on site are
cement, reinforcement, timber, aggregate, bricks and blocks etc.
Review of building materials where wastage are predominant

Chu (2004) in a study in Hong Kong identified the percentage contribution of
various construction materials to waste on site. These include mortar from
plastering/screening 15%, concrete 4%, block work 4%, and packaging 5%.
Wastage in concrete also occur as a result of failure in formwork and means of
transportation. Non adherence to mix design can also contribute to wastage in
concrete (Formoso et al, 2002). Tam et al (2007) noted that the cause of wastage in
timber formwork is due to natural deterioration and waste from cutting. The
wastage level in timber formwork can be as high as 20% in foundation works. The
wastage level of timber formwork in foundation could be due to the wet nature of
most foundation works, which encourage the deterioration of timber, it is worthy
of note that both dry and wet weather has effects on timber formwork. The study
also identified the building materials with low level of wastage are made from steel.
This could be due to their durability and ease of re-use over time. This point is from
a study from Egypt by Gihan, Ahmed and Abdel (2010) which reveal that steel
reinforcement has low percentage of wastage of about 5% compared to 20% for
sand in their study.
A study by Ameh and Itodo (2013) sought to know the most wasteful material
during building construction activities on sites. The results reveals that out of 14
most frequently used building materials investigated, mortar from plastering
/rendering top the list of most wasteful material. This was followed by timber
formworks which is 2nd, sandcrete blocks comes 3rd and then concrete is 4th on
the list and ceramics /vitrified tiles in that order. The results also revealed building
materials that have low wastage level during construction activities on sites. These
are steel formwork, long span aluminium roofing sheet, iron bar, paint and fibre
cement roofing sheet. The findings reported in this study tends to support the
outcome of earlier studies that the most wasteful building material on construction
sites is mortar from plastering/rendering (Formoso et al, 2002). The study also
attributed the high wastage level in mortar from plastering/rendering to lack of
modular coordination in the structural elements and deviation from the actual
design. This implied that more mortar will be used on such elements such as beams
and column that have deviated from the initial design. Excessive mortar could also
be used in block work joints if the blocks are not uniform in their sizes.
Another study by Bekr (2014) reveals quantitative assessment of wastage to 10
selected building materials due to cutting, transit, theft and vandalism, and
application. The results indicate that sand has the highest percentage of waste of
about 21% followed by aggregate with wastage of about 20.7%, PVC water pipes
have 19.6% and similar results for timber formworks. On the other hands, facing
stones had the least percentage wastage of 15.14%.
Causes of material waste on construction sites

Waste occurrences on sites are diverse but the most common waste in construction
projects are materials. The consequences of materials waste are enormous because
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materials account for about 50% to 60% of construction cost and they are scarce
resources (Oladiran, 2009).
According to Otim et al (2011) the causes of material wastages on sites were found
to include; poor supervision of operatives, poor handling of materials, misuse of
materials, poor storage and stacking of materials, delivery of excess materials on
site, poor site organization, late delivery of materials, poor coordination of
management and technical side, poor time management, bad weather conditions
and use of unskilled operatives. Construction material waste could also arises from
design, logistics, and physical construction processes (Fadiya et al., 2014).
Some other researchers also identified some causes of material wastage which
formed part of the review, these were however brought together and tabulated as
shown in Table 1.
Table 1: A comprehensive summary of the causes of waste

Causes of Waste Authors
Poor supervision of operatives Oladiran, 2009; Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
Abdul-Azeez, 2000; Apte, 2012; Otim, Nakacwa and
Poor handling of materials
Kyakula, 2011.
Misuse of materials Oladiran, 2009; Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
Poor storage and stacking of Abdul-Azeez, 2000; Aditya and Sabihuddin, 2015;
materials Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
Delivery of excess materials on site Apte, 2012; Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
Poor site organization Abdul-Azeez, 2000; Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
Late delivery of materials Apte, 2012; Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
Poor coordination of management
Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
and technical side
Poor time management Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
Bad weather conditions Otim, Nakacwa and Kyakula, 2011.
METHODOLOGY
The study looks at causes of materials wastage at it affects various building
materials. This requires eliciting knowledge from construction professionals who
are directly involved in any construction project, in this case Architects, Builders,
Quantity Surveyors and Engineers. Hence a quantitative research approach
involving the use of a structured questionnaire was used to collect data on a five
(5) point Likert scale of 1- strongly disagree to 5- strongly agree. Population size
for the research is unknown as no data was available on the precise number of
these construction professionals currently practicing in Abuja. This location was
chosen as it is well known for its high rate of construction activities owing to the
fact that it is the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria. The sample size was therefore
determined from a table developed by Louangrath (2014) that the minimum
sample size for an unknown population at 95% confidence level with 5% allowable
error is approximately 34. A total of 52 questionnaire was distributed amongst the
construction professionals in Abuja using purposive sampling techniques. The
sampling technique allowed the researcher to choose respondents from large
construction firms who are perceived to have handled large construction projects
and gotten requisite experience. A total of 39 respondents representing 75% of the
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questionnaire distributed and exceeding the determined sample size were

analyzed using descriptive statistics (mean) and results presented in tables.
RESULTS
Summary of background information of respondents
This section presents the personal details of the respondent to include; their
profession, level of education and years of experience.
Table 2: Respondents profile

Items Frequency (NO) Percentage (%)
Profession
Architects 8 20.5
Builders 9 23.1
Quantity Surveyors 14 35.9
Engineers 8 20.5
Total 39 100
Level of Education
HND 16 41.0
Bachelor’s Degree 12 30.8
Master’s Degree 9 23.1
Doctorate’s degree 2 5.1
Total 39 100
Years of Experience
0-5 years 4 10.3
6-10 years 10 25.6
11-15 years 19 48.7
16-20 years 6 15.4
20 and above 0 0
Total 39 100
Table 2 indicates that all categories of respondents represented had at least 20%
representation each with Quantity Surveyors having a higher representation of
35.9%. Architects and Engineers are having the least representation of 20.5% each.
A cumulative of 71.8% of the respondents have at least a bachelor’s degree. Table
4.2 also shows that 10.3% of the respondents had between 0-5 years of experience.
A cumulative of 89.7% of the respondents have at least 6 years of experience
working on construction projects and would therefore be able to make correct and
valid judgment.
Causes of material waste as it affects building materials
The causes of wastage for each building material were scored by respondents
based on a five Point Likert Scale of 1-stongly disagree to 5-stongly agree. Mean
values were determined and standard deviation also determined to rank the causes
that had the same mean values as shown in Table 3, 4, 5 and 6.
From Table 3, poor handling of materials was consistently agreed as the major
factor leading to wastage when using materials such as timber, concrete and
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ceramic/vitrified tiles in construction sites with a mean values of 4.46, 3.71 and 3.64
respectively.
Table 3: Causes of wastage on timber for formwork, concrete and ceramic/vitrified tiles.
Building materials
Timber for formworks Concrete Ceramic tiles
Mean Std. Mean Std. Mean

Causes of material wastage Rank Rank Rank
score Dev. score Dev. score
Poor handling of material 4.46 0.625 1st 3.74 1.117 1st 3.64 1st
Misuse of material 3.85 0.875 2nd 3.56 1.142 4th 3.62 2nd
Poor supervision of operatives 3.62 1.042 3rd 3.59 1.208 2nd 3.56 3rd
Poor storage and stacking of

3.62 1.091 4th 2.95 1.395 8th 3.13 8th
materials
Poor site organization 3.54 1.448 5th 3.44 0.821 7th 3.41 5th
Bad weather condition 3.51 1.144 6th 3.49 1.211 6th 3.36 6th
Poor time management 3.49 0.885 7th 3.56 0.912 3rd 3.26 7th
Late delivery of materials 3.41 1.208 8th 2.77 1.327 10th 2.97 9th
Poor coordination of
management and technical 3.38 0.847 9th 3.49 0.885 5th 3.46 4th
side
Delivery of excess materials
2.95 1.450 10th 2.92 1.494 9th 2.77 10th
on site
Poor time management ranked 7th in both timber and ceramic tiles with mean
values of 3.49 and 3.26 respectively, however it is agreed as a major cause of waste
in concrete material as it ranked 3rd with a mean value of 3.56. This has affirmed
the need for proper time management whenever concrete is in use especially
owing to the effect of setting time in concrete. As seen in Table 3 also, poor storage
and stacking of materials is a major cause of waste when timber materials are used
on construction sites by ranking 4th with a mean value of 3.62. The same cannot
be said for concrete and ceramic tiles as the both ranked 8th with mean values of
2.95 and 3.13 respectively.
From Table 4, poor supervision of operatives was agreed to be the major cause of
wastage in mortar and POP material with mean value of 3.85 and 3.87 respectively.
This was closely followed by poor handling of material and misuse of material in
both mortar and POP. Poor coordination of management and technical side is a
causal factor in POP than that of mortar by ranking 4th and 7th respectively.
However, poor storage and stacking of material ranked 8th and 5th in POP and
mortar respectively.
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Table 4: Causes of wastage on mortar from plastering/rendering and POP

Building materials
Mortar from Plaster of Paris
plastering/rendering (POP)
Mean Std. Mean

Causes of material wastage Rank Rank
score Dev. score
Poor supervision of operatives 3.85 1.268 1 3.87 1
Poor handling of material 3.77 0.931 2 3.72 3
Misuse of material 3.64 1.328 3 3.85 2
Bad weather condition 3.62 0.990 4 3.41 6
Poor storage and stacking of materials 3.62 1.350 5 3.18 8
Poor site organization 3.41 0.993 6 3.67 5
Poor coordination of management and technical
3.41 1.117 7 3.69 4
side
Poor time management 3.38 1.091 8 3.28 7
Late delivery of materials 3.36 1.063 9 2.85 10
Delivery of excess materials on site 3.31 1.360 10 3.08 9
Table 5: causes of wastage on sandcrete blocks and clay tiles.

Building materials
Sandcrete blocks Clay tiles
Causes of material wastage Mean Std. Rank Mean Rank

score Dev. score
Misuse of material 3.85 0.779 1 4.51 1
Poor supervision of operatives 3.72 0.999 2 3.79 2
Poor site organization 3.41 0.785 3 3.49 5
Bad weather condition 3.41 1.117 4 3.59 4
Poor handling of material 3.38 1.206 5 3.62 3
Poor storage and stacking of materials 3.36 1.347 6 3.21 8
Poor coordination of management and 3.15 0.875 7 3.28 7
technical side
Poor time management 3.05 1.191 8 3.44 6
Delivery of excess materials on site 3.05 1.450 9 2.69 10
Late delivery of materials 2.97 1.267 10 2.92 9
Table 5 shows that, misuse of material is the major cause of waste in sandcrete
block and clay tile usage with a mean value of 3.85 and 4.51 respectively. Delivery
of excess material and late delivery of material on site both ranked 9th and 10th as
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the least waste causal factors when using sandcrete blocks and clay tiles in
construction sites.
Table 6: Summary of causes of waste on various building materials.

Building materials
Cement
Plaster of
mortar from Timber for Sandcrete Ceramic Clay
Concrete Paris
plastering or formwork Blocks tiles tiles
(POP)
rendering
Causes of
material MS SD R MS SD R MS SD R MS SD R MS R MS R MS R
wastage
Poor handling
3.77 0.93 2 4.46 0.63 1 3.38 1.21 5 3.74 1.12 1 3.64 1 3.62 3 3.72 3
of material
Misuse of
3.64 1.33 3 3.85 0.88 2 3.85 0.78 1 3.56 1.14 4 3.62 2 4.51 1 3.85 2
material
Poor
supervision of 3.85 1.27 1 3.62 1.04 3 3.72 1.00 2 3.59 1.21 2 3.56 3 3.79 2 3.87 1
operatives
Poor storage
and stacking of 3.62 1.35 5 3.62 1.09 4 3.36 1.35 6 2.95 1.40 8 3.13 8 3.21 8 3.18 8
materials
Poor site
3.41 0.99 6 3.54 1.45 5 3.41 0.79 3 3.44 0.82 7 3.41 5 3.49 5 3.67 5
organization
Bad weather
3.62 0.99 4 3.51 1.14 6 3.41 1.12 4 3.49 1.21 6 3.36 6 3.59 4 3.41 6
condition
Poor time
3.38 1.09 8 3.49 0.89 7 3.05 1.19 8 3.56 0.91 3 3.26 7 3.44 6 3.28 7
management
Poor
coordination of
management 3.41 1.12 7 3.38 0.85 9 3.15 0.88 7 3.49 0.89 5 3.46 4 3.28 7 3.69 4
and technical
side
Late delivery of
3.36 1.06 9 3.41 1.21 8 2.97 1.27 10 2.77 1.33 10 2.97 9 2.92 9 2.85 10
materials
Delivery of
excess materials 3.31 1.36 10 2.95 1.45 10 3.05 1.45 9 2.92 1.49 9 2.77 10 2.69 10 3.08 9
on site
MS=Mean Score; SD=Standard deviation; R=Rank
The study reveals that poor handling of materials is the major factor that caused
material wastage when using timber for formwork, concrete and ceramic/ vitrified
tiles with mean value of 4.46, 3.74 and 3.64 respectively. Poor supervision of
operatives tops the list on plaster of Paris (POP) and mortar from
plastering/rendering having a mean values of 3.87 and 3.85 respectively. And then
misused of materials causes more wastage on clay tiles and sandcrete blocks with
mean values of 4.51 and 3.85 respectively. Late delivery of materials and delivery
of excess materials on site were ranked least amongst all the causes of wastage
assessed, irrespective of the building materials been used on site.
CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER STUDIES

The study concludes that the main causes of waste on construction sites
irrespective of the building materials in use are poor handling of materials, poor
supervision of operatives and misuse of materials. Also material handling should
be prioritize to minimize wastages arising from the use of timber for formwork,
concrete and ceramic/vitrified tiles in construction sites. Proper handling of
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Salihu, et al.
material and high level of supervision could significantly minimize the amount of
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205
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ASSESSING THE LEVEL OF AWARENESS ON THE CONCEPT

OF DESIGN FOR SAFETY (DFS) AMONGST DESIGN
PROFESSIONALS IN THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY IN
NIGERIA
Mu’awiya Abubakar1, Bello Mahmud Zailani2 and Abdulgafar Adamu3
1,2,3Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria
Designing for construction safety entails safety considerations of construction

workers and end users in the design of a project with a view to improve safety
performance in construction project delivery. Despite the apparent potential
benefits of Design for Safety (DfS) in curbing the persistent safety hazards and
accidents faced in the conduct of construction activities, little or no effort has been
made in most developing countries including Nigeria to ensure its wide adoption
and implementation. This has been argued to be largely due to the dogmatic
attitude of such developing industries towards conventional safety support systems
and mechanisms. Thus, with a view to put the argument into clearer perspective,
and also set the scene for effective DfS implementation in Nigeria, this study aimed
to assess the level of awareness and readiness of professionals towards accepting
the concept of DfS, and the possible changes that need to be made in the industry
to facilitate its implementation. A quantitative research approach was adopted
using a structured questionnaire to elicit data from randomly sampled
professionals often involved in design for construction projects in the Nigerian
construction industry. Data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistical
methods. Findings of the study showed a relatively low level of awareness on the
concept of DfS amongst industry professionals, and the need to constitute safety
training programs which will go a long way in changing the perception of the
design professionals towards safety. This will provide them with deeper insight on
the contemporary trends in safety management tools and techniques for an
improved safety performance.
Keywords: awareness, construction industry, design for safety (DfS), Nigeria,

professionals
1 muawiyaabubakar1@gmail.com, Tel. +2348067814149

2 bellomahmud34@gmail.com
3 adamuabdulgafar@gmail.com
Abubakar, Zailani and Adamu (2021) Assessing the level of awareness on the concept of Design for
Safety (DfS) amongst design professionals in the construction industry in Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and
Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August
2021, Accra, Ghana, 207-217
207
Abubakar, Zailani and Adamu
INTRODUCTION
Over the years, there has been a great concern on the need for the construction
industry around the globe to improve its safety performance in project delivery
(Awwad et al., 2016; Kheni et al., 2008; Sawacha et al., 1999; Törner & Pousette,
2009). The global construction industry has been often regarded as a dangerous
industry which holds a bad reputation among other industries for its high fatalities
and injuries (Fang et al., 2004; Williams et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2013). According
to International Labour Organisation (ILO, 2005), one in six fatal accidents at work
occur on a construction site, and that no less than 60,000 fatal accidents occur on
construction sites around the world every year. This Poor safety performance
recorded in the construction industry as compared to other industries has been
often attributed to certain factors such as the fragmented and complex
environment on construction sites, difficulties in managing risk on an ever-
changing site, and the multifaceted networks of members on the project team,
each with their own goals and objectives (Abubakar et al., 2020; Leung et al., 2010;
Sawacha et al., 1999).
Furthermore, inadequate safety consideration in design has also been highlighted
to be the major source of safety hazards and accidents (Behm, 2005) as it is widely
believed that design forms the blueprint of all construction activities. The design
defines the configuration and components of a facility and thereby influences, to
a large extent, how the project will be constructed and the consequent safety
hazards (Gambatese, 2000; Jeelani et al., 2017). Several studies around the globe
support this argument with glaring numbers. Notably, Behm, (2005) noted that the
lack of planning and design decisions in the construction industry in Australia was
found to have influenced 63% of fatalities, whereas 42% of construction fatalities
in the United States could be linked to inadequate safety consideration in design.
These numbers show an urgent need to address the safety challenges in the design
of construction projects.
The notion that the safety of construction activities can be increased through better
design is both intuitively appealing and supported by research indicating that
better planning, scheduling, and design could reduce hazards on construction
worksites (Atkinson & Westall, 2010). Design for construction safety as an
intervention is supported by the hierarchy of controls common to the safety and
health professions which identifies designing to eliminate or avoid hazards as the
preferable means for reducing risk (Manuele, 1997). The concept involves the
practice of anticipating and “designing out” potential occupational safety and
health hazards and risks associated with new processes, structures, equipment, or
tools, and organizing work, such that it takes into consideration the construction,
maintenance, decommissioning, and disposal/recycling of waste material, and
recognizing the business and social benefits of doing so. It involves eliminating the
need to control safety hazards and risks during work operations (Korman, 2013).
Although the design community has not come very far in terms of implementing
safety-in-design, recognition of and interest in design for safety across the
construction industries in world is growing. Several regulatory bodies across the
globe such as American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the United Kingdom’s
Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDMR), as well as the South
208
African Construction Regulations (SACR), are starting to set strict policies to ensure
safety considerations in design. However, little or no effort has been made in most
developing countries including Nigeria to ensure the wide practice of safety
considerations in design (Kolo, 2015; Okeola, 2009). This begs the question on the
viability of DfS practice in the construction industry in Nigeria, as implementation
can only be achieved when the viability of the concept has been ascertained. In this
regard, this study set out to serve as a footing for effective DfS implementation by
assessing the awareness and readiness of professionals towards accepting the
concept, and the changes that need to be made in the industry to facilitate its
implementation.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Safety issues in the construction industry
The global construction industry has remarkably evolved over the years, with
significant stake in economic development through infrastructure projects (Okeola,
2009; Oladinrin et al., 2012). Despite this stride, issues regarding operational safety
still plagues the industry. This according to Abdul Hamid, Abd Majid, and Singh
(2008) is largely due to the fact that safety performance is given less priority
amongst other performance measures such as time, cost and quality. Trinh and
Feng (2020) opined that ensuring safety in construction might seem a challenging
task due to diversity, complexity, and extensive scope of works involved in the
industry. A survey conducted by the Centre to Protect Worker’s Rights (CPWR)
showed that just a few industries across the globe recorded a higher rate of
occupational injuries and fatalities than the construction industry in 2005.
Regardless, Ayomoh and Oke (2006) argued that setting up of an effective safety
system poses to prevent or minimize the occurrences of accidents and hazards that
threaten work operations. Previous works have provided evidence that safety
hazards can be controlled, and accidents can be prevented through the
implementation of basic safety practices leading to a sound safety program
(Abubakar et al., 2020; Albert et al., 2017; Hallowell et al., 2013; Sawacha et al.,
1999).
Safety dynamics in the Nigerian construction industry
Despite the socio-economic benefits derived from the construction industry in
Nigeria (Isa et al., 2013; Oladinrin et al., 2012), the safety dynamics in the industry
has been deplorable (Agbede et al., 2016). The construction industry employing
the largest labour force in developing countries such as Nigeria has been noted to
account for a relatively high number of all occupational injuries and fatalities
resulting from accidents on work sites (Arumugam & Thirumurthy, 2007). Adeogun
and Okafor (2013) observed that the industry consistently lags behind in the
adoption and implementation of contemporary safety practices that pose the
potential of yielding positive benefits. Evidently, there are evidences of safety
legislations and policies that guide the execution of construction activities in
Nigeria. Regardless, Diugwu et al. (2012) observed that there is a very low
compliance to the stated safety laws and regulations in the country. Idoro (2004)
also linked the country’s poor safety status to lack of concern, lack of accurate
records and poor statutory regulations.
209
However, Adeyemo & Smallwood (2017) argued that an improvement in

legislation, and the adoption of novel practices has the potential of mitigating the
occurrences of accidents and injuries on construction sites. The study posits that
there should be new safety paradigm that would meet the present-day
construction hazard through the enforcement of safety legislation, and the
adoption of contemporary and sustainable safety practices. An innovative
approach to the management of safety challenges in the construction industry is
therefore required, which needs to be specific, monitored and enforced.
Design for construction safety

The concept of design for safety can be traced far back to the 1800s manifesting
through safer designing and implementation of guards for machinery; and
subsequently ergonomic design of workstations (Schulte et al., 2008). However,
Behm (2005) noted that it wasn’t until the year 1985 that the International Labour
Organization (ILO) proposed the idea that designers should be enforced to
consider safety issues in their respective designs. Design for construction safety
entails procedures in which the safety and health of construction workers are
clearly taken into account by designers during the design process. Taiebat and Ku
(2011) consider it as a design method which takes into account the cost, schedule
and quality goals of a project while still considering safety issues. Overall, it can be
regarded as the practice of anticipating and “designing out” potential occupational
safety and health hazards and risks associated with new processes, structures,
equipment, or tools, and organizing work, such that it takes into consideration the
construction, maintenance, decommissioning, and disposal/recycling of waste
material, and recognizing the business and social benefits of doing so.
There are evidences that academic efforts in previous years have significantly
changed the safety practices in several construction environments. Many European
Union (EU) countries have structured legislation with regards design for safety.
Aires et al. (2010) studied the effect of such legislations on the safety performance
of respective construction environments. It was observed that within a span of a
decade, countries have experienced averagely 10% reductions in work place
accident rates. Relatedly, a study conducted in the UK indicated that safety
considerations in design has the potential to significantly reduce the risk associated
with design in construction accidents (Haslam et al., 2005).
Overall, Manuele (2008) argued that one of the best ways to prevent and control
occupational injuries, illnesses, and fatalities is to "design out" or minimize hazards
and risks early in the design process. Thus, it becomes paramount to adopt apt
consideration of safety issues right from the design and planning stage of
construction projects considering the fretting safety challenges plaguing the
construction industry in Nigeria and the broader global context towards an
improved performance as opined by (Farooqui et al., 2008).
METHODOLOGY
The quantitative methodological approach for research was adopted to achieve the
aim of the study which was focused on assessing the level of awareness of
construction designers in Nigeria on the concept of design for safety. A two-section
questionnaire was designed to elicit data from industry professionals often
210
involved in construction related designs as respondents to the study. The reason

for selecting this research instrument is because it allows the researcher to specify
a measurement procedure in detail in order to define the quantity of a variable
(Lavrakas, 2008). The first section of the questionnaire inquired about the
demographic nature of the respondent, while the second section inquired about
the respondent’s level of awareness on the concept of DfS, and prior safety
trainings in that regard. The respondents were sampled from the broad population
of design professionals (Architectural, Structural, and Mechanical) in the Nigerian
built environment, which at the time of collecting the data for this study there were
49, 842 registered design professionals in Nigeria drawn from the databases of
regulatory bodies in respective professions. Subsequently, the formula derived by
Anguila and Gonzalez-ramirez (2013) was used to determine the sample size
methodically resulting in a sample size of 138. However, only 131 valid responses
were gotten and analyzed using descriptive statistical techniques.
𝒁²∗(𝒑)∗(1−𝒑)
SS = 𝒄²
Where; SS = Sample Size
Z = Confidence Level
P = Estimated variation of population
C = Standard error
1.96²∗(0.1)∗(1−0.1)
= 138
0.05²
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Characteristics of respondents
Characteristic nature of the respondents and the nature of work they were involved
in was enquired to define the context of the study findings. Table 1 present the
professional background, years of experience and nature of work engaged by the
respondents respectively. A large percent of respondents in the study had
Architectural and Civil engineering background, which accounted for forty-eight
percent (48%) and forty-one percent (41%) respectively. Electrical engineers
constituted eight percent (8%) of the respondents, while only three percent (3%)
of the respondents were Mechanical Engineers. With regards to the years of
experience of the respondents, majority had professional experience ranging from
6-10 years which constituted forty-percent (42%) of the total respondents, while
thirty-eight percent (38%) had professional experience spanning less than five (5)
years. Years of experience ranging from 11-15 years, and 16-20 years represented
eight percent (8%) of the respondents respectively, while respondents having over
twenty (20) years of experience representing four percent (4%) of the study
population. This shows a relative involvement of a wide spectrum of experienced
professionals in the study which broadens the perspective and context of the study
findings.
211
Table 1: Professional background

Professional Background Years of Experience
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Architect 63 48 0 – 5 years 50 38
Civil/ Structural
54 41 6-10 years 55 42
engineer
Mechanical
4 03 11-15 years 11 08
engineer
Electrical
10 08 16-20 years 10 08
engineer
Total 131 100 21-25 years 3 02
Nature of Job
Frequency Percentage
Building works 70 53
Civil works 10 08
Building and
51 39
Civil works
Total 131 100
More so, Bamisile (2004) noted that construction activities are often broadly
categorized into building works and civil works. Building works involves the
construction of general building infrastructure that include residential, schools and
hospitals etc. whereas, civil works involves broad civil engineering works that span
across large construction projects that include dams, bridges, roads etc. The
classification of respondents in this study shows that majority of them were
engaged in only Building works representing fifty-three percent (53%), while eight
percent (8%) were engaged in only Civil works. Thirty-nine percent (39%) of the
respondents were engaged in both Building and Civil works. This result gives an
insight on the dynamic involvement of the respondents in the construction
industry, which may influence their overall awareness on the study construct.
Awareness on the concept of Design for Safety

Questions regarding the level of awareness on the concept of Design for safety
were asked, and the subsequent sections provides the key findings of the study.
Respondents were asked whether they had any prior knowledge on the concept of
Design for Safety from their dynamic engagements in the construction industry.,
and Figure 1 highlights their respective responses.
Figure 1: Prior knowledge on Design for Safety
212
Although a large majority of the respondents representing 84% reported having

prior knowledge on the concept, findings presented in Figure 2 show that majority
of these respondent only became aware of the concept in recent years with 53%
percent learning about it in the last 5 years.
Figure 2: First Learnt about the concept
Basaga et al. (2018) observed that safety training is a fundamental tool used across
industries in shaping the safety perception of individuals involved in diverse job
tasks. Workers previously engaged in safety training often have more awareness
on various safety tools and techniques, and are reported to apply these tools and
techniques in the execution of their professional duties. Based on this assertion,
respondents were asked on whether they have been involved in a safety training
programme. As shown in figure 3, it was observed that only 44% of the respondents
had prior safety training, with a large majority representing 61% reporting not ever
been engaged in a safety training programme over the course of their respective
professional careers.
Figure 3: Prior engagement in a safety training programme
Relatedly, when asked about the perceived level of understanding on the concept
of design for safety in construction, a large percentage of the respondents
representing 43% and 24% responded having a relatively good and fair
understanding of the concept respectively. Only 16.8% of the respondents believe
they have a very good grasp of the concepts, and its application in the construction
industry, with just below 12% reporting poor understanding of the concept.
Figure 4: Perceived Level of understanding on Design for Safety
213
More so, the level of significance attached to safety considerations across distinct
design professionals in the industry was assessed. Although the fundamental
considerations in the design of building infrastructure are functionality and
aesthetics (Best & Valence, 2007), 96.15% of the respondents in this study noted
the high significance of safety considerations in the design of functional and
aesthetical structures. However, only 71.7% of the civil engineering designers often
involved in the design of structural elements of infrastructure developments regard
so much importance in considering safety in design, with 7.55% feeling its fairly
important. Whereas, 100% of the services engineers reported regarding safety in
design as very important. This could be attributed the fact that failure in safe
execution of such designs often result in high-risk safety hazards (Greenwald,
1991).
Table 2: Importance of Design for Safety

Extent of importance you attach to considering the safety of
construction in design stage
Profession Very important Important Fairly important
% % %
Architects 96.15 3.85 0
Civil/ Structural engineers 71.70 20.75 7.55
Mechanical engineers 100 0 0
Electrical engineers 100 0 0
DISCUSSION
This study adds to the exiting body of knowledge in the area of assessing the
viability of diverse and novel safety management tools and techniques that have
the potential of curbing the incessant safety challenges facing the global
construction industry at large. Although the evolution of the design for safety
concept can be traced far back to the 1800s (Schulte et al., 2008), findings of this
study showed that most of the design professional only became aware on the
concept of Design for Safety in the last few years. This presents additional evidence
on the dogmatic attitude of the construction industry in Nigeria towards
conventional safety methods, and the nonchalance towards the promotion and
adoption of conventional methods. Despite being a party to the Geneva
Occupational Safety and Health Convention 1981, the construction industry in
Nigeria continues to lag behind in the implementation contemporary safety
practices (Adeogun and Okafor, 2013) towards improving the safety performance
of the industry.
More so, as largely seen in various developing countries (Awwad et al., 2016; Kheni
et al., 2008), a handful of the design professionals in the Nigerian built environment
have had no prior safety training. This as argued by Basaga et al. (2018) has the
potential to limit their awareness and understanding of novel safety management
tools and techniques, which manifest in their abysmal safety performance.
Furthermore, it could be seen from the study findings the majority of the design
professionals in Nigeria do attach significance importance to safety considerations
in design. However, it was observed that fraction of the civil engineers fail to regard
safety consideration in design as a fundamental professional practice despite its
214
severe consequences. Similar nonchalant attitude of professionals towards safety

in the construction industry could argued to be a major contributor to the
continuous building collapse in the country largely due to structural failure. This
attitude amongst professionals as argued by Idoro (2004) as a manifestation of lack
in safety regulation in the Nigerian construction industry which could promote
sustainable safety practices.
CONCLUSION
This study assessed the level of awareness on the concept of design for safety
amongst design professionals in the Nigerian built environment with a view to
improve their overall safety performance. This became paramount considering the
fretting data on construction accidents and fatalities in countries like Nigeria with
little or no safety regulations, and the assertions from broad safety management
literature on the significant value in taking safety measures right from the design
and planning stages of construction activities. Based on the findings of the study,
it is recommended that the enforcement of safety regulations be improved, and
safety training Programs be constituted that will mandate design professionals to
actively engage in safety practices. This will go a long way in changing the
perception of the design professionals, especially the civil/structural engineers
towards safety, and provide them with deeper insight on the trends in safety
management tools and techniques for an improved performance.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR

OUTSOURCING OF FACILITIES MANAGEMENT SERVICES IN
THE PUBLIC HOSPITALS WITHIN KADUNA METROPOLIS
Aliyu Suleiman Shika1, Mohammed Mustapha Saad2 and Abdullahi Getso Ibrahim3
1,2,3Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria-
Nigeria
Outsourcing is an increasingly popular strategy that healthcare organizations can

use to control the rising costs of providing services. With outsourcing, an external
contractor assumes responsibility for managing one or more of a healthcare
organization’s business, clinical, or hospitality services. Nigeria’s public hospitals
are not adequately equipped with the necessary best practice mechanisms to guide
them in making right decisions regarding outsourcing of services while taking into
consideration the likely risks that may be associated with such outsourcing
transactions. This study assesses the factors responsible for outsourcing of Facilities
Management Services in Public Hospitals within Kaduna Metropolis. The research
was designed to assess the non-core facility management services outsourced in
the selected hospitals. The population of the study were public hospitals within
Kaduna metropolis. Convenience sampling technique was used in selecting the
hospitals assessed. Data was collected using a well-structured questionnaires
distributed to respondents. Descriptive statistics were utilized and data obtained
was analysed with the aid of SPSS version 16. Results obtained from the analysis
shows that though facility management services are outsourced in the assessed
hospitals but it is as low as 29.63% while 62.965% of the services are being provided
in-house and 7.41% are not rendered. Kaduna State Ministry of Health is
encouraged to outsource more of the non-core services provided in-house in order
to enable the state owned public hospitals focus more on their core services
thereby improving their performance standard.
Keywords: assessment, facilities management services, hospitals, outsourcing,

performance
INTRODUCTION
Outsourcing is a procurement option that involves the “contracting-out” of services
that were previously performed in-house to an external service provider as a means
of increasing organisational efficiency and effectiveness (Monczeka,
Carter,Markham, Blascovich & Slaight 2005). It is a strategy that many public sector
1 asshika1@gmail.com; Tel: +2348100244837

2 saadmustyfresh8@gmail.com
3 getsomsc12012@gmail.com
Shika, Saad and Ibrahim (2021) Assessment of factors responsible for outsourcing of facilities
management services in the public hospitals within Kaduna metropolis In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E.
(Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra,
Ghana, 219-233
219
Shika, Saad and Ibrahim
agencies are embracing as a way of improving value for money in providing public
services. Outsourcing describes the use of external resources to execute
operational tasks (Weiner & Seuring 2009). In other words, it is transfer of various
elements of work previously carried out within the company to another third party
company. This process allows focusing on top and main functions of the company,
adapting to new technologies, improving the reliability and market reputation and
significantly reducing production costs (Weiner & Seuring 2009).
Health sector are of the view that public health care institutions are turning to
outsourcing in an effort to maintain high standard of care and reduce cost of health
provision while addressing economic realities (Ikediashi, 2015). This study noted
that even though outsourcing is one of the most researched areas in management
studies, its impact on facilities management services provision in public hospital
setting of a developing economy like Nigeria is largely unclear (Ikediashi, 2015).
While the strategic importance of out-sourcing is generally recognized, little is
understood about its practice. The decision matrix of strategic sourcing presented
in this paper provides a useful management tool for selecting the appropriate
sourcing strategy. In addition, the ensuing discussion on the implementation
process offers insights into the strategic and operational issues related to put
specific sourcing strategies into practice Ancarani & Capaldo (2011), this therefore
emphasises the need for this research which is to make facilities management s
services delivery sustainable in our hospitals. In specific terms, this study proposes
to address this by first identifying the drivers of outsourcing and then conduct an
empirical survey of facilities management services being outsourced in the
hospitals.
There are so many hospitals in Nigeria cutting across public and private. It is not
possible considering all the limitations outlined above to cover all the hospitals.
This explains why the research focuses on public state hospitals who in any case,
even though make up 65% of the nation’s hospitals (Ademiluyi & Aluko-Arowolo,
2009) but have a controlling share of approximately 92% of patient population in
Nigeria’s hospitals. However the homogeneity of the structure and running of
public hospitals in Nigeria means that the outcome of this research can be
generalised to all public state owned hospitals in Kaduna state. This research is
aimed at assessing the factors responsible for outsourcing of facilities
management services in the public hospitals within Kaduna metropolis. The
objectives are to identify the factors influencing decision to outsource facilities
management services in the hospitals, examine the facilities management services
being outsourced in the hospitals and assess the quality of outsourced services in
public hospitals
LITERATURE REVIEW
Facilities management
Facilities management as an evolving profession has been described by Yiu (2008)
as one faced with a serious identity crisis. This is because there seem to be no
consensus yet on what could be regarded as a clear and acceptable definition of
facilities management. Instead, many of the definitions provided by authors shows
widespread variance on the understanding of what facilities management is, how
it operates and to what extent it offers sustainable opportunities for businesses
220
(Noor & Pitt, 2009). A few of the definitions commonly cited in the FM literature is
as follows:
According to Becker (1990), “FM is responsible for co-ordinating all efforts relating
to planning, designing and managing buildings and their systems, equipment and
furniture to enhance the organization’s ability to compete successfully in a rapidly
changing world.” On its own part, IFMA (2007) defines facilities management as
“The practice of coordinating the workplace with the people and work process of
the organisation; integrating the principle of business administration and the
behavioural and engineering sciences.”
Facilities management services
According to Price (2006): “The facility management (FM) industry can be broadly
divided into three categories: facility managers, specialist consultants and service
providers. Facility managers are responsible for particular facilities either for one
organization or on behalf of a number of organizations and function largely at a
strategic level. Specialist consultants provide targeted expertise in areas as diverse
as architectural, structural, fit-out, services and landscape design, cost
management, project management, environmental assessment, due diligence,
energy planning and dispute resolution, and function largely at a tactical level.
Service providers include cleaning contractors, insurers, furniture suppliers,
security, construction, catering, fleet management and a range of other support
services, and function largely at an operational level.” The description above could
be further aligned into 11 competencies put forward by the International Facilities
Management Association. According to IFMA (2011), they are communications,
quality management, technology, operations and maintenance, human factors and
finance and business. Others include emergency planning and business continuity,
leadership and strategy, real estate and property management, project
management, environmental stewardship and sustainability.
Outsourcing strategies in facilities management
According to Ikediashi and Mbamali (2014) Outsourcing has been variously defined
by researchers as the procurement option that favours ‘contracting out ’of services
previously performed in-house to an external service provider as a means of
increasing organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Their study further portray
that outsourcing involves a legal relationship between an organization and an
external provider for the purpose of contracting out services which were previously
performed by in-house staff. Accordingly, Ancarani & Capaldo (2011) states the
several strategies available for Facilities Management. These options include:
In-house:
This is where a service is provided by a dedicated resource directly employed by
the organisation even though the monitoring and control of performance is
conducted under the terms of conventional employer/employee relationship.
Outsourcing:
This is where a service is commissioned from an external supply organisation
usually under the terms of a formal contractual arrangement based upon terms
and conditions derived from a service level agreement.
221
Public private partnership (PPP):

A form of partnership or strategic alliance is formed between the organisation and
service provider based on a sharing of the responsibility for the delivery and
performance of the service, including the sharing of the profits.
Total facilities management (TFM):
Here a whole range of services are bundled together and externalized to a single
supplier which becomes totally responsible for the delivery, monitoring, control
and attainment of stated performance objectives in the contract.
According to Kurdia et al, (2011), most buildings nowadays are still practicing
conventional management which includes a small organization or team in one
department. They only pay attention towards the performance of the facilities and
services of the building such as the maintenance department where they make sure
all the equipment and services is functioning all the time. Facilities management
can be used to help businesses maximize returns on investment and establish long
term competitive advantages in the marketplace. It is necessary for business to
achieve maximum output from their facilities in order to reduce building life-cycle
costs and maximize profits. The traditional approach to outsourcing cannot be the
best sourcing strategy under all circumstances. Out-tasking is an alternative option
that may be more appropriate in specific situations. This latter approach is widely
practiced in information technology and facilities management. While the strategic
importance of out-tasking is generally recognized, little is understood about
its practice. The decision matrix of strategic sourcing presented in this paper
provides a useful management tool for selecting the appropriate sourcing
strategy. In addition, the ensuing discussion on the implementation process offers
insights into the strategic and operational issues related to put specific sourcing
strategies into practice (Encon, Albert, 2004)
FM Services in hospitals management

Within the context of hospital management, FM has continued to live by its
definition of creating the right enabling environment that supports the core
mandate of rendering clinical and medical diagnostic services; which is why Shohet
and Lavy (2004) considered healthcare FM as one of the key elements for the
successful delivery of healthcare services. Essentially, one can contend that FM adds
value to hospital through achievement of zero defects in the hospital’s physical
operations, especially in very delicate areas where very minute problems can have
huge and devastating consequences and could be a matter of life and death. Other
areas of benefit of FM services to healthcare delivery in hospitals include
management of infrastructure facilities such as estate and property, indoor air,
structure and fabric, water supply, electricity and telecommunication management
referred to as hard FM; and catering, cleaning, waste management, security and
laundry services described as soft FM (Liyanage and Egbu, 2008).
The research was conducted through administering of questionnaires and review
of literature. The literature review was carried out through the use of books and
journals to source for information on the subject matter. The targeted populations
for this research were heads of works, directors of finance, heads of procurements,
222
directors of administration, hospital secretaries, medical directors and a chief

medical director of state owned hospitals within Kaduna metropolis. The
participants were selected through convenience sampling technique.
The total population for the study are thirty six (36) heads of various units in the
assessed hospitals. According to (Rose 2015) an element can be selected from
target population because of its convenience to researcher and its time and costs
saving. In respect to these samples for this research were collected from the six
state owned hospitals within Kaduna metropolis. In selecting each of the six (6)
assessed hospitals, convenience sampling technique was used in selecting the
respondents in the selected hospitals because it is convenience to researcher and
its time and costs saving.
A well-structured questionnaire was designed with sections: A, B, C, D and E

respectively and self-administered to heads of departments in the selected state
owned hospitals within Kaduna metropolis. In analyzing the data for this study,
descriptive statistics was used through the use of descriptive statistics with the aid
of SPSS version 16. Results were presented by the use of Percentage Tool/Method,
some of the questions in the questionnaire involve assessing some of the indices
on a five (5) Likert’s scale. That is Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, and Strongly
Agree and also Poor, Fair, Average, Good and Excellent.
The research question for this study therefore is: Why are public hospitals deciding
to outsource facilities management services?
In order to address this question, the study addresses the following questions
raised by the study:
1. What are the factors that influence the decision to outsource facilities
management services?
2. What are the facilities management services being outsourced by the public
hospitals?
3. What is the perception of users on the quality of services rendered by vendors
in the hospitals?
Reliability and validity
Reliability according to Easterby-Smith et al. (2008) is the extent to which the data
collection and analytical techniques yield consistent findings. Alpha values greater
than 0.7 are regarded as sufficient (Pallant, 2004; Chan, 2005). To demonstrate the
reliability of scales for ranking outsourcing decision, Cronbach’s coefficient was
used to examine the internal consistency of the scales. All the values were above
the 0.7 threshold (see table below) indicating the scale for this study are reliable.
Reliability statistics result

Item description Cronbach’s alpha Number of items
Outsourcing decision factors 0.780 31
223
DATA PRESENTATION AND DICUSSION

Table 1: The Respondents’ position in the organization
Percentages of
S/No Position Responses (No)
Responses (%)
1. Chief Medical Director 1 3.13
2. Medical Director 4 12.50
3. Head of Administration 5 15.63
4. Head of Finance 6 18.75
5. Head of Works 5 15.63
6. Head of Procurement 5 15.63
7. Hospital Secretary 6 18.75
E TOTAL 32 100
Table 1 shows that 3.13% of the respondents held the position of a Chief Medical
Director, 12.50% were Medical Directors, Head of Administrations, Heads of Works
and Heads of procurements covered 15.63% each while Heads of Finance and
Hospital Secretary positions held 18.75% each.
Table 2: Respondents’ professional affiliation

S/No Profession Responses (No) Percentages of Responses (%)
Medical Consultant
1. 1 3.13
Medical and Dental Council
2. 4 12.50
of Nigeria
5 15.63
Public Administrator
3. 4 12.50
Accountant
4. 2 6.25
Business and finance
5. 4 12.50
Quantity Surveyor
6. 1 3.13
Purchasing and Supply
7. 2 6.25
Builder
8. 3 9.38
Civil Engineer
9. 6 18.75
Office Management
10. 32 100
TOTAL
Table 2 shows that 3.13% of the profession of the respondents was a Medical
Consultant, 12.50% were registered with Medical and Dental Council of Nigeria,
15.63% were Public Administrators, 12.50, 6.25% and 12.50% were Accountants,
Business Finance and Quantity Surveyors respectively. 3.13% had Purchasing and
Supply. 6.25% of the respondents were Builders while 9.38% were also Civil
Engineers. 18.75% were Office Managers.
Table 4.3: Respondents’ academic qualification

Percentages of
S/No Qualification Responses (No)
Responses (%)
Higher National Diploma 8 25
1.
Bachelor of Science 11 34.37
2.
Masters of Science 9 28.13
3.
Doctorate Degree 1 3.13
4.
Postgraduate Diploma 3 9.38
5.
TOTAL 32 100
Table 4.3 reveals that 25% of the respondents have Higher National Diploma,
34.37% have Bachelor of Science, 28.13% had Masters of Science, 3.13% had
Doctorate Degree while 9.38% had Postgraduate Diploma.
224
Table 4.4: Respondents’ years in service

Percentages of
S/No Years in Service Responses (No)
Responses (%)
1. 1- 5 Years 4 12.5
2. 6-10 Years 14 43.75
3. 11-20 Years 90 28.13
4. 21-30 Years 5 15.63
5. TOTAL 32 100
Table 4.4 shows the respondents ’number of years in service. 12.5% are within 1-
5 years in service, 43.75% are within 6-10 years in service, 28.13% are within 11-
20 years in service while 15.63% are within 21-30 years in service.
Hospital Characteristics
This section was designed to inquire from the respondents, specific information
about the ownership structure of the hospital they work. It also enquires about the
category of the hospital as well as the kind of contractual arrangement the
managements have with vendors. The results of the analysis are tabulated in table
4.5, 4.6 and 4.7 as shown below:
Table 4.5: Ownership structure of hospital

Percentages of
S/No Ownership Structure Responses (No)
Responses (%)
1. State 32 100
TOTAL 32 100
Table 4.5 shows that 100% of the respondents work in State owned hospitals.
Table 4.6: Categorization of hospital

Percentages of
S/No Category Responses (No)
Responses (%)
1. Tertiary/ Teaching Hospital 1 3.13
2. Secondary/ General Hospital 31 96.88
TOTAL 32 100
Table 4.6 shows the categories of hospitals the respondents work. 3.13% of the
respondents work in Tertiary/ Teaching Hospital while 96.88% work in Secondary/
General Hospitals.
Table 4.7: Contractual arrangements with vendors

Percentages of
S/No Category Responses (No)
Responses (%)
1. Managing Contractor 31 96.88
2. Solely Government Funding 1 3.13
TOTAL 32 100
Table 4.7 shows the contractual arrangement of the hospital managements and
vendors. It shows that 96.88% arrangements are with Managing Contractors while
3.13% was solely government funding.
225
Table 4.8: Factors influencing decision to outsource FM services in table

Standard
Outsourcing Decision factors Response
Sum Mean Deviation Ranking
1 2 3 4 5
Cost Related Factors
To make cost transparent 1 5 26 153 4.80 4.80 3rd
To reduce investments in assets 4 12 16 140 4.38 4.43 5th
To reduce invested capital funds in
4 28 156 4.88 4.88 1st
non-core functions
To access vendor’s cost efficient
2 12 18 142 4.44 4.54 4th
system.
To achieve cost reduction with
4 28 156 4.88 4.88 1st
enhanced performance of services
To focus on core competencies 3 29 157 4.91 4.91 2nd
To improve on strategic positioning. 6 2 24 146 4.60 4.63 6th
To increase flexibility 2 30 158 4.94 4.94 1st
To multiply sourcing in case of
6 12 14 136 4.25 4.32 7th
uncertainties
To handle varying demand more
12 6 14 130 4.10 4.16 8th
effectively
Restricted by insufficiency in own
20 4 8 116 3.63 3.72 10th
resources
To compare performance of in-house
15 10 8 125 3.91 3.87 9th
staff with vendor’s workers
To play along with the trend in
2 30 156 4.88 4.89 3rd
privatization
To share risks 5 27 155 4.84 4.85 5th
To limit size of staff 4 28 156 4.88 4.89 4th
Innovation Related Factors
To gain access to new products,
2 5 25 151 4.72 4.75 4th
services and technologies
To obtain skills, expertise and ideas 5 27 155 4.84 4.86 3rd
To obtain technologies not available
2 30 170 5.31 4.94 1st
in-house
To stimulate innovation among
2 10 20 146 4.60 4.60 5th
personnel
To permit quicker response to new
4 28 156 4.88 4.89 2nd
needs
Quality Related Factors
To improve performance standard 2 30 158 4.94 4.94 1st
To improve quality of service to users 4 28 156 4.88 4.89 2nd
To improve mutual trust between
11 3 18 135 4.22 4.32 3rd
hospital and customers
Time Related Factors
To improve timely delivery of service 2 30 158 4.94 4.94 1st
There’s not enough time to acquire
6 5 21 143 4.47 4.54 3rd
tools and techniques in-house
To improve process responsiveness
4 28 156 4.88 4.89 2nd
and cycle times
Service to Community
To improve on stakeholders’
4 28 156 4.88 4.89 1st
satisfaction
To improve customer relation 7 25 153 4.78 4.79 3rd
To improve labour relations 6 26 154 4.81 4.83 2nd
To improve on corporate social
2 10 20 146 4.60 4.60 5th
responsibility of the hospital
To create jobs for local communities 12 20 148 4.63 4.65 4th
226
Table 4.8 listed out the factors such as cost, strategy, innovation, quality, and time
related factors as well as service to community influence the decision to outsource
FM Services in the assessed hospitals using a five (5) point Likert scale of
1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree, 3=Average, 4=Agree, 5= Strongly agree..
From the table, the highest ranked cost related factor is to reduce invested capital
funds in non- core functions and to achieve cost reduction with enhanced
performance of service both having the standard deviation of 4.88. The lowest
ranked have the standard deviation of 4.43 which factor is to reduce investment in
assets.
For strategy related factor, improving on strategic positioning is the highest rank
with a standard deviation of 4.94 followed by focus on core competencies with
the standard deviation of 4.91. The lowest ranked factor have a standard deviation
of 3.72 which is restricted by insufficiency in own resource. Innovative related factor
have the highest ranked factor with a standard deviation of 4.94 which is to obtain
technologies not available in-house. The lowest rank under this factor is to
stimulate innovation among personnel having a standard deviation of 4.60.
Quality related factor have the highest ranked standard deviation of 4.94 which is
to improve performance standard. The 2nd ranked have the standard deviation of
4.89 which is to improve quality of service to users. The 3rd ranked factor is to
improve mutual trust between hospital and customers with a standard deviation of
4.32.
To improve timely delivery of service is the highest ranked with 4.94 as standard
deviation in time related factor. The lowest ranked is no enough time to acquire
tools and techniques in-house with standard deviation of 4.89.
Service to community factors have the highest ranked with standard deviation 4.89
which is to improve stakeholders satisfaction. To improve social cooperate
responsibility is the lowest ranked with a standard deviation of 4.60.
Table 4.9: Facilities management services being outsourced in table

Outsource In- House Not Applicable
Facilities Management Services
(%) (%) (%)
Real Estate/ Property Management
Real estate/property portfolio management 6.25 93.75 0
Leasing and sub-letting services 0 75 25
Retail outlets and space renting 21.88 78.12 0
Extension and alterations 87.50 12.50 0
Demolitions 88 22 0
Maintenance and Repairs
Facility refurbishment 87.50 12.50 0
Plant maintenance and repairs 21.88 78.12 0
General cleaning services 6.25 93.75 0
Waste disposal and environmental management 6.25 93.75 0
Health and safety management 15.60 84.40 0
Landscaping maintenance 21.88 78.12 0
Administration Management and Office Services
Security 12.50 87.50 0
Courier services 93.75 0 6.25
Storage and distribution of medical supplies 6.25 93.75 0
227
Table 4.9 Contd.: Facilities management services being outsourced in table

Reception and telephone operator 0 78.13 21.87
Public relation/liaison services 0 93.75 6.25
Travel arrangements 78.13 21.87 0
Car park maintenance 6.25 93.75 0
Purchasing and contract control and negotiation 78.13 0 6.25
Office furniture and stationary provision 93.75 6.25 0
Human resource management 0 100 0
Employee Support Services
Child nursery administration 0 18.75 81.25
Recreations 0 93.75 6.25
Catering/Restroom management 87.50 12.50 0
Residential accommodation 6.25 93.75 0
Community affairs 0 93.75 6.25
Management of employees with special 0 87.50 12.50
Table 4.9 shows the outsourced FM services in based the respondents response
are: extension and alteration with 87.5%, demolition 88%, facility refurbishment
87.5%. Courier service 93.75%, travel arrangement and Purchasing and contract
control and negotiation with 78.13% respectively. Office furniture and stationary
provision 93.75% while Catering/Restroom management had 87.50%.
Table 4.10 analyses the quality of the outsourced FM services in the assessed
hospitals using a five (5) point Likert scale of 1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree,
3=Average, 4=Agree, 5= Strongly agree.
Quality of outsourced FM services in the hospitals assessed, facility refurbishment
and attitude of personnel have competence as highest ranked with standard
deviation of 4.74, the lowest ranked quality factor here has a standard deviation of
4.12 which is responsiveness
For contract control and negotiation services, the highest ranked quality factor is
competence with a standard deviation of 4.79 while the lowest ranked have a
standard deviation of 4.49 which is attitude and courtesy of personnel.
Extension, demolition and alteration services have attitude and courtesy of
personnel as the highest ranked quality factor with a standard deviation of 4.79,
the lowest ranked factor here is 4.49 which is responsiveness.
Travel arrangement services have the highest ranked quality as competence with
the standard deviation of 4.62 and lowest ranked factor as reliability and
responsiveness with standard deviation of 4.27 respectively.
Catering services have the highest ranked factor as competence having the
standard deviation of 4.79 and the lowest factor have standard deviation of 4.37
which is reliability.
228
Table 4.10: Quality of outsourced services in public hospitals
Standard
Facilities management services Response
Sum Mean Deviation Ranking
1 2 3 4 5
Facility Refurbishment Services and their personnel
Attitude and courtesy of personnel 4 18 10 134 4.19 4.24 3rd
Reliability(dependable and accurate
3 9 20 145 4.53 4.58 2nd
service)
Responsiveness (provision of prompt
2 25 5 131 4.10 4.12 4th
service)
Competence(possession of requisite
skill)
4 2 26 150 4.69 4.74 1st
Control and Negotiation Services
and their Personnel
Attitude and courtesy of personnel 3 12 17 142 4.44 4.49 4th
2 5 25 151 4.72 4.75 2nd
service)
12 20 148 4.63 4.65 3rd
service)
7 25 153 4.80 4.79 1st
skill)
Extension, demolition and Alteration
services and their Personnel
Attitude and courtesy of personnel 1 8 23 150 4.69 4.74 1st
6 9 17 139 4.34 4.41 3rd
service)
3 19 10 135 4.22 4.26 4th
service)
5 9 18 141 4.41 4.47 2nd
skill)
Travels Arrangement Service and their Personnel
Attitude and courtesy of personnel 14 18 146 4.56 4.59 2nd
1 19 12 136 4.30 4.38 3rd
service)
24 8 136 4.30 4.27 3rd
service)
Competence(possession of requisite 13 19 147 4.60 4.62 1st

skill)
Catering services and their personnel
Attitude and courtesy of personnel 4 9 19 143 4.47 4.52 2nd
21 11 139 4.34 4.37 4th
service)
5 9 18 141 4.41 4.47 3rd
service)
7 25 153 4.80 4.79 1st
skill)
CONCLUSION
In conclusion to this research, it was established though facility management
services are outsourced but only 29.63% is outsourced. This results is justified by
study carried out on outsourcing of facilities management in Nigerian hospitals by
Ikediashi and Mbamali (2014) which shows that reducing invested capital funds in
229
non-core functions, improving on strategic positioning, obtaining technologies not

available in-house, improving performance standard, improving timely delivery of
service and improving on stakeholders ’satisfaction cannot be achieved maximally
since the hospitals still render non-core services in house.
However, in order to improve the performance standard services rendered by the
hospitals, highly competent and reliable vendors should be hired to deliver non-
core Facility management services needed. Therefore Respondents in their study
viewed Outsourcing as a strategic management option that has the potential to
improve organisational efficiency and effective management of resources as well
as increase users ’satisfaction about quality of services in hospitals. The study also
provides hospital administrators and public managers with a list of prioritised
factors for making rational informed decision about outsourcing of services in the
hospitals.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to add value to the management of resources in public hospitals, this study
therefore recommends the following:
1. Since this project is limited to assessing the factors responsible for outsourcing
of non-core facilities management services in the public hospitals within
Kaduna metropolis, the Kaduna State Ministry for Health is encouraged to
outsource more of the non-core services provided in-house in order to enable
the state owned public hospitals focus more on their core services thereby
improving their performance standard.
2. Similar studies should be conducted in federal hospitals in state in order to

make it possible in making comparison between outsourced non-core FM
services provided in the state owned and federal hospitals.
3. Further research could be generalized in a lesser scale to other parts of Nigeria.
REFERENCES
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Research, 10, 41-47
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ASSESSMENT OF RESIDENTS’ PERCEPTION OF

INFRASTRUCTURE DELIVERY IN NIGERIA: THE TALE OF
OSOGBO
Olatunji Solomon Ayodeji1 and Olowoporoku Oluwaseun Ayodele2
1Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University Oye- Ekiti, Nigeria
2Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Peoples ’perception of the delivery of infrastructure is important in urban planning.

This is because urban planning is a public activity hence information from people
who are the recipient of planning activities assist stakeholders either to reverse
deteriorating conditions or enhance existing successful programs. This paper
assessed residents ’perception of infrastructure delivery across the identified
different residential zones of Osogbo, Nigeria. This was with a view to identify the
factors influencing residents ’perception of infrastructure delivery in the study area.
The study area was stratified into three identified residential zones (traditional,
transition and sub-urban). Using systematic sampling technique a total of 390
residents were selected for survey. Findings from the study revealed that residents ’
socio-economic characteristics varied significantly with different residential
zones.The study established that variation existed in the condition of
environmental infrastructure across the study area. Also, the importance and
satisfaction that residents derived from available infrastructure varied across
residential differentials. Regression analysis revealed that residents perception of
infrastructure delivery are significantly influenced by age with Beta value (β = -.253;
p<.005), income (β = -0.197; p<.005), length of stay (β = 0.297; p<.005), and
educational status (β = 0.281; p<.005). The study concluded that residents ’
perception of infrastructure delivery differ significantly across the identified
residential zones as reflected by residents socio-economic characteristics. The
study recommends adequate provision of infrastructure needed by each category
of people in the city.
Keywords: delivery, infrastructure, Nigeria, perception, urban planning
INTRODUCTION
All over the world, the presence and condition of environmental infrastructure has
been adjudged as a key determinant of the socio-economic wellbeing of the
people. This is because the economic prosperity of a nation is strongly tied to the
adequate provision of infrastructural development (Olowoporoku, 2017; OECD,
2015; Fagbohunka, 2014). The World Bank (2004) noted that every 1% of
government funds spent on infrastructure leads to an equivalent 1% increase in
1 olatunji@fuoye.edu.ng
2 oluwaseunayodele6@gmail.com
Olatunji and Olowoporoku (2021) Assessment of residents’ perception of infrastructure delivery in

Nigeria: the tale of Osogbo In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
235
Olatunji and Olowoporoku
GDP in any country. Therefore, the role of infrastructure in the growth and
development of any nation cannot be over emphasized. This has prompted
governments in both developed and developing countries to make concerted
efforts towards the provision of infrastructure that will be of benefit to the citizens
(Fagbohunka, 2014). Despite the efforts, the provision of infrastructure has not met
the demands of households, businesses and other users especially in the
developing world and has become a major challenge to the government and other
concerned stakeholders (Daramola & Olowoporoku, 2018 Obikunle, 2019).
The delivery of infrastructure is directly or indirectly essential in the determination

of quality of life. According to Middleton (2011), infrastructure delivery involves the
process of supplying infrastructure for residents and ensuring that they have access
to the derivable benefits from its delivery. In another parlance, infrastructure
delivery is the means by which facilities and services needed for the sustainability
of an environment are identified and provided for (Obikunle, 2019). In Nigeria, the
delivery of infrastructure is carried out majorly by the government and sometimes
supported by private individuals and organizational investors. The performance of
infrastructure delivery in Nigeria remains poor, unsatisfactory and has become a
disease eating into the country’s economic development (Daramola &
Olowoporoku, 2018). Therefore in order to gain information on infrastructure
delivery there must be an alignment of thoughts between the providers and the
recipients of the infrastructure.
As established by Obikunle (2019) the efficiency of the delivery of infrastructural

can be measured by the recipients ’level of access (availability, condition,
importance and satisfaction) of infrastructure. Therefore, in order to measure the
level of infrastructure delivery, opinions and perception data is needed. Perception
refers to how individuals organize and interpret their impression about the
environment (Olowoporoku, 2017). Peoples ’perception of infrastructure delivery
provides a broad understanding of their opinion about infrastructure provided. It
comprises their opinion of its availability, condition, importance and satisfaction
derived from its provision. Furthermore, it is important to understand the factors
that contribute to the positive or negative perception and attitudes of residents
towards infrastructure because it helps to gain a deeper understanding of the
residents ’attitudes and statistically measure the effectiveness of the provided
infrastructure (Parks, Kearns & Atkinson, 2002).
LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Kadiri, Stephen and Godwin (2015), infrastructure is defined as the
aggregate of facilities which aids the effective functionality of a city. It comprises a
wide range of economic and social facilities that creates an enabling environment
for growth and improved quality of life (Ifediora, Ogunlola & Olubi 2014; Nubi,
2002). In a broader sense, Fulmer (2009) defined infrastructure as the physical
components of interrelated systems providing services that are essential to enable,
sustain and enhance the living conditions of residents. They includes power, water
supply, sewerage, communication, schools, roads and bridges, airports, railways,
designated green areas, housing, urban services. Infrastructure are broadly
categorized into two namely social and economic (Obikunle, 2019; OECD 2015;
UN-Habitat, 2015; Fagbohunka, 2014; Palei 2014; Torrisi, 2010). Economic
236
infrastructure refers to facilities, activities and services provided to facilitate

production and consumption. On the other hand, social infrastructures are facilities
that support social services with indirect impact on the welfare of the people
(Daramola & Olowoporoku, 2018; Torrisi, 2010). Nevertheless, the delivery of
infrastructure has been a source of concern in Nigeria
Issues related to infrastructure have aroused the interest of researchers both in the
developed and developing world. In the developed world, emphasis has shifted
towards maintenance of infrastructure that have been put in place (Srinivaso, 2013;
Fulmer, 2009; Torrance, 2009) while the developing world is battling with the
adequate provisions of infrastructure (Fagbohunka, 2014). Studies that have
examined infrastructural development in Nigeria (Obikunle, 2019; Fagbohunka,
2014; Ibrahim, 2010; Oyedele, 2006; Abdulkareem & Adeoti, 2004) focused on the
economic potentials of provision and maintenance of infrastructure. These past
studies did not extensively discuss public perception of the delivery of available
infrastructure and this study is a conscious attempt to bridge this gap. Information
on residents ’perception of infrastructure delivery are central to policy making as
they aid policy makers in making enlightened decisions towards provision of
infrastructure in the study area and others with similar background.
Materials and Methods
The study area is Osogbo, the capital of Osun State, located in south-western part
of Nigeria. It was founded in the late 18th century and originated as a traditional
as well as cultural city. Following the creation of Osun State in 1991, Osogbo
assumed the status of a state capital. Over the years, Osogbo has witnessed
tremendous growth both spatially and demographically. Its nature as a nodal
settlement and the initial establishment of a railway station are factors in the
growth of Osogbo. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2007) reported the
population of Osogbo in the 2006 population census to be 287,156persons. The
World Population review (2021) projected the population of the city as 720, 539
persons.
The city is mainly covered by two Local Government Areas (LGAs) which are
Osogbo and Olorunda. The two LGAs in the city contain 26 political wards as
delineated for election purposes. A typical characteristic of traditional African cities
is the presence of homogeneous residential zones. Three homogeneous residential
zones are identified in Osogbo: the core, the transition and the sub-urban. These
identified zones are arranged in radial pattern following the concentric zone theory
of Ernest Burgess of 1920s. Each of these zones is observed to be internally
homogeneous in terms of physical characteristics, socio-economic status and
availability of environmental amenities.
The core residential area, is the centre of the city. It is the home to indigenes and
first migrant settlers. It accommodates the king palace, traditional markets, shrines,
market square and the town hall. Residential buildings in this zone are closely built
together and connected to one another with foot paths in a serpentine manner. It
is characterized by aged buildings, built mainly of traditional system and old
building materials. Residents in this zone are of low income status and low
educational qualification. The zone is usually devoid of adequate environmental
amenities.
237
The transition zone evolved during the colonial rule. It is the intermediate zone
after the core residential area. The zone is characterized with improved road
accessibility and better provision of environmental amenities. Heterogeneity of
ethnic composition of residents in introduced in this zone. The sub-urban
residential zone is characterized with well laid out plans. The ethnic composition is
more heterogeneous and the residents mostly engage in white collar jobs. The
building types comprised mainly flats and duplexes with small private open spaces.
Also, the zone is of better provision environmental amenities compared with the
other two zones. Nevertheless population density in the zone is smaller when
compared with the other two zones.
METHODOLOGY
The 26 political wards in the city of Osogbo were stratified into the identified
residential zones. This comprised seven wards in the core area, ten wards in the
transition zone and nine wards in the sub-urban zone. Due to the homogeneity of
the residential zones, one ward was selected in each of the three residential zones.
In the three selected wards, every 10th residential building was sampled sequel to
enumeration of buildings based on street numbering system and counting of
buildings where houses were not numbered, especially in the core area. In each
selected buildings, the focus was on any adult from age 18 years and above. The
benchmark of 18years is premised on the appointed age of legal transition into
adulthood in the country. A total of 390 residents were selected from the 390
selected buildings on which questionnaires were administered. The sample
comprised 135 respondents in the core area, 147 respondents in transition area
and 108 respondents in the sub-urban area.
Primary data were collected through the administration of the questionnaire on
household heads in the area during the site observation and survey by the research
team. The questionnaire addressed the socioeconomic characteristics of residents
as well as the condition, importance and satisfaction residents derived from the
available infrastructure in the study area. Analysis of the data was done using cross
tabulation, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Regression Analysis. Data on the
condition of infrastructure were obtained using a 5-point Likert scale. Residents
were to express their opinions using: scales of ‘Very Good ’(5), ‘Good ’(4), ‘Fair ’(3),
‘Poor (2) ’and ‘Very Poor (1)’. The respondents were likewise asked to rate the
importance they attached using the scales of Very Important ’(5), ‘Important ’(4),
‘Just Important ’(3), ‘Not Important ’(2) ’and ‘Not Important at all ’(1)’.The opinions
of respondents based on the satisfaction they derived from available infrastructure
was measured using the scale: ‘Very Dissatisfied ’(5), ‘Slightly Dissatisfied ’(4), ‘Just
Satisfied ’(3), ‘Moderately Satisfied ’(2) ’and ‘Very Satisfied ’(1)’. These mean indexes
were interpreted in the analysis as: 1-2.4 (low), 2.5 - 3.5 (moderate) and 3.6 - 5.0
(high).
The mean index was used to analyze the condition of infrastructure, importance
attached to infrastructure and the satisfaction residents derived from the available
infrastructure with the results “Infrastructure Condition Indexes” (ICIs), “Importance
Attached to Infrastructure Indexes ’’and “Satisfaction Derived from Infrastructure”
(SDRIs) were evolved from the analysis of the responses. The summation of weight
value (SWV) for each item was obtained through the sum of the product of the
238
number of responses to each item and the respective weighted value attached to
each rating. This is expressed mathematically as:
SWV =
Where:
SWV = summation of weight value,
Xi = number of respondents to rating i;
Yi = the weight assigned a value (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5).
The ICI for each item on the scale was arrived at by dividing the SWV by the total
number of respondents (N=390), mathematically expressed as:
𝑆𝑊𝑉=
ICI= 𝑁
¯
The𝐼𝐶𝐼 later was computed by summing the rating on the condition of
infrastructure and dividing by the number of the number of infrastructure (n),
mathematically expressed as:
¯ 𝐼𝐶𝐼
𝐼𝐶𝐼 = 𝑛
¯
The infrastructure with the actual values of the 𝐼𝐶𝐼 indicated a fair level of the
condition of the infrastructure. Values with positive deviations indicated good
condition of infrastructure, while those with negative deviations indicated poor
condition of infrastructure. The ranks of the index values were likewise provided.
The deviations around the mean for each Infrastructure Condition Index was also
computed. The deviations were representative measures of dispersion that
provided information on the condition of infrastructure as perceived by the
residents. The variables with positive deviations implied good condition of
infrastructure, while those with negative deviations indicated low poor condition
of infrastructure. The same procedure that was used in computing the Importance
Attached to Infrastructure Indexes and Satisfaction Derived from Infrastructure.
Examples of similar uses are found in studies by Olowoporoku et al (2020), Afon
(2011), Afon, Abolade, and Okanlawon (2006).
RESEARCH FINDINGS
This section discusses the profile of the respondents. It also contains discussions
on the availability, condition, importance and satisfaction residents derive from the
available infrastructure in the study area.
Socio-economic attributes of residents

Socioeconomic attributes of people have been established to be a crucial factor in
the assessment of people’s opinion on various environmental concerns (Lindell,
2013; Twig & Mose, 2017; Olowoporoku, Daramola & Odunsi, 2021; Olawuni,
Daramola & Odunsi, 2021). In this study, variables discussed in this regard are
gender, age, income, educational status, length of residence and household size.
239
Table 1: Socioeconomic attributes of respondents

Attribute Core Transition Sub-urban Total
Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
Male 69 (51.1) 48 (32.7) 27 (25.0) 144 (36.9)
Female 66 (48.9) 99 (63.3) 81 (75.0) 246 (63.1)
Total 135 (100.0) 147 (100.0) 108 (100.0) 390 (100.0)
Age
Less than 20 39 (28.9) 27 (18.4) 15 (13.9) 81 (20.7)
20-40 87 (64.4) 87 (59.2) 69 (63.9) 243 (62.3)
41-60 9 (6.7) 18 (12.2) 18 (16.6) 45 (11.5)
≥60 0 (0.0) 15 (10.2) 6 (5.6) 21 (5.4)
Total 135 (100.0) 147 (100.0) 108 (100.0) 390 (100.0)
Educational Status
No Formal Education 31(22.9) 9 (6.1) 3 (2.8) 43 (11.0)
Primary 39 (28.9) 42 (28.6) 24 (22.2) 105 (26.9)
Secondary 54 (40.0) 66 (44.9) 18 (16.7) 138 (35.4)
Tertiary 11 (8.1) 30 (20.4) 63 (58.3) 104 (26.7)
Total 135 (100.0) 147 (100.0) 108 (100.0) 390 (100.0)
Income Status
≤₦30,000 120 (88.9) 63 (42.9) 42 (38.9) 225 (57.7)
₦31,000- ₦90,000 12 (8.9) 75 (51.0) 45 (41.7) 132 (33.4)
≥₦91,000 3 (2.2) 9 (6.1) 21 (19.4) 33 (8.7)
Total 135 (100.0) 147 (100.0) 108 (100.0) 390 (100.0)
Household Size
1–5 18 (13.3) 35 (23.8) 57 (52.7) 110 (28.2)
6 – 10 45 (33.3) 70(47.6) 45 (41.7) 160 (41.0)
Above 10 72 (53.4) 42 (28.6) 6 (5.6) 120 (30.8)
Total 135 (100.0) 147 (100.0) 108 (100.0) 390 (100.0)
Length of Residence
≤10years 45 (33.3) 33 (22.5) 24 (22.2) 102 (26.1)
11 – 20years 31 (23.0) 61 (41.5) 67 (62.0) 159 (40.8)
≥21 years 59 (43.7) 53 (36.0) 17 (15.8) 129 (33.1)
Total 135 (100.0) 147 (100.0) 108 (100.0) 390 (100.0)
As presented in Table 1, findings revealed that 36.9% of the respondents were

males while majority (63.1%) were females. The continuous raw data collected on
age of the residents were categorized into four to aid better presentation. Findings
revealed that 20.7% of the respondents were less than 20 years of age, 62.3%
respondents had age range of 20 – 40 years, 11.5% were within the age bracket of
41 – 60 years while the remaining 5.4% were above 60 years of age. Further findings
revealed that the overall mean age was 39 years while the minimum and maximum
ages were 19 years and 73 years respectively. The findings revealed that
respondents were of age and could provide information on the delivery of
infrastructure in the study area.
According to Daramola (2015) and Olowoporoku et al (2019), level of education of

people is an important tool in the assessment of their opinion on any
environmental matter. Findings on educational attainment of respondents in the
240
study area revealed that in the core area, 8.1% of the respondents had tertiary
education. This increased in the transition and suburban zones to 20.4% and 58.3%
respectively. On secondary education, 40.0% of the residents in the core area
attained secondary education, in the transition it was 44.9% and 16.7% in the sub-
urban zone. Residents with primary education comprised 28.9%, 28.6% and 22.2%
in the core, transition and suburban areas of the study area. On the other hand, the
proportion of respondents with no formal education comprised 22.9% in the core,
6.1% in the transition area and 2.8% in the suburban area. The proportion of
respondents with no formal education decrease as distance increases from the core
area to the sub-urban area while the proportion of residents with tertiary education
decreases as distance reduces from the suburban to the core. These results are
similar to earlier studies by Daramola and Olowoporoku, (2019), Daramola (2015)
that increased educational level in traditional African cities varied directly with
increase in distance from the core towards the sub-urban residential area. Since
majority of the respondents attained a level of education, it is believed that they
will have information on the availability, condition and satisfaction they derived
from infrastructure in the study area.
Findings were made on the average monthly income of residents across the
identified residential zones. For easy analysis, the initial quantitative data on
residents ’average monthly income were grouped into three: low, medium and
high. Incomes below ₦30,000 were categorized as low income. This is based on the
prevailing Civil Service Salary Scale in the country. The minimum wage at the
federal level in Nigeria is ₦30,000 while it ranges from ₦20,000 to ₦30,000 in the
states of the federation. The medium monthly incomes were categorized as from
₦31,000 to ₦90,000 while residents earning above ₦90,000 were categorized as
high income earners. Based on this categorization, findings revealed that variation
in income classes existed across the three residential zones of the city. Further
investigation revealed that the average monthly income computed for the core,
transition and sub-urban stood at ₦21,330.00, ₦43,455.00 and ₦76,180.00
respectively while the overall mean monthly income was ₦43,203.00. These results
revealed that income distribution varied significantly with residential areas and it
increased with increase in distance from the core to the sub-urban. The ANOVA
results (F= 7.139; ρ< 0.002) indicated that income distribution of the residents
varied significantly with residential zones. The findings are in tandem with the
studies carried out in other traditional African cities such as Ogbomoso (Afon,
2006) and Ibadan (Afron and Faniran, 2013; Daramola, 2015) where conclusions
were made that residents ’income increased as distance increased from the core to
the suburban areas of African traditional cities.
Investigations were made into household size of residents in the study area. A
household was defined as a person or group of people with shared cooking and
living arrangements. Thus, household size was measured by the number of people
living together with common eating arrangement. Based on this, the household
size of the residents was categorised into three. The household sizes of one to five
members were categorised as small, those with six to ten members as medium
while those with more than ten members was categorised as large. Findings
revealed that, across the residential zones, 28.2% had small household size, 41.0%
had medium household size while 30.8% had large household size. The calculated
household size of respondents in the core, transition and sub-urban area were
241
eight persons, six persons and five persons respectively. The ANOVA results (F=
9.106; ρ< 0.001) also indicated that household size varied significantly with
residential zones. Information on household size could provide information on
adequacy of infrastructure in the study area.
Length of residence refers to the number of year(s) a household has been in the
study area and it is considered relevant to this study. This is because the longer the
period people live in an area; the more they are likely to understand the prevailing
challenges in an area (Olaniyi, 2018; Daramola & Olowoporoku, 2016). For this
study, the length of residence is divided into three categories of 1 to 10 years, 11
to 20 years and above 20 years. Findings revealed that 26.1% of the respondents
had spent less than 10 years in their residential areas; 40.8% had spent 11 to 20
years while 33.1% of the residents had lived for more than 20 years in their
residential areas. Further findings revealed the mean length of residence in the core
was 31 years 19 years in the transition and 13 years in the sub-urban areas. From
this analysis, it could be deduced that the residents have lived in the area for a
considerable number of years and would be familiar with the environment and thus
can provide adequate information on the delivery of infrastructure in the study
area.
Condition of infrastructure
Presented in this section are findings on the condition of infrastructure available
across the identified residential zones in the study area. The condition of
infrastructure was measured using the Infrastructure Condition Index (ICI). Also the
deviation about the mean (DM) for each infrastructure was calculated.
Table 2. Infrastructure condition index

Residential zone
Infrastructure Core Transition Suburban
ICI DM ICI DM ICI DM
Road Network 2.703 -0.188 3.366 0.536 2.237 -0.270
Public Tap 2.687 -0.204 1.268 -1.561 1.229 -1.278
Waste Collector Trucks 2.289 -0.602 2.947 0.117 3.171 0.664
Communication 2.289 -0.602 2.810 -0.019 2.135 -0.372
Electricity Supply 3.158 0.266 2.780 -0.049 3.132 0.625
Hospitals 3.522 0.630 3.211 0.381 1.818 -0.689
Public Schools 3.976 1.084 2.898 0.068 1.805 -0.702
Private Schools 3.151 0.259 3.176 0.346 3.989 1.482
Police station 2.932 0.040 3.658 0.828 3.738 1.231
Open spaces 1.909 -0.982 3.477 0.647 3.674 1.167
Drainage 2.424 -0.467 2.295 -0.534 1.659 -0.848
Railway 1.307 -1.584 1.982 -0.847 1.61 -0.897
Sewerage collection 4.01 1.118 2.366 -0.463 2.237 -0.270
Market 4.703 1.811 3.268 0.438 2.229 -0.278
Waste Disposal sites 2.317 -0.574 2.947 0.117 2.947 0.440
¯
𝑰𝑪𝑰 2.891 2.829 2.507
* ICI*= Infrastructure Condition Index *DM*= Deviation about the Mean
242
As contained in Table 2, the condition of infrastructure revealed that the computed

mean Incident Condition Indexes ((ICI)┴¯) in the core, transition, and suburban
residential areas were 2.891, 2.829 and 2.507 respectively. Impliedly, the condition
of infrastructure in the core was higher compared to the transition area and least
in the suburban area. Infrastructure whose conditions were rated highest in the
core area were markets (4.703), sewage collection (4.01), public schools (3.976),
hospitals (3.522) and private school (3.151). In the transition zone, police station
(3.658), open space (3.477), road network (3.366), market (3.268) and hospitals
(3.211). In the suburban area, private school (3.989), police station (3.738), open
spaces (3.674), waste collector trucks (3.171) and hospital (3.132). In summary,
residents in the study area rated the condition of available infrastructure low.
Infrastructures in low conditions are usually over stretched, damaged and cannot
meet the demand of the consumers (residents).
Importance attached to infrastructure

Sequel to findings on the condition of infrastructure, investigation was made into
the importance residents attached to available infrastructure in the study area. The
level of importance that residents attach to infrastructure in the study area serves
as an indicator to determine the value that residents attach to each infrastructure.
Residents ’expression of the necessity of each infrastructure is presented in Table
3.
Table 3. Importance Attached to Infrastructure Index (IAII)

Residential zone
IAII DM IAII DM IAII DM
Road Network 4.754 0.276 4.689 0.370 4.851 0.400
Public Tap 4.750 0.272 4.644 0.325 4.136 -0.315
Waste Collector Trucks 4.667 0.189 4.462 0.143 4.543 0.092
Power Supply Cables 4.529 0.051 4.333 0.014 4.521 0.070
Communication 4.508 0.030 4.689 0.370 4.778 0.327
Hospitals 4.492 0.014 4.381 0.062 4.438 -0.013
Public Schools 4.497 0.019 4.415 0.096 4.435 -0.016
Private Schools 4.471 -0.007 4.244 -0.075 4.778 0.327
Police station 4.457 -0.021 3.902 -0.417 4.053 -0.398
Open spaces 4.452 -0.026 3.902 -0.417 4.000 -0.451
Drainage 3.897 -0.581 3.194 -1.125 3.814 -0.637
Railway 3.754 -0.724 4.415 0.096 4.851 0.400
Sewerage collection 4.750 0.272 4.644 0.325 4.500 0.049
Market 4.667 0.189 4.462 0.143 4.543 0.092
Waste Disposal sites 4.529 0.051 4.415 0.096 4.521 0.070
¯
𝑰𝑨𝑰𝑰 4.478 4.319 4.458
* IAII*= Importance Attached to Infrastructure Index *DM*= Deviation about the Mean
Findings revealed that the importance respondents attached to infrastructure was

higher in the core area, compared to the suburban area and compared to the
transition area. This findings is in tandem with (Olaniyi, 2018; Daramola,
Olowoporoku & Popoola 2017; Daramola, 2015; Afon & Faniran, 2011) which
243
stated residents in the core area attach more importance to infrastructure because
majority of respondents are of the low income class and rely on public
infrastructure for survival. In the core area, infrastructure that respondents attached
most importance to were road network (4.75), public tap water (4.750), sewerage
collection (4.750), waste collection trucks (4.667), market (4.667) and
communication (4.539). In the transition area, road network (4.689), electricity
supply (4.689), sewerage collection (4.644), markets (4.462), waste collection trucks
(4.462) and public schools (4.215) were the infrastructure that residents attached
high importance to while in the sub-urban area, road network (4.851), railway
(4.851), electricity supply (4.778), private schools (4.778), waste collector trucks
(4.543), markets (4.543) and communication (4.521) were the infrastructure that
weighted highest in terms of importance attached to it by respondents. In
summary, across the three residential areas, markets, waste collection trucks and
electricity supply were the infrastructure that weighted highest in the three
residential areas.
Satisfaction respondents derived from available infrastructure
Information on the satisfaction residents derived from the infrastructure will
provide answers on the pleasure residents’ derived from the infrastructure.
Table 4. Satisfaction Residents’ Derived from Infrastructure Index (SRDI)

Residential zone
SRDI DM SRDI DM SRDI DM
Road Network 3.044 0.478 3.794 1.110 3.886 1.284
Public Tap 2.930 0.364 1.652 -1.032 1.829 -0.773
Waste Collector Trucks 2.889 0.323 2.646 -0.038 3.794 1.192
Communication 2.800 0.234 1.622 -1.062 2.788 0.186
Electricity Supply 2.767 0.201 3.533 0.849 3.722 1.120
Hospitals 1.767 -0.799 3.500 0.816 3.629 1.027
Public Schools 1.756 -0.810 1.438 -1.246 1.500 -1.102
Private Schools 1.707 -0.859 3.367 0.683 2.469 -0.133
Police station 3.548 0.982 2.114 -0.570 2.424 -0.178
Open spaces 2.366 -0.200 2.408 -0.276 2.382 -0.220
Drainage 2.256 -0.310 2.167 -0.517 1.310 -1.292
Railway 1.044 -1.522 1.094 -1.590 1.886 -0.716
Sewerage collection 2.930 0.364 3.652 0.968 2.829 0.227
Market 3.889 1.323 3.646 0.962 2.794 0.192
Waste Disposal sites 2.800 0.234 3.622 0.938 1.788 -0.814
¯
𝑺𝑹𝑫𝑰 2.566 2.683 2.602
* SRDI*= Satisfaction Residents ’Derived from Infrastructure Index *DM*= Deviation about the
Mean
The computed mean Satisfaction Residents’ Derived from Infrastructure Index were
2.566, 2.638 and 2.602 respectively. From the computed ((SRDI)┴¯),it is implied that
the satisfaction residents derived from available infrastructure was more in the core
compared with the suburban and compared with the transition area. In the core
residential area, infrastructure that residents derived highest satisfaction from their
delivery were markets (3.889), police station (3.548), road network (3.044), public
244
tap (2.930) and sewerage collection (2.930). On the other hand, railway, private
school, public school and hospitals were the least weighted infrastructure in terms
of satisfaction derived from them by residents in the residential zone. In the
transition area, road network (3.794), sewerage collection (3.652), market (3.646),
waste disposal sites (3.622), electricity supply (3.533) and hospital (3.50) were the
highest rated infrastructure that residents derived satisfaction from their provision.
Those that were least rated in terms of satisfaction derived in the transition area
were railway, public schools, communication and public taps. In the suburban area,
road network (3.866), waste collection trucks (3.794), electricity supply (3.722),
hospitals (3.629) and sewerage collection (2.829) were the highest rated in terms
of infrastructure while the least rated in the residential zone were drainages, public
schools, waste disposal sites, public tap etc. In summary, it was revealed that
satisfaction residents derived from the available infrastructure is very low.
Table 5: Residents’ perception of the delivery of infrastructure regressed on socioeconomic

characteristics
Unstandardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficients
t Sig.
Std.
B Beta
Error
(Constant) 41.832 2.346 9.425 .000
Gender .136 .108 .090 1.527 .097
Age -.235 .005 -.127 -3.023 .005
Monthly income -.197 .007 .203 6.548 .003
Number of years spent in
.297 .006 -.019 -.326 .004
the area
Household size -.033 .012 -.084 -1.289 . 166
Educational status .281 .057 .247 4.337 .005
Dependent variable: Residents ’Experience of Urban Legibility; R = 0.356; R Square = 0.186 p ≤
0.05
Presented in Table 5 are results of the combined effects and the relative
contributions of each independent variable on residents ’perception of the delivery
of infrastructure. The composite correlation coefficient of the relationship between
socioeconomic characteristics and residents ’perception of the delivery of
infrastructure is 0.356. This value provides a good estimate of the overall fit of the
regression model. The regression value (R2) which provides a good gauge of the
substantive size of the relationship is 0.186 for this model. This implies that 18.6%
of the variance in residents ’perception of the delivery of infrastructure is accounted
for by the predictor variables. Also presented in the table is the relative
contribution of each predictor variable to the variance in residents ’perception of
the delivery of infrastructure in the study area. Variables that influenced residents ’
perception of infrastructure delivery are significantly influenced by age with Beta
value (β = -.253; p<.005), income (β = -0.197; p<.005), length of stay (β = 0.297;
p<.005), and educational status (β = 0.281; p<.005). Other socioeconomic
attributes such as gender and household size predictor variables have no
significant effect on residents ’perception of the delivery of infrastructure in the
study area. Therefore it can be concluded that a statistically significant relationship
exists between residents ’perception of the delivery of infrastructure in the study
area and socioeconomic attributes such as age, income, length of stay and
245
educational status in the study area. Thus, these variables serve as predictors of
residents ’perception of the delivery of infrastructure in the study area.
CONCLUSION
This study assessed residents ’perception of infrastructure delivery across the
identified residential areas in Osogbo, Nigeria. It also identified the factors
influencing residents ’perception of infrastructure delivery in the study area.
Specifically, the findings established that there were variations in the condition of
infrastructure, importance residents attached to infrastructure and satisfaction
derived from the provision of infrastructure across the residential zones of the city.
These variations could be attributed to variation in socio-economic characteristics
of residents across the residential areas of the city. The residents in the suburban
area were satisfied with infrastructure delivery, this is because, and these residents
are high income earners that can easily afford to provide some of the facilities
privately. Based on the findings from the study, it is concluded that socio-economic
characteristics such as age, income, length of stay and educational status
significantly influenced residents ’perception of the delivery of infrastructure.
Based on these, the following are recommended to improve the delivery of
infrastructure in Osogbo:
 government and other concerned stakeholders must invest in adequate

provision of infrastructure in the study area. This can be achieved through the
introduction of Public Private Partnership into infrastructure provision in the
study area;
 government and other concerned stakeholders should ensure adequate
maintenance and upgrade of existing infrastructure. Proper maintenance of
infrastructure will help to improve the physical and economic life of the
infrastructure. When infrastructure is maintained, residents get to enjoy its
benefits and the institution (which most residents think should be the
government) will save significant cost.
 infrastructure delivery, maintenance and monitoring needs planning and
execution, one is not more important than the other, planning will include
financial planning and budgetary, data gathering and analysis on the
appropriate infrastructure to be provided and future control of infrastructure
maintenance
 residents should be made to pay for the use of infrastructure in the study area
in order to make them sustainable.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ASSESSMENT OF SEASONAL FLOOD IMPACT AND

MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN OKITIPUPA, ONDO STATE,
NIGERIA
Olorunlana, Folasade Aderonke1
Department of Geography and Planning Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko,
Ondo State, Nigeria
Flood is becoming the most environmental challenge menacing Okitipupa in Ondo

State. Many parts of the metropolis experience flood regularly most especially
during and after rains. This study assesses how Okitipupa have been affected by
flood menace incidences as it takes a look at the devastating impacts, remedial and
management strategies at curbing flooding in Okitipupa which has almost become
a yearly occurrence. Data were collected through the use of structured
questionnaire from the respondents. A total of two hundred (200) questionnaires
were administered to the respondents in the study area. The questionnaires were
distributed using the systematic random technique at interval of ten housing units.
Data collected were analyzed through the use of descriptive statistical analysis and
presented using pie chart. The study reveals that the major cause of flood in the
study area was high intensity of rainfall (21.5%) followed by dumping of waste
materials and refuse into drainage (21%). Also, blockage of natural and artificial
waterways (18.5%) and building on floodplain (16.5%) have contributed to the
regular occurrence of flood in the area. Poor drainage system (14%) and improper
planning and poor land use (8.5%) also contributed to flood in the area. Flood
remedial and management strategies adopted by respondents include proper use
of drainage system, proper refuse disposal, construction of drainage where there is
none, proper land use planning, use of sandbags and river channelization. The
study recommends enforcement of environmental laws that will restrict dumping
of waste into the water body and sponsoring of public awareness and educative
programs on how man's activities has contributed to flood occurrence.
Keywords: causes, floods, impacts, remedial and management strategies
INTRODUCTION
Flood is a body of water which overflow swathes of land not normally inundated
(Duru et al., 2014). Flooding, according to Geo-science Australia (2013) can simply
be described as “water where it is not wanted”. It can also be conceptualized as a
situation that results when a part of the earth surface that is usually dry is inundated
and covered with water due to high amount of rainfall or the over flowing of a
water body. Documental evidence showed that it all started with the Noachian
deluge when the surface of the earth was submerged by water orchestrated by
1 Tise80097@yahoo.com
Olorunlana (2021) Assessment of seasonal flood impact and management strategies in Okitipupa,
Ondo State, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
249
Olorunlana
unabated torrential rainfall which led to the extermination of mankind with the sole
exclusion of Noah’s household (Olatona et al., 2017). The forgoing narrative thus
suggest the necessity on the part of man to mitigate the effects of flooding in his
environment by ensuring that all vulnerable landscape is identified and
precautionary measures are put in place to tackle the impending challenge
headlong.
The effects of floods are always debilitating, though their intensity and scope vary
depending on terrain, intensity of human activities, quantum of water and the level
of preparedness by the stakeholders. Flooding is a global phenomenon ravaging
both the developed and developing nations with its deleterious effects sparking
serious attention; which has become subject of research interest among
climatologist, hydrologist, economist, urban planner and other professionals in the
built environment. This is not unconnected to the fact that it is the most common
and destructive of all natural hazards with wide reaching effects, wrecking havocs
to the built and natural environments, as well as, endangering human health and
material possessions (Saleh, 2014).
The complexity of anthropogenic activities of man without adequate attention to

geological structure of most cities of developed and developing nations has
undoubtedly contributed to reoccurrence of disaster and consequently poses
threat to environmental sustainability in most of these nations (Oludare et al.,
2012). This irrefutably has led or accumulated to unresolved challenges. Among
the unresolved challenges being faced are vicious flood incidences experienced in
the last four decades. The occurrence is stern in third world countries where there
is intensity in land use, haphazard development, and unprecedented urbanization
among others. Consequently, there has been unprecedented occurrence of floods
and its associated negativities in most of the urban centers of developing countries
(Montoya Morales, 2002). For instance, in Nigeria, reports have shown that
devastating flood disaster had occurred in Ibadan (1985, 1987, 1990, and 2011),
Osogbo (1992, 1996, 2002, and 2010), Yobe (2000), Akure (1996, 2000, 2002, 2004
and 2006) and the coastal cities of Lagos, Ogun, Port Harcourt, Calabar, Uyo, Warri
among others (Olaniran, 1983). This claimed many lives and properties worth
millions of Naira.
Several anthropogenic factors have contributed to the incidence of flood. Among

these factors is the encroachment of development to flood prone areas. The
incursion into such areas have being progressive until now because of
unprecedented urbanization and industrialization which has undoubtedly resulted
into large scale massive deforestation, loss of surface vegetation and farmlands.
According to Okechuckwu (2008); “the incursion of unplanned and uncontrolled
development into urban infrastructure facilities, violate the major objectives of
physical planning and consequently result into misuse of land thereby creating
disorderly arrangement of urban landscape and the occurrence flood that is mostly
evident in cities of third world countries”.
In Nigeria, the incidents of flood is becoming a reoccurring decimal in most urban
area leading to colossal loss of properties and lives. For example in 1973, 1974 and
1976, cases of floods were recorded in Ilorin (Jimoh, 1999; Mordi, 2011 and Amaize,
2011) in 1973, 1980 and 2011 Ogunpa flood in Ibadan occurred. Floods in low-
250
Olorunlana
lying coastal areas, such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Warri, Sapele and Yenegoa, as
well as the hinterland and arid semi arid places like Ondo, Ilorin, Makurdi, Kaduna,
Minna, Borno and Gombe have formed Nigeria newspaper headlines. Concern over
the incidents of floods, especially in urban areas, have attracted several studies
focusing on different aspects (Akintola, 1978; Akintola, 1982; Odemerho, 1983;
Ayoade and Akintola, 1980; Babatolu, 1997; Oriola, 2000; Ologunorisa, 2004; Ali,
2005; Ologunorisa and Tersoo, 2006; Aderogba, 2012 and Aderogba et al., 2012).
This research focuses on incidences of flooding in Okitipupa, its impacts and

proffer a remedial and management for flood menace in Okitipupa, Ondo State,
Nigeria.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Flooding is a common phenomenon all over the world. It is more rampant and
distressing in the developing countries like Nigeria (Andjelkovic,2001). According
to Ajie and Frank (2019), it is regarded as the worst natural disaster across the globe
responsible for one-third of all natural exigencies with grave impairments on
infrastructure, the built environment and human life. It becomes a source of
concern to all and sundry looking at the fact that, whether developed or
developing, no nation is immune to incidents of flooding.
The European Union (EU) Floods directive (2007), defines a flood as a temporary
covering by water of land that is not normally covered by water. Flooding is
normally caused by natural weather events as heavy rainfall and thunderstorms
over a short period, prolonged rainfall or extensive rainfall. It can also be caused
by high tide combined with stormy conditions. Flood may also result from
overflowing of a great body of water over land and extreme hydrological events or
an unusual presence of water on land to a depth which affects normal activities
(Olajuyigbe, 2012).
The social disruptions cause by flood can seriously undermine the quality of life of
individuals and impression on the fabric of affected communities (Gordon,2004).
Flood in more than 80 countries has killed millions of people and caused hardships
for more than 17million worldwide since the beginning of 2002. The effects of
flood on man cannot be overemphasized because it cut across all spheres of man’s
life. This includes man’s physical environment, man’s health and agriculture
products. Flood, depending on its volume and velocity can damage any type of
structure, including bridges, cars, buildings, sewerage systems, roadways, and
canals. It can also result into contamination of water (Aliyu and Suleiman, 2016).
The consequence of this is unhygienic condition in the affected areas making the
victims vulnerable to water-borne diseases such as; cholera, dysentery, typhoid.
Crops and food supplies are often affected and consequently resulting to shortage
of food crops resulting from loss of entire harvest. Its effect is also obvious on trees
thereby causing non-tolerant species to die from suffocation. It also affects
transportation system by destroying transport links. Conversely, lowlands near
rivers depend upon river silt deposited by floods to improve the nutritional value
to the local soil ( Adebayo and Jegede, 2010).
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METHODOLOGY
Study area:
The research was carried out in Okitipupa area of Ondo State. The present
Okitipupa Local Government came into being after splitting Ikale Local
Government into Irele and Okitipupa Local Governments in 1991. The Old
Okitipupa Division is now split into Okitipupa, Irele, Ilaje and Ese-Odo Local
Governments. The Local Government lies between Longitudes 4035ʹ and 4050ʹ East
of Greenwich Meridian and latitudes 6015 ʹ and 6025ʹ North of the Equator within
the tropical rainforest zone of Nigeria. It has a population of about 233,565 as at
2006 census and covers a land area of about 803 km². It is bounded on the east by
Irele and Ese-Odo Local Government while to its west lies Odigbo Local
Government and part of Ogun State. To its north lies Odigbo Local Government
while it is bounded in the south by Ilaje Local Government.
An udic soil moisture regime and isohyperthermic soil temperature regime prevail
in the area with total annual rainfall often exceeding 2000mm while the soil
temperature has a narrow range of 270 to 280C. the geological formation of the
area is the Precambrian Basement Complex. Geomorphologically, the northern
parts of the study area have strongly sloping to undulating landscapes of 8 to 12%
slopes while the central and southern parts have nearly level to gently sloping
landscapes of 0 to 4% slopes.
Figure 1: Map of Ondo State showing Okitipupa
Data collection:
The sources of data employed for this research includes both secondary and
primary data sources. The primary source of data were collected through the use
of 200 questionnaire. The sampling technique adopted for this study is random
sampling technique. The secondary data include information obtained from
publications such as textbooks, journals, official documents, previous research
works as well as newspapers on the various occurrences of flood disasters and
pertinent issues relating to the subject.
The data collected for this study were analyzed using the simple percentage
statistical method and presented using pie chart.
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Causes of flood in Okitipupa
Identification of the causes of flood is important in order to know the factors
contributing to the loss of life, properties and resources which in turn influences
the sustainability of life. Identification of the factors will help residents to take
appropriate measures to halt them. The major causes of flooding in Nigeria urban
areas include high intensity of rainfall, blockage of natural and artificial water ways,
building on floodplains, improper planning and poor land use, poor drainage
system and dumping of wastes into drainage. (Ologe, 2002; Oriola, 2000; Ali, 2005:
Ologunorisa and Tersoo, 2006).
Considering the various factors that may have contributed to flooding as shown in
Figure 2,the cause of flooding with the highest percentage of 21.5% is high
intensity of rainfall as one of the causes of flooding while 21% indicated that
dumping of waste materials and refuse into drainage is another cause of flooding.
Poor waste management is one of the anthropogenic factors contributing to and
worsening the already difficult flooding problem in Nigeria (Ojo and Adejugbagbe,
2017). The poor attitude of Nigerians to waste disposal has been widely discussed
in various studies (Eneji et al., 2016; Ojo and Adejugbagbe, 2017; Olukanni,
Adebayo and Terebe, 2014). Further analysis of causes of flood reveals that 18.5%
perceived that blockage of natural and artificial waterways also causes flooding.
Drainage blockages linked to poor sanitation practices are common in Nigeria.
Roadside dumping, canal dumping and dumping in rains are commonly practiced
among a large proportion of the population. This blockage results in flooding
during the rainy season (Onwuemele, 2012). 16.5% of respondents considered
building on floodplain as a cause of flooding in the area. The degree of built up
area limits infiltration and increase runoff. This is consistent with findings from
studies carried out by Anderson (1970), Akintola (1978) and Oriola (2000) in
Virginia, Ibadan, Ilorin and Ondo towns respectively.
Poor drainage system is believed by 14% of the respondents to be another factor
substantially aiding flooding in the study area. This is a major human-induced
exacerbator of the flooding experienced in Nigeria (Ogundele and Jegede, 2011).
Most residential areas in Nigeria have no drainage system and rely on natural
drainage channels and it is common for buildings and other infrastructure to be
constructed in a manner that actually obstructs these drainage channels which
results in flooding during the rainy season (Nabegu, 2014) while 8% believed that
improper planning and poor land use facilitated events of flooding in the area.
Figure 2: Causes of Flood in the Study Area
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Impact of flooding on residents

Flooding has the potential to have wide-ranging impacts within the community if
affects causing significant disruption to day-to-day life, communications and to
both local and potentially national economies (Douglas, 2017). Figure 3 shows the
impact of flooding on residents of Okitipupa. The victims of flood in the area have
always had to live with the consequences of the flood disaster. According to the
result of the analysis, it has been realized that a larger percentage of the
respondents (26.5%) reported that flood incidence in the past has been responsible
for the destruction of properties. This can often bring serious hardship to residents
in the aftermath of the flood due to inadequate or more often lack of insurance
cover while 22.5% of the respondents have lost the properties to flooding. 24% of
the respondents reported that flooding disrupt their day-to-day activities. In
addition to the disruption, floods also damage public road surfaces through the
creation of potholes that make water, transportation and ease of movement
difficult. From Figure 2, 21.5% of the respondents have been displaced and forced
to move out of their houses while 5.5% of the respondents classifies their loss to
be the loss of relatives and loved ones.
Figure 3: Impacts of Flooding in the Study Area
Human response to flooding

Flooding control according to Bariweni, et al. (2012) refers to all methods used to
reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood water. There are various
measures that have been employed in the control of flood in the area. Among
these measures are proper use of drainage system, proper refuse disposal,
construction of drainage where there is none, proper land use planning, use of
sandbags and river channelization. Figure 4 reveals that 21% of the respondents
adopted the proper use of drainage system to control flood while 18% and 17.5%
adopted the construction of drainage where there is none and river channelization
and these was achieved through the assistance of the government. 16% adopted
proper refuse disposal. According to the respondents, this method reduced the
risk of flood because people do not dump their waste into the drainage system
again. 14.5% adopted the proper land use planning while 13% adopted the use of
sand bags.
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Figure 4: Human Response to Flooding
Management Strategies of Flood Control

The consequences of flooding are detrimental and the basic consequences of
flooding include loss of human lives, submerging of residences and streets, inflow
to sewage, municipal pollution, damage to properties, health hazards, cleanup cost,
disruption of services, traffic obstruction, aesthetic discolouring, economic loss and
infrastructural damage. Thus, taking all measures to combat floods are more than
necessary in any society. These measures will help control periodic inundation in
the areas that are liable to flooding in the following ways:
1. A well planned drainage system which can accommodate the localized heavy
rains in the metropolis should be put in place by both the state and local
governments.
2. Flood zoning ordinances and land use control acts should be enacted by the
state government. This will be to restrict future buildings in flood plains.
3. Repair and construction of these drainages where necessary should be
embarked on to further ease the flow of storm water. Also, excavation of solid
waste and other deposits which are present in the existing canal at Iju, within
the local government.
4. Environmental sanitation program must be made compulsory and appropriate
agency should be vested with the power to punish residents who fail to adhere
to the rule of sanitation. There should be fines and penalties for people who fail
to comply with the sanitation program.
5. Public enlightenment programmes should be organized to educate the public
on the dangers of flood disaster and its causes as a result of the habit of
throwing and dumping refuse in gutters, drainage paths and river channels.
There is also need for government to set up various information programmes
to educate the masses on how to respond to flood disaster.
6. The road network in the study area lacks drainage system to the extent that
water overflow on the road during heavy rainfall. Thus, the state government
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along with the local government should embark on the construction of wide
and deep drainage system that can withstand heavy water flow.
CONCLUSION
Water will always find it own path if not channelized by man. The need to research
into the causes of flood and provide adequate flood management strategies is an
aspect of environmental management that planners must pay ample attention to
if they want to make the environment a haven. there is an urgent need for a
collaborative effort of both government and stakeholders to support town
planning, engineering and other professional agencies to combat flooding in
Okitipupa to avoid long –range consequences. The improvement of roads and
accessibility of cities, provision of funds and equipments for disaster management
agencies is critical to abating disasters in the Nigerian urban environment and even
in the rural areas too.
Although, studies conducted in different areas, have shown that, a hundred percent
(100%) success may not always be achieved in eradication of flooding problems
especially in urban environment yet, their damaging effects can be mitigated
through management measures that are carefully designed by government or
affected communities. These must be effectively and economically supervised and
funded.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ASSESSMENT OF THE CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS TO

IMPLEMENTATION OF SAFETY MEASURES BY SMALL AND
MEDIUM SIZED CONSTRUCTION FIRMS IN ABUJA, NIGERIA
Jibril Adamu Muhammad1, Abdullateef Adewale Shittu2, Yakubu Danasabe
Mohammed3, John Ebhohimen Idiake4 and Zannah Alhaji Ali5
1,2,3,4Department
of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State,
Nigeria
5Department University of Maiduguri Borno State Nigeria
Studies have revealed that construction firms lack proper implementation of safety
measures on construction projects in Abuja, Nigeria. Construction works all over
the world therefore pose serious threat to workers and non-workers in most of the
developing countries such as Nigeria. This paper assessed the level of
implementation of safety measures by small and medium sized construction firms
(construction SMEs) in Abuja with a view to improving the safety performance of
construction firms. This was achieved through: identification of the effective safety
measures required on construction sites; examination of the challenges affecting
the implementation of safety measures on construction sites; and suggesting
strategies for improving the level of implementation of safety measures by
construction SMEs. Data were obtained from selected construction SMEs in Abuja
using structured questionnaire distributed to 50 randomly selected SMEs with a
response rate of 92%. Relative Importance Index (RII) and Mean Item Score (MIS)
were employed for data analysis. It was revealed that the use of personal protective
clothing (MIS = 4.54) is the most effective safety measure required on construction
sites. It was also found that ineffective management commitment (MIS = 4.63) is
the most severe challenge affecting the implementation of safety measures by
construction SMEs. The study also found that provision of personal protective
equipment (RII = 0.94) is the most effective strategy for improving the level of
implementation of safety measures on construction sites. It was however concluded
that the level implementing safety measures by construction SMEs in Abuja is low.
Therefore, this research recommends that construction stakeholders should
encourage, ensure, and promote the proper implementation of safety measures in
construction SMEs. This will assist to curb the challenges inhibiting safety measures
implementation so as to improve the safety performance of construction SMEs.
Keywords: construction firms, construction SMEs, safety measures
1 adamujibril@gmail.com
2 funsho@futminna.edu.ng
3 yaksmoves@yahoo.com
4 jeidiake@futminna.edu.ng
5 zannah2200@gmail.com
Muhammad, et al. (2021) Assessment of the challenges and solutions to implementation of safety
measures by small and medium sized construction firms in Abuja, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah,
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Muhammad, et al.
INTRODUCTION
The construction industry is an important sector of the economy in many countries
and it is often seen as a driver of economic growth by contributing to Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), capital formation, and employment especially in
developing countries (Phoya, 2012). Diugwu et al., (2012) state that construction
industry in developing countries have performed far below expectation in the area
of health and safety (H&S), the situation in Nigeria is no exception. This is due to
the fact that the existing legislation with regards to occupational H&S in Nigeria is
not functional (Umeokafor et al., 2014). According to Nzuve and Lawrence (2012)
low level of inspection and examination of workplaces might determine the level
of compliance with occupational safety and health (OSH) regulations as evident in
workplaces in Nairobi. The same can be said of Nigeria, where lack of enforcement
characterizes regulatory institutions (Idubor and Osiamoje, 2013), most laws
appear to fulfil all righteousness or are used for political or victimization reasons,
and the institutions alleged and proved to be corrupt and arbitrarily exercise its
powers (Zou and Sunindijo, 2015).
Koehn et al., (2013) also observed that framework for the implementation of safety
measures applies mainly to the large scale multinational construction firms.
Therefore, little or no emphasis is laid on the small and medium sized construction
firms in Nigeria.
Diugwu et al., (2013) opined that Nigeria is among the countries having no
adaptive H&S measures and regulations where small and medium sized
construction firms allocate little or no resources to H&S management. Bima et al.,
(2015) revealed that legislation on H&S are endorsed by the Nigerian government,
including International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions. However, their
implementation by the relevant government bodies and workers is poor (Shittu et
al., 2015a and b; Shittu et al., 2016; David et al., 2018). Awwad et al. (2016) added
that safety practices lack necessary framework for the implementation of safety
measures on construction projects with particular emphasis to the small and
medium sized construction firms (construction SMEs) and thus leading to increase
in accidents on construction sites and cost of compensation to injured workers.
This brings about ineffective cost performance of projects.
Frameworks facilitate the assessment of the effectiveness of construction firms,

identify the deficiencies and the weaknesses, and create procedures to manage the
accident in future by controlling the safety behaviour of employees. Gurcanli et al.
(2015) observed that studies on the cost of safety measures as a part of project
costs during a construction project are very rare. This is a gap left by these studies
from the global scene. The Nigerian construction industry researches carried out
on health and safety include: application of H&S plan in Nigerian construction
firms (Dodo, 2014); enforcement of OHS Regulation in Nigeria (Umeokafor et al.,
2014); influence of organizational characteristics on H&S practices of construction
firms in Abuja; and evaluation of accidents and safety in the Nigerian construction
industry (Aniekwu, 2017).
In summary, the previous studies on H&S appear to have been conducted to

investigate on safety costs involved in the construction stage. But there exist
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limited studies on effective implementation of safety measures by construction

SMEs in Nigeria as the existing ones are applied to larger construction firms and
are particular to foreign and multi–national construction firms which are
characterized with shortcomings of not capturing the peculiarities of SMEs in
Nigeria. This paper will fill this research gap by assessing the level of
implementation of safety measures by construction SMEs in Abuja with a view to
improving the safety performance of construction firms. A larger study (Doctoral
research) will then develop a framework for effective implementation of safety
measures by small and medium sized construction firms in Nigeria. This paper is
therefore a part of this larger study. In order to achieve the aim of this paper, the
following objectives were formulated:
1. Identify the effective safety measures required on construction sites by
construction SMEs. Using relative importance index (RII).
2. Examine the challenges affecting the level of implementation of safety
measures on construction sites by SMEs.
3. Suggest strategies for improving the level of implementation of safety

measures on construction sites by SMEs.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The construction industry
The construction industry is considered as a leading driver of economic
development in a country. Belel and Mahmud (2012) state that the construction
industry brings significant contribution and benefit in facilities production which
initiates various economic activities and enhance the social and environmental
needs of a nation. Thus construction safety becomes one of the significant
concerns.
The construction industry is unique among all other sectors because it provides the
necessary infrastructures that stimulate national development (Jackman, 2010).
Nigeria being the most populous country in Africa and also the largest economy
in Africa according to (World Bank, 2016) its construction industry plays an
important role in the nation’s economy. In 2012 the sector’s contribution to
national gross domestic product stood at 3.05% and in that same year the sector
employed an estimated amount of 6.9 million workers (National Bureau of
Statistics, 2015).
Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) is well recognised in the construction
industry as one of the most important subjects. The implementation of OHS
measures in the industry is critical for the protection of all project stakeholders
(Lingard, et al., 2015). Despite the persistent endeavours that have been made to
improve and promote construction safety (Sherratt, et al., 2015) those accidents
still plague the industry (Zhou, et al., 2015).
The concept of small and medium-sized construction firms

The Nigeria Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and (SMEDAN) (2012) categorised
construction firms with 25 employees as small but this has been considered an
unsuitable definition considering the high level of subcontracting in the
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construction industry (Eyiah 2004). The definition of SMEs in the Nigerian context,
like in the UK and many other countries, varies between researchers and
government institutions of the country. SMEs are broadly defined as business with
turnover of less than 100 million per annum and/or less than 300 employees.
Onugu, (2005) NBS and SMEDAN (2012) added that about 81% of construction
SMEs in Nigeria is small-scale enterprises while about 19% are medium (NBS and
SMEDAN, 2012). Majority of the Nigerian construction SMEs are sole proprietorship
business enterprises; that is about 92% of the Nigerian construction SMEs are sole
proprietorship mode. The highest number of the owners/managers of the Nigerian
construction SMEs is of ages between 36 and 50 years and this constitutes about
42% of the total population of the Nigerian construction SMEs. The Nigerian
construction SMEs have a great contribution to the Nigerian economy in terms of
the building and construction investment; that is the Nigerian construction SMEs
contribute to about 11% of the Nigeria’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2010
(NBS and SMEDAN, 2012).
The regulations of OSH in Nigeria has received little attention, with little emphasis
to strict adherence to safety in the construction industry and very minimal impact
made by the inspection officers towards ensuring strict compliance. The accidents
record in Nigeria indicate an alarming rate of injuries and fatalities on sites (Diugwu
et al., 2012). Hence, there is need to find a way of minimizing the rate of falls and
injuries in Nigerian construction industry.
Effective health and safety measures required on construction sites

Construction industry is considered one of the most hazardous industries because
of its unique nature (Fang and Wu, 2013). It comprises of a wide range of activities
(both construction and repair) that rely intensively on labourers, heavy machinery
and equipment. Construction workers engage in many activities that may expose
them to serious hazards, such as falling from rooftops, encountering unguarded
machinery, and being struck by heavy construction equipment (Popov et al., 2016).
Therefore, safety procedures related to the construction industry or project sites
have been established in different countries (Muiruri and Mulinge, 2014) to ensure
that construction sites or the industry are not the cause of immediate danger to
the public or workers at a project site. Construction safety regulations are also
useful for ensuring that every finished product meets the required safety standards.
Health and safety regulations
Research studies trace the origin of H&S regulations generally to the UK and US
(Sunil& Hari., 2019). Nigeria as a former colony of Britain depended solely on
standards and regulations of her colonial master before and even after
independence. As a result, almost all existing regulations of reference on H&S in
Nigeria originated from foreign countries (Kolawole 2014).
Chudley and Greeno (2016) defined construction regulations as statutory

instruments setting out the minimum legal requirements for construction works
and relate primarily to the health, safety and welfare of the workforce which must
be taken into account when planning construction operations and during the
actual construction period. Regulation cannot on its own be effective without
enforcement. Idubor and Osiamoje (2013) opine that regulations without proper
enforcement are tantamount to no laws.
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Globally, health and safety regulations governing the construction industry and
other work related industries exist. In Nigeria also, a number of legislations on
occupational health and safety exist. These include; Labour Act of 1974 modified
to Labour Acts 1990, and updated to Labour Act, Cap L1, Laws of the Federation of
Nigeria (LFN), 2004; the Factories Act of 1987 which became effective in 1990 and
later updated to Factories Act, Cap. F1, LFN, 2004 Federal Government of Nigeria,
“The Factory Act Of 1990”; the Workman’s Compensation Act of 1987 which
became effective in 1990, modified to Workman’s Compensation Act, Cap W6, LFN,
2004 and repeal to Employee’s Compensation Act, No. 13, 2010 of the laws of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria, “Factories Act 126 Cap. F1 LFN. 2004,” Federation of
Nigeria (2010) the Insurance Act, 2003 and the Labour, Safety, Health and Welfare
Bill of 2012 including the National Building Code Enforcement Bill which has
suffered huge political setback over the years, and is yet to be passed into law by
the National Assembly.
In spite of numerous statutory provisions and expectations in Nigeria, gap still exist
in health and safety. This problem is linked to adopting almost all existing
regulations of reference on health and safety in Nigeria from foreign countries,
especially from the British legal system with little or no changes made. Kolo (2015)
observed that some provisions from these laws do not necessarily meet the
conditions experienced in Nigeria.
Dodo (2014) linked the problem to adopting almost all existing regulations of
reference on health and safety in Nigeria from foreign countries, especially from
the British legal system with little or no changes made.
Nevertheless, the emergence of new regulations, laws, standards and codes has
made many construction organisations to improve their safety performance.
Safety code of practice in construction industry
The purpose of building codes and construction regulations cannot be over
emphasized in project development and management, they ensure health and
safety of workers, it provide habitable facilities, promotion of energy efficiency, it
also facilitate sustainable development and contribute greatly to meeting the
demands construction stakeholders. Muiruri ( 2014) asserted that code and
regulations is not stand alone to improve construction safety at reduce cost, rather
poor codes and regulations can only add to project cost without any solution to
construction safety compliance. The cost arises from delays in construction
progress include both direct and indirect cost on the employers and employees.
The numerous numbers of codes and regulations that support management of
health and safety practice includes: The provision and use of Equipment Regulation
(1992), ILO code of practice-International Labour Office (1992), The Manual
Handling Operations Regulations (1992), The Personal Protective Equipment at
Work Regulations(1992), The occupational safety and health act of (2007), The
Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations (1991), Health and
Safety (First-Aid) Regulations (1981), Management of Health and Safety at Work
Regulations (1999), Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (2002),
Construction Design and Management Regulations 2015 (CDM 2015), Nigerian
National Building Code (2007) (Bamisile, 2004 and Muiruri , 2014).
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The provision of Nigerian National Building Code

The Nigerian National Building Code came on board after several debates and
agitation by the representative of stakeholders in the built environment and
government under the headship of the Minister of Housing and Urban
Development. The code intended to serve as means of enhancing construction
project, by disengagement of quacks and the use of ‘non-tested ’materials in the
execution of building production. The objectives of the code is to provides solution
to current challenges confronting the Nigerian building industry, this include:
Inadequate town planning in Nigerian cities, occurrence of building collapse and
accident related issues, dearth of construction standards for regulating building
designs and production, and the poor maintenance culture in the industry.
The code stated in section 7 (49) stated the need to protect the general public and
workers anytime a building production process, demolished and maintenance
work are to be carried out. The following provisions were made in the code to
ensure safety compliance of the operatives involved during production works on
site: Section 7 (55) stated the requirement for the use of scaffolds and their
components should provide support without failure at least four times the
maximum intended loads.
Section 7 (60) stated the requirement for managing health hazards, every
construction or maintenance operation which results in the diffusion of noise, dust,
stone and other small particles, toxic gases or other harmful substances in
quantities hazardous to health shall be safeguarded by means of local ventilation
or other protective wears to ensure the safety of the workers and the public as
required by this code.
Windapo and Jegede (2013) also noted that contractors (who are SMEs) prioritize
savings cost to H &S in the Nigerian construction industry .
Safety policy
A health and safety policy is a written document which recognizes that health and
safety is an integral part of the building and construction industry performance. It
is a statement by the industry of its intentions and approach in relation to its overall
health and safety performance and provides a framework for action, and for the
setting of its health and safety objectives and targets.
In every construction site or organization, Site managers should have a written

safety policy for their organization setting out the safety and health standards
which it is their objective to achieve. The policy should appoint a senior executive
who is responsible for seeing that the standards are achieved, and who has
authority to allocate responsibilities to management and supervisors at all levels
and to see that they are carried out. Construction safety policy must therefore be
developed by each site manager and operating company prior to starting any
construction job. Once developed the development safety plan should be placed
into a training program that's needed to be participated in by every site worker
previous to partaking in any job found on the positioning irrespective of the roles
simplicity. The absence of site meetings as established in this survey implies that
workers are not given a forum learn about various risks on the sites and Supervisors
equally do not have opportunities to communicate important health and safety
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matters to the workers. Site meetings are one of the ways of sensitizing workers on
their health and safety in the site and should therefore be held frequently.
The policy should indicate the intention and purposes of the industry to operate a
workplace, which is drug-free, specify the kind of substances to be banned e.g.
alcohol, explain the applied testing methods, state, and describe any assistance
programs and penalties. Mandatory testing before hiring, testing for cause and
continuous random testing should be addressed by the drug-testing program.
Compulsory drug testing should be included in the employment application
process.
Concept of safety culture in construction industry
For a long time, the construction industry has been labelled with a poor
occupational safety and health culture. Efforts to improve occupational safety and
health performance will not be effective until the occupational safety and health
culture is improved (Misnan et al. 2012). It is a generally accepted wisdom that an
organization that develops and maintains a strong safety culture is more effective
at preventing individual and large scale accidents (Agwu and Olede, 2014). Agwu
and Olele (2014) in Mbuya and Lema (2016) opined that in most developing
countries, safety consideration in construction project delivery is not given a
priority and the employment of safety measures during construction is considered
a burden. Enhassi et al., (2015) reported that in many developing countries, the
legislation governing Occupational Health and Safety is significantly limited when
compared with UK. They further reported that there are rarely any special
provisions for construction workers ’safety and the general conditions of work are
often not addressed. Agwu and Olede (2014) reported that in many of the countries
where safety legislation exists, the regulatory authority is weak and non- existent
and employers ‘pay lip service ’to regulations.
Challenges affecting the implementation of health and safety measures on

construction sites
According to Nzuve and Lawrence (2012) low level of inspection and examination
of workplaces might determine the level of compliance with occupational safety
and health (OSH) regulations as evident in workplaces in Nairobi. The same can be
said of Nigeria, where lack of enforcement characterizes regulatory institutions
(Idubor and Osiamoje, 2013). Furthermore, Okojie, (2010) argues that insignificant
penalties stipulated by the OSH laws do not guarantee compliance in any way,
suggesting that penalties should serve as indirect instruments for enforcement of
OSH regulations; that way, it can serve as deterrent to offenders. Diugwu et al.,
(2012) argue that lack of resources can hinder occupational safety and health (OSH)
management efforts. Conclusively, strict enforcement, weak national occupational
health and safety standards, lack of adequate information, bribery and corruption,
management commitment, weak legal structure, beliefs, lack of funding, and lack
of awareness and improper medium for information dissemination are some of the
challenges reviewed.
Other challenges of H &S measures implementation for construction SMEs include
the following:
I. Poor Supervision and Monitoring

II. Inadequate training and retraining
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III. Low capitalization

IV. Poor policy implementation
V. Poor budgetary provision and implementation
VI. Lack of enabling environment (Social, Political, Legislative,
macroeconomic and bureaucratic obstacles).
Strategies for improving the level of implementation of safety measures on
construction sites
Ghousi et al., (2018) described a safety program as a fundamental and necessary
basic program for building construction projects. Ghousi et al. (2018) further
explained that a successful safety program must have three essential parts:
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), safety measures or Collective Protective
Measures (CPM) and safety training. Construction sites are dangerous places, and
as such first aid and rescue equipment should always be available. Work in the
construction industry is tedious and involves much manual or physical activity. It is
also hazardous and dirty and therefore good welfare facilities not only improve
workers ’welfare but also enhance efficiency. In order to reduce hazards and
accidents in a construction site, health and safety risk assessment is an important
measure (El-Mashaleh2010). Safety strategies reviewed include safety program,
first aid kit and accident reporting, welfare facilities, safety promotion, safety
personnel salary, health and safety file, health and safety risk assessment, site
layout and planning, and working environment (Jannadi & Bu-Khasim 2002).
Other strategies for improving the Level of Implementation of Safety Measures on

construction Sites include;
First aid kits and accident reporting
According to Nzuve & Lawrence (2012) Construction sites are dangerous places,
and as such first aid and rescue equipment should always be available. What is
needed depends on the size of the site and the numbers employed, there should
be a blanket and a stretcher. On large sites with more than 200 employees, there
should be a properly equipped first aid room.
On any construction site of that size, at least one person on every shift should have
been trained in first aid to a nationally recognized standard. On day -to-day works
procedures, an accident register book should be kept at the site, in which all types
of minor injury such as bruises, to major accidents should be recorded (HSE 1998).
Most of the construction sites that had first aid boxes were ill equipped with only
spirit, bandage, paracetamol and cotton wool. First aid is a lifesaving exercise which
is taken for granted on the sites visited and shows that workers are exposed to
danger and risks when injured.
Welfare facilities
Work in the construction industry is tedious and involves much manual or physical
activity. It is also hazardous and dirty and therefore good welfare facilities not only
improve workers ’welfare but also enhance efficiency. Welfare facilities such as the
provision of drinking-water, washing, sanitary and changing accommodation, rest-
rooms and shelter, facilities for preparing and eating meals, temporary housing,
assistance in transport from place of residence to the work site and back, all help
to reduce fatigue and improve workers ’health.
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Therefore health and safety measures employed on construction sites are

inadequate and fail to meet the required standards. The culture and attitude of
construction workers and the site supervisors about health and safety often
condone risk taking and unsafe work practices. Lack of proper information and
ignorance are also to blame for the poor safety measures in construction sites. For
instance some workers felt that the safety equipment’s such as hard helmets and
reinforced boots are too cumbersome and uncomfortable.
Health and safety risk assessment

In order to reduce hazards and accidents in a construction site, health and safety
risk assessment is an important measure. In the context of health and safety,
common definitions used for risk are that: risk is the likelihood of a substance to
cause harm; and risk is a combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a
hazardous event or exposure(s) and the severity of injury or ill health that can be
caused by the event or exposure.
The Health and Safety Executive (HSE,1998) defined risk assessment as a process
that identifies the hazards associated with particular activities/tasks, evaluates the
effects of exposure to these hazards and implements the measure needed to
control the risk of injury/ill health to as low a level as possible.
This study adopted a quantitative research approach this is due to high rate of
accidents that occur in the construction SMEs. The study encompassed a review of
literature survey from journals, conference papers and past projects to assess level
of implementation of safety measures for small and medium sized construction
firms. Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources. The use of
questionnaire was employed to gather data for this study. Descriptive statistics
comprising of Relative Importance Index (RII) and Mean Item Score (MIS) were
employed to analyse the data collected in order to achieve the research objectives.
The use of RII and MIS for the analysis of data in this study is based on the formula
depicted in Equation 3.1 and 3.2 respectively.
Ʃ𝑊
RII = 𝐴𝑋𝑁 …………………… (3.1)
Where;
Ʃ = Summation, W = the weights of every one of the factors given by respondents

and it was in the range of (1 - 5), (A=5) the largest value of weight (i.e. highest
factor) and finally N refers to the Total number respondents.
Ʃ𝑊
MIS = ……………………… (3.2)
𝑁
Where;
Ʃ = Summation, W = Weight, and N = Total number respondents
The decision rule employed for the RII and MIS analysis is summarized in Table 3.
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Table 1: Decision rule for analysis of data

SCALE Cut-Off Point Interpretations
Level of Level of Level of
RII MIS
Awareness Severity Effectiveness
5 0.81 - 1.00 4.51 - 5.00 Highly Aware Very Severe Very Effective
4 0.61 - 0.80 3.51 - 4.50 Aware Severe Effective
3 0.41 - 0.60 2.51 - 3.50 Fairly Aware Fairly Severe Fairly Effective
2 0.21 - 0.40 1.51 - 2.50 Unaware Less Severe Less Effective
1 0.00 - 0.20 1.00 - 1.50 Highly Unaware Least Severe Least Effective
Source: Adapted and modified from Shittu et al. (2015a)
Reliability test
Cronbach’s Alpha test was used to measure the internal consistency or reliability
of a set of items and used when the multiple Likert’s scale is adopted in a
questionnaire survey. Cronbach’s Alpha Test was carried out to ascertain the
reliability of the quantitative data collected for the study. Table2 Contain result of
the reliability checks for the various sections of the questionnaire. The Cronbach’s
alpha value of the variables tested ranges between 0.299 - 0.802, with an average
of 0.587.
Table 2 Results of Cronbach’s Alpha for Reliability Test

Cronbach's No. of
S/No. Variables Tested
Alpha Items
Identify and assess the effective safety measures
1. 0.661 15
required on construction sites by SMEs
Examine the challenges affecting the implementation
2. 0.299 10
of safety measures on construction sites by SMEs
Suggest strategies for improving the level of
3. implementation of safety measures on construction
0.802 15
sites by SMEs
Average 0.587
Source: Researcher’s field survey (2020)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section describes and presents the analysis and interpretation of research data.
The research which adopts a primarily sourced data using a well-structured
questionnaire had been analysed. The results of the descriptive analysis are
presented in Table 1 – 3. The discussion for each Table thereafter follows below.
Result and discussion for effective safety measures required on construction sites
Table 3 presents the MIS result of the analysis on the level of effectiveness of safety
measures required on construction sites.
Table 3 reveals that the use of personal protective clothing (PPC) with MIS of 4.54
and standard deviation of 0.504, safety policy with MIS of 4.15, and standard
deviation of 1.010, use of first aid kits with MIS of 4.11 and standard deviation of
0.849, health and safety training with MIS of 3.98 and standard deviation of 0.906,
and good working environment with MIS of 3.96 and standard deviation of 0.965
are the effective safety measures required on construction sites. This is in line with
the findings of El-Mashaleh et al. (2010) where they found that undertaking regular
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meeting on safety at the project level, ensuring adequate measures on safety,

making available personal protection equipment (PPE), putting up safety signs and
posters, undertaking regular safety inspections, establishing a system for
acknowledging and awarding safe conduct are essential for safety performance on
construction sites.
Table 3: Effective safety measures required on the site of an organisation

S/No. Effective Safety Measures MIS SD Rank
1. Use of personal protective clothing (PPC) 4.54 0.504 1st
2. Safety policy 4.15 1.010 2nd
3. Use of first aid kits 4.11 0.849 3rd
4. Health and safety training 3.98 0.906 4th
5. Good working environment 3.96 0.965 5th
6. Safety personnel 3.80 0.934 6th
7. Health and safety risk assessment 3.76 0.822 7th
8. Welfare facilities 3.70 0.866 8th
9. Safety inductions 3.63 1.040 9th
10. Use of posters and other signs to give safety education 3.57 1.068 10th
11. Display of safety information clearly 3.50 0.888 11th
12. Keep safety procedures updated 3.41 0.956 12th
13. Safety meetings 3.37 1.082 13th
14. Alcohol-and substance-abuse programme 3.24 1.251 14th
15. Health and safety warning signs 3.22 0.917 15th
Average 3.73
Source: Researcher’s data analysis (2020).
Result and discussion for challenges affecting the implementation of safety

measures by construction small and medium sized enterprises
Table 4 Shows the RII result of the identified challenges affecting the
implementation of safety measures by construction small and medium sized
enterprises.
Table 4. Challenges affecting the implementation of safety measures by construction small and
medium sized enterprises
S/No. Challenges RII SD Rank
1. Management commitment 4.63 0.488 1st
Low level of compliance with occupational health and safety
2. 4.24 0.848 2nd
regulations
3. Weak national OHS standards 3.96 0.759 3rd
4. Lack of adequate information on OHS 3.59 1.166 4th
5. Weak legal structures 3.54 0.982 5th
6. Awareness and proper medium of information dissemination 3.39 0.930 6th
7. Provision of safety facilities 3.26 0.976 7th
Lack of funding for inspecting and H&S plan in a
8. 3.04 0.868 8th
construction sites
9. Bribery and Corruption 2.80 1.067 9th
10. Absence of safety representatives 2.74 1.104 10th
Average 3.52
Source: Researcher’s data analysis (2020)
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Table 4 revealed that the most severe challenge affecting the implementation of
safety measures by construction SMEs are management commitment with MIS of
4.63 and standard deviation of 0.488, low level of compliance with occupational
health and safety regulations with mean score of 4.24 and standard deviation of
0.848, Weak national OHS standards with mean score of 3.96 and standard
deviation of 0.759, Lack of adequate information on OHS with mean score of 3.59
and standard deviation of 1.166, and Weak legal structures with mean score of 3.54
and standard deviation of 0.982. This agrees with the findings of Nzuve and
Lawrence (2012) which revealed that low level of inspection and examination of
workplaces might determine the level of compliance with occupational safety and
health (OSH) regulations as evident in workplaces. And contradict with the findings
of Idubor and Osiamoje (2013) which assert that bribery and corruption are the
biggest hindrances to proper compliance with occupational safety and health
(OSH) regulations in Nigeria.
Result and discussion for strategies for improving the level of implementation of
safety measures on construction sites
Table 5 shows the MIS result on the strategies for improving the level of
implementation of safety measures on construction sites.
Table 5 Strategies for improving the level of implementation of safety measures on construction
sites
S/No. Strategies MIS SD Rank
1. Provision of personal protective equipment 0.94 0.502 1st
2. Provide first aid supplies 0.88 0.774 2nd
3. Use of Building codes of practice 0.86 0.628 3rd
4. Training and Competence 0.85 0.801 4th
5. Communication of H&S policy and programs to staff 0.84 0.778 5th
6. Deal with any hazards promptly 0.83 0.957 6th
7. Training and Enforcement 0.81 0.759 7th
8. Risk Awareness, management and tolerance 0.80 0.989 8th
9. Safety inspection 0.79 0.904 9th
10. Keep safety procedures updated 0.78 0.948 10th
11. Meet fire safety standard 0.77 0.749 11th
12. Strategic safety communication 0.75 0.899 12th
Collective protective equipment such as scaffolding, safety
13. 0.74 0.779 13th
nets fencing and accessibility
14. Display safety information clearly 0.72 1.085 14th
15. Worksite organization 0.71 0.981 15th
Average 0.81
Source: Researcher’s data analysis (2020).
Table 5 which highlights the strategies used for improving the level of
implementation of safety measure identified provision of personal protective
equipment (PPE) with the RII of 0.94 and standard deviation of 0.502, provide first
aid supplies with the RII of 0.88 and standard deviation of 0.774, use of building
codes of practice with the RII of 0.86 and standard deviation of 0.628, training and
competence with the RII of 0.85 and standard deviation of 0.801, and
communication of H&S policy and programs to staff with the RII of 0.84 and
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standard deviation of 0.778 as the most effective strategy to improve the level of
implementation of safety measure. This corroborate with the findings of Ikpe
(2010) where he asserted that provision of personal protective equipment can be
argued to be the most significant element in terms of improving the level of
implementation of safety measure.
In view of that the following observations have been made;
I. Analysis from table 3 which highlights the effective safety measures

required on construction site revealed that the most effective safety
measures implemented on their site(s) are; use of personal protective
clothing (PPC), safety policy and use of first aid kits.
II. Table 4 which identified the challenges affecting the implementation of

safety measures by construction small and medium sized enterprises, and
revealed that the most severe challenge affecting such implementation is
management commitment Other severe challenges identified during the
study include; is low level of compliance with occupational health and safety
regulations., lack of adequate information on OHS, weak national OHS
standards, weak legal structures, awareness and proper medium of
information dissemination, provision of safety facilities, lack of funding for
inspecting and H&S plan in a construction sites, bribery and corruption and
absence of safety representatives.
III. Table 5 which highlights the strategies used for improving the level of
implementation of safety measure identified provision of personal
protective equipment as the most effective strategy to improve the level of
implementation of safety measure.
It was shown from the results of the MIS and RII analysis that the use of personal
protective clothing is an effective measure required on construction sites and the
most severe challenge affecting the implementation of safety measures by
construction SMEs is management commitment. Provision of personal protective
equipment (PPE) was identified as the most effective strategies used for improving
the level of implementation of safety measure identified.
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions and recommendations
Upon analysis, this research brought forth the following conclusions:
 Use of personal protective clothing (PPC), safety policy, use of first aid kits,
health and safety training and good working environment are the most
required safety measures required on construction sites of SMEs.
 Management commitment, low level of compliance with occupational

health and safety regulations, weak national occupational health and safety
(OHS) standards, lack of adequate information on occupational health and
safety (OHS), and weak legal structures are the most severe challenges
affecting the implementation of safety measures by construction SMEs.
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 Provision of personal protective equipment, provision of first aid supplies,

use of building codes of practice, training and competence, and
communication of H&S policy and programs to staff are the most effective
strategies that can improve the level of implementation of safety measures
on construction sites by SMEs.
 It can finally be concluded that there is low level of implementation of safety

measures on construction sites by construction SMEs in Abuja.
In view of the aforementioned conclusions and based on the findings from this
research, this study recommends the following:
 Construction firms should encourage and enhance the implementation/use of

personal protective clothing (PPC), safety policy, use of first aid kits, health and
safety training and good working environment so as to further reduce rate of
accidents and unnecessary expenses that may amount as result of accidents.
 This study recommends that firms should have a more stringent in-house rules
by incorporating the ‘carrot and stick ’approach (that is, a combination of
reward and punishment) to induce good behaviour. In addition, reduction in
cost of safety training, adoption of seminars and workshops to engage SMEs
to be part of OHS activities, and ensuring the right safety culture for
professionals/site workers is crucial for the advancement of OHS and for the
wellbeing of the workers.
 This research recommend that construction firms should ensure provision of

adequate personal protective equipment, provide first aid supplies, encourage
the use of building codes of practice, facilitate staff training and competence,
ensure proper communication of H&S policy and programs to staff, and
conduct safety inspections at predetermined intervals so as to improve the
level of implementation of safety measure on construction sites by SMEs.
 Finally, organizations and construction stakeholders should encourage, ensure,

and promote the proper implementation safety measures as it is intended to
support small and medium sized construction firms as well as professionals in
identifying safety issues, putting measures in place to curb challenges
inhibiting safety measures implementation and improving on the safety
practices of small and medium sized construction firms in order to enhance
firm’s competitive advantage and boost performance.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AUTOMATED RECOGNITION OF CONSTRUCTION WORKERS’

PHYSICAL FATIGUE BASED ON FOOT PLANTAR PATTERNS
CAPTURED FROM A WEARABLE INSOLE PRESSURE SYSTEM
Maxwell Fordjour Antwi-Afari1, Heng Li2, David John Webb3, Shahnawaz Anwer4,
JoonOh Seo5, Kenneth Sungho Park6 and Alex Torku7
1,6Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Physical Sciences, Aston University,
B4 7ET, Birmingham, United Kingdom,
2,4,5,7Department of Building and Real Estate, Faculty of Construction and Environment, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR).
3Aston Institute for Urban Technology and the Environment (ASTUTE), Aston University, B4 7ET,
Birmingham, United Kingdom.
Construction workers are exposed to numerous non-fatal occupational injuries (e.g., fall
accidents, work-related musculoskeletal disorders) due to physically demanding
activities such as repetitive lifting tasks. One of the key preventive measures to mitigate
these occupational injuries among construction workers is by recognizing workers ’
physical fatigue. However, previous approaches for recognizing workers ’fatigue are
subjective, time-consuming, and based on localized muscle fatigue. Therefore, the
objective of this study is to develop a non-invasive approach to recognize workers ’
physical fatigue by capturing foot plantar patterns measured by a wearable insole
pressure system after a fatiguing repetitive lifting task. The experimental protocol was
designed to recruit construction workers to participate in this study by collecting their
foot plantar patterns during normal gait and after a fatiguing repetitive lifting task. The
performance accuracy was evaluated by adopting five types of supervised machine
learning classifiers and different window sizes. The results showed that the Random
Forest classifier obtained the best classification performance with an accuracy of 95.8%
and sensitivity of 97.8% using a sliding window of 2.56s. The findings indicate that the
proposed approach would provide useful ergonomic intervention guidelines for early
detection of workers ’physical fatigue, and thus enable safety managers to mitigate
non-fatal occupational injuries among construction workers.
Keywords: construction workers, physical fatigue, repetitive lifting task, supervised

machine learning classifiers, wearable insole pressure system, work-related
musculoskeletal disorders
1 m.antwiafari@aston.ac.uk
2 heng.li@polyu.edu.hk
3 d.j.webb@aston.ac.uk
4 shahnawaz.anwer@connect.polyu.hk
5 joonoh.seo@polyu.edu.hk
6 k.park@aston.ac.uk
7 alex.torku@connect.polyu.hk
Antwi-Afari, et al. (2021) Automated recognition of construction workers’ physical fatigue based on
foot plantar patterns captured from a wearable insole pressure system In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E.
(Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra,
Ghana, 277-286
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INTRODUCTION
Studies have shown that the construction industry is one of the most hazardous
workplaces and unsafe industries worldwide with numerous non-fatal occupational
injuries (Seo et al., 2016; Scott et al., 2018). For example, in the United States, the
construction industry reported more than 970 fatal and 200,000 non-fatal incidents
in 2017 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018). It has also been reported that 309,060
cases of injuries in the construction industry were caused by falls (Scott et al., 2018).
Despite significant research efforts that suggested several preventive measures for
mitigating workers ’injuries, the rate of non-fatal occupational injuries remains
prevalent. Consequently, there is still a critical need to improve workers ’safety.
Construction workplace activities (e.g., lifting, carrying, pulling, pushing) are usually
dynamic, physically demanding, repetitive, and often conducted manually for
prolonged work duration under harsh environmental conditions without sufficient
rest duration (Antwi-Afari et al., 2017b). These work-related risk factors are likely
to expose workers to a high risk of developing physical fatigue. It is widely known
that prolonged conditions of workers ’physical fatigue could lead to occupational
issues such as work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) and non-fatal fall
accidents (Looze et al., 2009; BLS, 2018).
Previous studies on assessing workers ’physical fatigue are mainly based on self-
reported methods such as questionnaires. These manual methods rely on reporting
subjective fatigue levels (Debnath et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2015). To address these
limitations in the traditional approaches, there has been an increasing number of
studies that utilized biomechanical analysis methods (e.g., kinetics and kinematics)
and electrical physiological signals such as heart rate, heart-rate variability, skin
temperature, surface electromyography, electrodermal activity (Gatti et al., 2014;
Romanovsky, 2014; Antwi-Afari et al., 2017b). Despite being useful and providing
accurate results for fatigue monitoring, wearing these sensors in different bodily
locations make workers feel uncomfortable, and they also have high hardware
costs—limiting their applications on construction sites (Zhang et al. 2018).
Therefore, this research study aims to develop a non-invasive and automated

recognition of workers ’physical fatigue by using foot plantar patterns captured by
a wearable insole pressure system. Field experiments were designed and
conducted to collect workers ’fatigued patterns after a fatiguing repetitive lifting
task. Supervised machine learning classifiers were adopted to train and classify
normal gait and physically fatigued patterns. Overall, the findings of this study
could aid in the early detection of workers ’physical fatigue, which will improve
construction workers ’safety and productivity.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Fatigue is defined as a decline in an individual’s ability to perform a given task at a
desirable level of performance (Hallowell, 2010). Fatigue can be classified into three
main groups, namely: physical fatigue, mental fatigue, and emotional fatigue.
Numerous studies focused on the detection of workers ’emotional and mental
fatigue states in construction (Hwang et al., 2018; Jebelli et al., 2018; Xing et al.,
2019). Unlike mental and emotional fatigue states (e.g., anxiety, stress), physical
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fatigue is particularly characterized as a reduction of an individual ability to

perform a physical task resulting from physical exertion or demand (Sharpe, 1991).
There are several methods to assess whole-body physical fatigue. Several decades
ago, one of the traditional methods for assessing workers ’physical fatigue in the
workplace was by using self-reported methods (Debnath et al., 2015; Zhang et al.,
2015). Examples of these methods include the Borg’s Rating of Perceived Exertion-
scale (RPE), Borg’s Category Ratio-scale (Borg CR-10), Need for Recovery Scale
(NRS), and Fatigue Assessment Scale (Borg, 1998; Van Veldhoven, 2003). Although
they are easy to implement, self-reported methods depend on workers ’subjective
perceptions and consequently are biased.
Biomechanical models, which analyze human movements and estimate joint

loadings, are another method to assess workers ’physical fatigue (Seo et al., 2016).
To estimate internal tissue loadings, electromyography-assisted biomechanical
models and remote-sensing approaches have been demonstrated in previous
studies (Neumann et al., 2001; Seo et al., 2016). Biomechanical models have the
potential for processing human motion data to assess workers ’physical fatigue but
require large sample data, and errors are easily caused by the configuration of the
biomechanical skeleton models (Wang et al., 2015a).
Other measurement indicators for assessing workers ’physical fatigue are
physiological parameters such as surface electromyography (sEMG), electrodermal
activity (EDA), electroencephalography (EEG), heart rate (HR), heart rate variability
(HRV), and skin temperature (ST) (Antwi-Afari et al., 2017b; Sumowski and Leavitt,
2014; Aryal et a., 2017; Jebelli et al., 2018; Xing et al., 2019). These physiological
parameters are usually measured by using different types of wearable biosensors
(e.g., headsets, chest straps, and wristbands). Although they provide useful findings
for assessing workers ’physical fatigue, collecting physiological parameters is
challenging due to intrinsic artifacts such as facial muscle movement (Jebelli et al.,
2020).
Vision-based motion capture methods such as Depth cameras and RGB images
provide non-invasive approaches to assessing workers ’physical fatigue. Previous
studies have demonstrated that vision-based approaches are effective to collect
workers' motion data in both indoor and outdoor environments (Ray and Teizer,
2012; Yu et al., 2019). While these approaches are highly accurate, vision-based
motion capture methods are limited because they do not allow continuous
monitoring outside laboratory environments.
With the recent advancement of wearable sensing techniques, wearable inertial
measurement units (WIMUs) have been widely used to obtain construction
workers ’bodily responses or gait patterns for improving occupational safety
(Jebelli et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2017; Conforti et al., 2020). In spite of their
usefulness, WIMUs not only require sensors to be attached to the workers ’skin
which may cause discomfort but also require additional attachments such as straps
or belts to prevent detachment of sensors from the body when performing tasks.
Given the above limitations, this research proposes a noninvasive and automated
recognition of workers ’physical fatigue by using foot plantar patterns measured
by a wearable insole pressure system. It can be easily inserted or detached from
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workers ’safety boots, which minimizes restraint in body movement and discomfort
(Antwi-Afari and Li 2018g). In addition, it offers higher portability, ease of use, and
great potential in complex and dynamic applications without being invasive as
compared to other traditional approaches.
RESEARCH METHODS
Participants
Three asymptomatic male construction workers were voluntarily recruited to
participate in this study. Their mean age, weight, and height were 38.4 ±3.21 years,
74 ±2.34 kg, and 1.72 ±0.06 m, respectively. The participants had no medical
history of mechanical upper extremities or back pain, or lower extremity injuries.
Participants provided their informed consent in accordance with the approved
procedure.
Experimental procedure and data collection
An OpenGo system (Moticon SCIENCE Sensor Insole GmbH, Munich, Germany),
which consists of 16 capacitive pressure sensors, a 3-axis gyroscope (MEMS
LSM6DSL, ST Microelectronics), and a 3-axis accelerometer for each sensor insole
was used for data collection. Pressure sensors have a range, resolution, and
hysteresis of 0 to 50.0 N/cm2, 0.25 N/cm2, and ≤ 1%, respectively.
A cross-sectional study design was adopted during a single visit. All participants
were asked to wear personal protective equipment such as a pair of safety boots
and a hard hat during the testing sessions. During data acquisition, the
experimenter used Borg’s Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) (Borg, 1998) to collect
the participants ’perceived level of physical fatigue for every 10 minutes. The RPE
scale is a simple and subjective rating scale, from 6 to 20, with descriptions ranging
from “No physical exertion at all” to “Maximal exertion”, respectively. Based on
previous ergonomics studies, the Borg-20 scale is a reliable method for monitoring
physical demands during repetitive lifting task tasks and it has been reported that
participants physical fatigue occurred when RPE was ≥ 15 (Nasirzadeh et al., 2020).
The designed experimental tasks involved a normal gait and physically fatigued
patterns collected after repetitive lifting tasks on a construction site. Notably, a
prolonged repetitive lifting task that involves physical exertion without a rest
period has been identified as the leading risk factor for developing WMSDs and
physical fatigue among construction workers (BLS, 2016). The entire experiment
was recorded using a video camcorder.
Data segmentation
A sliding window technique was adopted to divide foot plantar patterns into
smaller segments, each segment containing a specified number of data samples
(Preece et al., 2009). The sampling frequency selected was 50 Hz, which implies that
for every second, 50 data samples are obtained. Window sizes of 0.32s, 0.64s, 1.28s,
and 2.56s were used because the conversion of the time domain to frequency
domain using fast Fourier transform (FFT) in MATLAB 9.2 software (Matlab, The
MathWorks Inc., MA, USA) required the window size to be a power of 2 (Akhavian
and Behzadan, 2016). To prevent missing relevant data, an overlapping of
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consecutive windows was conducted. A 50% overlap of adjacent data segment

lengths was used as demonstrated in previous studies (Antwi-Afari et al., 2018c).
Feature extraction
Relevant features were extracted from the pre-processed segmented data based
on distinctive characteristics such as sensor signal streams and signal frequency.
Given the segmented data samples, feature extraction methods were divided into
three categories, namely time-domain, frequency-domain, and spatio-temporal
features. In the initial stage, time-domain features, also known as signal statistical
features, were extracted, such as mean, variance, maximum, minimum, interquartile
range, standard deviation, root mean square, kurtosis, and skewness. Next, plantar
pressure data in the time-domain was converted to the frequency-domain by using
the fast Fourier transform (FFT) in MATLAB 9.2 software (Matlab, The MathWorks
Inc., MA, USA). Frequency-domain features are extracted based on the frequency
variations of pressure signals over time. Two frequency-domain features, namely
spectral energy and entropy spectrum were extracted. Lastly, three spatiotemporal
features, including pressure-time integral, anterior/posterior center of pressure,
and medial/lateral center of pressure were also extracted. Spatiotemporal features
were extracted based on both space and time variations of pressure signals over
time.
Reference data
After feature extraction, a class label was manually assigned to each window with
the aid of video recordings. The purpose of reference data in human activity
recognition studies is to provide a ground truth to evaluate the performance of
supervised machine learning classifiers (Akhavian and Behzadan, 2016; Antwi-Afari
et al., 2020a). It also ensures that the collected plantar patterns could correctly
represent actual experimental tasks.
Classifier training
During the classifier training, all extracted features (input variables) were trained
using a supervised machine learning classifier to classify normal gait and physical
fatigue gait patterns (output variables). Many supervised machine learning
classifiers have been applied in human activity recognition and fall risk detection
(Akhavian and Behzadan, 2016; Antwi-Afari et al., 2018c; Antwi-Afari et al., 2020a).
Nevertheless, in this study, five different types of supervised machine learning
classifiers were examined, namely: (1) Artificial Neural Network (ANN); (2) Decision
Tree (DT); (3) Random Forest (RF); (4) K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN); and (5) Support
Vector Machine (SVM). All data processing of the classifiers were performed using
Toolbox in MATLAB 9.2 software.
Model assessment and performance evaluation
During the training process, a 10-fold cross-validation was used to assess the
accuracy and validity of the classifier models (Attal et al., 2015). Lastly, the
performance of the supervised classifiers was assessed by using metrics such as
accuracy and sensitivity (Attal et al. 2015). Equations 1 and 2 show how each metric
is calculated.
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𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑦 = (1)
𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁
𝑇𝑃
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (2)
𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁
Where, True Positive (TP) is the number of positive instances that were classified as
positive; True Negative (TN) is the number of negative instances that were classified
as negative; False Positive (FP) is the number of negative instances that were
classified as positive; and False Negatives (FN) is the number of positive instances
that were classified as negative.

Table 1 illustrates the classification accuracy of using the individualized data of
each participant. As shown in Table 1, the RF classifier had the best accuracy as
compared to other classifiers. This result indicates that the RF classifier shows the
best performance for recognizing fatigue patterns after a fatiguing repetitive lifting
task. Regarding different types of window segments, the 2.56s window size
provided the highest accuracies among all classifiers. Among the different
classifiers, the RF classifier achieved the highest accuracies at the 2.56s window
size. In addition, participant III obtained the highest accuracy (i.e., 95.8%) at 2.56s
window size, followed by participant II (i.e., 94.5%) and participant I (i.e., 93.8%).
These results suggest that larger window sizes of fatigued patterns provide better
performance than smaller window sizes.
Table 1. Classification accuracy (%) for each participant

Window size ANN DT KNN SVM RF
Participant I 53.4 63.5 71.3 74.6 82.4
0.32s Participant II 54.8 61.7 73.7 75.3 81.8
Participant III 55.5 66.8 76.2 77.4 83.4
Participant I 62.5 68.9 77.3 79.5 84.8
0.64s Participant II 61.3 63.9 71.6 78.6 81.6
Participant III 65.8 70.4 78.3 80.5 85.6
Participant I 67.8 72.3 80.1 82.8 88.2
1.28s Participant II 69.3 74.1 82.2 84.7 90.2
Participant III 70.8 75.4 85.6 87.4 92.1
Participant I 72.4 77.8 86.3 91.4 93.8
2.56s Participant II 74.7 78.4 88.4 92.1 94.5
Participant III 75.8 80.2 90.5 94.8 95.8
Fig. 1a, 1b, and 1c show the confusion matrices of the best classifier (i.e., RF
classifier) at 2.56s window size for each participant. The sensitivity of fatigued
patterns was higher than normal gait as captured by a wearable insole pressure
system. The results showed that the sensitivity of fatigued patterns for participants
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I, II, and III were 95.8%, 96.5%, and 97.8%, respectively. The findings of these results
indicate that fatigued patterns as captured by a wearable insole pressure system
were positively recognized after performing a fatiguing repetitive lifting task.
The implications of the findings are very promising because this is the first study
to collect foot plantar patterns from construction workers on a real-world
construction site. Since the results reported a high accuracy of workers ’physical
fatigue from plantar patterns, the proposed approach could be adopted by safety
managers as useful ergonomic guidelines for preventing workers ’physical fatigue
and WMSDs.
1 92.5% 7.5%
True class 2 4.2% 95.8%
1 2
Predicted class
(a) Participant I
1 94.6% 5.4%
True class 2 3.5% 96.5%
1 2
Predicted class
(b) Participant II
1 95.4% 4.6%
True class 2 2.2% 97.8%
1 2
Predicted class
(c) Participant III
Fig. 1. Confusion matrix of the RF classifier for each participant at a window size of 2.56s: (a)
Participant I; (b) Participant II; and (c) Participant III
CONCLUSIONS
The current study examined the use of foot plantar patterns captured by a wearable
insole pressure system for automated recognition of workers ’physical fatigue. The
experimental study was conducted by three construction workers to recognize and
classify physical fatigued patterns measured by a wearable insole pressure system.
It was reported that the RF classifier with 2.56s window size obtained the best
classification accuracy of 93.8%, 94.5%, and 95.8% for participants I, II, and III,
respectively. In addition, the sensitivity of fatigued patterns as compared to normal
gait were 95.8% (PI), 96.5% (PII), and 97.8% (PIII). The implications of these findings
indicate that foot plantar patterns captured by using a wearable insole pressure
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system offer a plausible method for recognizing fatigued patterns after a fatiguing
repetitive lifting task. As such, safety managers could use the proposed approach
as a wearable sensing technology for detecting workers ’physical fatigue, which
could help to prevent WMSDs and improve workers ’productivity. The main
contribution of the study is that researchers and construction practitioners could
use the proposed approach for early recognition of workers ’fatigue, thus
preventing safety issues on construction sites. Despite these useful findings, there
are few limitations to this study. First, the experiments were only conducted on
three workers on site after a fatiguing repetitive lifting task. Second, the collected
fatigued patterns were trained using supervised machine learning classifiers. Future
studies should be conducted to compare the results by using larger samples of
construction workers, different workplace activities, and other deep learning
networks.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledged support from Aston Institute for Urban Technology and
the Environment (ASTUTE), Seedcorn Grants Proposal entitled “Wearable Insole
Sensor Data and a Deep Learning Network-Based Recognition for Musculoskeletal
Disorders Prevention in Construction”. Special thanks to all our participants
involved in this study.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AWARENESS AND ACCEPTANCE OF SMART SECURITY

SYSTEM AMONG OCCUPANTS OF SELECTED PUBLIC
BUILDINGS IN CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (FCT-ABUJA)
NIGERIA
Fatima Baba Ciroma1, Musa Lawal Sagada2 and Joy Joshua Maina3
1,2,3Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria
Considering the persistence increase of burglary and fire incidences, coupled with lack of
effective security systems (lock-and-key) in public buildings in Nigeria, there has been a
clamor for an innovative and creative system like Smart Security Systems that can be
deployed against all forms of intruders and related security challenges. This paper
investigated the awareness, and acceptance of smart security system among occupants of
selected public buildings in Nigeria with the Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja as the
area of study. Also, a gap exists in literature on a formal scientific approach to the analysis
and evaluation of behavioral changes that will occur in public buildings in Nigeria in the
context of smart security systems. To address this gap and present a formal analysis, this
study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design with a quantitative approach to data
collection using the study’s population of 253 occupants of selected public buildings within
the Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja; out of which 153 occupants were randomly
selected. The validated Smart Security System Questionnaire (SSSQ) was used as data
collection instrument. 132 representing out of 153 copies of SSSQ were analyzed using
frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation in tabulation format; these values were
subjected to ANOVA evaluation in order to determine the strong and weak data
components. These statistics which were scientifically computed with the aid of Statistical
Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) at 0.05 (p-value) is a true test of statistical significance.
Findings from the study reveal that while the occupants of public buildings believe that a
smart security system will make their offices more secure, the expected level of acceptance
to the operation of their workplace as a result of changes that will occur due to the
incorporation of a smart security system has not been observed. It was also found that the
management and occupants of selected public buildings in Central Business District (CBD)
FCT-Abuja are quite aware of Smart Security System as security mechanism; they showed an
appreciable level to accept, deploy and implement the system in their building architecture.
The one-way ANOVA test performed revealed significant statistical difference between
group means for readiness level and perceived usefulness for smart security systems.
Keywords: acceptance, awareness, knowledge, perceived usefulness, smart security

system
1 ciromafb@gmail.com
2 msagada2010@gmail.com
3 jjmaina@abu.edu.ng
Ciroma, Sagada and Maina (2021) Awareness and acceptance of smart security system among
occupants of selected public buildings in central business district (FCT-Abuja) Nigeria In: Laryea, S.
and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August
2021, Accra, Ghana, 287-298
287
Ciroma, Sagada and Maina
INTRODUCTION
Insecurity is a global phenomenon. Insecurity is a global problem that requires
urgent attention from government and stakeholders worldwide, it has become
rampant globally but in Nigeria it has escalated to an unpresidential level.
The idea of smart security system in buildings- especially public buildings is an

active and evolving area of research among Architects, and other designers of
public buildings (Al‐Humairi & Kamal, 2021; Ciholas et al., 2019; SARHAN, 2020; To
et al., 2018). The rapidly advancing frontiers of technology- especially
communication and surveillance technologies with the corresponding increase in
the sophistication and nature of crimes have made it very imperative for public
buildings to be properly equipped with smart security system. This is more so
important as smart building security systems give an enhanced sense of security
for the occupants while at the same time being environment-friendly and power
efficient (Kupchik, 2010).
In the west, smart security systems in public buildings is a notion that has long
been adopted as a necessary part of infrastructure the buildings represent. The
high level of education and technological advancement in the west have been
largely responsible for this. The case is however different in developing countries,
where poor infrastructural designs and weak economies have been inhibiting
factors in the adoption of smart security systems in public buildings; other
contributing factors include low quality of education, and the lack of a formal study
focused on the local reality of the environment in which the buildings are found.
Nigeria, being a developing country is not exempted from this reality. To the best
of our knowledge, there are only few papers in literature on the formal scientific
analysis of the level of awareness of smart security systems in public buildings in
Nigeria. As a result of this, papers investigating the level of awareness of smart
security systems in public buildings are rare in the Nigerian context especially in
Abuja.
This study investigates the level of awareness about smart security system;
enthusiasm level towards use of smart security system; perceived usefulness of
using smart security system; and attitude of occupants of selected public buildings
towards using smart security system in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja,
Nigeria. To realize these objectives, the paper focuses on the following questions:
 What is the level of awareness about smart security system among occupants
of selected public buildings in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja?
 What is the perceived usefulness of using smart security system by occupants

of selected public buildings in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja?
 What is the attitude of occupants of selected public buildings towards using

smart security system in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja?
288
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section presents the review of studies that are found related to the smart
security system. It should be noted that the empirical analysis of the existing
studies is presented in chronological order.
In the UK, (Wilson et al., 2017) examined the perceived benefits and risks of smart
security systems as it applies to homes and public buildings, from multiple
perspectives. Results show that national survey representatives of UK homeowners
(n=1025) find prospective users have positive perceptions of the multiple
functionalities of smart security systems including energy management. Ceding
autonomy and independence in the home for increased technological control are
found as the main perceived risks. An additional survey with (n=42) participating
in a smart home field trial identifies the key role of early adopters in lowering
perceived smart security systems risks for the mass market. Content analysis of
smart security systems marketing material (n=62) shows that the smart security
systems industry is insufficiently emphasizing measures to build consumer
confidence in Data security and privacy.
In China, (Hsu et al., 2017) developed a multisensory data fusion technology-based
smart home system by integrating wearable intelligent technology, artificial
intelligence, and sensor fusion technology. An experimental testbed for validating
the effectiveness and feasibility of the smart home system was built and verified
experimentally. The results showed that the 3D gesture recognition algorithm
could achieve recognition rates for automated household appliance control of
92.0%, 94.8%, 95.3%, and 87.7% by the 2-fold cross-validation, 5-fold cross-
validation, 10-fold cross-validation, and leave-one-subject-out cross-validation
strategies. For indoor positioning and smart energy management, the distance
accuracy and positioning accuracies were around 0.22% and 3.36% of the total
traveled distance in the indoor environment. For home safety and fire detection,
the classification rate achieved 98.81% accuracy for determining the conditions of
the indoor living environment.
In Nigeria, (Olarewaju et al., 2017) designed and constructed an automatic home

security system based on GSM technology and an embedded microcontroller unit.
The system consisted of an infrared motion detector and a magnetic sensor as
transducers for detecting intruders motion or break in through a door. The signals
are then processed by an embedded microcontroller unit which then activates the
GSM module and sends SMS message to the householder's mobile phone device,
an at the same time activating an attached alarm system. Initial testing of this
system shows that it worked as expected. The developed GSM based security
system gives a good response to the sensor and sends SMS when it detects
intrusion at the windows or indoor. The test result shows that both the braking
switches attached to the door hinges and the motion sensors perform adequately
as expected.
Being an active area of research, the concept of smart security in public buildings
is still attracting a lot of interest from the research community, and a common
point of convergence among different works is that a smart security system must
289
be able to provide a reliable sense of insulation from would-be intruders. Table 1

shows some recent works in this regard.
Table 1: Related works in awareness and acceptance of smart security systems for buildings
S/N Author(s) Title of Work Year Key findings
Identified and correlated the main drivers
and systems of smart buildings. The main
drivers include: technology, integration,
flexibility, longevity, health, comfort,
(Froufe et Smart Buildings: satisfaction, security, ecology, energy, and
1 2020
al., 2020) Systems and Drivers efficiency. The systems include: heating-
ventilation-air conditioning, light system,
energy system, security system, telecomm
system, fire prevention system, vertical
transport system, and hydraulic system.
The authors proposed a framework for smart
home services by focusing on the
Developing Design
practicability of each variable from the
Solutions for Smart
(Kim et al., perspective of supporting user experience.
2 Homes Through 2020
2020) Based on developed scenarios, the authors
User-Centered
were able to identify residents’ behaviors
Scenarios
and intentions regarding smart home and its
use.
The authors discovered that the meaning
Trust in the smart and value proposition of smart home and
home: Findings from smart security have not achieved closure for
(Cannizzaro
3 a nationally 2020 consumer. Anxiety about the likelihood of a
et al., 2020)
representative security incident emerges as a prominent
survey in the UK factor impacting the adoption of smart
home technology.
Residents’ Internet facility received the highest ranking
Awareness and as the medium of awareness for residents
(Oyewole Aspiration for Smart who were aware of smart building features.
4 2019
et al., 2019) Building Features: Security and safety were the highest aspired
The Case of Okota, feature for a smart building as indicated by
Lagos, Nigeria the respondents.
One major point that can be inferred from Table 1 is that there is a heightened
level of awareness on the application of smart security systems in public buildings,
and the general expectation is that buildings which adopt this technology are
expected to be better managed and more environment-friendly.
METHODOLOGY
Study area
According to the 1991 population census, the population of the FCT was 378,671,
Year 2000 projections were put at well over half a million as noted by (Momoh &
Benachir, 2018). The 2006 population and Housing census puts the population of
Abuja at 1,406,239 with a growth rate of 9.3 per year, 2014 population is projected
to be 3,028,80, and phase II of Abuja’s development is yet to be completed (Gumel
et al., 2020). Figure 1 shows that the federal capital city is within the Abuja
municipal area council, and the development of the city is in phases I-IV with each
phase further subdivided into districts, as seen in Figure 2.
290
Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing location of FCT-Abuja (FCDA, 2013)
The Federal Capital Territory as it is popularly known is in the heart of Nigeria.

Being equidistant from all parts of the country, it can be accessed quite easily
Figure 2: FCT-Abuja Map showing district lay out in phases I- III (FCDA, 2013)
The central area as shown in figure 3, is the hub of the city as well as that of the
Nation. This is true not only in the symbolic sense but in the physical sense as well.
It covers an area of 1,635.3 hectares (Abuja Master Plan). The design objective of
the central area is to create a functioning and organically whole central area early
in the life of the capital city by concentrating facilities along the axis to convey a
sense of completeness and urbanity (Gumel et al., 2020).
Figure 3: Satellite Image showing Central Business District (CBD) highlighting the Central Business
District (Commercial Core) of FCT-Abuja, Nigeria. (FCDA 2013)
291
The central area is where the important public buildings are sited, in the Abuja
master plan, it was proposed to house the National Assembly, legislative and
executive offices, official residences, national conference centre, central hospital,
embassies, main shopping streets, national square, transit ways, presidential
residence, Central Business District (CDB) and national museum. The CBD as one of
the districts in the phase 1 of the federal capital city has seven identifiable
precincts.
This study adopted a cross-sectional survey research design with a quantitative

approach to data collection. The justification for the use of cross-sectional survey
include- it is cheap and consumes less time, it makes it possible to collect data
from a large pool of subject areas and make necessary comparisons, it captures a
specific moment in time, and it provides a snapshot of the frequency of the
phenomenon under observation.
For this study, the relationship used in determining the sample size is (Yamane,
1964):
(1)
where n is the sample size, N is the population size, e is the level of precision. With
a population and
, the sample size n is worked out as follows:
(2)
From the study's population is 253 occupants of selected public buildings within
the CBD; 155 occupants were randomly selected based on the value determined in
(2). The validated Smart Security System Questionnaire (SSSQ) was used as a data
collection instrument. Out of 155 copies of validated SSSQ randomly distributed,
the response rate to the study’s instrument is 132. Data+ collected, sorted and
normally tested were described and reported using frequency, percentage, mean,
standard deviation in tabulation format. These statistics were scientifically
computed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). It should be noted
that 0.05 was used as a level of significance (p-value) throughout the statistical
computations therein.

This section provides results, interpretation, and discussions of data collected for
the purpose of achieving research objectives as well as testing the study's null
hypotheses. Figure 4 shows that 72 (54.5%) respondents are male while the
292
remaining 60 (45.5%) are their female counterparts. Similarly, most of these

occupants 67 (50.8%), has been working with their respective organizations for at
least 6 to 10 years.
Figure 1: Information of respondents in survey (Source: Field survey, 2019)
It can be seen from figure 1 that there are more male than female occupants in
public buildings within CBD -Abuja and these occupants has been working in their
environment for at least 6 to 10 years. Hence it can be inferred that the participants
adequate knowledge and experience to understand the nature of the security
system maintained in the buildings. The buildings in question here are offices, most
of which are government offices.
Table 2 shows the level of awareness among respondents on smart security as it

applies to public buildings. The data were collected by a cross-sectional survey
research design with a quantitative approach to data collection using the study’s
population of 253 occupants of selected public buildings within the CBD. It can be
observed that 79 occupants of public buildings representing 59.8% are moderate
aware i.e. they showed an appreciable knowledge about smart security system as
building security system; and 36 (27.3%) are highly aware of it. This shows that
occupants of selected public buildings in the Central Business District (CBD) FCT-
Abuja, Nigeria are significantly aware of the Smart Security System as a security
mechanism for public buildings. This finding contradicts that of Chitnis,
Deshpande, and Shaligram (2016), who found that out of total 78 only 2.56% are
aware of advanced security mechanism.
Table 2: Level of awareness about Smart Security System among occupants of selected public
buildings in CBD Abuja, Nigeria
Awareness level Frequency Percentage
Highly Aware 36 27.3
Moderately Aware 79 59.8
Fairly Aware 8 6.1
Not Aware 9 6.8
Total 132 100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2019
293
Table 3 shows the level of readiness among the respondents, where it can be seen
that more than two-third number of occupants of selected public buildings in
Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja agreed with 7 out of 8 items listed in the
table. This agreement, indicate that it is likely a good time within the Nigerian
community and occupants of public buildings to participate in designing and
installing a smart security system in their buildings for safety, confront and privacy.
Table 3: Readiness level towards the use of Smart Security System among occupants of selected
public buildings in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja, Nigeria
Readiness Assessment Checklist Yes No

S/N Mean SD Remark
(RAC) N % N %
Have you clearly defined the need

that is driving your organization to
1 91 68.9 41 31.1 1.69 0.465 Yes
consider implementing Smart
Security System?
Is designing a strong evidence-

based smart security system an
2 appropriate strategy to address 114 86.4 18 13.6 1.86 0.344 Yes
your organization's security
challenges?
The smart security system is a

3 distraction rather than a solution to 40 30.3 92 69.7 1.30 0.461 No
security challenges in our building
It is essential that leaders within

your organization actively support
4 113 85.6 19 14.4 1.86 0.352 Yes
and champion Smart security
system transitions and deliverables.
Will your organization provide

sufficient staff with the necessary
5 time and resources to support full 90 68.2 42 31.8 1.68 0.468 Yes
implementation of smart security
system?
Will your organization allow time

6 to prepare and continue work on 97 73.5 35 26.5 1.73 0.443 Yes
system deliverables?
Will your organization be willing to

7 measure and assess progress and 107 81.1 25 18.9 1.81 0.393 Yes
continuously improve processes?
Will your organization be able to

reinforce and reward positive
8 teamwork behaviors and 107 81.1 25 18.9 1.81 0.393 Yes
improvements in security
processes?
According to results presented in Table 4, it can be observed that significant

number of selected public building occupants that responded to the study agreed
that using the system would enable them to accomplish security tasks more
quickly; using the system in their job would increase their level of productivity;
using the system would make it easier to do their job while in the building; they
find the system very useful in their job; using the system would improve their job
294
performance of security system; and using the system would enhance their
effectiveness on the job. These results show that occupants of selected public
buildings in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja have positively perceived
usefulness on the use of smart security system as a creative and innovative security
system in public buildings.
Table 4: Perceived usefulness of using smart security system by occupants of selected public
buildings in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja, Nigeria
Perceived Usefulness of
using Smart Security
S/N SA (%) A (%) NS (%) D (%) SD (%)
System in Public
Buildings
Using the system
would enable me to
1 56.1 26.5 11.4 3.0 3.0
accomplish security
tasks more quickly
Using the system
would improve my job
2 41.7 41.7 6.8 6.8 3.0
performance of the
security system
Using the system in my
3 job would increase my 46.2 34.1 9.8 6.8 3.0
level of productivity
Using the system
4 would enhance my 38.6 37.9 15.2 5.3 3.0
effectiveness on the job
Using the system
would make it easier to
5 46.2 38.6 9.1 3.0 3.0
do my job while in the
building
I would find the system
6 43.9 44.7 3.0 2.3 6.1
very useful in my job
SA = Strongly Agree, A = Agree, NS = Not Sure, D = Disagree, SD = Strongly Disagree
The one-way ANOVA analysis is shown in figure 2 and figure 3. With a p-value <<
0.05 in figure 2, it confirms that there are statistically significant differences
between the group means. This is succinctly reflected in the parameters of the
columns in figure 3, where the median values, maximum values, and minimum
values for the different columns are shown in Table 5.
Table 5: One-way ANOVA performance metrics for Table 4

SA(%) A(%) NS(%) D(%) SD(%)
Median 45.05 38.25 9.45 4.15 3.00
Maximum value 56.10 44.70 15.20 6.80 6.10
Minimum value 38.60 26.50 3.00 2.30 3.00
The values in Table 5 were deduced from figure 3 where the SA(%) showed the
greatest strength and the SD(%) showed the least strength.
295
Figure 2: One-way ANOVA computation for the columns of Table 4
Figure 3: ANOVA visualization of data columns for perceived usefulness
CONCLUSION
The smart security system should be a top concern for concerned stakeholders who
own or occupy public buildings. Moreover, safe and secure building space is the
necessity of every member of the organization is working. The smart security
system is thus applicable and desirable for occupants safety and convenience. This
will be achieved by turning the building into a smart building by intelligent remote
monitoring. The smart building comes into picture for controlling and monitoring
routine activities of the occupant and external forces. It will give occupants peace
of mind, as management can have a close watch and stay connected anytime,
anywhere. This study mainly concentrated on the awareness, and acceptance of
smart security system among occupants of selected public buildings in the Central
Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja, Nigeria.
The management and occupants of selected public buildings in the Central

Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja are highly aware of the Smart Security System as
a security mechanism for public buildings. The management and occupant of the
public building in Nigeria shows a high level of readiness, to accept, deploy and
implement smart security system in their building Architecture. It was also found
that occupants of public buildings in FCT-Abuja have perceived smart security
system easy to use as results of the system capable of easily securing their
buildings; encouraging skillfulness; flexible to interact with. However, occupants of
selected public buildings in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja, Nigeria
perceived smart security system highly useful as it will enable them to accomplish
security tasks more quickly; increase their level of productivity; make it easier to do
their job, and enhance their effectiveness on the job. Finally, occupants of selected
public buildings in FCT-Abuja have a positive attitude towards using smart security
system in their building.
296
Since the level of awareness about smart security system is reasonably high among
occupants of public building in Central Business District (CBD) FCT-Abuja. However,
awareness is directly related with favorably perceived usefulness of smart security
system in Nigeria. These finding brought to our notice that many people are aware
of the advanced security system. Thus, it should be appreciated that criminals and
intruders always look for easy targets, and by taking appropriate precaution,
management and occupants of public buildings can drastically decrease the
chances of having their buildings victimized. Also, accurate data awareness in the
smart security system can help Architectural service providers to allocate network
resources adaptively.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Building security designers and Architectural experts, smart security market
promoters, as well as professional bodies, should use of creative and innovative
ways of creating and promoting a level of awareness about the privacy, costs and
technical implications smart security system design to the public. This bold action
will ultimately lead to positive perception and attitude towards the use of a smart
security system in the Nigerian environment.
All stakeholders should reach a consensus on minimum security requirements for
public building in Nigeria. Industry actors should support security-driven business
models, contribute to raising smart security awareness, and develop security
assessment methods or frameworks for smart security designers and architectural
experts. The management of MDA, NGOs, embassies and, consulates should
redesign and re-strategies their building security system to prevent modern
security challenges. This can be achieved by contracting recognized professional
for training and retraining of their staff about the technical whereabouts of the
system.
Finally, Federal Ministry of Finance (FMF), Federal Ministry of Communication
Technology (FMoCT), Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nigerian
Communications Commission (NCC), Federal Secretariat and National Information
Technology Development Agency (NITDA) should collaborate to provides financial
and technical support towards establishing Public Smart Security System (PSSS) for
public building; and letter may be commercialized for the benefit of the people of
our country.
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Al‐Humairi, S. N. S., & Kamal, A. A. A. (2021). Opportunities and challenges for the building
monitoring systems in the age‐pandemic of COVID‐19: Review and prospects.
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020-00454-0
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Ciholas, P., Lennie, A., Sadigova, P., & Such, J. (2019). The Security of Smart Buildings: a
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Hsu, Y. L., Chou, P. H., Chang, C. H., Lin, S. L., Yang, S. C., Su, H. S., … Kuo, Y. C. (2017). Design
and Implementation of a Smart Home System Using Multisensor Data Fusion
Technology. Sensors, 17, 1631. https://doi.org/10.3390/s17071631
Kim, M. J., Cho, M. E., & Jun, H. J. (2020). Developing Design Solutions for Smart Homes
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Kupchik, A. (2010). Homeroom security: School discipline in an age of fear. NYU Press.
Momoh, J., & Benachir, M. (2018). Urban Development and Housing Demolition in Abuja
city: the Benefits of Adopting the Principles of Sustainability. Journal of Good
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Oyewole, M. O., Araloyin, F. M., & Oyewole, P. T. (2019). Residents ’Awareness and
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AWARENESS AND PERCEPTIONS OF CONSTRUCTION

PROFESSIONALS ON ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS IN
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT DELIVERY IN LAGOS AND ONDO
STATES, NIGERIA
Deborah Abosede Ogungbemi1 and Ayokunle Olubunmi Olanipekun2
1Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
2School of Built Environment, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand
Conventional construction project delivery is very destructive and leads to high

environmental risks. Meanwhile, a risk management approach can be employed to manage
the environmental risks and prevent destructive project delivery. However, this requires
proper identification and evaluation of the environmental risks, but it is yet to be
investigated in the research. Therefore, this study assessed the awareness and perceptions
of construction professionals on environmental risks in construction project delivery in Lagos
and Ondo States, Nigeria. More also, evaluation of the likelihood of occurrence and severity
from the perspectives of 100 construction professionals working in environmentally
vulnerable areas in Lagos and Ondo States, Nigeria. The survey was presented online using
Google forms for the administration of questionnaires to the sampled construction
professionals. It comprises two sections. The first section comprises a qualification question
about respondents ’involvement in a construction project delivery in environmentally
vulnerable areas such as the Lagos Island in Lagos State or the Ondo State South Senatorial
District in Ondo State. A ‘YES ’response will enable them to complete the survey, whereas a
‘NO ’response will automatically terminate their participation in the survey. The second
section comprises questions that cast as multiple-choice variables and rated by respondents
on a five- point Likert scale about environmental risks and their likelihood of occurrence and
severity.Data obtained from the questionnaire survey was analyzed using percentage
frequency distribution and mean score. Of the five common environmental risks identified
in the literature, the findings reveal that the risk of air pollution is the commonest, most
likely to occur and when it does occur it is the most severe. The other environmental risks
such as the risks of land degradation and noise and vibration, have high scores which
suggest that they are more common, more likely to occur and more severe when they occur.
Furthermore, the risk to flora and fauna has the least score in terms of commonness,
likelihood to occur and severity. This study concludes that identifying and evaluating
environmental risks in terms of commonness, likelihood to occur and severity can be
employed for environmental risk management in construction project delivery. The risk of
air pollution and the risk to flora and fauna should be accord the highest and least priorities
in environmentally vulnerable areas in Lagos and Ondo States in Nigeria. This suggestion is
applicable to other environmentally vulnerable areas in Nigeria and other countries where
construction professionals have strong environmental vulnerability perceptions.
Keywords: construction project delivery, environmental risks
1 Deborahabosede001da@gmail.com
2 A.Olanipekun@massey.ac.nz
Ogungbemi and Olanipekun (2021) Awareness and perceptions of construction professionals on

environmental risks in construction project delivery in Lagos and Ondo States, Nigeria In: Laryea,
S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11
August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 299-310
299
Ogungbemi and Olanipekun
INTRODUCTION
Construction activities lead to high environmental impacts in the construction
industry. According to Anigbogu and Keftin (2007), construction project delivery
negatively impacts vegetation, produces energy and material wastes, and noise
pollution in the environment. The construction process is considered one of the
primary sources of environmental pollution (Rasika and Vikram, 2017). Additionally,
Ijigah, et al, (2013) stated that, the environmental impact of construction projects
includes the menace of environmental pollution, resource depletion, and habitat
destruction. Consequently, this destroys the ecosystem, increases desertification
and soil erosion. In project parlance, the environmentally destructive nature of
construction project delivery poses serious environmental risks.
Risk management is a generic but structured process that involves many sub-
processes that can be applied to ensure effective risk management. According to
Skorupka (2003), the risk management of projects uses a set of methods and
actions to lessen the disturbances that may occur during the lifecycle of a project
and hinder the achievements of the project objectives. According to Shankar
Neeraj, Balasubramanian (2015), risk management basics are identifying the
relevant and potential risks associated with the construction project. It is of
considerable importance since the process of risk analysis and management may
only be performed on identified potential risks. Rigorous risk management
comprises identification, assessment, action and monitoring (Cooper, 2005). The
objective of rigorous risk management is to derive a structured framework for
managing various risks effectively and efficiently in project delivery phases
(Shankar et al, 2015). In practice, the risk management of projects encompasses
identifying the influencing factors that could negatively impact project time, cost
schedule or quality baselines, and quantifying their associated impact of the
identified risk and implementing mitigating measures (Jayasudha and Vidivelli,
2016).
From the understanding of risk management (above), it could be seen that a
structured risk management process framework can assist contractors in risk
impacts in construction project delivery (Dione and Ruwanpura, 2005). However,
concerning environmental risks in construction project delivery, the specific ones
are yet to be scientifically identified, and their impacts yet to be quantified.
Therefore, contractors cannot effectively manage environmental risks in
construction project delivery. To address the problem and contribute to risk
management body of knowledge in construction, this study empirically assessed
the various environmental risks in construction project delivery. These objectives
were investigated in the empirical assessment. The first objective was to assess the
environmental risks associated with construction project delivery. The second
objective was to evaluate the likelihood of occurrence of the environmental risks
in construction project delivery. The third objective was to evaluate the severity of
the environmental risks in construction project delivery. It is expected that the
empirical assessment will provide an understanding to contractors to manage
environmental risks in construction project delivery effectively.
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RISK MANAGEMENT
According to Rehacek (2017), risk management in the construction industry is
highly importance because construction projects are not risk-free. Jibran, et al,
(2019) considered risk management a critical management process to realize the
project objectives in terms of time, cost, safety, quality, and sustainable
environment. Nthatisi Khatleli (2019) described risk management as the deliberate
processes of identifying, categorizing, prioritizing and planning risk occurrences
before they disrupt project delivery. The authors concluded that risk management
is essential to construction activities in minimizing losses and enhancing
profitability. Gulam Mohi (2018) admitted that risk management remains a
challenging task for construction professionals as its absence makes projects
vulnerable to various risks such as technical, sociopolitical and business risks. Pawel
Szymanski (2017) mentioned that thoughtful and strategic risk management
primarily maximizes positive events and minimizes the negative effects, thus
increasing project success.
ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT DELIVERY

Concept
Environmental risks are defined as risks or potential risks to the environment and
its inhabitants. (Nik, Rahman and Esa, 2014) Construction processes are a major
contributor to environmental disruption and pollution. Therefore, environmental
risks in construction project delivery impact the environment (Ankit, 2013).
Environmental risks are those risks that are associated directly (e.g. water
discharges) and indirectly (e.g. loss of vegetation) with the construction activities
(Põder, 2006). Environmental risks could also be described as the factors that
negatively impact on the time, cost, quality and overall objectives of a project
(Aibinu and Jagboro, 2002).
Types
Nik, et al, (2014) explored environmental risks associated with construction project
delivery, and they are identified and described as follows;
Risk of Land Degradation

The risk of land degradation is an extensive land disturbance that involves
removing vegetation and reshaping topography. Such activities make the soil
vulnerable to erosion, which may become airborne and create dust problem or be
carried by water into natural water ways, thereby polluting them. Also, soil erosion
of the exposed and loose earth lead to a deterioration of water quality in the
surrounding water bodies due to siltation. This can result in mud floods and flash
floods in immediate or downstream areas during heavy downpours. Furthermore,
landslides and slope failure can occur on unstable slopes or when the soil is
saturated with water during heavy rainfalls.
Risk to Flora and Fauna
The risk to flora and fauna is the loss of the biological environment (which is various
species of animal and plant life and their habitats) to physical development.
301
Risk of Water Pollution

The risk of water pollution is the changes to water quality, and by extension, the
reduction in the aesthetic value of water that prevents water usage. During
construction, there is a high potential for soil erosion to occur. Risk to water quality
is greatest when removing vegetation for initial clearing and grading activities
exposes the soil and make it susceptible to erosion. The impacts and risks are
greatest during the rainy season, where unavoidable extensive land clearing can
increase sediment load into the rivers from erosion of the exposed soil.
Risk of Air Pollution

The risk of air pollution is the reduction in air quality due to construction activities
such as the burning of waste, the emission of fumes and smoke, and the release of
chemical impurities such as heavy metals, acid and other toxic bases into the
atmosphere. Also, the reduction in air quality due to increased dust particulates in
the atmosphere are caused by grading, filling, removals, and demolition activities.
Furthermore, air quality may be impacted by emissions from construction
equipment and vehicles.
Risk of Noise and Vibration

The risk of noise and vibration refers to an advanced level of noise to hear, leading
to topographical and structural vibration resulting from construction equipment.
However, noise and vibration levels due to construction activities in the project
area vary depending on the types of equipment used, the location of the
equipment, and the operating mode. In practice, adverse impacts resulting from
construction noise and vibration are generally limited to areas adjacent to the
project site and are temporary in nature.
Management of environmental risks in construction projects

The construction industry must minimize and manage the generation of risks that
may affect elements of the environment. To ensure that all reasonable and
practicable measures have been taken, attention must be given to the nature of
the risks or potential risks that may occur during construction as well as the
sensitivity of the receiving environment. The complexity and extent of control
measures required will depend largely on the magnitude and duration of the
construction activity (Olander and Landin, 2005). Moreover there is a high level of
awareness and commitment with regards to protecting the environment among
contractors and others involved in the construction industry. Some have already
taken measures to comply with all regulations regarding water pollution, noise
pollution, dust emission, waste generations etc. In some cases, additional initiatives
have also been put in place such as energy conservations, and recycling of
materials (Rodriguez et al, 2007).
METHODOLOGY
This study used a quantitative research methodology. This type of methodology
was used to enable identified factors to be surveyed and rated on a numeric basis
to know the highest occurring factors. The study population was all construction
professionals comprising Architects, Engineers, Builders, Quantity Surveyors and
Project Managers in Lagos and Ondo States, Nigeria. As shown in Table 1, the total
302
number of these professionals in both states are 6,543 and 1086 respectively, as
obtained from relevant professional organizations in Nigeria.
Table 1
S/N Professionals Lagos State Ondo State
1 Quantity surveyor 1297 133
2 Architect 1045 155
3 Builder 765 153
4 Project manager 980 95
5 Engineers, (civil, mechanical or electrical) 2456 550
Total 6543 1086
Source: NIQS 2019, NIA 2019, NIOB 2019, PMI 2019, NSE 2019
The convenience sampling of construction professionals in the population study

was carried out. Convenience sampling can be defined as a nonprobability
sampling technique where members of the target population that meet certain
practical criteria such as easy accessibility, geographical proximity, willingness to
participate are included in the study (IIker Etikan, et al, 2016). The survey
questionnaire was used. Survey research can be defined as collecting information
from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions (Check J, Schutt
R, 2012). The survey was presented online using Google forms for the
administration of questionnaires to the sampled construction professionals. It
comprises two sections. The first section comprises a qualification question about
respondents ’involvement in a construction project delivery in environmentally
vulnerable areas such as the Lagos Island in Lagos State or the Ondo State South
Senatorial District in Ondo State. A ‘YES ’response will enable them to complete the
survey, whereas a ‘NO ’response will automatically terminate their participation in
the survey. The second section comprises questions that cast as multiple-choice
variables and rated by respondents on a five- point Likert scale about
environmental risks and their likelihood of occurrence and severity.
The data obtained on objectives one, two and three were analyzed using the mean
item score and standard deviation. The mean item score was used for making
ranking decision whereby the factor with the highest Mean Item Score (MIS) is
ranked as the 1st and the others follow in subsequent descending order, Standard
deviation was used in the case where two or more factors have a tie in the mean
score. The one with the lesser standard deviation is ranked above the one with a
higher standard deviation (Okoko, 2001).
Since a Likert scale of 5 - point was employed for the collection of the data, the
formula for Mean Item Score can be written as;
5𝑓5+4𝑓4+3𝑓3+2𝑓2+𝑓1
MIS = 𝑓1+𝑓2+𝑓3+𝑓4+𝑓5
Where, F is the frequency of each ranking. The basis of ranking the success or the
significance of factors using Mean Item Score is based on this premise:
1. Very low “significance” (associated, likelihood of occurrence, severity)
2. Low “significance” (associated, likelihood of occurrence, severity)
303
3. Moderate “significance (associated, likelihood of occurrence, severity)
4. High “significance” (associated, likelihood of occurrence, severity)
5. Very high “significance” (associated, likelihood of occurrence, severity)
Also the formula for standard deviation is presented below;

∑(𝑥−µ)2
SD = √ 𝑁
Where SD = Standard Deviation
∑ = Sum of variables
µ = mean of population
N = number of sample
RESULTS
Respondents’ background
A total of 100 online survey questionnaires were administered. Results showed that
40% of the respondents were quantity surveyors, 22% of the respondents were
architects, 17% were builders, 8% were project managers, and 13% were engineers
(civil, mechanical, and electrical). They all belonged to their professional bodies in
Nigeria. The results also showed that 55% of the respondents have under-gone
environmental training in the past. This shows awareness of the impact of
construction activities on the environment.
Objective 1: Assessment of environmental risks
The respondents were asked to respond about their views of the environmental
risks associated with construction project delivery. As shown in Table 1, the
respondents view air pollution as the most associated environmental risk in
construction project delivery with a group mean score of (3.20). The individual
mean scores of the sub-risks of air pollution are as follows; Dust from breakages
and use of construction materials (3.28), emissions from construction equipment
and vehicles (3.26), burning of wastes leading to the emission of fumes and smoke
(3.26), and release of chemical impurities such as heavy metals, acid and other toxic
bases into the atmosphere (3.02). Therefore, respondents view dust from breakages
and construction materials to be the highest sub-risk of air pollution in
construction project delivery.
Also, the respondents view the risk of noise and vibration to be the second-most
associated environmental risk in construction project delivery, with a group mean
score of (3.15). The risk of land degradation follows this as the third most
environmental risk associated with construction project delivery with a group mean
score of (3.06). Lastly, the respondents view the risk of water pollution, and risk to
flora and fauna as the least associated environmental risks in construction project
delivery with group mean scores of 2.93 and 2.73, respectively.
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Table 1. Environmental risks in construction project delivery

Std. Group Category
Environmental Risk Factors Mean Ranking
Deviation mean rank
Risk of air pollution
Dusts resulting from breakages and use of
3.28 1.01 1
construction materials
Emissions from construction equipment and 3.20 1
3.26 1.13 2
vehicles
Burning of wastes leading to the emission of
3.26 1.21 3
fumes and smoke
Increased dust particulates in the atmosphere
caused by grading, filling, removals, and other 3.20 1.09 4
construction activities
Release of chemical impurities such as heavy
3.02 1.08 5
metals, acid and other toxic bases
Risk of noise and vibration
Excessive noise disturbance from the use of
3.22 1.04 1
construction equipment 3.15 2
Nuisance claims from neighbors in the areas
3.16 1.03 2
surrounding the project
Earth movement due to excessive vibration
3.08 1.03 3
during the use of construction equipment
Risk of land degradation
Mud floods and flash floods in immediate or
downstream areas during heavy downpours due 3.09 0.93 1
to eroded topography 3.06 3
Vulnerability of the soil to erosion due to
removal of vegetation and reshaping 3.06 0.99 2
topography
Extensive land disturbance due to the removal
3.05 0.96 3
of vegetation and reshaping of topography
Landslides and slope failure resulting from
3.04 0.95
disturbed topography
Risk of water pollution
Increased sedimentation load into the rivers due
2.97 1.03 1
to exposed soil 2.93 4
Potential for soil erosion due to clearing and
2.92 1.09 2
grading activities
Risk to surrounding water quality due to the
2.90 1.11 3
removal of vegetation
Risk to flora and fauna
Contamination of plant life and loss of 2.73 5
2.83 1.02 1
vegetation
Contamination of natural habitat and
2.70 0.95 2
disturbance of the ecosystem
Contamination of human life and disruption of
2.65 0.99 3
human activities
Objective 2: Likelihood of occurrence of environmental risks

The respondents were asked to respond to the likelihood of occurrence of
environmental risks in construction project delivery. As shown in Table 2, the
respondents view the risk of air pollution to most likely occur in construction
project delivery with a group mean score of 3.25. Also, the respondents view the
305
risk of land degradation and risk of noise and vibration to be second-most likely
to occur in construction project delivery, with both having a group mean score of
3.18. This is followed by the risk of water pollution with a group mean score of 3.04.
Lastly, the respondents view the risk to flora and fauna as the least likely
environmental risk to occur in construction project delivery, with a group mean
score of 2.72.
Table 2. Likelihood of Occurrence of Environmental Risks in Construction Project Delivery

Std. Group Category
Likelihood of Occurrence Mean Ranking
Deviation mean rank
1
3.25
3.29 1.00 2
Emissions from construction equipment and
3.23 0.95 3
vehicles
Burning of wastes leading to the emission of
3.20 0.93 4
fumes and smoke
Release of chemical impurities such as heavy
3.18 0.98 5
metals, acid and other toxic bases
Extensive land disturbance due to the removal
3.34 0.84 1
of vegetation and reshaping of topography
3.18 2
Vulnerability of the soil to erosion due to
removal of vegetation and reshaping 3.19 0.95 2
topography
Landslides and slope failure resulting from
3.14 0.84 3
disturbed topography
downstream areas during heavy downpours due 3.06 0.89 4
to eroded topography
Risk from noise and vibration
3.30 0.90 1
construction equipment 3.18 3
Earth movement due to excessive vibration
3.14 0.88 2
during the use of construction equipment
3.09 0.89 3
surrounding the project
Risk to surrounding water quality due to the
3.07 0.99 1
removal of vegetation 3.04 4
Increased sedimentation load into the rivers due
3.04 0.91 2
to exposed soil
Potential for soil erosion due to clearing and
3.00 1.02 3
grading activities
Contamination of plant life and loss of
2.90 0.99 1
vegetation 2.72 5
Contamination of natural habitat and
2.70 1.07 2
disturbance of the ecosystem
2.57 1.08 3
human activities
306
Objective 3: Severity of environmental risks

The respondents were asked to respond to the severity of environmental risks in
construction project delivery. As shown in Table 3, the respondents view the risk of
air pollution as the most severe in construction project delivery with a group mean
score of 3.55. The respondents also view the risk of noise and vibration as the
second-most severe environmental risks in construction project delivery with a
group mean score of 3.09. This is followed by the risk of land degradation and
water pollution with group mean scores of 3.06 and 3.01, respectively. Lastly, the
respondents view the risk to flora and fauna as the least severe environmental risks
in construction project delivery with a group mean score of 2.83.
Table 3. Severity of Environmental Risks on Construction Project Delivery

Std. Group Category
Severity Mean Ranking
Deviation mean rank
3.24 0.91 1 1
Emissions from construction equipment and vehicles 3.17 1.07 3.15 2
Burning of wastes leading to the emission of fumes
3.13 0.84 4
and smoke
Release of chemical impurities such as heavy metals,
3.05 0.99 5
acid and other toxic bases
Risk from noise and vibration
3.14 0.89 1
surrounding the project 3.09 2
3.09 0.95 2
construction equipment
Earth movement due to excessive vibration during
3.05 0.98 3
the use of construction equipment
Potential for soil erosion due to clearing and grading
3.09 0.95 1
activities 3.01 4
Increased sedimentation load into the rivers due to
2.97 0.97 2
exposed soil
Risk to surrounding water quality due to the removal
2.96 0.84 3
of vegetation
downstream areas during heavy downpours due to 3.09 0.93 1
3.06 3
eroded topography
Extensive land disturbance due to the removal of
3.08 0.94 2
vegetation and reshaping of topography
Landslides and slope failure resulting from disturbed
3.04 0.90 3
topography
Vulnerability of the soil to erosion due to removal of
3.04 0.99 4
vegetation and reshaping topography
Contamination of natural habitat and disturbance of
2.93 1.07 2.83 1 5
the ecosystem
Contamination of plant life and loss of vegetation 2.87 0.95 2
2.70 1.06 3
human activities
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This research focused on the awareness and perceptions of construction
professionals on the various environmental risks associated with construction
project delivery in Lagos and Ondo States, Nigeria. It also identified the likelihood
of occurrence as well as the severity of environmental risks on construction project
delivery. The analyses revealed that the risk of air pollution is the most common
environmental risk during project delivery with a group mean score of 3.20.
Respondents view the risk of air pollution and all the sub- categories as the most
common risk to occur in construction project delivery. Furthermore, the analyses
show that the most likely to occur and also most severe when it occurs is the risk
of air pollution. The reason why the environmental risk of air pollution is the most
associated with construction project delivery is the negative impact it imposes on
construction project delivery. The risk of air pollution occurs as a result of dusts
from breakages and use of construction materials, emissions from construction
equipment and vehicles, burning of wastes leading to the emission of fumes and
smoke (Nik et al, 2014). Therefore, environmental risks in construction is any
occurrence or action that poses a negative effect on the delivery of project
objectives (Ankit, 2013). The result of the analysis of the likelihood of occurrence
and severity of environmental risks during construction project delivery show that
the most likely risk to occur during construction project delivery is risk of air
pollution from increased dust particulates in the atmosphere caused by grading,
filling, removals, and other construction activities. More also, the most severe
environmental risk is the risk of air pollution from dust resulting from breakages
and the use of construction materials.
According to Rasika and Vikram (2017), in their study on environmental risks in
construction projects, they identified the risk of land degradation as the most likely
and severe risk to occur. Furthermore, the risk of air pollution includes, dust
resulting from breakages and the use of construction materials, emissions from
construction equipment and vehicles, release of chemical impurities such as heavy
metals, acid and other toxic bases (Nik and Esa 2014). Additionally, the risk of noise
pollution such as excessive noise disturbance from the use of construction
equipment, earth movement due to excessive vibration during the use of
construction equipment also poses a great environmental risk on construction
project delivery (Mentiki, 2015). Furthermore, the risk of water pollution such as
flooding and washing away the top surface of the earth is the most likely risk that
affects project delivery (Hall and Meadowcroft, 2002).
CONCLUSION
professionals on the environmental risks in construction project delivery in Lagos
and Ondo States, Nigeria, and their likelihood of occurrence and severity to provide
an empirical understanding of the subject. It is expected that the understanding
will help contractors to manage environmental risks in construction project delivery
effectively. The conclusion is that the risk of air pollution is the most common
environmental risk in construction project delivery. It is also the risk that is most
likely to occur and most severe when it occurs in construction project delivery. Also,
the risk of noise and vibration and the risk of water pollution are the second-most
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common, likely to occur and severe environmental risks in construction project

delivery. The risk to flora and fauna is the least most common, likely to occur and
severe environmental risk in construction project delivery. Risk avoidance involves
a conscious decision on the part of an organisation to avoid a particular risk related
to project delivery completely by discontinuing the operation producing the risk.
Since air pollution has been identified as the most common, likely to occur and
severe risk to project delivery when it occurs, contractors should replace hazardous
chemicals with non-harmful ones. The burning of wastes should be done in an
enclosed vicinity; these recommendations will help stop the risk potential of air
pollution to project delivery.
LIMITATION OF STUDY
professionals on the environmental risks in construction project delivery in Lagos
and Ondo States, Nigeria, and their likelihood of occurrence and severity to provide
an empirical understanding of the subject. The limitation is that the study obtained
responses from construction professionals in an urban setting and the findings may
not reflect the opinion of professionals in a rural setting. Further research on this
topic can obtain the opinions of professionals in rural settings and compare the
results with this study’s.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
AWARENESS OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE AND ITS SOCIO-

DEMOGRAPHIC PREDICTORS AMONG RESIDENTS OF LAGOS
METROPOLIS, NIGERIA
Adedotun Ayodele Dipeolu1, Eziyi Offia Ibem2, Joseph Akinlabi Fadamiro3, Gabriel
Fadairo4, Joseph Adeniran Adedeji5 and Akintunde Olaniyi Onamade6
1Department of Architecture, College of Engineering and Environmental Studies, Olabisi Onabanjo
University, Ogun State, Nigeria
2Department of Architecture, Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu
Campus, Enugu State, Nigeria

3,4,5Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Technology, Federal University of
Technology Akure Ondo State, Nigeria

6Department of Architecture, Caleb University, Imota-Lagos State, Nigeria
Green Infrastructure (GI) is being promoted as a strategy to mitigate the adverse

effects of environmental sustainability challenges. However, the extent to which
residents are aware of the different types of GI in order to show stewardship and
also enjoy the benefits provided by these facilities remains unclear, especially in
the global South. This study examined residents’ level of awareness of GI and its
socio-demographic predictors in selected neigbhourhoods in Lagos Metropolis,
Nigeria. Totally, 1560 residents completed a semi-structured questionnaire using
multi-stage sampling technique. Descriptive and multiple regression analysis were
performed. Results show that 22 types of GI existed in the study area but a high
proportion of the respondents were only aware of green gardens, parks, grasses,
street trees, and sport fields. Marital status, education, income among others,
emerged as significant predictors of GI awareness among respondents. City
managers and policy makers should focus more on these identified factors in their
attempts to improve the quantity and quality of GI and in creating more awareness
among residents in Lagos Metropolis and other cities in sub-Saharan Africa.
Keywords: awareness, conservation, environmental sustainability, green

infrastructure (GI), urban centre
INTRODUCTION
Contemporary cities and their residents are contending with a myriad of
sustainability challenges such as continuous green spaces depletion, climate
1 dipeolu.adedotun@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng
2 eziyi.ibem@unn.edu.ng
3 joechrisdamiro@yahoo.com
4 gabblegroup2000@yahoo.com
5 niranadedeji@yahoo.com
6 onamadeasso@yahoo.com
Dipeolu, et al. (2021) Awareness of green infrastructure and its socio-demographic predictors
among residents of Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa
Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 311-331
311
Dipeolu, et al.
change, uncontrolled population increase, pandemics and several others that seek
to undermine their growth, development, and well-being. One aspect of
sustainability that has continued to call for research attention is environmental
sustainability (Lafortezza, Davies, Sanesi & Konijnendijk, 2013; Wolch, Byrne &
Newell, 2014; Dipeolu & Ibem, 2020). Current realities indicate that among other
things, human population explosion and high rate of urbanization have led to loss
of contact with nature in most urban communities around the world (UN-HBITAT,
2014; WHO, 2016). Moreover, human activities which have come with challenges
of massive loss of biodiversity and natural habitat fragmentation, air pollution and
urban flooding (Wolch et al. 2014; Moskel & Allred, 2013) demand strategic actions
that would help restore quality of the rapidly degraded physical environment.
One of the strategies considered as having potential benefit of mitigating some of
the key environmental sustainability challenges is the integration of urban Green
Infrastructure (GI) in residential neighbourhoods. Generally, GI has been defined as
a collection of green spaces and natural ecosystem that serves multiple functions
to human beings (Benedict & McMahon, 2002). They include but not limited to
parks and gardens, sport fields, stream, rivers, community gardens and forests,
street trees, and nature conservation areas, green walls and school yards (Roy,
Byrne & Pickering, 2012; Wolch et al, 2014).
Urban GI play significant roles in mitigating environmental sustainability
challenges. It helps to reduce rapid increase in urban temperature and controls
fragmentation of natural environment (Gómez-Muñoza, Porta-Gándarab &
Fernándezc, 2010) among several other benefits. Furthermore, empirical studies
have shown that having contact and viewing natural settings can contribute to
reducing emotional stress and mental fatigue (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989; Hartig et al,
2003), and that the presence of GI in urban residential areas can prevent or reduce
the incidences of psychological distress and aggression among residents (Kuo,
2001), and promote social interactions and cohesion among people (Seeland &
Nicolè, 2006).
In spite of the various benefits associated with GI, a lack of awareness of GI and
willingness to take responsibility for stewardship has been identified as reasons
why residents may show wrong attitude to the conservation and maintenance of
these facilities (Moskel & Allred, 2013). For example, Zhang, Hussain, Deng, and
Letson (2007) reported that in Alabama, the USA, lack of awareness of natural
resource management programmes was linked to strong beliefs about government
responsibility in urban forest management and residents’ unwillingness to take
responsibility for stewardship. Previous studies (Benedict & McMahon, 2002;
Moskel & Allred, 2013) have also shown that although, urban residents are
frequently encouraged to show environmentally-friendly attitudes towards the
environment by engaging in environment greening practices, preservation,
conservation of the environment and visiting GI sites; lack of awareness of the
different types of GI in the neighbourhoods had contributed to most residents’
inability to take advantage of the benefits associated with GI.
In recognition of the role of GI in environmental sustainability and the associated
health benefits, governments across nations are taking steps to improve the
quantity and quality of GI within their cities (Dipeolu, 2017; Adegun, 2018). The
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Lagos State Government in southwest Nigeria is not left out in this. The
government had in 2011 established the Lagos State Parks and Gardens Agency
(LASPARK) to oversee the environmental greening project of Lagos megacity.
LASPARK had since then continued to develop and maintain different types of GI
in this city. However, up till now there has been very little documented evidence of
the different types of GI provided and residents’ level of awareness of these in their
neighbourhoods. This has contributed to obscuring our understanding of the
residents’ level of consciousness and sense of value of the GI provided by the
LASPARK. It is against this background that this research sought to assess the level
of awareness of the different types of GI among residents and socio-demographic
variables that influence this in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. The specific objectives
are to:
i. identify the different types of green infrastructure available in selected

neighbourhoods in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria
ii. examine the levels of awareness of the existence of the different types of
green infrastructure in the study areas; and
iii. investigate the socio-demographic factors that mostly influence residents’

levels of awareness of green infrastructure in selected residential
neighbourhoods in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria.
This study makes contribution to knowledge by revealing the extent to which

residents of Lagos Metropolis are aware of the different types of GI in their
neighbourhoods which in turn will determine their readiness for stewardship and
the extent to which residents can enjoy the benefits provided by these facilities. It
also uncovers the specific socio-demographic factors that determine residents’
level of awareness of GI within the urban environment. In view of these, it is
expected that findings of this study will inform policies and practice related to GI
provision, protection, and maintenance in a rapidly growing megacity like Lagos
and other cities in the world that share similar experience with Lagos.
CONTEXT OF STUDY
Located in Southwest Nigeria, Lagos state is one of the 36 states that make of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria (see figure 1). It lies approximately between longitude
20 42″E and 30 42″E and latitude 60 22″N and 60 52″N and compared to states in
Nigeria, it has the smallest landmass.
Metropolitan Lagos is bounded by Ojo and Ijanikin settlements bordered to the
west and east by Lekki and to the northern by Ikorodu and Alagbado in Ifako-Ijaiye
and Alimosho Local Government areas that share common boundary with Sango-
Ota in Ogun State (Oduwaye, 2009). for administrative convenience, Lagos State is
divided into 20 Local Government Areas and 16 of them constitute the Lagos
Metropolitan Area (see figure 2) while the remaining four Local Government Areas,
namely Ikorodu, Epe, Badagry and Ibeju/Lekki are in the sub-urban areas of Lagos
State.
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Figure 1: Map of The Federal Republic of Nigeria Showing the Location of Lagos State
Source: Federal Ministry of Environment, Abuja-Nigeria
Figure 2: Map of Lagos Metropolis showing the four randomly sampled LGAs
Source: Lagos State Ministry of Physical Planning
Lagos is an established center for regional, national, and international trade

activities and can be accessed through road, rail, water, and air transport facilities
(Oduwaye, 2009). Apart from being the hub of business and economic activities in
Nigeria, Lagos is located along the coastal region of Africa with massive residential,
industrial, and commercial developments that come with significant threat to
sustainability of its environment (Adelekan, 2010).
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Concept of green infrastructure
Historical facts show that the idea of Green Infrastructure (GI) originated in the
United States in the mid-1990s in recognition of the significance of the natural
environment and its "life support" functions in decisions about land use planning
(Sandstrom, 2002). Since then, the literature has been inundated with various
definitions and conceptions of GI. For instance, Sandstrom (2002) described GI as
consisting of all natural, semi-natural and artificial multifunctional ecological
systems within, around, and between urban areas in different spatial scales.
Benedict and McMahon (2002) also posited that GI is collection of waterways,
wetlands, woodlands, wildlife habitats, and other natural areas such as greenways,
parks, and other conservation lands; working farms, ranches and forests and
wilderness and other open spaces that support native species, maintain natural
ecological processes, sustain air and water resources and contribute to the health
and quality of life for people.
From these definitions, it can be inferred that GI include networks natural, semi-
natural and artificial elements with green, tree, aquatic features and landscapes
that bring nature closer to man, conserve the environment and promote
biodiversity. These definitions are very instructive in noting that GI is a vital
component of the ecological systems that links the different ecological features
with the goal of ensuring ecological balance. In sum, it can be argued that green
infrastructure has its origin in two important concepts: linking parks and other
green spaces for the benefit of people, and preserving and linking natural areas to
benefit biodiversity and counter habitat fragmentation. As explained by Pakzada
and Osmonda (2016) these two aspects are vital to the multifunctional attributes
of GI.
Green infrastructure and their importance in environmental sustainability
From the review of literature, it was found that green infrastructure (GI) is of
different types and occurs in different spatial scales. They can be categorized into
four different groups; namely a green feature GI, tree feature GI, water feature GI
and other spaces GI (Wolch et al., 2014; Mullaney, Lucke & Trueman, 2015; Dipeolu,
2017; Adegun, 2018). The components of each of these groups are indicated in
Table 1.
Table 1: Categories of green infrastructure

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4
Green Spaces Tree features Water Others
features
Green roofs Forests Floodplains Other open spaces
City farms (urban Street trees Streams Non green Parks
agriculture) Horticulture Rivers Permeable
Grasses Woodlands Lakes pavement
Sport fields Urban/Community Ponds School yards
Green parks forest Fountains Wild life habitat
Green garden Cemetery
Green walls
Green Spaces: are GI that are basically of green features and mostly of plant materials
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Tree Features: are GI that are mostly of trees features and their assemblage
Water Features: are GI of water/aquatic ecosystems
Other Features: are of GI facilities that cannot be categorised into any of the first three groups
Source: Authors compilation (2020)
The quest for development and modernisation has brought with it the loss of
natural landscape and biodiversity and massive environmental degradation, and
fragmentation with their attendant consequences on man and the ecological
environment (Naumann et al, 2011). Added to these is the replacement of the
hitherto traditional land-use practices by more intensive, mechanised, and
industrial-scale production activities, especially in the agricultural sector, which
among other things have depleted the natural resource base and weakened the
ecological systems, their functions, and threatened the survival of the biodiversity
they support (Naumann et al., 2011; Dipeolu & Ibem, 2020; Dipeolu, Ibem &
Fadamiro, 2021). Consequent upon these, the natural environment has gradual lost
its capacity to provide some basic services and amenities needed for sustainable
growth and development; and thus, the earth is under serious threat of
environmental degradation, diseases and climate change.
In the midst of these challenges, GI has been reported as having the capacity to
slow down the rate of environmental degradation and help the environment regain
its capacity to support biodiversity by providing various environment-related
benefits such as carbon sequestration, improved air and water quality, control of
air pollution and urban heat island effect (Gómez-Munoza et al, 2010; Pakzada &
Osmonda, 2016). It is also known that the provision of GI contributes to energy
conservation initiatives by insulating buildings, shading building envelopes, and
ameliorating the urban heat island effect (Adegun, 2018). Further, the integration
of GI into the planning and design phase of physical development projects can
result to cost effective and climate change resilience-built environment (Zuniga-
Teran et al, 2020). It is for these benefits that Adegun (2018) noted that GI has come
to be recognised as an indispensable aspect of urban environmental sustainability
initiative in contemporary times.
Environmental awareness and its socio-demographic predictors
The concept of awareness has been studied in the different academic and
professional disciplines, especially in education and environmental psychology
(Darling-Hammonda et al, 2020; Roeser & Peck, 2009; Steg & Vlek, 2009). In its
simplest form, awareness has been defined as the ability of someone to notice
things, that is a state of being conscious of the existence of anything, place, idea,
skill or knowledge (Biesta & Osberg, 2007). In the context of education, awareness
is all about being fully conscious of what is being taught (Schank, 2004), and thus
Hadzigeorgiou (2012) insist that awareness is a prerequisite for significant learning
and it offers to learners the opportunity of developing a better understanding of
the world around them (Jardine, Clifford & Friesen, 2003; Schank, 2004).
In the built environment, awareness or consciousness deals with the process of

equipping people with knowledge and skills that can help them develop the right
attitudes towards their surrounding environment (Üstün & Celep, 2007). It also
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involves developing a better understanding of how man interacts with the

environment and how his activities affect it (Steg & Vlek, 2009). Environmental
awareness can be viewed from two perspectives: perception and behavioural.
Whereas the former deals with people’s objective knowledge of environmental
issues and realities, the later concerns their attitudes towards the environment
either to protect or abuse it (Hadzigeorgiou, 2012). Wals (2011) has associated
environmental awareness with critical thinking, which has direct linked with
environmental knowledge, attitudes, and actions (Dimopoulos, Paraskevopoulos &
Pantis, 2009; Hadzigeorgiou, 2012) leading to a change in attitude, which in turn,
is a prerequisite for a change in behaviour and actions. Therefore, the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (l999: 32) explained that
“environmental awareness can lead to having in a community of people who are
well-informed and have adequate knowledge and interest of what is happening to
their environment and are willing to take necessary steps in solving environmental
problems”. This implies that a high level of environmental awareness in a
community entails having a critical mass of people who are deeply interested in
the environmental matters and have a positive attitude toward addressing them.
Hence, environmental awareness is a key to addressing environmental
sustainability challenges.
Regarding the predictors of environmental awareness, the study by Üstün and

Celep (2007) reveals that several studies have shown that the level of
environmental consciousness is determined by several personal factors. Top
among the personal factors often linked to environmental awareness are age,
gender, education and income (Ma & Bateson, 1999; Silvennoinen et al, 2002;
Üstün & Celep, 2007). Specifically, previous studies (Wall, 1995; Dietz, Stern &
Guagnano, 1998; Ewert & Baker, 2001) have shown that environmental
consciousness is positively associated with the level of one’s education and that
higher educational attainment enhances one’s ability to understand his/her
environment better resulting in a higher level of awareness of environmental
issues. Similarly, environmental awareness has also been positively linked with
one’s income. In fact, the study by Üstün and Celep (2007) reveals that compared
to low-income people, high income earners are likely to show more interest in
environmental issues because the former are more likely to be concerned with
issues of how to meet the basic needs of life than understanding the components
of their physical environment.
Age is also one of those socio-demographic factors with strong negative influence
on environmental awareness. Several authors (Gökşen, Adaman & Zenginobuz,
2002; Üstün & Celep, 2007) have reported that whereas older people are not
usually open to learning new things and ideas, the young people are ready to and
very enthusiastic to explore their environment and identify new developments
about it. Therefore, environmental awareness seems to decline with age. There is
also the gender factor, which according to Gökşen et al. (2002), studies are not
certain about who between the male and female folks has stronger environmental
consciousness. However, Dietz, Stern and Guagnano (1998) were of the view that
on the one hand since men have been more active in education and social life over
the years than women, it expected that men are more aware of the environmental
issues than the women. On the other hand, since women have more social
responsibilities than their male counterparts, they are believed to show more
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concerned with the environmental issues, and thus seem to develop a better
consciousness of their environment. In addition to the aforementioned socio-
demographic factors, the current study also investigated the association between
awareness of GI and marital status, household size, religious affiliation and
employment status, which before now have received very little research attention,
especially, from the perspective of a developing country.
RESEARCH METHODS
This paper draws on data generated from a bigger research project that
investigated green infrastructure in Lagos State, Nigeria. Totally, 1560 residents
participated in this study. The data came from a survey of residents in four (Ikeja,
Kosofe, Lagos Island and Surulere) of 16 randomly selected Local Government
Areas in Lagos State as shown in Figure 2. The sample frame consisted of the 16
Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Lagos Metropolis, and the selected LGAs were
sub-divided into neighbourhoods as defined by Enumeration Areas (EAs). Since not
all the residents in the selected neighbourhood were included in the survey, the
following formula presented in equation 1 was used to calculate the sample size.
( Z ) 2 r (1  r ) fk
n
phe 2 --------equation (1) (Turner 2003)
z  1.96
Where: n represented the sample size,  is the critical value of the Normal
Distribution obtained from the Table of Standard Normal Distribution at 95%
confidence level, r  50 % representing estimated proportion of the respondents
in the survey f  4 is the design effect, while k  20 % and represents non-
response rate, p  0.03  18  0.54 and it is the proportion of the total population
of the target population and upon which the parameter, r, is based, h  6 is the
average number of persons per household, which according to Turner (2003) is
often around 6 in most developing countries e  0.05 r is the margin of error or
level of precision set at 5% of r.
Applying this formula, the same size was calculated thus:
(1.962  0.5  0.5  4  0.2)

n  379.4  380
[0.54  6  (0.05  0.5) 2 ] -------------
equation (2)
The minimum number of participants as calculated was 380 participants per Local
Government Area, giving a total of 1,520 participants.
The study used a semi-structured questionnaire to collect data from the

participants. The questionnaire was designed by the authors based on findings
from the review of relevant literature. It was structured into sections and was used
to gather data on the residents’ socio-demographic characteristics such as gender,
age, family size, marital status, household size, religion, ethnic group, occupation,
and rank in occupation/income level. Another section was used to collect data on
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the residents’ level of awareness of GI within their neighbourhood. In doing this,

the different types GI identified from the literature (Roy et al, 2012; Wolch et al,
2014; Mullaney, Lucke & Trueman, 2015) were grouped into four namely: Green
spaces GI, Tree features GI, Water features GI and other spaces green infrastructure.
Respondents were asked to firstly indicate their awareness using two options: “I
am Aware” and “I am Not Aware” and secondly, to identify from the list of GI the
ones present in their neighbourhoods. To ensure the validity of findings of this
study, the questionnaire instrument used was pre-tested in an unselected Local
Government area of Lagos Metropolis and feedback incorporated into the final
version of the questionnaire administered to the residents.
The data collection process was preceded with visits by the first author to the
National Population Commission (NPC) office in Lagos State to request and obtain
the lists and maps of Enumeration Areas (EAs) in Lagos Metropolis. Consequently,
the participants were selected from these identified EAs. The survey took place
between March and July 2017 in the study area. The number of sampling intervals
(k) was determined by dividing the number of houses in an EA by the sample size
for each EA. In each EA, households were systematically sampled from the list of
numbered houses until the required number allocated to the EAs was achieved.
The sampling technique involved selecting the first (1st) house at the nodal point
within each EA, while others households were systematically selected based on the
predetermined sampling interval (k). A copy of the questionnaire was given by
hand to every consenting household head or adult representative found in each
house visited. A total of 1600 copies of the questionnaire were administered to the
residents by the researchers and trained research assistants. However, 1560
representing around 97.5% of the total number of questionnaires administered
were retrieved and found to have be correctly filled by the respondents.
The data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. First, frequency
tables and cross tabulations were used to explore the distribution of the data and
to enhance data cleaning/editing. The total raw scores were calculated for each
group of the GI type as the sum of GI facilities available in the area as indicated by
the respondent. Percentage scores were then calculated and compared for each GI
type across the four LGAs. The percentage score of respondents’ levels of
awareness of each GI were then compared across the four Local Governments in
the study area. The Categorical Regression Analysis with optimal scaling technique
otherwise known as CATREG was used to examine the variance explained by R2,
identify, and compare the relative contributions of the predictors of awareness of
GI types amongst the respondents. The CATREG was used because the data were
mixture of nominal and ordinal variables and according to previous authors
(Shrestha 2009; Ibem & Aduwo, 2013), CATREG is suited for datasets of this nature.
RESULTS
Socio-demographic profile of the participants
Table 2 shows result of the socio-demographic profiles of participants in the
survey. From the result, it is obvious that around 49.3% of the participants were
between 30 years and 49 years old, while only 12.4% of the participants were 50
years and above. The result also shows that 58.6% of the participants were male
and 46.6% of the respondents have household size of 2 to 4 persons and around
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58.6% of them were in marriage relationship. In addition, most (64.0%) of the

respondents had tertiary education, while only few (5.1%) have no formal
education, and about 26.3% of them were low-income earners.
Table 2: Socio-demographics characteristics of respondents

Frequency
Variables Percentage (%)
N=1560
Gender
Male 914 58.6
Female 646 41.4
Age
˂30 587 37.6
30-49 752 48.2
˃=50 189 12.1
Not Reported 32 2.1
Marital Status
Never Married Before 592 37.9
Married 896 57.4
No longer Married 62 4.0
No Response 10 0.6
Household Size in Persons
1 166 10.6
2-4 731 46.9
4+ 654 41.9
No Response 9 0.6
Religious Affiliations
Christianity 1004 64.4
Islam 471 30.2
Others 80 5.1
No Response 5 0.3
Ethnic group
Yoruba 1102 70.6
Others 457 29.3
No Response 1 0.1
Highest Educational Attainment
No Formal Education 84 5.4
Primary School 108 6.9
Secondary / Technical School 395 25.3
Higher Institution of Learning 968 62.1
No Response 5 0.3
Employment Status
Unemployed 173 11.1
Self employed 704 45.1
Employee of private/public sector organisation 439 28.1
Students and Others 244 15.6
Income level
Low-income 410 26.3
Middle-income 223 14.3
High-income 483 31.0
No Response 444 28.5
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Types of GI in the neighbourhoods investigated

Table 3 shows the different types of GI identified in the neighbourhoods
investigated. A careful examination of the result in Table 3 will reveal that the most
common GI in the study area are those with green features followed by those with
water features, those with tree features and others, respectively. It is also evident
that Lagos Island has the most concentration of GI than the other neighbourhoods
investigated in the study area.
Table 3: Types of GI available in the neighbourhoods sampled

Local Govt. Area of Neighbourhoods Sampled
Types of GI
Kosofe
S/N Ikeja Lagos Island Surulere
A GI with green features

1 Green roofs √ √ √ ×
City crop farms (urban
2 × √ √ √
agriculture)
3 Grasses √ √ √ √
4 Sport Fields √ √ √ √
5 Green parks √ √ √ √
6 Green gardens √ √ √ √
B GI with tree features
7 Forest × × × ×
8 Street Trees √ √ √ √
9 Horticulture √ √ √ √
10 Woodland √ × √ ×
11 Community Forest × × × ×
C GI with water features
12 Flood Plains/wetland √ √ √ √
13 Streams √ √ √ √
14 Rivers × √ √ ×
15 Lakes × × √ ×
16 Ponds × √ √ √
17 Fountains √ × √ √
D Other categories of GI
18 Open Spaces √ √ √ √
19 Non-green parks √ × √ √
20 School yard √ √ √ √
21 Wildlife Habitat × × × ×
22 Cemetery √ √ √ √
√ = Available; ×= Not Available
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Residents’ awareness of the different types of GI in the neighbourhoods

Of the six GI with green spaces identified, the highest proportion of the
respondents were found to be mostly awareness of garden, parks, grasses, and
sport fields in four Local Government Areas sampled. The result displayed in Table
4 shows that around 58.8%, 54.5%, 52.8% and 44.6% of the residents reported
awareness of green parks, green gardens, grasses, and sport fields respectively in
Ikeja Local Government Area. In Kosofe, the proportion of residents reporting GI
awareness was 55.3%, 52.4%, 46.2% and 32.4% for green parks, green gardens,
grasses, and sport fields, respectively, while in Lagos Island 58.6%; 54.4%, 51.0%
and 37.8% were aware of green parks, green gardens, grasses and sport fields,
respectively. The result in Table 4 also reveals that around 59.9%, 55.4%, 51.0% and
36.5% of the respondents in Surulere were reported to be aware of the existence
of green parks, green gardens, grasses, and sport field, respectively, in their
neighbourhoods.
Table 4: Residents’ awareness of green space GI

Local Government Area
Total
Ikeja Kosofe Lagos Island Surulere
n(%)
GI Facilities Awareness n(%) n(%) n(%) n(%)
Green roofs NA 362(93.8) 361(94.3) 366(95.3) 363(94.5) 1452(94.5)
A 24(6.2) 22(5.7) 18(4.7) 21(5.5) 85(5.5)
City Farms
(Urban NA 333(82.3) 314(82.0) 313(81.5) 312(81.2) 1272(82.8)
Agriculture)
A 53(13.7) 69(18.0) 71(18.5) 72(18.8) 265(17.2)
Grasses NA 182(47.2) 206(53.8) 188(49.0) 188(49.0) 764(49.7)

A 204(52.8) 177(46.2) 196(51.0) 196(51.0) 773(50.3)
Sport Fields NA 214(55.4) 259(67.6) 239(62.2) 244(63.5) 956(62.2)

A 172(44.6) 124(32.4) 145(37.8) 140(36.5) 581(37.8)
Green parks NA 159(41.2) 171(44.7) 159(41.4) 154(40.1) 643(41.8)

A 227(58.8) 212(55.3) 225(58.6) 230(59.9) 894(58.2)
Green
NA 178(45.5) 185(47.6) 178(45.6) 174(44.6) 715(45.8)
gardens
A 213(54.5) 204(52.4) 212(54.4) 216(55.4) 845(54.2)
A-Aware, NA-Not Aware
The result generally shows the residents sampled were more aware of green parks
in Lagos Metropolis and this was most common in Surulere LGA. However,
awareness of green roof was less common at both Surulere and Lagos Island.
Table 5 is a display of the respondents’ level of awareness of tree features within
their respective neighbourhoods. From result in Table 5, the respondents seem to
be more aware of street trees compared to other tree features. This is confirmed
by the result showing that around 57% of the respondents were aware of street
trees in Ikeja LGA compared to Surulere where 53.6% were reported to be aware
of street trees. In Lagos Island and Kosofe LGAs, 40.9% and 39.7% were found to
be more aware of street trees, respectively. There were also very low percentages
of the respondents who were aware of the presence tree features because the result
reveals that Ikeja LGA for example only around 7.0%, 7.5%, and 7.3% of the
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respondents claimed that they were aware of horticulture, woodland, and

community forest, respectively. However, the same proportion (3.6%) of the
respondents reported being aware of the existence of forests in Ikeja LGA
compared to 23.0%, 19.8% and 13.0% reported in Kosofe, Lagos Island, and
Surulere LGAs.
Table 5: Residents’ awareness of tree features GI

Local Government Areas
Total
Ikeja Kosofe Lagos Island Surulere
N(%)
GI Facilities Awareness n(%) n(%) n(%) n(%)
Forests NA 372(96.4) 295(77.0) 308(80.2) 334(87.0) 1309(85.2)
A 14(3.6) 88(23.0) 76(19.8) 50(13.0) 228(14.8)
Street trees NA 166(43.0) 231(60.3) 227(59.1) 178(46.4) 802(52.2)

A 220(57.0) 152(39.7) 157(40.9) 206(53.6) 735(47.8)
Horticulture NA 359(93.0) 338(88.3) 338(88.0) 342(89.1) 1377(89.6)

A 27(7.0) 45(11.7) 46(12.0) 42(10.9) 160(10.4)
Woodlands NA 357(92.5) 325(84.9) 325(84.6) 352(91.7) 1359(88.4)

A 29(7.5) 58(15.1) 59(15.4) 32(8.3) 178(11.6)
Community
NA 358(92.7) 349(91.1) 347(90.4) 346(90.1) 1400(91.1)
Forest
A 28(7.3) 34(8.9) 37(9.6) 38(9.9) 137(8.9)
Table 6 shows the results on the respondents’ level of awareness of water feature
within their respective neighbourhoods. It is evident from the result (Table 6) that
almost the same proportion of the respondents in the survey was aware of water
features in the four LGAs investigated. However, the percentage of respondents
who were aware of water feature was relatively very low across the four LGAs
compared to other GI investigated in this study. For example, only 18.1% of
residents were aware of fountains in Ikeja LGA, while 14.3% reported being aware
of river in Kosofe LGAs.
Table 6: Residents’ awareness of water feature GI

Total
Ikeja Kosofe Lagos Island Surulere N(%)
GI facilities Awareness n(%) n(%) n(%) n(%)
Flood Plains NA 372(96.4) 337(88.0) 342(89.1) 336(87.5) 1387(90.2)
A 14(3.6) 46(12.0) 42(10.9) 48(12.5) 150(9.8)
Streams NA 348(90.2) 326(85.1) 339(88.3) 331(86.2) 1344(87.4)
A 38(9.8) 57(14.9) 45(11.7) 53(13.8) 193(12.6)
Rivers NA 374(96.9) 328(85.7) 344(89.6) 347(90.4) 1393(90.6)
A 12(3.1) 55(14.3) 40(10.4) 37(9.6) 144(9.4)
Lakes NA 379(98.2) 351(91.6) 354(92.2) 368(95.8) 1452(94.5)
A 7(1.8) 32(8.4) 30(7.8) 16(4.2) 85(5.5)
Ponds NA 364(94.3) 365(95.3) 365(95.1) 362(94.3) 1456(94.7)
A 22(5.7) 18(4.7) 19(4.9) 22(5.7) 81(5.3)
Fountains NA 316(81.9) 356(93.0) 343(89.3) 339(88.3) 1354(88.1)

A 70(18.1) 27(7.0) 41(10.7) 45(11.7) 183(11.9)
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The result on the distribution of the respondents according to their levels of

awareness of the existence of other types of GI in the study area is shown in Table
7. For this category of GI, around 32.4% of the respondents indicated that they
were aware of open spaces in Ikeja compared to Lagos Island, Surulere and Kosofe
where 21.6%, 19.8% and 14.9% of them, respectively reported that they were aware
of open spaces in their neighbourhoods.
Table 7: Residents’ awareness of other spaces GI

Total
Ikeja Kosofe Lagos Island Surulere N(%)
GI facilities Awareness n(%) n(%) n(%) n(%)
Other Open
NA 261(67.6) 326(85.1) 301(78.4) 308(80.2) 1196(77.8)
Spaces
A 125(32.4) 57(14.9) 83(21.6) 76(19.8) 341(22.2)
Non green
NA 355(92.0) 351(91.6) 339(88.3) 350(91.1) 1395(90.8)
Parks
A 31(8.0) 32(8.4) 45(11.7) 34(8.9) 142(9.2)
School
NA 287(74.4) 283(73.9) 270(70.3) 284(74.0) 1124(73.3)
Yards
A 99(25.6) 100(26.1) 114(29.7) 100(26.0) 413(26.7)
Wild Life
NA 382(99.0) 377(98.4) 377(98.2) 378(98.4) 1514(98.5)
habitat
A 4(1.0) 6(1.6) 7(1.8) 6(1.6) 23(1.5)
Cemetery NA 370(95.9) 369(96.6) 369(96.3) 372(96.9) 1480(96.4)
A 16(4.1) 13(3.4) 14(3.7) 12(3.1) 55(3.6)

In the same vein, around 25.6%, 26.0%, 26.1%, and 27.9% of the respondents
reported awareness of school yards in Ikeja, Surulere, Kosofe, and Lagos Island,
respectively. However, a very low proportion (1.0%, 1.6%, 1.6% and 1.8%) of the
respondents in Ikeja, Kosofe, Surulere and Lagos Island, respectively, were aware
of wild life habitat. In summary, of the 22 GI facilities identified in the study area, a
larger proportion of the participants in the survey were found to have more
awareness of five GI: green garden, green parks, grasses, street trees, and sport
fields than GI the study area.
Socio-demographic predictors of awareness of GI in the neighbourhoods
The result in Table 8 shows the different residents’ socio-demographic variables
that predicted their level of awareness of GI in the study area. The regression model
with F (30.982, 1529.018) =1.838, P<0.000 and R2 value (0.141), reveals that around
14.1% of the variance in the respondents’ awareness of GI is accounted for in the
current research.
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Dipeolu, et al.
Table 8: Regression analysis of Socio-demographic predictors of awareness of GI

Independent Variables/Predictors Standardized Coefficients DF F p
Beta Estimate of Standard
Error
Gender 0.007 0.016 1 0.184 0.668
Age 0.007 0.033 2 0.048 0.826
Marital Status 0.083 0.029 2 8.329 0.000*
Household Size 0.037 0.021 2 3.041 0.048*
Religious affiliation 0.021 0.019 2 1.212 0.298
Ethnic group 0.015 0.018 1 0.731 0.393
Highest education qualification 0.071 0.024 3 8.648 0.000*
Employment status 0.087 0.028 3 9.617 0.000*
Income level 0.040 0.023 2 3.059 0.047*
*significant predictors
From the p-values in Table 8, it is evident that five of the nine socio-demographic
variables investigated emerged as the significant predictors of awareness of GI in
the survey. These variables are: marital status (p=0.000), household size (0.048),
education (p=0.000), profession (p=0.000) and income level (0.047). Examination
of the β coefficients also reveals that respondents’ employment status has the
highest β coefficient of 0.087, and thus makes the most significant contribution in
explaining the awareness level amongst the participants in the survey. This is
followed by marital status (0.083), education (0.071), income level (0.040) and
household size with a β coefficient of 0.037, respectively. However, respondents’
gender, age, religion and ethnic origin appear not to be significant predictors of
awareness of GI.
DISCUSSION
Findings of this study reveal that all the four categories of GI identified in the
literature were present in the study area. Specifically, 22 different types of GI were
identified and a larger proportion of the participants in the survey were more aware
of five of them: green garden, green parks, grasses, street trees and sport fields
than all other types of GI identified in the study area. Notably, a higher proportion
of the respondents in Ikeja were found to be aware of the different types of GI than
their counterparts in the other three LGAs studied. Arguably, the fact that Ikeja is
the administrative capital of Lagos State may have accounted for this result, and
thus, this specific finding can be considered to be consisted with that by Conedera
et al. (2015) who reported high prevalence of GI in urban Central Business Districts
of the city of Bellinzona, the capital of Canton of Ticino, Southern Switzerland.
Again, in support of previous studies (Byrne, Wolch & Zhang, 2009; Wolch et al,
2014) indicating that within cities, green spaces are not always equitably
distributed and that access to GI is often highly stratified based on income, ethno-
racial characteristics, age, gender and affordability, the current study reveals that
in the four LGAs sampled, GI facilities are more prevalent in neighbourhoods in
Ikeja and Lagos Island than in Kosofe and Surulere.
Result of the field observations by the researchers and presented in Table 3 show
that GI associated with green features such as green parks and green gardens are
more common in the study area. This finding did not come as a surprise because
previous authors (Wolch et al, 2014; Lafortezza et al, 2013) have noted that current
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Dipeolu, et al.
international efforts to preserve the natural environment have focused on the

preservation of woodlands, bio-diversity, and planting of trees and gardens, which
help to increase the vegetal species in urban areas. Although tree features were
identified as the least common GI in the study area, many of the respondents were
aware of these features but least aware of water features. This is probably because
of the presence of street trees and practice of horticulture in the neighbourhoods.
The relatively few respondents who were aware of water features may not be
unconnected with the fact that the neighbourhoods investigated are not in close
proximity to the several lagoons and waterfronts in Lagos State. In spite of the
different types of GI identified, the relatively low number of respondents who
claimed not to be aware of these facilities might be an indication that the existing
stock of GI in the study area is not adequate and thus not noticeable by many of
the participants in the survey.
Further analysis indicates that respondents’ employment and marital status,

education, income and household size emerged as socio-demographical factors
that significantly influenced the participants’ level of awareness of GI in the study
area. This finding seems to provide support to previous studies (Cottrell, 2003; Shen
& Saijo, 2008; Adegun, 2019; Venter et al, 2020) suggesting that certain aspects of
individual personality had significant correlation with awareness of various types
of features within their neighbourhoods. In fact, the emergence of socio-
demographic variables such as education as predictors of awareness of GI in the
study area is not a surprise because previous authors (Wall, 1995; Ewert & Baker,
2001) have shown that education is one of the most consistent predictors of
environmental consciousness and that individuals with high levels of education
tend to understand and care more about the environment than those of lesser
educational attainment (Ewert & Baker, 2001; Silvennoinen et al, 2002; Üstün &
Celep, 2007). This is probably because the differences in perception of any
phenomena in the environment are influenced by the level of information an
individual has about such (Wall, 1995). The study also provides support to the
findings of previous studies (Üstün & Celep, 2007; Shen & Saijo, 2008) showing
that income has a strong link to individual environmental awareness and concern.
The literature search for this research did not produce any study especially in
Nigeria that examined the link between marital status, household size, and
employment status on environmental awareness. However, the current study has
shown that individual’s marital status, household size and employment status are
associated with awareness of GI. This means that awareness of GI is largely a
function of one’s level of educational and income, employment and marital status
and household size. Contrary to findings of previous studies suggesting that there
are strong associations between gender (Üstün & Celep, 2007; Shen & Saijo, 2008);
age (Dietz, Stern & Guagnano, 1998; Cottrell, 2003) and environmental
consciousness, the current study has shown that gender and age as well as
religious and ethnic affiliations are not significant predictors of awareness of GI. It
can therefore be inferred that there is no association between an individual’s age,
gender, religion, and ethnic origin/race on his/her level of awareness of the
existence of green infrastructure among residents of Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria.
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Dipeolu, et al.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

In this study residents’ awareness of the different types of GI and its socio-
demographic predictors in Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria were investigated. Based on
the findings, the following conclusions are made. The first conclusion is that GI with
green, tree, water features and other types of GI that cannot be classified under the
aforementioned categories are available in the study area, but the predominant GI
is that with green features. The second one is that in spite of the presence of GI, a
low percentage of the respondents reported being aware of these in their
neighbourhoods. The last conclusion is that the main socio-demographic factors
that influenced the residents’ level of awareness of GI in the study area were their
employment, marital status, education, income levels and household size.
Findings of this research have implications that deserve mentioning. The first
implication is that the proportion of residents who are genuinely aware of the
existence of GI in their neighbourhoods is relatively low. This presents some levels
of threats in the use, preservation and conservation of GI in the study area. To
address this situation, there is a need for massive awareness campaigns among
residents in the study area to improve their knowledge of GI, its benefits to the
residents and the multifunctional role of GI in urban environmental sustainability
agenda. Secondly, the study implies that since peoples’ employment, marital
status, education, income and household size have influence on their awareness of
GI, general public awareness programmes may not produce the desired results,
rather such programmes should be designed to meet the need of critical sections
of the society with great potentials of yielding positive results. Thirdly, the study
also implies that the stock of GI with tree features is relatively low in the study area.
Therefore, it is recommended that the LASPARK should give more attention to the
conservation/preservation of existing woodlands and planting of more trees in the
study area. Summarily, the originality of this study is embedded in its unveiling the
understanding about residents’ awareness of Green Infrastructure types in a local
setting like Lagos Metropolis Nigeria, compared to the popularity of GI studies and
awareness in developed nations. It has contributed to knowledge by assisting to
identify the specific socio-demographic factors that mostly influence the level of
GI awareness among residents of Lagos Metropolis, Nigeria. This in turn will enable
city managers and policy makers to critically consider and focus more on these
identified factors in their attempts to increase the provision of GI facilities in Lagos,
Nigeria and play less with other socio-demographic factors that do not influence
the residence awareness of GI in the study area.
Added to the foregoing are the limitations of the current study. Findings of this
study is limited to just four LGAs sampled in Lagos Metropolis. Hence, it is
recommended that future study is required, and such study should consider
adopting different research design and extending the geographic coverage to
other neighbourhoods, LGAs in Lagos and other cities in Nigeria for more robust
result. Secondly, based on the result of the regression model, only 14.1% of the
socio-demographic predictors are counted for in this study, suggesting that more
study is needed to include more respondents and variables.
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Dipeolu, et al.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors deeply appreciate Lagos State Ministry of Environment for granting the
ethical approval (MOE/OES/7250/52) for this study. All participants in the survey
are also appreciated for their kind contribution to this research.
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APPENDIX
Figure 3: Pictorial view of a green infrastructure site at Ojota, Kosofe, LGA, Lagos.
Figure 4: Pictorial view of a green garden at Ojota, Kosofe LGA, Lagos.
Figure 5: Pictorial view of street trees along Ikoyi road, Victoria Island, Lagos.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
BIM EDUCATION ONTOLOGY: TOWARDS A RESEARCH

AGENDA FOR NON-INDUSTRIALISED ECONOMIES
Abdulazeez Abdulmumin1, B. A. Kolo2, Y. G. Musa-Haddary3 and P. G. Chindo4
1Department of Quantity Surveying, Federal University Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State -Nigeria
2,3,4Department of Quantity Surveying, Ahamdu Bello University, Zaria – Nigeria
BIM education is the cornerstone in addressing the shortage of BIM knowledgeable

practitioners, currently experienced by the construction industry. To address this
shortage, most industrialised economies are at the least, fine-tuning the
incorporation of BIM education into higher education. BIM education ontology,
though similar in nature, applies differently across the industrialised and non-
industrialised economies, thus demanding differing approaches toward managing
research gaps. While several studies on BIM education have been carried out in the
non-industrialised economies, there is a lack of common frame of reference for
managing research gaps in BIM education within these economies. By undertaking
critical literature review, this paper explores the main themes within BIM education
field of research. Relying on the theoretical research gap framework proposed by
Miles (2018) to espouse the main considerations (in terms of concepts and
properties) in BIM education research and their interdependencies, a conceptual
model for BIM Education ontology is proposed. Based on the conceptual model,
global considerations in BIM education centres around three main themes:
curriculum, integration and implementation. Research gaps within curriculum are
largely focused on insufficient curriculum, lack of unified method of
assessment/evaluation, and lack of specific teaching methods; those within
integration are inadequate collaboration between academia and industry; while
those within implementation concentrates on lack of strategies on BIM
implementation and competency deficits. Drawing upon the differentials between
the industrialised and non-industrialised economies, the paper concludes by
providing insights to newer research directions particularly targeted at addressing
the challenges of incorporating BIM education into Higher Education in non-
industrialised economies.
Keywords: BIM education, conceptual model, higher education, non-industrialised

economy, ontology
INTRODUCTION
Building information modeling plays important role in successful project delivery
in construction industry. The BIM concepts provide bases for all construction
1 abdulazeez.abdul@fubk.edu.ng; Tel. +2348062615822

2 babaadamakolo@gmail.com
3 gmusahaddary@gmail.com
4 pcgangas@yahoo.com
Abdulmumin, et al. (2021) BIM education ontology: towards a research agenda for non-
industrialised economies In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
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Abdulmumin, et al.
stakeholders to shared one integrated model that contain both parametric and
non-parametric information within a given project cycle (Ibrahim et. al., 2020;
Kamari et.al., 2021). BIM allows early assessment of constructability, buildability,
cost management, energy/structural analysis, and life cycle information of the
physical asset (Matti et.al., 2015; Mohamed, A. 2019). Evidently, BIM ensure perfect
modeling, construction, facility management and operations which thus increases
the effectiveness and efficiency of construction industry as against the traditional
methods of project delivery system (Alizadeh & Yitmen, 2018; Rosayuru et. el.,
2019). However, continuously improvement and development of this concept and
its practice among the industry stakeholders can accelerate its acceptance and
adoption by the tertiary institutions in non-industrialised economies. In developed
economies, statistics have shown that over 56% of tertiary institutions have
integrate BIM education into their undergraduate programs in the built
environmental courses (Sunil Suwal & Vishal Singh 2018; Jung et. al., 2019).
Developing BIM education in the non-industrialised economies has also become
imperative to the construction industry and educational institutions, particular in
the mix of wide gap of both building and infrastructural deficits in most of the
countries, this signifies need for innovation and personnel development who will
fill the existing gaps of practice in the industry.
However, industrialised economies are independent state that have effective rate
of industrialisation and individual income, while the developing economies are
further subdivided into two the emerging and least developed economy countries
(UNIDO, 2018; UNCTAD, 2019). The emerging economies are those countries that
rapidly expanding, meaning that they are developing industry and wealth to
compete on a global level. The least developed economies are weak countries
which have a lot of obstacles in development, with low industrialization and low
levels of human assets. These economies can be further subdivided base on the
following characteristics namely; strong political well, strong economical resources,
sound legal structure and natural resource or on other hand PESTEL can be used
to describe them by the of the following political, economic, social, technology,
environmental and legal framework . For the industrialised economies they both
manage all most all the attribute mentioned above, while the non-industrialised
economies might have only a few of these attribute.
BIM education importance cannot be overemphasis with huge benefits and

impacts it has on construction industry. According to Swallow & Zulu (2019), BIM
education provides a better market opportunity and a competitive advantage for
student’s and professional’s equipped with BIM proficiency. Furthermore, the
education sector is at the forefront of developing potential construction
professional with BIM skills and knowledge to meet the industry’s demand
(Khosrowshahi & Ariyaci, 2012). The education has developed other success of
vocational education training programmes to facilitate training other members of
the construction industry to increase the workforce in the industry.
Globally, the researcher has concentrated on different areas in BIM education

towards delivering the needed sought skills and knowledge in the industry. Some
of these areas include curriculum, integration and implementation. Curriculum
fields have subcategories which include content, development, learning and
development. The curriculum consists of an outline of concepts to be taught to
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Abdulmumin, et al.
students (Chong et al., 2017), contents are further requirements to be added in

knowledge, skills, attitude and value transfer (Chong et al., 2017), Development
requires steps-by-steps used to create positive improvements in courses offered
by tertiary institutions (Oluwole, 2018), learning is that methods used in delivering
required knowledge using different techniques to transfer knowledge (Justin &
Alex, 2020). Integration of BIM has several approaches, researchers concentrate
more on the synergy between the industry and academia as the most important
tool required for collaboration between the two to achieve the needed knowledge
transfer between the industry and academic environment (Amarnath et. al., 2016).
However, implementation was classified into four by other researches to includes
individual BIM (stand-alone), collaborative BIM (cross-discipline), Complementary
BIM (integrating into existing courses) and capstone (project-based).
However, research work in BIM education, have attracted major interventions in

research with attempted solutions to some of the identified problems in BIM
education. This paper reported six (6) areas where the BIM education gave more
attention as panacea to the problems. These includes lack of strategies in BIM
implementation, deficits of competency, insufficient curriculum, inadequate
collaboration and integration, non-effective teaching methods and improper
methods of assessment. Despite, the extant work there is still low patronage of BIM
education implementation among the non-industrialised economies. The paper
concludes by providing insights to newer research directions particularly targeting
at addressing the challenges of BIM education implementation into higher
education in non-industrialised economies, using the existence evidence or
strategies from the industrialised economies to propose solutions that could be
achievable within the tenants of non-industrialised economies, looking at the
peculiarities of the two economies. The following research questions are
addressed;
i. What is BIM education and its existence in educational practice?

ii. What distinguish between industrialised and non-industrialised economies
in relation to BIM education implementation in tertiary institutions?
iii. What were the steps used by developed economies in integrating BIM
education?
iv. What are the strategies developed for BIM education implementation in
tertiary institutions?
This is a step in addressing the broader research problem on how BIM education
implementation can be improved to leveraged the current gaps in built
environment programmes in tertiary institutions. The work is important in the
sense that it opens up another chapter for evaluating existing studies on the
methods and approaches used by the early adopters of BIM education to facilitates
its replication in the non-industrialised economies based on their own
characteristics. BIM education ontology is about the existence of this technology
in the built environment and its epistemological understanding and practice in the
tertiary institutions.
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Abdulmumin, et al.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Building information modelling education and its existence (ontology)
According to Succar (2012) define BIM education as the process of learning the
total concepts and practical knowledge of BIM technologies, protocol and
workflows processes. BIM education are built on data management (technical),
team collaboration (procedural) and risk management (regulatory topics). Xin &
Aziz (2020) argued that BIM education starts with the diffusion of BIM awareness,
followed by understanding the intellectual, concepts and mastering the BIM tools
for application (Underwood, 2015). Succar further stressed that BIM education
learning should considered as a triangle that comprises of the learner, the learning
provider and learning spectrum.
Early research works have confirmed the existence of BIM education practice in
tertiary institutions (Barison & Santos, 2010; Sacks & Pikas 2013; WU & Issa, 2014;
Succar, 2013 and Onosesen et al, 2020) studies thus includes BIM education
framework, curriculum development and contents and collaboration. This indicate
that the early adopters of BIM innovation into construction industry extended the
knowledge to institutions that will produce BIM proficient graduate for the
industry.
Distinction between industrialised and non-industrialised economies in relation

to BIM education implementation in tertiary institutions
Industrialised economy (or industrialized country, high-income country, more
economically developed country (MEDC)) is a sovereign state that has a high
quality of life, developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure
relative to other less industrialized nations. Most commonly, the criteria for
evaluating the degree of economic development are gross domestic product
(GDP), gross national product (GNP), the per capita income, level of
industrialization, amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of
living (UNIDO, 2018; UNCTAD, 2019). These are yardsticks used in measuring a
countries development strength among nations. The lower the strength of the
attribute mentioned above the more qualified the economies is to non-
industrialised economy (UNIDO, 2018; UNCTAD, 2019).
BIM education acceptance and adoption by industrialised economies was as result
of massive advancement in research and development, resource, manpower,
experts, tertiary institutions and government support. However, developing
economies like Nigeria and South Africa are two developing economies with
difference in terms of aforementioned attributes that either act as a driver or
deficiency to the development of the BIM education. Some of the attribute could
difference per income, innovation integrations experts in the BIM field.
Steps used by developed economies in integrating BIM education

There are several methods used by early adopters of BIM education to extend the
BIM knowledge. Table one (1) have reported several studies on steps used in
integrating BIM knowledge among the professionals and undergraduate students.
(Sack & Pikas, 2013; Abdrid et al, 2016; Onososen & Adeyemo, 2020).
336
Abdulmumin, et al.
Strategies developed for bim education implementation in tertiary institutions

Researchers have reported enough strategies to implement and teachers BIM
education through share responsibility among construction industry stakeholders
and the academia (). Other researcher like Huang (2018) argued that effective
approach to BIM implementation in tertiary institutions may be achieved via BIM
domestication in curriculum teaching the course as standalone, cross-discipline
course and project courses/capstone project. However, all these effort made by
industrialised economies to improve their industry and education by teaching BIM
education, little is known on methods/approaches used by n0n-industrrialised
economies to implement BIM education
BIM education integration
A literature review of the academic peered review articles was carried out to
identify journal and conference papers that have attempted to address BIM
education in higher education institutions (HEIs). All related cases on BIM
education in built environment programmes in tertiary institutions were collected
and analysed. The criteria for literature search and analysis process were described
in section 1. Section two (2) presents the inferences from reviewed literature and
the following outcomes were discussed and interpreted. section three (3)
codification of BIM education classification and a conceptual framework for BIM
education implementation was developed before conclusions and implications for
further studies.
Literature review article provide a complete overview of literature linked to a
theme/method and synthesis prior studies to support the foundation of knowledge
(Justin & Alex, 2020). Systematic reviews are “rigorously designed and conducted
literature reviews the aim to exhaustively search for, identify, and appraise the
quality of article and syntheses all the high-quality research evidence in order to
answer a specific question” (Philips, 2018; Theophilus, Emlyn & Irene, 2020).
This method enables the broad review of extant literature within the space of the
research in a replicable and rigorous manner and, additionally, the results of
systematic literature reviews have been contended to be as valued as those of any
other evidence-based methodologies in educational interventions (Evans &
Benefield, 2001; Phillips et al., 2018; Theophilus, Emlyn & Irene, 2020).
The methodology adopted for this research followed the recommendations of
(Gough, 2007; Bearman et al., 2012 & Paul et al., 2020) for conducting systematic
literature reviews. The initial step in this process is to explain the rationale of the
review. The principal goal is to identify the implementation level of BIM in the
education sector. The next step involved in the search for evidence from database.
In turn, this stage was divided into several sub-stages: literature collection,
literature filtration and literature synthetization. In order to do the literature
collection, a document search was made from google scholar. The search was
restricted to the last 7 years (2013–2020) in line with other recently published
articles with emphases from initial publication from BIM (Soust-Verdaguer et al.,
2017; Anand et al., 2017; Luque & Sanchez-Martin, 2019) on the other hand, the
search was restricted to works published in English. All the documents analyzed
337
Abdulmumin, et al.
were peer reviewed to ensure the quality of the review (Chong et al., 2017; Luque
& Sanchez-Martin, 2019).
The subsequent stage comprises of screening and filtering the articles obtained
from the database, some references only touched in a very peripheral way the
analyzed topic, others were uneconomical/falsely reported (articles that were not
about Building Information Modelling). Subsequently, the documents were read
via the abstract, information was synthesized and tabulation, with main aspects
dealt with the work, was realized.
Establishing the review question: The review question was developed to guide the
direction of this study: what is the existing research work on BIM education in built
environmental programmes. Defining the inclusion and exclusion criteria: All
academic publications relating to BIM education in built environment from any
country were included, but only those published in English language were
considered. Academic publication refers to blind reviewed journal articles and
conferences proceedings that report on research on any aspect of BIM education
in tertiary institutions. Non-academic articles, and other trade publication sources
and books were excluded on the ground that the quality of their contents could
not be granted. Search strategy on articles was conducted on google scholar
database to identify the suitable search terms. The Boolean operators were used
as follows: (“Building information modeling” OR “BIM”) AND (“Education” OR
“learning” OR “Training”) AND (“Built environment” OR “AEC” OR “Architecture,
Electrical & Construction”). The articles returned from the search of database were
3500 references, the results were further downgraded based on the inclusion and
exclusion to 150 articles. Finally, based on eligibility only 53 articles were used for
the reviewed process as shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Demonstration of review process based on Pawson et al., and Chong et al.,
338
Abdulmumin, et al.
Regarding the author’s corresponding affiliation, table 1 shows that United State
institutions had the high level of research works on BIM education. This clearly
point out how time, knowledge and resources were expanded to realized the
objective of BIM practice in the industry.
Based on the scrutiny of extant literature above, the following section analysed BIM
education as catalyst to BIM implementation in the built environment programs of
tertiary institutions.
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

From the relevant literature reviewed, BIM education articles centered on three
main areas. These are the curriculum aspect, integration and implementation in the
industrialised and non-industrialised countries.
Curriculum: the term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught
in a school or in a specific course or program (Brown, 2006). Therefore, BIM
education curriculum should contain those relevant academic contents of all
programs in specific and general domain within the built environment programs
to enable smooth delivery of BIM lessons. In the industrialised economies several
attempts were made to have more of specific curriculum than collaborative
contents in the institutions (KOUIDER et. al., 2018). Curriculum literatures were
reported with other sub-categories mainly development, contents, learning and
delivery.
Curriculum in BIM education, for the early adopters of this innovation, they have
made efforts to develop curriculum that will suits different discipline in built
environment programs in the industrialised economies (KOUIDER et. al., 2018). The
curriculum development and design are contextualized in nature in most of the
countries, institutions and programs who had incorporate BIM in teaching and
training. The curriculum in its nature is heterogenous because of its context base
right from planning to delivery.
Some of the early researchers on BIM curriculum in AEC programs, (Barison and
santos, 2010) classify BIM curriculum into introductory, intermediate and Advance
stage to enable seamless delivery of BIM knowledge across the stages for optimum
practice. Abdirad et.al., (2016) study BIM curriculum design in Architecture,
engineering and construction programs in United State of America. These are
universities or tertiary institutions with state of arts facilitates that motivate delivery
of BIM with ease as a result of technology advancement and they also have experts
to train the personnel on BIM operations.
BIM delivery methods are subject of discussion in both the industry and academia,
though delivery used in teaching the curriculum contents been developed are
classified based on requirement at the different levels (Oluwole, 2018). for instance,
some delivery requires both practical and theoretical methodology. Previous
studies have reported, face to face method, problem-based-learning, project-
based-learning, collaborative learning using electronic facilitates. The delivery
method adopt depends on the target audience in BIM processes.
339
Abdulmumin, et al.
BIM contents these are provided by extant research work and demand of the
industry, which are develop over the time as the process of BIM evolves. Some of
these contents are both specific and domain related (Oluwole, 2018).
BIM curriculum learning makes learning easier from progressively from simple to
harder concepts/problems. This process is well documented as part of the
requirement to achieve BIM education system in the industrialised economies
(Barison and santos, 2010).
Integration of BIM into built environment programs, were specifically based on

synergy between the academia and construction industry. This synergy is
structured to enable the industry determine identify contents the academia needs
to include in their curricula to enable delivery of BIM training in the tertiary
institutions (MacDonald, 2012)
Implementation process varies from institutions to institutions, there are some
basic requirements that determine the implementation process, the available
programs in the built environment, collaborative institutions, availability of
experts/professionals, facilitates, students and staff of the programs (KOUIDER et.
al., 2018). Implementations among programs varies some have the following
capstone/final project, cross discipline, collaborative and standalone courses.
Table 1. Major descriptive faces of incorporated studies (n=53)

Article
S/N Title Problem solved Reference Year Findings Location Method
Type
Teaching strategies in lecture, workshop,
integrating BIM collaboration,
Yap, Pei
education for the QS Lack of strategies open learning
1 Xin and Aziz, Nur 2020 Journal Malaysia Case study
courses in Malaysia embedding BIM platform and
Mardhiyah
higher education project-based
institution (2020) learning
BIM educational Missing

Framework
framework for the QS skillsets/knowledge
2 Anushka Rathnayake 2017 developed for QS Conference Sri lanka survey
students: Sri Lanka required for BIM
programs
perspective usage
Barriers to the Culture,

incorporation of BIM resistance,
Solomon Olusola
into quantity surveying Missing factors for environment, staff
3 Babatunde, Damilola 2019 Journal Nigeria survey
Undergraduate BIM incorporation security and high
Ekundayo
curriculum in Nigeria cost of
universities 2019 implementation
Developing a three-
Non-
level framework for BIM
comprehensive BIM
4 education in Huang, Yilei 2018 IMAC was used Journal USA Case study
framework for BIM
construction
incorporation
management. 2018
A comparative
Silvio Burrattino
diagnosis of student’s
Unclear extent of Melhado, Aline
proficiency in BIM
5 BIM adoption and Valverde Arrotéia, 2018 Literature Conference Brazil Case study
construction related
its effectiveness Daniel Paes and
graduate programs in
Javier Irizarry
Brazil and USA 2018
Lack of
BIM curricula design in
Comprehensive Hamid Abdirad, Literature-based
6 AEC education: A 2016 journal USA review
reviewed on BIM Carrie S. Dossick BIM curriculum
systematic review 2016
curriculum
Knowledge, skills and

functionality
Deficit’s Abdullahi
requirement for QS in QS BIM skill Delphi
7 skill/knowledge Babatunde Saka & 2020 Journal Nigeria
BIM environment: An requirement survey
affect BIM practice Daniel W.M. Chan
international Delphi
study 2019
Assessment of using a single
Lack of prior Rahman, Rahimi A.
8 strategies for BIM skills 2017 strategy might Conference USA Review
assessment and Ayer, Steven K
problem-based not be
340
Abdulmumin, et al.
learning pedagogies strategies for skills adequate for

2017 in PBL assessing BIM
skills
Integrated experiential
learning-based Jingxiao Zhang,
insufficient research
framework to facilitates Haiyan Xie, Klaus Framework design
on upskilling
9 project planning in civil Schmidt, BoXia, Hui 2019 to improve BIM journal china Case study
students’
engineer and Li and Martin delivery
competency
construction mgt Skitmore
courses 2019
BIM practice: training Nonexistence of
Non-in-depth
and education of BIM in tertiary
analysis of Onososen A.O. and Content
10 Nigeria QS’s in 2020 institution with Journal Nigeria
curriculum affects Adeyemo analysis
preparation for BIM single teaching
application
adoption 2020 introductory
BIM education
Suhaida S.K, Nurul
Evaluation of BIM for Uncertainty of cross-disciplinary
Aini Osman,
QS: A review of framework module or
11 Nadeera Abdul 2019 Conference Malaysia review
teaching approaches providing industry approach in QS
Razak, and M A
2019 demand education
Shazwan
framework
Probing BIM education
in construction Deficient BIM
engineering and mgt courses in CM Namhun Lee and Perceptions on
12 2013 Conference survey
programs using undergraduate Donna A. Hollar education
industry perception program
2013
Carol K.H. Hon, Erezi
Teaching and
Utiome, Robin
learning intiated
Gearing up academics Scarcity of BIM Drogemuller, Robert
will break the
13 for collaborative BIM training support to Bob Owen, Madhav 2015 Conference Australia Pilot study
barrier for non-
education 2015 academics Nepal,
compliance to BIM
Jason Gray, Vaughan
collaboration
Coffey
Sustainable BIM based A suitable
construction inadequate AEC curriculum was
14 engineering education curricula affects BIM Lee S, Lee J, Ahn Y 2019 developed to suit Journal Korea
curriculum for practice- skills the korean BIM
oriented training 2019 requirement
Curriculum to prepare
Challenges of Findings on how
AEC students for BIM Anne Anderson,
curriculum on different students PILOT
15 enabled globally Carrie Sturts Dossick 2019 Journal USA
multidisciplinary collaborate on STUDY
distributed projects & Laura Osburn
global project BIM project
2019
Findings reveals
AEC student’s
important of
perceptive in the Challenges of
learning BIM tools BIM
16 learning process of techniques to teach Gulbin Ozcan-Deniz 2016 USA survey
at both symposium
CAD & BIM (2016) CAD & BIM
undergraduate
BIMAS
and graduate
Advancing BIM Emphasis on
knowledge through collaboration to
challenges of KSA Gonzalez Michael BIM
17 engaging stakeholders 2016 achieve USA concept
to deliver BIM Angel symposium
at local and regionals breakthrough in
2016 BIM education
Establish the
Integrating BIM across
important of
an undergraduate Deficient
pedadogical
const. mgt curriculum pedagogical Wei Wu and Brad BIM
18 2016 teaching and USA Case study
experiential learning delivery affects Hyatt symposium
experiential
through a Tiny house students learning
learning by
project 2016
students
Establish
Development of a peer pedadogical
review-based activity to Challenge students Michael Beauregard, approach to team
BIM
19 impose students BIM encounter in Suleiman Alsafouri 2016 work among USA Case study
symposium
process mapping mapping BEP and Steven K. Ayer students in
understanding 2016 collaborative
studies
Difficult synergy of Chances of BIM
Rahimi A. Rahman,
BIM skills for career educator and experts becoming BIM
20 Suleiman Alsafouri 2016 USA survey
success 2016 BIMAS industry affects project manager symposium
and Steven K. Ayer
manpower in BIM project
IMAC framework
Developing an was tested and
international Unsettled dilemma Shelbourn, result shows that
BIM Mixed
21 framework for BIM on mode of BIM M.A.,Macdonald, J., 2016 more is needed to Australia
symposium method
education in the high incorporation and Mills, J. implement BIM in
education sector 2016 Universities in
Australia
341
Abdulmumin, et al.
Establish the
Knowledge transfer
importance of
into a BIM course Difficulties in
collaboration with
through technology learning using BIM
22 Marcel Maghiar 2016 industry to drive USA Case study
driven solutions for real traditional symposium
real practical
world construction education
solution to BIM
projects
implementation
Establish
Collaboration with BIM Major programs importance of
BIM
23 an experiential learning lack strategy to Julide Bozoglu et. al. 2016 industry USA Case study
symposium
case 2016 embed BIM collaboration in
BIM delivery
Establish the
Enhancing BIM importance of
education experiences Difficult students screencast
Nathan Blinn and BIM Survey 29
24 with integrated face assimilating 2016 technology in USA
Raja R. A. Issa symposium students
keystroke capture BIM training lectures by
software students
(Autodesk)
Incorporating BIM into Effective system
Inadequate space
the preconstruction of BIM integration BIM
25 hours affect BIM Kevin R. Miller 2016 USA CASE study
services course at BYU into exiting QS symposium
incorporation
2016 courses
Develop a
Integration of BIM (3D Shortfall of 3D framework to
CAD) throughout the industry-level Carol J. Friedland et. incorporate 3D BIM
26 2016 USA framework
industrial construction knowledge affect al., modeling in symposium
education track 2016 BIM industrial
education
Researcher gave
lacks of well-
BIM curriculum an insight to BIM
27 developed AEC BIM Richard Faust 2016 USA Concept
development development of symposium
curriculum
BIM curriculum
Incorporating 3D
BIM implementation at Deficiency in
modeling into
Building systems harmonizing BIM
28 Jose Ferrandiz 2016 architecture UAE
course @ United Arab traditional-BIM symposium
programs using
Emirates university courses
PBL
Inadequate
The development of a Proposed models,
strategies to
BIM enabled management and BIM
29 incorporate Scott P. Vlasek 2016 USA
curriculum: planning graphics courses symposium
traditional-BIM
freshman year for beginners
courses
There benefits if
Benefits of inter-
well supported by
institutional
Challenges of inter- all stakeholders at
collaboration in the
institutional both industries, BIM
30 delivery of BIM Alan V. Hore et. al., 2016 Ireland Survey
collaboration in BIM professional and symposium
education in Ireland.
master program the academia.
Reflections of an Irish
Overall is govt
master’s program
enforcement
Preliminary review of Findings is that
BIM tertiary education Lack competency to non-existent of Ontario,
31 Christopher J. Willis 2016 Conference Case study
in the province of train graduate level BIM education in Canada
Ontario Ontario university
Education Needs to Collaborative
Support Architecture, culture needed by
Engineering, and Bottleneck in players via
32 Construction accepting BIM by Rostam, D. M. 2019 undergraduate Journal UK Survey
Collaboration Using AEC programs to
Building Information achieve effective
Modeling 2019 BIM practice
Building Information They lack of
Management (BIM) experts and BIM
Difficult task with Dominica Interview (9
education in the Ana Karina Silverio education, but
33 provision of BIM 2017 conference n professional
Dominican Republic: Rodriguez et. al., currently depend
education Republic s)
An empirical study, on BIM software
2017 training
This reveals a
clear setback in
Building Information
the tools training
Modelling Uptake: Tool Slow uptake of BIM Hamma-Adama M.
34 2018 to Journal Nigeria Survey
Training in Nigerian in universities et. al.,
carter for the BIM
University
uptake in the
country
BIM models in
BIM for Quantity
practice not
Surveying: An
sufficient for QS
Investigation into its Insufficient BIM
task and BIM Unpublishe Hong Mixed
35 Adoption and level and its Calvin KEUNG 2019
education found d thesis Kong method
Education in Hong deficiency
only in basic
Kong 2019
course but lacking
unpublished
at advanced and
342
Abdulmumin, et al.
interdisciplinary
level.
T-shaped method
Toward deep impacts no common/finite of integration was
Ziga Turk and
36 of BIM on education set of symbols in 2019 suggested for BIM Journal Slovenian Concept
Andreja I. S.
2019 BIM engineering
programs
Framework was
Modelling (BIM) Insignificance
developed based
Educational Framework Skills/knowledge Focus group
37 Kherun N. Ali et. al., 2016 IMAC for BIM journal Malaysia
for Quantity Surveying required for BIM discussion
education in QS
Students: The usage
program
Malaysian Perspective
knowledge and
skill gaps among
faculty, crowded
BIM education - Case Lack of BIM Taija Puolitaival et. New
38 2017 curricula, and Conference Case study
New Zealand educational in NZ al., Zealand
limited time for
development
work
Teaching BIM in
FRAMEWORK FOR two stage at
INTEGRATING BIM Oluseye secondary and
Complex challenges South Concept
39 EDUCATION IN THE Olugboyega and 2019 tertiary institution, conference
affect quality of BIM Africa paper
CURRICULUM OF AEC Abimbola Windapo to reduce the
PROGRAMS 2019 spatial load in the
university
A framework for
Building Information Conrad Boton, Identify some
lack of guide to BIM
40 Modeling Daniel Forgues, and 2018 implementation journal Canada Case study
implementation
implementation in Gilles Halin strategies
engineering education
A Framework for IMAC framework
Shortage of BIM
Collaborative BIM Jennifer A. was developed to
41 professionals affect 2011 Conference Australia Framework
Education across the Macdonald assess the BIM
the training
AEC Disciplines education
BIM (Building
BIM
Information Modeling)
Scarcity of teaches implementation
Education Program in TaeYeua Yi1 and Case study
42 to deliver BIM 2018 strategy was Conference KSA
KSA: A Case Study of SukHee Yun (PSU)
training developed for
BIM program at Prince
PSU
Sultan University
Conceptual Framework
for the Use of Building
Inadequacy of FRANCISCO
Information Modeling Framework for
43 teaching methods ZAMORA-POLO et. 2019 Journal Brazil Review
in Engineering teaching BIM
in BIM education al.,
Education
2019
Implementing a
Vertically Integrated It improves the
BIM Curriculum in an Challenges of student pruriency
Arundhati Ghosh
44 Undergraduate mainstream BIM 2014 in information Journal USA Case study
et.al.,
Construction curriculum in CM management in
Management Program BIM
2014
There is
BIM Education and
improvement in
Recruiting: Survey-
BIM
Based Comparative Deficits of Gap
Wei Wu and Raja R implementation &
45 Analysis of Issues, between students 2013 Journal USA Survey
A. Issa adaptation, but
Perceptions, and and workforce
gap exists in
Collaboration
growth and
Opportunities 2014
incentive
Overview of BIM
education in the field
of construction Findings reported
management at the that only stand- Croatia
Insufficiency of BIM
47 Faculty of Civil Sonja Kolarić et. al., 2017 alone program is Conference and Case study
courses in CE
Engineering in Košice been run in the Slovakia
and the Faculty of Civil faculty
Engineering in Zagreb,
2017
Developed a
Modelling in Tertiary
process that binds
Construction Project
Perry Forsythe, Julie the people and
Management Low uptake of BIM
48 Jupp & Anil 2013 process of BIM Journal Sydney Case study
Education: A in HEI’s
Sawhney practice with the
Programme-wide
technology as
Implementation
supportive
Strategy, 2013
Incorporating BIM in Perception of the
Wang L., Yan X., Fan
the Final Semester Missing of BIM final study groups were
49 B., Jin R., Yang T., 2020 Journal China Case study
Undergraduate Project year project positive based on
and Kapogiannis G.
of Construction 7 the activities
343
Abdulmumin, et al.
Management-A Case involved in BIM

Study in Fuzhou practice at the
University, 2020 final semester
projects
Fundamental of Evaluates the
implementing BIM in Lack of guideline to teaching methods
Kausar, M., Mahanta,
50 architecture education establish BIM @ 2020 before Conference UAE Case study
N. R., & Samuel, A.
at the graduate school graduate level considering BIM
level, 2020 integration
Use of BIM at higher
learning institutions:
Findings reported
Evaluating the level of
Uncertainty on level are 2D and 3D
implementation and Pillay, N., Musonda, South Questionnair
51 of BIM spectrum 2018 CAD design were Conference
development of BIM at I. & Makabate, C Africa e survey
implementation taught in some
built environment
universities
schools in South Africa.
2018
It provides a
Project Based Learning sound foundation
with Implementation Insufficient research Jingxiao Zhang, for the
52 Planning for Student on BIM capstone- Haiyan Xie and Hui 2018 instruction of BIM Journal China Case study
Engagement in BIM real projects Li education in
Classes, 2018 university
teaching
Students learn
University–industry
Missing more in
collaboration for BIM
collaboration Ke Chen, Weisheng collaboration with Hong
53 education: Lessons 2020 Journal Case study
between industries Lu and Jing Wang industry in both Kong
learned from a case
and Universities practical and
study, 2020
theory
Table 1 present the major descriptive of major findings incorporated in the study.
The BIM education ontology, as reported due exists. The epistemological
understanding of the knowledge of BIM is what matters to improve the level of BIM
implementation in the non-industrialised economies. From the table above studies
have shown the real existence of BIM in the developed economies, with strategic
approaches to its implementation. The setback to the developing and emerging
economies will be from state of art facilities in technology, culture, structure of
construction industry, personnel and experts.
Table 2, reveals the problem solved; these problems can be further categories into
six (6) headings.
Table 2: Problems solved in extant research

Problems Authors
Lack of strategies 1,4,23, 38,39, 40, 48,34,50
Insufficient curriculum 5,6,10,12,14,15,27,35,44,46,47,51
Serious gap in collaboration 20,21,30,45,
Lack of unified method of

8,49,54
evaluation/assessment
Inadequate teaching methods 16,18,22,24

Competency Deficits 2, 7,9,13,17,19,26,31,33,37,41,42
A conceptual framework for BIM education

BIM education implementation framework was proposed from the studies above
as an insight for built environment programs in developing countries.
344
Abdulmumin, et al.
Conceptual framework of BIM education for High Education in Non-industrialised Economy
Curriculum development, content, learning and delivery these variables are very
important when it comes to BIM education as elaborated by previous researcher in
industrialised economies, the global approach might be challenging to the non-
industrialised economies due to some difference in development level,
infrastructure, organization nature etc. The method to adapt might be from
understand the current system of non-industrialise economies compare with
advance countries then identify those gaps and abilities which can serve as a
stepping stone in initiating BIM education into the existing programs. The
development takes into account developing the content, objective of contents,
method of delivery, (Knowledge, skills and abilities = competency) and
assessment/evaluation. These variables are most important to BIM education
implementation.
Integration, the developed nation achieved the milestone by full collaboration with
the industry stakeholders, who demand for the BIM service and the academia
supply the needed manpower to deliver BIM in the construction industry. Several
case studies have been reported with exchange of knowledge between the industry
experts and high education institutions via transfer of knowledge and practical to
the students who will later take over the industry after graduation.
Implementation is very important variable to consider at high education

institutions; even though lack of strategies and competencies are among major
challenges hindering most of the higher institutions in levering on BIM
implementation into their respective programs.
The study will further investigate the major difference of industrialise economies
and non-industrialised economies in attributes to empower the emerging
economies from domesticating in educational sector.
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Abdulmumin, et al.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The literature is almost unanimous on the importance of understanding the early
adopter of BIM education as a catalyst for emerging economies to flow suits to
attain the level of industry growth by the developed countries. This confirmed the
submission by Barison and Santos (2010) that BIM education can be achieved by
proper diffusing the knowledge into various programmes in tertiary institutions.
The multi-dimensional approach to BIM education globally requires careful

evaluation, to determine a realistic approach to BIM in non-industrialised
economies. The approaches are not homogenous in nature, they are heterogenous
because all developed countries have their different methods used in BIM
education development processes.
The study has highlighted a conceptual framework based on available theory on
BIM education to serve as starting point into mapping process for BIM education
implementation in Nigerian tertiary institutions.
However, for a developing country like Nigeria, a suitable study approach is
required to plan strategic methodology for incorporating BIM education into
higher education of tertiary institutions, who are the bridge to the construction
industry. This preliminary study to initiate doctoral research has review literature
identified with BIM education for built environment.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
BIM UTILIZATION IN FACILITIES MANAGEMENT PRACTICE: A

STATUS STUDY IN SOUTH AFRICA
Faith Dowelani1 and Aghaegbuna O. U. Ozumba2
1School of Construction Economics, University of Pretoria, South Africa,
2School of Construction Economics and Management, University of the Witwatersrand, South
Africa
Facilities Management is the most extended phase in the life cycle of a facility. To
effectively manage facilities' electronic information is needed. An integrated
information management system such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) can
be utilised to support data at any given phase of a building life cycle. Literature
review shows that there are benefits to using BIM in Facilities Management.
However, there is insufficient research regarding the use of BIM in Facilities
Management in South Africa. The purpose of this research was to investigate the
extent to which BIM is utilised in the South African Facilities Management sector.
The findings reveal that majority of Facilities Management practitioners are not
utilising BIM, due to factors relating to cost and week support organisations. Those
who use BIM believe that the model does not have enough information to carry out
all Facilities Management activities.
Keywords: BIM, buildings, facilities, ICT, management
INTRODUCTION
Facilities Management (FM) encompasses multiple roles for the purpose of
ensuring the functionality of the built environment through the integration of
people, places, processes and technology (International Facility Management
Association, (IFMA), 2015). FM's primary focus and function are to manage changes
that occur in the relationship between organisations, their employees, and their
facilities (Chotipanich, 2004). According to Nutt (2004), the relationship involves an
extensive range of activities including but not limited to the;
1. Physical use of built space, use of technology, provision of services, ensuring

maintenance as well as modification and adaptation where necessary;
2. Human and business component of facility purpose, its use and function,
provision of security, ensuring safety, comfort, and environmental health;
and
1 fdowelani@gmail.com
2 Obinna.ozumba@wits.ac.za
Dowelani and Ozumba (2021) BIM utilization in facilities management practice: a status study in
South Africa In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
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Dowelani and Ozumba
3. Financial issues of property investment, asset value, and the costs and
benefits of occupancy.
One significant challenge that can be experienced in FM is information collection,

storage and sharing (Eastman, Teicholz, Sacks and Liston, 2011). The main reason
that hampers information management is that most of the FM information is
documented in paper formats, which are not easy to locate and maintain (Mendez,
2006).
The use of information in FM is no longer limited to the maintenance records for

routine, reactive or compliance purposes, but rather it involves operational and
strategic elements where data and information are captured, processed, shared,
applied and reported (Achoru, 2015). With technological advancements in the
digital age, FM teams are encouraged to transfer and store building information in
digital formats that are readily available (Teicholz, 2013). Therefore, effective FM
requires an integrated information management system that provides practitioners
with adequate information to control maintenance functions to support day-to-
day operations and decision making (Graddy, 2010; Chen and Wang, 2009).
Information management systems such as Computerised Maintenance

Management System (CMMS), Computer-Aided Facility Management (CAFM),
Integrated Workplace Management Systems (IWMS), Enterprise Asset Management
(EAM) and Building Information Modelling (BIM) can be used for storing and
sharing FM information. BIM is a model for defining a facility's physical and
functional characteristics in a digital form (Gardezi, Shafiq, Nurudin, Farhan and
Umar, 2014).
BIM emerged as a technological information management process and product

that tackles interoperability and information integration issues in early 2000
(Motamedi, 2013). BIM involves spatial relationships, light analysis, geographic
information, and building components' quantities and properties (Eastman et al.,
2011). Current BIM software is therefore used by individuals, businesses and
government agencies in infrastructure planning, design, construction and FM
(Azhar, 2011). The use of BIM in FM can have numerous benefits, including but not
limited to faster and more effective information sharing and cost control (Arayici,
Onyenobi and Egbu, 2012). With the advancement of BIM, there has been evidence
of BIM adoption and its use in developed countries such as the United Kingdom
(UK) and the United States of America (USA). The use of BIM in the UK (Succar,
Sher and Williams, 2012; Sabol, 2008; Arayici et al., 2012). Unfortunately, the use of
BIM is mainly focused on design, preconstruction and construction phases (Hilal,
Maqsood, and Abdekhodaee, 2019). Hence, the use of BIM in FM has been noted
as generally lagging behind relative to other AEC sub-sectors (Sabol, 2008). Despite
the potential and significant benefits, BIM in FM is still relatively in its infancy
(Korpela and Miettinen 2013: Lui and Issa, 2013); the situation has also been
highlighted in the context of South Africa (Kotze, 2013).
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

FM, as a growing profession in the built environment, has evolved over time. FM
is the process needed to support and enhance an organisation's core business by
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Dowelani and Ozumba
ensuring that its buildings, systems and services provide a quality, cost-effective
environment for people and processes (Chotipanich, 2004). FM coordinates all
efforts related to planning, designing and managing buildings and their systems,
equipment and furniture (Becker, 1990).
It is an integrated approach to operating, maintaining, improving, and adapting
the buildings and infrastructure of an organisation to create an environment that
strongly supports that organisation's primary objectives (Rondeau et al., 2012). In
addition, FM can be seen as the application of the total quality techniques used for
improving quality, adding value and reducing the risk associated with building
occupation and support services delivery (Alexandra, 2001), with the primary
function of the process being resource management at strategic and operational
levels of support (Liu and Su, 2013). The South African Facilities Management
Association (SAFMA) ascertains that FM enables sustainable enterprise
performance through the whole life management of productive workplaces and
effective business support services (Atkin and Brooks, 2015).
FM's scope is broad; FM is no longer limited to the maintenance records for routine,
reactive or compliance purposes. Instead, it involves operational and strategic
elements where data and information are captured, processed, shared, applied and
reported (Achoru, 2015). Effective information management is the cornerstone of
successful FM, which enables forward planning to support the core business (Atkin
and Brooks, 2015). In its electronic form, information can be easily stored, collected,
analysed, and shared (Teicholz, 2013).
BIM offers an integrated digital platform to store, manage and share information
obtained from the planning to FM stage (BIFM, 2012). BIM has functions and tools
that can be used to support FM functions for both new and existing buildings (Volk
et al., 2014). FM enabled BIM model contains FM data which can be used to support
FM tasks involving space analysis, retrofitting and preventative maintenance
(Pishdad-Bozorgi, Gao, Eastman and Self, 2018). Arguably the importance of
information management cannot be overemphasised.
The Sydney Opera House case study (Sabol, 2008) successfully demonstrated the
potential benefits of BIM in FM. Other case studies include a renovation project at
the University of Chicago, where BIM was linked to existing CMMS and CAFM
systems during the administration building's renovation (Teicholz, 2013).
According to Temmink and Ritter (2020), BIM is the first half of a Digital Twin that
considers people and their potential actions within the building. The study of,
Becerik-Gerber et al. (2012) interviewed FM practitioners on the role of BIM and
found that using BIM decreases the chances of errors and increases efficiency.
Korpela and Miettinen (2013) also found that in FM, BIM can be used for space
management, planning and scheduling maintenance tasks, operations data such
as energy use, allocating and managing assets, and facilitating maintenance.
Furthermore, BIM can be used as a tool to track the types and quantities of
materials, equipment and spaces of a facility. When integrated with the CAFM
system, BIM provides notable benefits such as utility cost reductions, comfort
management, space optimisation, improved inventory management and energy
simulation and conservation (Love et al., 2014).) Furthermore, when BIM is utilised
in FM, there is an improvement in the quality of life (QOL) in the workplace that
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Dowelani and Ozumba
encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure higher functionality of the built

environment (Aziz, Nawawi and Ariff, 2016). Research on the utilisation of BIM in
FM focuses mainly on its implementation in refurbishment and maintenance,
energy efficiency, knowledge management and existing building (Matarneh et al.,
(2019).
Even though the AECO industry has recognised the potential benefits of BIM for
FM (Lui et al., 2015), there is an increase in BIM uptake in the UK due to the
Government mandated BIM Level 2 for public-funded projects (Carbonari,
Stravoravdis and Gausden, 2018). There is a perception that the industry has been
slow to participate in the developments of BIM and that facility managers are not
precisely sure about how BIM can be utilised effectively. Several researchers have
cited the critical factor of successful BIM implementation as seamless information
management exchange between various BIM-FM systems and data exchange
standards and regulations (Chan, 2014; Mehran, 2016; Matarneh et al., 2019;),
Government support and pressure ( Willis and Regmi, 2016: McPartland, 2017:
Succar et al.,2013) and BIM awareness and education ( Azhar, 2011; Almutiri,
2016)In South Africa, there is evidence that BIM usage is growing amongst
architects relative to contractors and other construction professionals (Froise and
Shakantu, 2014). Most architects implement 3D BIM compliant software such as
ArchiCAD and Revit (Booyen et al., 2013), while a small percentage work exclusively
in a BIM environment (Froise and Shakantu, 2014). Architects use BIM for drawing,
visualisation, conceptual design functions scheduling, programming, costing and
collaboration with other consultants (Froise and Shakantu, 2014). Even though
some architecture companies are using BIM tools, Kipprotich (2014) asserts that
most of them do not realise the extent to which BIM should be used and what BIM
can do.
In construction, BIM compliant software has been implemented increasingly for

cost management, construction management and project management (Kekana et
al., 2015). While, in quantity surveying, a BIM compliant system, Dimension X, is
commonly used for cost estimating and quantity take-off (Booyens et al., 2013).
BIM has been used in South Africa on projects such as Kusile Power Station, Medupi
Power Station and the 2010 FIFA World Cup stadiums (Booyens, Bouwman and
Burger, 2013; Kipprotich, 2014).
Although there is awareness of BIM in South Africa, the rate of BIM adoption in the
country is very low (Kekana et al., 2015). According to Froise and Shakantu (2014),
less than 10% of South African contractors are familiar with BIM. Some of the
factors identified in the literature that contributes to the slow uptake of BIM in
South Africa are:
 Lack of communication between various stakeholders, whereby architects

are not designing with quantity surveyors, contractors and facility managers
in mind (Booyens et al., 2013). This non-systemic approach results in further
fragmentation of the sector as it causes hindrances in design collaboration
and design data losses, leading to wasteful iterative design processes
(Wortmann, Root and Venkatachalam, 2016).
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Dowelani and Ozumba
 Lack of mandated or best practice BIM standards, specifications or protocols

in South Africa (Wortmann et al., 2016). The lack of BIM regulation affects
the rate of BIM adoption in South Africa (Froise and Shakantu, 2014).
There is, therefore, a scarcity of literature exploring the actual use of BIM in Facilities
Management within South Africa. This research aims to determine the levels and
extent of BIM utilisation in FM practice, focusing on FM practitioners in South Africa.
The pertinent question was derived as; what is the nature of BIM utilisation in FM
practice among FM practitioners in South Africa? A fieldwork approach was
adopted to address the research question through a research design detailed in
the following section.
RESEARCH DESIGN
To answer the research question, two data-collection tools were developed for data
collection. The first was a qualitative interview guide, and the second, a mixed
open- and close-ended self-administered questionnaire. Using both methods in
the same study is a viable option to obtain complementary findings and strengthen
the findings (Thurmond, 2001). The two methods are different in approach;
Interviews are more exploratory, while a questionnaire is more confirmatory (Harris
and Brown, 2010)
Identification of items for the research and preparation of the interview guide as
well as the questionnaire was a crucial step for the success of the research. A
significant amount of work has already been done on items of BIM functions and
the use of BIM. In addition, there is a well-documented and peer-reviewed set of
those available items in the literature review. Using the latter, the two data-
collection tools were developed for the study.
Data collection
A semi-structured interview method was used. The interview guide had two
sections—the first section aimed at collecting demographic and background
information. The second section constituted of five questions gathering
information about operations at facility management companies. The interview
took 30 minutes. Interviews were crucial in collecting information used to develop
the questionnaire.
The questionnaire was administered to the respondents through an online
platform, Qualtrics©, which is used for data collection and management.
Thereafter a link was generated through Qualtrics© and sent to 123 participants
via email. However, the link was only sent to members of SAFMA, whose core
business is FM.
Data analysis
The data were analysed using grounded theory and descriptive statics. The data
was collected in 2016. The research population included facilities management
professionals registered with the SAFMA. The population from which a sample was
drawn for this research comprised 950 FM practitioners registered with SAFMA,
amongst which 360 are based in Gauteng Province, which is the study's
geographical scope. However, only 30 surveys were found useful for analysis.
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Sampling
This research used purposive sampling. The chosen method allowed the researcher
to select a sample of people who would give the most accurate information. A
small number of practitioners who provided in-depth information about the topic
were selected from a sample of FM practitioners registered with SAFMA to
participate in the interview and questionnaire survey
RESULTS
Interview Data
Industry Experts Interview
Four industry experts from FM organisations were identified and interviewed in
Gauteng Province. Three were male and one female. The age range was between
35 and 55 years of age. In terms of education, two had bachelor's degrees whilst
the other two had Masters degrees. See Table 1.
Table 1: Position, age, gender and qualification of the interviewee

Interviewee Position Age Gender Qualification
A FM consultant Over 55 Male Degree
B FM manager 35-46 Female Masters
C FM director Over 55 Male Degree
D FM director 35-46 Male Masters
FM functions
Both respondents C and D work within organisations that focus on all areas of FM.
These organisations manage over 100 facilities. Respondent B is only involved in
facility planning and real estate, while Respondent A, functions in building
operation and management, strategic planning, outsourcing and insourcing.
Table 2: FM functions which the respondents are involved

Organisational functions Interviewee
Facilities planning C, D
Building operations and maintenance A, C, D
Real estate and building construction B, C, D
General office services C, D
Outsourcing and insourcing A, C, D
Green building A, C
Strategic planning A, C, D
Other. Specify
Information management in FM
Sections of the questions asked concerning this theme are presented below in
Table 3. The results indicate that the respondents are digital-ready, as all four of
them receive, store and manage information digitally.
Table 3: Information management

Interviewee Receive Store Manage Share
A Digital and paper Digital Digital Digital
B Digital Digital Digital Digital
C Paper and Digital Digital Digital Digital
D Paper and Digital Paper and Digital Paper and Digital Paper and Digital
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BIM utilisation
The interviews revealed that only respondent, A had used BIM previously as an
employee, but he was not using BIM currently. Respondents B, C and D have never
used BIM even though they are aware of it. They all suggested that the directive to
use BIM must come from the designers and contractors, and they will follow suit.
In addition, Respondent A believed that BIM would only be fully considered in FM
if the Government imposes specific rules, such as in the UK, where a level 2 of BIM
is required for public projects. Respondent C further suggested that their
organisation is willing to explore BIM for FM. Furthermore, Respondent C proposed
a public sector driven BIM adoption for FM in South Africa.
Survey data
FM information management
For the question, in which format do you usually require FM information?
Respondents could choose any format, and the question also allowed for multiple
selections. Some of the respondents chose more than one response. Therefore, the
total number of responses were more than those of the participants. Table 4. shows
that 36% of FM information is received in paper formats, 44% in a digital copy on
CD/DVD, 17% in BIM, 22% through BIM integrated into CMMS, and 19% through
other means. Those who specified other means mentioned emails with a PDF
attachment.
Table 4: FM information formats

Information format Percentage of responses
Physical paper copy 36.11%
Digital copy on CD/ DVD 44.44%
BIM 16.67%
BIM integrated into CMMS 22.22%
Other. Specify
19.44%
PDF, MS Excel, Cherwell
FM information formats
The respondents were asked how they store, share and manage FM information.
The respondents indicated that most information is stored and managed digitally
on a server via MS Excel, PDF and Cherwell. However, significant amounts of paper
are involved, such as service records, invoices, and equipment manuals stored
physically on-site and off-site. In addition, FM information is shared via emails,
SharePoint and Dropbox.
BIM utilisation
To ascertain the level of BIM utilisation in FM, the respondents were asked if they
use BIM or have used BIM for FM. The data from questionnaires shows that a small
amount (20%) of FM practitioners use or have used BIM for FM, while 80%
responded no, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Use of BIM model for Facility Management

Answer Percentage
1 Yes 20.%
2 No 80.%
Total 100%
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Dowelani and Ozumba
Further analysis of the respondents that use BIM for FM indicated that of the 20%
who have used BIM or are currently using BIM, 50% consider themselves as
intermediate users, 25% as beginners and 25% are experts. These results suggest
that most BIM users are at ease with utilising BIM to support their FM functions.
See figure 1 below
Figure1: BIM experience level
Figure 2 illustrate that 37.5% of BIM users use BIM in facility planning and building
operations and maintenance, while 25% use BIM general office services. Findings
also indicate that 75% of BIM users believe the system carries part of the
information they require for FM and that manual inputs are still required.
Figure 2: Area of FM where BIM is utilised
FINDING AND DISCUSSIONS

The data collected contains very diverse opinions and information from
experienced FM practitioners. In analysing the data, the answers to all questions
were linked to three thematic areas, namely FM functions, Information
Management, Utilisation of BIM in South Africa.
According to the literature, FM functions include facility planning, Real Estate,

building operations and maintenance management and general premises
management. Figure 1 illustrates that approximately 38% of FM organisations
within South Africa focus on building operation and maintenance management.
These findings are similar to Kiprotich (2004), who suggested that FM
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Dowelani and Ozumba
organisations' primary focus is building operations and maintenance. FM

information is better stored and received in a digital format (Teicholz, 2013), but
most buildings store their documentation in paper formats (Sabol, 2008). To further
ascertain the level of digitalisation, the survey confirms that 44% of the
respondents receive FM information in digital formats, while 36% receive
information in paper format Table 4. These results suggest that the South African
FM industry is transforming and is moving towards total digitalisation.
Moreno, Olbina, and Issa (2019) found that regardless of the participants' discipline,
they indicated less frequent use of BIM in FM. Similarly, the data from this study
show that a small amount (20%) of FM practitioners use or have used BIM for FM,
as shown in Table 5. This finding corroborates with Becerik-Gerber et al. (2012) 's
statement, which states that globally, some organisations push for BIM use in AEC
while industry-wide adoption of BIM in FM has not been embraced. And the
findings of, Kekana et al. (2015) indicate that only 38% of AEC practitioners are
currently using BIM in South Africa, which means that the use of BIM in FM in South
Africa is lagging behind its use AEC. This reveals that there is a gap in the use of
BIM in FM. And Further analysis shows that organisations are not propelling
adoption and awareness of BIM to support their FM functions.
Lastly, the findings show that BIM users use BIM to store, share and manage
information and that some of the required information is still received and stored
in paper format. This finding is supported by Bjork (2010) and Becerik-Geber et al.
(2012); they believe that FM information is still received, stored and shared in paper
format. This hinders the use of BIM in FM as Practitioners are of the option that
information received in paper format takes too much effort and time to input FM
information into BIM. This can be justified by considering that in developed
countries, BIM is mandated, whereas BIM is not mandated, and there are no
regulatory initiatives towards BIM implementation in developing countries.
CONCLUSION
This research aimed to determine the levels and extent of BIM utilisation in FM
practice among FM practitioners in South Africa. As such, it is essential to note that
FM practitioners in South Africa are still receiving, sharing and storing FM
information in paper format. Those who use BIM find that BIM for FM does not have
enough information for FM. Some of the information they require for FM must be
captured manually into the system. It is costly and time-consuming to
capture/input all the necessary data into a BIM model. These findings suggest that
there is a low level of BIM utilisation in FM.
Whereas complexity and skill requirements heavily as challenges to BIM adoption

by FM practitioners, findings from this current study also highlight a lack of
appreciation of the extent to which BIM could improve their work. For FM
practitioners to start using BIM, there is a need for the industry to educate the
practitioners on the benefits of BIM in FM, for the Government to develop BIM
adoption strategies and mandatory initiatives and for FM organisations to invest in
BIM and collaborate with other stakeholders continuously. It is evident there is a
scarcity of information regarding the utilisation of BIM-FM in practice in South
Africa. The lack of evidence creates a knowledge gap in terms of best practice and
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Dowelani and Ozumba
case study examples to prove the level and extent of BIM utilisation in FM in the
context of South Africa. As such, the level of BIM utilisation in FM is not known.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINABLE AFFORDABLE HOUSING

USING FRUGAL INNOVATION
David Mbabil Dok-Yen1, Duah Daniel Yaw Addai2 and Michael Nii Addy3
Department of Construction Technology and Management, Kwame Nkrumah University of
1,3
Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

2Department of Architecture, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi,
Ghana
Across the globe, and especially in the developed world, housing remains one of
the crucial challenges of growth due to the immense difference between housing
supply and demand. Broadly speaking, the housing crisis is primarily a matter of
demand for housing, outstripping supply and/or the price of housing above the
average worker's income. The global COVID 19 pandemic has shown how
important it is to reduce the global housing crisis by ensuring sustainable,
affordable, and healthy housing for all. However, in terms, of financial and limited
natural resources, one idea currently gaining traction is frugal innovation. The aim
of this research is to establish the challenges to sustainable affordable housing
using frugal innovation. Frugal innovation is simple, a low-cost innovation (LCI)
developed to serve customers at the bottom of the pyramid (BOP) of the unserved
mass market. A comprehensive literature review was conducted using a deductive
approach. The structured survey questionnaire was used as an instrument for
collecting data, using a non-probability purposive sampling technique, and the
data was analysed using descriptive statistics. The seven (7) most significant
challenges to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation in Ghana are;
difficulty in significantly lowering costs while retaining functions, perceived low
benefit or profit return on investment, lack of research and design, lack of demand,
ineffective local partners, difficulty establishing key functional elements, and low
confidentiality. This research will build an immense contribution to improving the
access for all adequate, safe and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade
the slums of the sustainable development goal target of the 2030. Future research
should focus on how to use frugal innovation to effectively establish the core
functional elements of a sustainable, affordable housing system, and how to apply
frugal innovation to other construction sectors, especially in developing countries.
Keywords: affordable housing, frugal innovation, sustainability
INTRODUCTION
Frugal innovation (FI) simply refers to efforts to produce products or services that
offer customers significant cost savings over existing alternatives in order to meet
1 dydavid@tatu.edu.gh
2 duahdani@gmail.com
3 mnaddy.cabe@knust.edu.gh
Dok-Yen, Duah and Addy (2021) Challenges to sustainable affordable housing using frugal
innovation In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
363
Dok-Yen, Duah and Addy
the needs of resource-constrained consumers (Zeschky et al., 2011). FI focuses on

re-designing products, services, and business models by lowering complexity
throughout the product's complete lifecycle costs, while maintaining high value
and affordable solutions for the unserved market of BOP customers in developing
nations (Agarwal and Brem, 2012; Bhatti, 2012; Rao, 2013; Zeschky et al., 2011).
Frugal innovation (FI) is rapidly becoming a benchmark for assessing alternative,
sustainability (Basu and Sweeny, 2013). The 17 Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) outline unsolved global issues including poverty alleviation and social
exclusion (Arnold, 2018). To solve global sustainability, frugal innovation can be
considered a key competency (Basu and Sweeny, 2013). The phenomenon of
financial and natural resource limitations calls for imaginative ways to counteract
these conditions in times of limited resources. In this regard, one idea currently
gaining traction as a relatively new innovation is frugal innovation (Imhof and
Mahrr, 2017). The aim of this study is to establish the challenges to sustainable
affordable housing (SAH) in Ghana using frugal innovation (FI).
The global COVID 19 pandemic has shown how important it is to reduce the global
housing crisis by ensuring sustainable, affordable, and healthy housing for all,
according to the Sustainable Development Goals (UN-Habitat, 2020). Sustainable
affordable housing (SAH) through frugal innovation will be the way forward from
the new COVID-19 protocols of social distance and isolation. Housing shortages in
Ghana have crossed 2 million units, this does not however, account for the
projected housing needs for isolation and social distancing for CODVID-19 houses,
implying that the government will have to build more than 200,000 houses every
year for the next decade to close the gap (Minister for Works and Housing, 2019).
The world is gradually becoming more urbanised. More than 50% population in
the world lived in cities since 2007, and this number is projected to rise to 60% by
2030 (United Nations, 2019). Cities and metropolitan areas are the driving forces
of economic growth, accounting for more than 60% of global GDP. On the other
hand, they account for more than 70% of global greenhouse gas emissions and
about 60% of resource consumption (United Nations, 2019). Rapid urbanization
causes air pollution and unplanned urban sprawl in many slum dwellers, as well as
inadequate and overwhelmed infrastructure and services (including waste disposal,
water and sanitation systems, roads and transport). COVID-19 will have the most
negative effects in poor and densely populated urban areas, especially for the one
billion people living in informal settlements and slums around the world, where
overcrowding already makes it difficult to take recommended measures, including
social distancing and self-isolation measures (UN-Habitat, 2020 ).
However, most developed countries have failed in the past to pursue a cost-
effective innovation strategy, and due to conventional approaches to product and
service innovation, the world is experiencing resource shortages, environmental
damage, and a number of other negative consequences (Sammut-Bonnici et al.,
2015). Several well-known scholars, including Chan et al., (2018), Agyekum et al.,
(2019), Oke et al., (2019), Ayakwa et al.,(2017), and so on. Despite research into
various challenges to sustainable building development, no study has attempted
to apply the concept of frugal innovation to the development of sustainable
affordable housing, resulting in a significant gap in the literature on the application
364
of frugal innovation concept to sustainable affordable housing and construction in

general. Therefore, to close this gap, it will be imperative to establish the challenges
to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation, hence the need for this
research.
FRUGAL INNOVATION
Frugal innovation is clearly defined as Low-cost innovation (LCIs) produced or
manufactured to serve consumers at the bottom of the pyramid (BOP) of the
unserved mass market is specifically characterised as frugal innovation. The term
"unserved" refers to a category of people that cannot afford a particular product,
service, or housing for the cost of the product or service, which may be due to its
complexity or sophistication, technical requirements, structural elements, or
complex design nature, making it costly (Kahle et al., 2013; Lim and Fujimoto, 2019).
Furthermore, frugal innovation aims to optimise use of materials and financial
resources across the entire value chain (development, production, delivery, use,
and disposal) by using minimal raw materials, reusing existing parts, lightweight
structures, and cutting-edge technologies to achieve low costs and a low cost of
ownership while simultaneously satisfying customer demands. The production of
low-cost mass-market products that are affordable to all social strata, including the
less affluent segments, is the economic significance of frugal innovation (Sammut-
Bonnici et al., 2015). It's characterised by a scarcity of resources to build low-cost,
climate-friendly technologies. Comparatively to conventional product
development methods, these resource-constrained product development
techniques can result in products that are more sustainable, resulting in lower
energy consumption and greater supply chain efficiencies (Sharma and Iyer, 2012;
Khan, 2016). Frugal innovation is also consistent with (ecological and social)
sustainability because it is more affordable and accessible than conventional
technology because it uses fewer resources (raw materials, manufacturing
resources, energy, heat, water, waste, financial resources) than traditional
technology (Albert, 2019). Frugal innovation is critical to achieving social
sustainability; it promotes the SDGs and contributes to the larger goal of
sustainable growth (Khan, 2016).
Although they are other concepts similar and sometimes interchangeable with
frugal innovation, including grassroots, disruptive, jugaad, Gandhian innovation
and reverse innovations, resource-constrained innovation, good-enough
innovation etc. (Brem and Wolfram, 2014; Zeschky et al., 2014a; Soni and Krishnan,
2014; Prabhu and Jain, 2015; Hossain et al., 2016). FI is perceived as a better concept
that encompasses various different types of innovation under one umbrella (Adari
and Ganesh, 2015).
Challenges to SAH using Frugal Innovation (FI)
Frugal innovation is often not concerned with environmental sustainability (Sharma
and Iyer, 2012), and it appears that environmental sustainability is more of a
byproduct than a primary reason for frugal initiatives (Wohlfart et al., 2016).
Weyrauch and Herstatt (2016) point out that frugal innovation need not mean
sustainability, and that sustainability is not frugal innovation's primary objective. In
their debate, Levanen et al. (2015) point out that conceptually equating frugality
and sustainability is problematic. Usage of inefficient raw material processing
365
practises to address resource-constrained problems poses a danger to the

ecological and social climate. Furthermore, in the pursuit of extreme affordability,
there is unsustainable low-cost manufacturing and processing, which can result in
substantial waste generation. The emphasis on limited resources and affordability
can divert attention away from long-term consequences, including technology
mingling with non-sustainable components. The rebound effect may influence how
frugal innovation is used or consumed. If frugal innovation is produced more
affordable, more customers will buy it and use it, resulting in increased demand
and probably more environmental damage (increasing material use, energy use,
and waste generation). When it comes to end-of-life concerns, cost-cutting
innovation will cause environmental problems due to improper disposal. Another
danger is that a less expensive, lower-cost innovation could cannibalise a
company's existing high-end service, resulting in a drop in sales. Furthermore, if a
low-cost innovation falls short of the previous company's performance, the
company's image can be damaged (Albert, 2019).
Lack of public awareness, expense, and insufficient knowledge are some major
barriers to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation (Oke et al., 2019).
In addition, one of the major challenges to the effective adoption of sustainable
construction methods was identified as insufficient financial incentives, including
high taxes and low profit margins. This contrasts with the results of Djakoto et al.
(2014), who found that a lack of demand was the most significant obstacle to
achieving long-term affordable housing through frugal innovation. (Ayakwa et al.,
2017). Previous research has shown that both emerging and developed countries
face difficulties achieving Sustainable affordable housing through frugal
innovation. The five critical barriers to sustainable housing in the United States,
according to Ahn et al. (2013), are high cost efficiency, long payback times, a
proclivity to continue existing practises, restricted subcontractors' expertise and
skills, and higher prices of sustainable goods and materials. In a similar report, the
most critical barriers to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation in
the US were identified as resistance to reform, higher costs of sustainability,
insufficient information and understanding, insufficient expertise, and insufficient
government incentives (Chan et al., 2016). High costs of equipment and materials,
insufficient interest and communication firms, insufficient research, insufficient
interest among clients and market demand, a lengthy pre-construction phase, and
uncertainty with sustainable materials and equipment were also major challenges
in Singapore (Hwang et al., 2012; Hwang et al., 2013). Moreover, higher prices,
insufficient government incentives, insufficient funding schemes including bank
loans, the unavailability of suppliers, and insufficient local institutes and facilities
for R&D were identified as the five major challenges to sustainable affordable
housing in technology and innovation in Ghana (Chan et al. ,2018). Likewise, the
eight main barriers to the implementation of green certification of buildings in
Ghana are lack of information on existing sustainable housing, lack of incentives,
conservatism of Ghanaians, lack of active government participation, insufficient
human resources, lack of awareness of gains, costs and financing, and lack of legal
support (Agyekum et al., 2019).
In addition, Love et al.,(2011) described one of the key impediments to sustainable
development as a lack of government incentives (green building). According to
Obeng-Odoom and Amedzro (2011), the high inflation rate in building materials
366
and other development factors is a major obstacle to the economic sustainability

of affordable housing. High interest rates and "tight credit conditions" are also
obstacles (Boamah, 2010). According to Trudeau (2018) and Nguyen et al.,(2013),
one of the main obstacles to its implementation is "group resistance to affordable
housing programs." Similarly, Sturzaker (2011) said that there is strong opposition
in the United Kingdom to social housing. As well, income inequality between
households is an obstacle to social cohesion. For example, a "poor culture of
mortgages" (Sidawi and Meeran, 2011) and "high mortgage defaults" (Boamah,
2010) do not encourage financial institutions to participate in housing supply.
Furthermore, Ruparathna and Hewage's,(2015) report, obstacles include the lack of
consideration of sustainability standards in the evaluation of bids, the lack of
traditional procurement processes, the lack of awareness of local conditions and
the lack of clear legislative provisions covering sustainable procurement in Canada.
According to Shafii et al.,(2006), barriers to sustainable buildings in Malaysia
include a lack of awareness of sustainable buildings, a lack of training and training,
higher costs of sustainable building options, procurement problems, regulatory
barriers, a lack of professional skills / designers, incentives for local material
production and a lack of case studies / examples. The biggest obstacle to the
delivery of sustainable buildings is a lack of awareness, information and
understanding (Jusoh, 2015). According to a study conducted in Malaysia, one of
the biggest obstacles to the construction of green buildings in the country is the
lack of public knowledge. People's knowledge of the definition of green housing
should be improved first, then business knowledge, and finally industry knowledge
(Lop et al., 2012; Lim et al., 2018). Although the most significant barriers to GBT
adoption in developing countries, including Ghana, differ from those in developed
countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, higher GBT costs remain
a major challenge among all, according to a comparative study (Chan et al., 2018).
METHODOLOGY
For this research, a comprehensive literature review was conducted using a
deductive approach to develop current literature on the challenges of sustainable
affordable housing using frugal innovation as a reference (Syed-Jamaludin et
al.,2018). The structured survey questionnaire was used as an instrument for
collecting one-time cross-sectional quantitative primary data for the analysis. The
data was collected using a non-probability purposive sampling technique (Owusu-
Manu et al.,2018;Oke et al., 2019;Debrah et al., 2020). The questionnaires were
designed with Google Survey Form and distributed to only stakeholders within the
housing and construction industry with the knowledge, experience, accessible and
willing to provide the needed information for the study. They were contacted for
the data collection using online (via email and Whatsapp) to allow for easy and
quick responses. However, measures were put in place to prevent multiple
responses via email verification by ensuring that each response was verified once
with only one email of respondents. Although this approach had its limitation,
especially when a respondent with multiple emails decides to use it to respond
multiple times it was very uncommon. 103 questionnaires were returned answered
out of 200 distributed to stakeholders in Ghana's building and housing market,
primarily architects, quantity surveyors, consultants, engineers, academicians, both
public and private sectors, contractors, and others. The data from the Google form
367
survey was extracted to Excel and then exported to SPSS to obtain the data
compliant with any type of research format provided by SPSS. The data was
analysed using descriptive statistics to extract percentages and frequencies; mean
and standard deviation were used to analyse the difficulties. This was based, on
previous research, of a similar nature (Otali and Ujene,2020).
DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis on background of stakeholders
Respondents' background information was provided in frequencies and
percentages. First, the data on gender, age and professional background are
grouped in Table 1.0, as they all fall into a single set of responses from which the
respondents were asked to choose, while the professional background as well as
the type of company / organisation / institution is represented in Figure 1.0 and
Figure 2.0. All but 103 of the 200 questionnaires distributed were returned with
answers. Most of the respondents (94.2%) were males, with only 5.8% being
females. The most common age group for respondents was 20-29 years, which
accounted for 50.5% of all responses, followed by 30-39 years, which accounted
for 35.9%, and 40-49 years, which accounted for 12.6 percent of all responses. The
results indicate 34 respondents out of 103 total respondents have the highest
educational qualification, accounting for 33% of the total responses. Post-
graduates, master's, and doctoral degrees were the highest credentials, with 19
respondents accounting for 18.4 percent of all responses. Bachelor's degrees are
the lowest qualification (BSc.). However, the highest qualification was Higher
National Diploma (HND), with 48 respondents representing 46.6 percent, while
Technician (CTC I/II/II/Advance) and other qualifications each had one respondent.
The findings also showed respondents' years of working experience were mainly
1-5 years, with 54 responses representing 52.4% of the total, 6-10 years, with 25
respondents representing 24.3 percent, and 11-15 years, with 23.3 percent of the
total responses.
Respondents' professional backgrounds, as shown in Figure 1.0, were primarily
stakeholders in the housing and construction sector, including architects, quantity
surveyors, engineers (all categories), lecturers, teachers, and others in the housing
industry. Most of the respondents were Building Technology, construction
management, and housing related students, both those who had completed
tertiary education and those who were in their final year at the universities in
Ghana, accounting for 44.6 percent of the total responses. Quantity surveyors came
in second with 24 respondents accounting for 23.8 percent of the total responses,
and engineers (all ages) came in third. The types of business, organisation, or
institution, of respondents were conversely considered significantly for the study
in figure 2.0. The results from the study revealed that most of the respondents were
from academic/research institutions, with 36 respondents accounting 35.6 percent
of the general responses, followed by contracting firms 24 respondents, accounting
for 23.8 percent of the general responses, and other forms of construction and
housing related sectors with 18, accounting for 17.8 percent of the total
respondents. Also, consulting firms with 16 respondents representing 15.8 percent
and so on as can be seen in figure 2.0.
368
Table 1: Background of respondents

Gender Frequency Percent
Male 97 94.2
Female 6 5.8
Total 103 100.0
Age
20-29 years 52 50.5
30-39 years 37 35.9
40-49 years 13 12.6
50-59 years 1 1.0
Total 103 100.0
Highest Educational Qualification
Post-Graduate/Master/PhD 34 33.0
Bachelor degree (Bsc) 19 18.4
Higher National Diploma (HND) 48 46.6
Technician (CTC I/II/III)/Advance 1 1.0
Others 1 1.0
Total 103 100.0
Years of working experience
1-5 54 52.4
6-10 25 24.3
11-15 and above 24 23.3
Total 103 100.0
Figure 1.0 Professional Background
Figure 2.0 Type of company/organisation/Institution
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Data analysis on challenges to SAH using FI

The data on the challenges to sustainable affordable housing using frugal
innovation concept was extracted into mean and standard deviation score values
for all the variables. In table 2.0, respondents were asked to rank on whether,
variables were; 1=Very Significant, 2=Significant, 3=Not sure, 4=Insignificant, and
5=Very insignificant, in accordance with previous research.
Table 2.0 Challenges to SAH using FI

Descriptive Statistics
Std.
N Minimum Maximum Mean Rank
Deviation
Difficulty reducing cost substantially while maintaining
103 1.00 5.00 2.3398 1.03425 1st
functions
Perceived slow/low profit return on investment 103 1.00 5.00 2.2913 .93548 2nd
Lack of research and design 103 1.00 5.00 2.2913 1.00617 3rd
Lack of demand 103 1.00 5.00 2.2718 1.04969 4th
Unreliable local partners 103 1.00 5.00 2.2621 .94932 5th
Difficulty in establishing core functional elements 103 1.00 5.00 2.2621 1.03811 6th
Low confidentiality 103 1.00 5.00 2.2427 .98485 7th
Perceived higher cost 102 1.00 5.00 2.2255 1.00402 8th
Lack of standard measurements/scaling 103 1.00 5.00 2.2233 .99933 9th
High tax system 103 1.00 5.00 2.2136 .90370 10th
Risk associated with Investing/implementation of new
103 1.00 5.00 2.1845 .82542 11th
practices
Concern on brand image/high quality 103 1.00 5.00 2.1650 .88669 12th
Lack of clear benefits of concept 103 1.00 5.00 2.1650 .97112 13th
Lack of funding_ 103 1.00 5.00 2.1359 .99063 14th
Lack of reliable information on cost savings associated
103 1.00 5.00 2.1165 1.03186 15th
with frugal
Lack of existing houses or examples for people to
103 1.00 5.00 2.1068 1.03765 16th
appreciate concept
Lack of skill/expertise/professional know-how 103 1.00 5.00 2.1068 1.14543 17th
Lack of government commitment 103 1.00 5.00 2.0971 .96522 18th
Lack of methods to support the adoption 103 1.00 5.00 2.0971 .97533 19th
Resistance to changes in the current practices 103 1.00 5.00 2.0971 .97533 20th
Lack of training opportunities systems 103 1.00 5.00 2.0971 1.04332 21st
Lack of legislation enforcement and monitoring 103 1.00 5.00 2.0971 1.04332 22nd
Lack of measurement tool to showcase benefits 103 1.00 5.00 2.0971 1.02436 23rd
Compliance to conventional standards building
103 1.00 5.00 2.0874 1.07655 24th
codes/regulations
Lack of cooperation among stakeholders 103 1.00 5.00 2.0777 .91490 25th
Perceived increase in cost and time 103 1.00 5.00 2.0583 .97845 26th
Resistance/unwillingness to change from current
103 1.00 5.00 2.0583 .87251 27th
practices
Lack of publicity strategy approach to promote concept 103 1.00 5.00 2.0583 .96837 28th
Lack of creativity to simplify and find alternatives
103 1.00 5.00 2.0291 .94409 29th
approach
Lack of public awareness of the benefits 103 1.00 5.00 2.0291 .90159 30th
Risk associated with investing in new concepts 103 1.00 5.00 2.0291 .84548 31st
Lack of adaptation to local innovation 103 1.00 5.00 2.0000 1.07558 32nd
Insufficient resource availability scarcity of inputs 103 1.00 5.00 1.9806 .94952 33rd
Lack of national policy direction 103 1.00 5.00 1.9806 .99981 34th
Lack of local documentation/standards 103 1.00 5.00 1.9612 .89577 35th
Institutional weakness 103 1.00 4.00 1.9515 .98398 36th
Lack of awareness education 103 1.00 5.00 1.9515 .96384 37th
Lack of government incentives and support_ 103 1.00 5.00 1.9515 .87871 38th
Price sensitive clients 103 1.00 4.00 1.9223 .73684 39th
Contract conditions/specification 103 1.00 4.00 1.8252 .79739 40th
Lack of government commitments/support incentives
103 1.00 5.00 1.8058 1.03903 41st
for innovation
370
When comparing variables using mean score, the variable with the highest mean
score value is ranked higher than the variable with the lowest mean score value
(Chan et al., 2018). Where two or more variables have the same mean value,
however, the one with the lowest standard deviation (SD) rank is ranked higher
(Owusu-Manu et al.,2019; Kissi et al.2020 and Debrah et al., 2020).
Table 2.0 shows that the biggest challenge to sustainable, affordable housing with
frugal innovation was seen as the difficulty of substantially reducing costs while
maintaining functions, with the highest mean score of 2.34 among all variables.
Second to it was perceived slow/low profit return on investment, which has the
same mean score of 2.29 with lack of research and design since it had a lower SD=
.94. Lack of research and design was rated as the third most significant challenge
to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation, whereas lack of demand
was ranked as the fourth most significant challenge with a mean of 2.27. Unreliable
local partners were ranked as the fifth most important challenge for sustainable
affordable housing using frugal innovations, with an average of 2.262 and SD of
1.049; difficulty in identifying core functional elements was ranked sixth, with an
average of 2.262 and SD of 1.038; and low confidentiality was ranked seventh, with
an average of 2.2427, followed by perceived higher cost, lack of standard
measurements/scaling, and high tax respectively as challenges.
One-sample T-test
Once again, this is a one-sample situation. The data was subjected to a test analysis
to determine whether the mean score data produced on the challenges of
sustainable housing in terms of affordable housing through frugal innovation was
statistically relevant. The one-sample T-test is a statistical method for determining
the relative significance of variables by examining the mean difference between
the sample and the known value of the population mean (Ross and Willson, 2017;
Owusu-Manu et al., 2018; Kassi et al., 2020; Debrah et al., 2020). If variables had a
p-value (significance of the test) of P 0.05 at 95% confidence interval of the
difference, they were considered important, while variables with a p-value >0.05
were considered insignificant. If the null hypothesis is valid, the p-value is simply
the probability that random variables will take on values farther from the mean
(Debrah et al., 2020). Table 3.0 shows that all 42 variables have a sig. 000 value less
than the p-value (p0.05). Thus, the study found that all the challenges of sustainable
affordable housing using frugal innovation presented for the study were
statistically significant.
Table 3.0
One-Sample Test
Test Value = 0
95% Confidence Interval of the
p Mean Difference
t df
-value Difference
Lower Upper
Lack of awareness/education 20.548 102 .000 1.95146 1.7631 2.1398
Risk associated with
26.859 102 .000 2.18447 2.0231 2.3458
Investing/implementation of new practices
High tax system 24.859 102 .000 2.21359 2.0370 2.3902
Lack of national policy direction_ 20.105 102 .000 1.98058 1.7852 2.1760
Lack of local documentation/standards 22.220 102 .000 1.96117 1.7861 2.1362
Institutional/weakness 20.128 102 .000 1.95146 1.7591 2.1438
Insufficient resource availability scarcity of
21.169 102 .000 1.98058 1.7950 2.1662
inputs
Price sensitive clients_ 26.477 102 .000 1.92233 1.7783 2.0663
371
Concern on brand image high quality 24.781 102 .000 2.16505 1.9918 2.3383
Lack of adaptation to local innovation 18.872 102 .000 2.00000 1.7898 2.2102
Perceived slow low profit return on
24.858 102 .000 2.29126 2.1084 2.4741
investment
Unreliable local partners_ 24.184 102 .000 2.26214 2.0766 2.4477
Low confidentiality 23.111 102 .000 2.24272 2.0502 2.4352
Lack of clear benefits of concept__ 22.626 102 .000 2.16505 1.9753 2.3548
Lack of existing houses or examples for
20.606 102 .000 2.10680 1.9040 2.3096
people to appreciate concept
Lack of government commitments/support
17.639 102 .000 1.80583 1.6028 2.0089
incentives for innovation
Lack of skill expertise/professional know-how 18.667 102 .000 2.10680 1.8829 2.3307
Lack of publicity strategy/approach to
21.571 102 .000 2.05825 1.8690 2.2475
promote concept
Lack of demand_ 21.965 102 .000 2.27184 2.0667 2.4770
Lack of legislation enforcement and
20.399 102 .000 2.09709 1.8932 2.3010
monitoring
Lack of government incentives and support 22.539 102 .000 1.95146 1.7797 2.1232
Lack of public awareness of the benefits_ 22.841 102 .000 2.02913 1.8529 2.2053
Resistance/unwillingness to change from
23.941 102 .000 2.05825 1.8877 2.2288
current practices
Lack of training opportunities systems 20.399 102 .000 2.09709 1.8932 2.3010
Perceived increase in cost and time 21.349 102 .000 2.05825 1.8670 2.2495
Lack of measurement tool to showcase
20.777 102 .000 2.09709 1.8969 2.2973
benefits_
Lack of cooperation among stakeholders_ 23.047 102 .000 2.07767 1.8989 2.2565
Risk associated with investing in new
24.357 102 .000 2.02913 1.8639 2.1944
concepts_
Lack of local documentation/standards 22.220 102 .000 1.96117 1.7861 2.1362
Perceived higher cost_ 22.386 101 .000 2.22549 2.0283 2.4227
Lack of research and design_ 23.111 102 .000 2.29126 2.0946 2.4879
Resistance to changes in the current
21.821 102 .000 2.09709 1.9065 2.2877
practices_
Lack of reliable information on cost savings
20.817 102 .000 2.11650 1.9148 2.3182
associated with frugal innovation
Lack of methods to support the adoption 21.821 102 .000 2.09709 1.9065 2.2877
Lack of government commitment_ 22.050 102 .000 2.09709 1.9084 2.2857
Lack of funding_ 21.882 102 .000 2.13592 1.9423 2.3295
Difficulty reducing cost substantially while
22.960 102 .000 2.33981 2.1377 2.5419
maintaining function
Difficulty in establishing core functional
22.115 102 .000 2.26214 2.0592 2.4650
elements
Lack of standard measurements scaling 22.579 102 .000 2.22330 2.0280 2.4186
Lack of creativity to simplify and find
21.813 102 .000 2.02913 1.8446 2.2136
alternatives approach
Compliance to conventional standards
19.678 102 .000 2.08738 1.8770 2.2978
building regulations
Contract conditions/pacification 23.231 102 .000 1.82524 1.6694 1.9811
Reliability test
Furthermore, using Cronbach's Alpha coefficient (α), a reliability test was
performed on the data to determine the accuracy of the study's findings when
repeated independently on the same test sample at a different period. It
determines the reliability of the questionnaire by measuring the internal accuracy
of a list of items in the questionnaire (Chan et al., 2018). If the Cronbach Alpha Test
yields a co-efficient of 0.700 or higher, the scale is considered accurate (Muijs, 2010;
Hair et al. 2010). The table 4.0 below shows that the study has a Cronbach's alpha
of 0.960, indicating it is accurate for further research.
372
Table 4.0: Reliability statistics

Cronbach's Alpha Based on
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
Standardized Items
.960 .960 42
DISCUSSION
Background of stakeholders
The study's findings showed almost all stakeholders in the housing sector are male-
dominated, as shown by the fact that 94.2% of the respondents were males. Most
of the respondents were young people aged 20 to 29 years (50.5%) and 30-39 years
(35.9%), implying that about 86.4 percent of the stakeholders in the housing sector
for this study were young people. Higher National Diploma (HND) was the most
common educational qualification among respondents, accounting for 46.6
percent, followed by post-graduates, masters and Ph.D. at 33 percent, and Bachelor
degree (BSc.) at 18.4 percent. Quantity surveyors, building and construction related
engineers within government departments, academicians, and architects in Ghana
were the main housing stakeholders in this research.
Challenges to SAH using FI

For this research, the major challenges to sustainable affordable housing using
frugal innovation were identified as follows: difficulty in reducing costs significantly
while maintaining functions (mean=2.34), Slow/low benefit return on investment
(Mean=2.29, SD=0.94), lack of research and design (mean =2.29, SD = 1.006), lack
of demand (mean = 2.27), unreliable local partners (mean=2.262,SD=.949),
difficulty defining the key functional elements (mean=2.262,SD=1.038), and low
confidentiality (mean= 2.2427).
The complexity or ability to implement something new or innovating differently

while simultaneously minimising cost or resources is the real challenge for frugal
innovation, according to Pisoni's,(2018) report. Weyrauch and Herstatt,(2016),
whereas, offer a major solution to this problem by focusing on only the main
functional elements of the product, which results in a lower price or slightly lower
prices of product or service as opposed to traditional goods and services. For this
report, the lack of research and design was revealed as the third most significant
obstacle to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation. This is in line
with Chan et al., (2018), Hwang and Tan, (2012), and Hwang and Ng, (2013) studies,
which identified a shortage of local institutes and facilities for R&D as one of the
major challenges to affordable housing sustainability. Low profit returns on
investment are a major obstacle, owing to the fact that most housing developers
are profit-driven. This proof backs up due to the high initial cost associated with
sustainable housing growth, Syed-Jamaludin et al., (2018) believe developers are
more interested in profit and careless about sustainability issues. Again, one of the
major challenges to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation is a lack
of client demand. This is significant because demand is often perceived to be the
driver of production, from the basic economics principle that the lower the price,
the higher the demand, so profit can be maximised by increasing production to
meet demand, thereby making lack of demand, a significant challenge. This is
consistent with previous research, like Djakoto et al.,(2014) report, which found that
373
lack of demand is one of the most significant barriers to sustainable housing. It

also supports Hwang and Tan's (2012), Hwang and Ng’s (2013) findings that lack
of consumer demand, and interest among clients is a major barrier to sustainable
affordable housing using frugal innovation. However, the most significant obstacle
to sustainable building development, according to the literature reviewed for this
report, is high costs and a lack of knowledge (Hwang and Tan, 2012; Hwang and
Ng,2013;Ahn et al.,2013; Chan et al., 2016;Chan et al., 2018, Agyekum et al., 2019).
Although this study contradicts this, it nevertheless describes them as barriers to
sustainability of affordable housing through frugal innovation, but not as the
biggest challenges to sustainable affordable housing using frugal innovation.
CONCLUSION
The aim of this study was to establish the challenges to sustainable affordable
housing through frugal innovation. Quantitative data was obtained from
stakeholders in Ghana's building and housing sectors using survey questionnaires.
The seven (7) most significant challenges to sustainable affordable housing using
frugal innovation in Ghana are: the difficulty in significantly reducing costs while
retaining functions, perceived low benefit or profit return on investment, lack of
research and design, lack of demand, ineffective local partners, difficulty in
establishing key functional elements, and low confidentiality. This research finding
presents a significant contribution to the theoretical and practical knowledge on
the application of frugal innovation concept to the development and construction
of affordable housing in general; as well as help stakeholders especially the
government, academic institutions and housing solutions practitioners to improve
their policy direction in housing development in Ghana. This study offers
guidelines to UN-SDGs and UN-Habitat policymakers on how to use frugal
innovation in the drive to make cities inclusive, secure, resilient, and prosperous by
2030, as part of their sustainable cities agenda. The research will make a significant
contribution to the theoretical knowledge gap in sustainable affordable housing,
which is currently lacking in literature, and would lead to knowledge in applying
the frugal innovation concept to sustainable affordable housing development,
commonly used in the manufacturing and service sectors. Housing professionals
and developers in their housing developments can learn from this finding to plan
to how to overcome the challenges to sustainable affordable housing using frugal
innovation concept. This study will also serve as a blueprint for potential studies in
the field of affordable housing that is both sustainable and frugal. Future research
should focus on how to use frugal innovation to effectively establish the core
functional elements of a sustainable, affordable housing system, and how to apply
frugal innovation to other construction sectors, especially in developing countries.
Finally, future research should focus on developing a framework for sustainable
affordable housing using frugal innovation.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SOUNDNESS AND SETTING

TIME OF PORTLAND CEMENT OF THREE COMPANIES IN
NIGERIA
Angulu Haruna1, Abba Musa2, Samaila Hamza3, Galadima Muhammad4 and
Odesanmi Atinuke5
1,2,3,4,5Department
of Vocational and Technology Education, Faculty of Technology Education,
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria
This study was designed to compare and analyze the soundness and setting time
of Ashaka, BUA and Dangote portland cements in Nigeria. For quite some times in
Nigeria, the news of collapsed building has been forming the headlines of Nigerian
newspapers, some of the reasons for the collapsed buildings were attributed to the
quality of materials used, the workmanship, as well as the integrity of professionals
that handled the projects. To carry out this study, Explanatory Sequential Mixed
Method Research Design was employed for this study. In the first instance,
laboratory experiments were carried out using Le chatelier apparatus to carry out
the soundness test, while Vicat apparatus was used to analyze the setting time of
the cement samples from the three companies. The samples from the three
companies were used and the results were presented in tables and charts format.
The results of the study revealed that: Dangote is sounder with its expansion of
0.1mm, followed by Ashaka Portland cement with the expansion of 0.2mm and
lastly BUA Portland cement with the expansion of 0.3mm. In terms of setting time,
Dangote cement took longer time to finally set than Ashaka and BUA Portland
cements. All the cement samples tested adhere to the required standard as
specified by the British standard Institute (BS, 4550, 1978) which states that the
individual cement expansion should not exceed 10mm. Based on the results of the
study, it was recommended that: the three cement companies ’products are good
for construction of any building in Nigeria and the world over, hence, the quality of
production by the three companies meet the required standard as spelt out in the
BS.
Keywords: Portland cement, setting time test, soundness test
INTRODUCTION
Cement is the widest known building material in the construction industry. It is a
grounded powder used to bind solid fragments or masses of solid matter together
1 hangulu@atbu.edu.ng; Phone No: +2347066996272

2 honestabba6@gmail.com
3 ismailhamzafaskari@yahoo.com
4 auwal992@yahoo.com
5 odesanmiatinuke@gmail.com
Angulu, et al. (2021) Comparative analysis of soundness and setting time of portland cement of
three companies in Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
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Angulu, et al.
to form a whole substance for the purpose of building. For example, it is used in
making building blocks and concretes. Cement is produced in different forms
namely: ordinary portland cement (OPC), portland pozzolana cement, rapid
hardening portland cement, extra rapid hardening cement, low heat cement,
sulphate resisting cement, quick setting cement, blast furnace slag cement, high
alumina cement and white cement (Hanson Heidelberg Cement Group, 2020).
Among the different forms of cement, Portland cement is the most widely used in
Nigeria. Portland cement was developed in 1882 by Joseph Aspin, it derived its
name from Portland limestone in Dorset because of its resemblance to this rock
after hydration has taken place in it. Portland cement is defined as a finely
grounded powder which when mixed with water develop a chemical reaction which
produces a hard and strong binding medium for the aggregate in concrete (Lea,
2009). Similarly, portland cement is also defined as the product obtained by
pulverizing clinker, consisting of hydraulic calcium silicates to which some calcium
sulfate has usually been provided as an inter-ground addition (American Concrete
Institute, ACI, n.d.).
The chemical reaction by the cement is in the form of hydration which is in its early
stage while the cement is still plastic to gives the concrete its cohesive properties.
The finer the cement, the more area of contact the particle has. This will therefore,
result to more reaction between the cement and the water when in contact, it will
illicit more hydration to be achieved (Lea, 2009). This development will lead to the
release of high heat of hydration and the generation of high strength by the
cement paste. The fine cement particles are also more cohesive and combine better
with concrete aggregates. The hydration process of cement results in the stiffening
of the cement pastes which is the setting of cement paste as the cement becomes
rigid (Neville & Brook, 2012). Setting time of cement is the time required for
stiffening of cement paste to defined consistency (The Constructor, n.d.). There are
two stages of setting time of cement paste, the first stage is the initial setting time
which is the beginning of the stiffening of the cement paste, this occurs between
30-45 minutes for Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) (Kohli, 2017). While the second
stage is the final setting time which is the time when the paste completely loses its
plasticity. According to IS 403: 1988, it should not be greater than 375–600 mins
for OPC (Kohli, 2017). The time between the mixing of cement with water and the
occurrence of initial and final setting time is key to take note of. The cement
supposed to maintain its size, especially its volume. Initial setting time test is
important to facilitates the transportation, placing and compaction of cement
concrete (Kohli, 2017). The author further affirmed that final setting time period
facilitates safe removal of form or scaffolding. When a set cement paste increases
in size especially by excessive expansion the cement is said to be unsound cement
(Neil & Dhir, 2006). Soundness refers to the ability of cement to shrink upon
hardening (Civil Engineering, n.d.). Sound cement which its paste has set should
not expand so much as to be physically vary in appearance before setting (Nigeria
Industrial Standards 444-1, 2003). Good quality cement retains its volume after
setting without delayed expansion, which is caused by excessive free lime and
magnesia (Civil Engineering, n.d.). However, the use of unsound cement in concrete
production could lead to cracking and disintegration of aggregates (Nigeria
Industrial Standards 444-1, 2003). In a related development, Civil Engineering (n.d.)
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affirmed that unsoundness of cement may appear after several years, therefore,
tests for ensuring soundness of cement must be able to determine that potential.
Cement being one of the main constituents of concrete, its chemical properties
affect the properties of the concrete produce from it. The characteristics of cement
determine to a large extent the quality of concrete produced with it (Hewlett, 2008).
For a qualitative concrete to be produced, the cement to be used should be of
good quality. Therefore, there is need to study the characteristics and quality of
the cement used in concreting. In this study, Portland cements produced by three
cement companies in Nigeria were subjected to two different tests, namely:
soundness and setting time tests. the essence was to determine their extent of
compliance to the code requirements (British Standard Institutes, BS 4550, 1978)
The suitability of the cements will be measured based on the provisions and
method of test given in the British standard for Portland cement. It is worthy to
note that, the three cement companies under study were having issues of quality
of their products. This is because the end users are switching from one company
to the other which indicated their inconsistency in using these cement products.
this prompted the researchers to conduct this study with a view to comparing their
soundness and setting time of the three portland cements.
Statement of the problem
For quite some times in Nigeria, the news of collapsed building has been forming
the headlines of Nigerian newspapers, some of the reasons for the collapsed
buildings were attributed to the quality of materials used, the workmanship, as well
as the integrity of professionals that handled the projects. According to Chindo
and Obi (2015) buildings collapse occurred due to human errors such as faulty
design, faulty construction, and use of substandard building materials, negligence,
omissions, ignorance, quackery, corruption and sabotage. Portland cement is one
of the key materials used in the construction of building in Nigeria. Soundness and
setting time are some of the important properties needed in cement, the absence
of these properties may lead to defects in building construction. This study
therefore, was carried out to test the soundness and setting time of portland
cement produced by three cement companies in Nigeria.
Purpose of the study

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the soundness and setting time
of Portland cement produced by three companies in Nigeria. Thus: Ashaka,
Dangote and BUA cements companies. Specifically, this study sought to:
i. Examine the soundness of Portland cement produced by Ashaka, Dangote

and BUA Nigeria Plc.
ii. Examine the setting time of Portland cement produced by Ashaka,

Dangote and BUA Nigeria Plc.
iii. Explore views of the users of Ashaka, Dangote and BUA Portland cement
on soundness and setting time of the cements.
Research Question
The following research questions guided the study;
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i. What is the soundness of Portland cement produced by Ashaka, Dangote

and BUA Nigerian Plc?
ii. What is the setting time of Portland cement produced by Ashaka, Dangote
and BUA Nigerian Plc?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Soundness Test of cement is very important, it measured the expansion of cement
after it starts setting (Mahajan, 2019). The author further affirmed that certain
cement has been found to undergo a large expansion after setting causing
disruption of the set and hardened mass. This expansion of cement can cause
serious problems for the durability of structures when such cement is used.
Soundness Le Chatelier 10mm. Apparatus, Autoclave 0.8% 0.8% 0.8%. Setting time
Vicat apparatus, Initial (min) 30. Final (max) 600. Knowing the initial setting time is
important in estimating free time for transporting, placing, compaction and
shaping of cement paste (Mansur, n.d.). Ige (2013) remarked that all the cement
brands studied meet the requirement of BS 12, (1996) section 12, which
recommends an expansion of not more than 10mm for Ordinary Portland Cement.
The use of Le Chatelier apparatus, expansion should not be more than 10mm (IS
4031, Part 3 as cited in Patel & Mohanty, 2016). Soundness Test of cement is very
important because it measures the expansion of cement after it starts setting
(Mahajam, 2019). The author further affirmed that certain cement has been found
to undergo a large expansion after setting causing disruption of the set and
hardened mass. This expansion of cement can cause serious problems for the
durability of structures when such cement is used.
The setting times of cement are categorized into two, namely: Initial and final
setting time. Initial setting time is that time period between the time water is added
to cement and time at which 1 mm square section needle fails to penetrate the
cement paste, placed in the Vicat’s mould 5 mm to 7 mm from the bottom of the
mould (Patel & Mohanty, 2016). According to the authors, they described final
setting time as that time period between the time water is added to cement and
the time at which 1 mm needle makes an impression on the paste in the mould but
5 mm attachment does not make any impression. It is essential that cement set
neither too rapidly nor too slowly. In the first case there might be insufficient time
to transport and place the concrete before it becomes too rigid. In the second case
too long a setting period tends to slow up the work unduly, also it might postpone
the actual use of the structure because of inadequate strength at the desired age.
METHODOLOGY
The study adopted explanatory sequential mixed method research design for this
study. This design involves the use of both quantitative and qualitative approach.
The quantitative approach includes the use of laboratory experiment to gather the
quantitative data. While the qualitative aspect of the study involves the use of semi
structured interview to sample the opinion of seven bricklayers that frequently
used the three cement companies ’products. The study therefore, set out to
investigate the soundness and setting time of Portland cement of three companies
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in Nigeria. Thus: Ashaka, Dangote and BUA cement companies. The samples of the
Portland cement from the three companies were sourced from the dealers for
laboratory analysis. These were done in accordance with the requirement of BS
4550 which is 500g (using a weight balance) of cement mixed with distill water to
give a paste of standard consistency, the specimen was moulded into one or two
layers, each layer being compacted with the thumb or forefinger by pressing the
paste in the corners, around the reference inserts, and along the surfaces of the
moulds until a homogeneous specimen was obtained. During the operations of
mixing and moulding of the cement paste, the hands were protected by wearing
hand gloves.
This research also used a qualitative research approach in which the data were
collected by means of semi-structured interviews using seven bricklayers randomly
selected that uses the companies ’products. This type of interview was adopted for
the study to give these users the opportunity to express their views on these three
different kinds of cement. According to Hamza, Musta'amal and Kamin (2017) semi-
structured interviews could be used across disciplines as participants are given the
opportunity to speak out their standpoints on the current research issues.
The interviews were guided by the research objective 3 and has two sections: A and
B. Section A seeks information on the users ’demographic peculiarities and section
B is the protocol of the interview of their views on the soundness and setting time
of the three types of cements. Finally, the outcomes of the contextual data
gathered from the interviews were transcribed and analysed inductively (Maykut &
Morehouse, 1994) using a content analysis technique (Merriam, 2009) manually.
This technique was used for the study because it is one of the best qualitative
approaches used to analyse contextual data (Creswell, 2014).
Laboratory apparatus for soundness

The laboratory apparatus for soundness test includes: Le-Chatelier apparatus
conform to IS;5514-1969, weight balances whose permissible variation at a load of
1000g is +1 or -1, water bath, two glass sheets, center ruler and gauging trowel
conforming to IS: 10086-1982.
Laboratory apparatus for setting time

The apparatus for setting time test includes: Vicat apparatus conforming to IS:
5513-1976, weight balances whose permissible variation at a load of 1000g is +1
or -1, gauging trowel conforming to IS: 10086-1982.
Method of data collection
The study adopted explanatory sequential mixed method research design for this
study. In this design, quantitative data was collected and analyzed followed by
qualitative data collection.
Determination of soundness test
Cement paste of standard consistency was used to fill a Le Chatelier mould, which
has two indicator needles. After filling the mould with the cement paste, the
distance (d0) in millimeters, between the needles was measured and recorded. The
filled Le Chatelier mould was heated in boiling water for 30 min., and after allowing
to stay in a humidity cabinet for 24 hours, the soundness was later determined by
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measuring the new distance (df) between the two needles. The soundness was
obtained by the difference, df – d0.
Determination of Setting Time

The initial and final setting times were determined using the Vicat needle (NIS
447:2003). The needle which is attached to the Vicat apparatus was calibrated by
lowering it to rest on the base plate of the instrument and then adjust the pointer
to read zero on an attached scale. The needle was later raised to stand in position.
The cement pastes which have gone through standard consistency test was
transferred into an open mould on the base plate of the Vicat instrument. The
needle was released to penetrate vertically into the paste. When penetration
ceased, the scale on the Vicat instrument was read and the time recorded as the
initial setting time, T0. The mould was later inverted, and the needle was attached
with a ring, and allowed to rest on the reverse face of the paste. The final setting
time Tf was recorded as the time, the reading started from the onset of experiment
when the ring failed to make a mark on the reverse surface of the sample.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Research question 1
What is the soundness of Portland cement produced by Ashaka, Dangote and BUA
Nigerian Plc?
Result of soundness test
Total weight of cement used = 500g at water cement ratio of 5.0

Ashaka cement; first expansion = 2.0mm, second expansion after 30 minutes
heating = 2.2mm
Therefore: 2.2mm - 2.0mm = 0.2mm

Dangote cement; first expansion = 2.0mm, second expansion after 30minutes
heating = 2.1mm
BUA Cement; first expansion = 2.1mm, second expansion after 30minutes heating
= 2.4mm
Table 1: Result of soundness test conducted on the three cement companies

Brand of Cement Expansion of Cement Code Requirement
Ashaka cement 0.2mm Expansion not to exceed 10mm
Dangote cement 0.1mm
BUA cement 0.3mm
Table 1 shows the results of the soundness test carried out on the samples of the
three cement companies. Ashaka Portland Cement recorded 0.2mm, Dangote
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Portland Cement recorded 0.1mm and BUA Portland Cement 0.3mm. These were
the outcome of the laboratory test to ascertain the expansion of the cement
samples of the three companies after heating for 30 minutes. This implied that the
Portland Cement from the three companies fell within the code requirement of
portland cement not exceeding 10mm expansion limit of standard portland
cement. This result agreed with Nigeria Industrial Standards 444-1 (2003) and Civil
Engineering (n.d.) in their separate studies stated that sound cement which it
pastes has set should not expand so much as to physically vary in appearance
before setting, as the effect of unsound cement manifest itself after several years
which is usually not good for any construction work. This result also agreed with
Mahajan (2019) who stated that soundness Test of cement is very important, it
measured the expansion of cement after it starts setting. In the author’s line of
argument, he affirmed that certain cement has been found to undergo a large
expansion after setting causing disruption of the set and hardened mass. This
expansion of cement can cause serious problems for the durability of structures
when such cement is used. From the results of this study, it implies that all the
cement samples tested (i.e. Ashaka, Dangote & BUA cements) adhere to the
required standard as specified in British Standard Institutes, BS 12: part 1 (1996)
which stated that the individual expansion of any cement should not be more than
10mm in terms of soundness.
Cement expansion
Ashaka cement
Dangote cement
33% BUA cement
50%
17%
Figure 1: Pie Chat displaying the Percentage of Cement Expansion by the three Cement
Companies
Figure 1 shows the pie chat results of the three cement companies in percentages.
BUA Cement recorded 50%, followed by Ashaka Cement with 33% and Dangote
Cement with 17% respectively. Dangote Portland Cement has the least expansion,
while BUA Portland Cement has the highest expansion of the three cement
companies. The variation in the expansion of the three cement samples are based
on the constituent materials that facilitate the slow or high rate of their expansion.
However, despite the variations in their expansion rate, they all fell within the code
requirement of not exceeding 10mm expansion. This result is in agreement with
the result of Ige (2013), Patel and Mohanty (2016) in their separate studies stated
that in using Le Chatelier apparatus, expansion of cement should not exceed 10mm
(IS 4031, Part 3).
Research Question 2
What is the setting time of Portland cement produced by Ashaka, Dangote and
BUA Nigerian Plc?
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Result of setting time test
Setting time of Ashaka cement
The total weight of sample = 500g of cement water cement ratio of 5.0
Table 2: Result of setting time test conducted on Ashaka Cement Nig. Plc
Time Initial Setting Final Setting
First 15 minutes 0.01mm First 14.1mm
Second 15 minutes 14.0mm Final drop 15.0mm
30minutes = 14.01mm
3hours = 29.1mm
Therefore: The initial setting is 30minutes
The final setting is 3hours.
Setting time of Dangote cement
The total weight of sample is 500g of cement water cement ratio 5.0
Table 3: Result of setting time test conducted on Dangote Cement Nig. Plc
Time Initial setting Final setting
First 15 minutes 0.00mm First drop 14.0mm
Second 15 minutes 11.02mm Final drop 14.2mm
Third 15 minutes 11.04mm
45minutes 22.42mm
3:30minutes 28.2mm
Therefore: The initial setting time is 45 minutes
Final setting time is 3:30 minutes
Setting time of BUA cement
The total weight of sample = 500g of cement water cement ratio 5.0
Table 4: Result of setting time test conducted on BUA Cement Nig. Plc
Time Initial setting Final setting
First 15minutes 0.02mm First drop 14.1mm
Second 15minutes 14.2mm Final drop 15.2mm
30minutes = 14.22mm
3hours = 29.3mm
Therefore, the initial setting time is 30 minutes
The final setting time is 3 hours
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Angulu, et al.
Table 5: Summary of result of setting time test for the three Nigeria cement companies
Brand of cement Initial setting Final setting Code requirement
Ashaka cement 30 minutes 180 minutes IS standard
Dangote cement 45 minutes 225 minutes “
BUA cement 30 minutes 180 minutes “
Table 5 shows the summary results for both initial and final setting times of the
three cement companies. Ashaka and BUA Portland cement takes 30 minutes for
their initial setting time and 180 minutes for their final setting time to be
established. While Dangote Portland cement takes 45 minutes for its initial setting
time to be established and 225 minutes for the final setting time to be established.
The findings are in conformity with IS standard code requirement. The timing of 30
and 45 minutes for initial setting time is sufficient enough for the utilization of
cement mortar and concrete to be transported, placement and/or compaction
before it finally set. These results agreed with the positions of The Constructor
(n.d.) and Kohli (2017) in their separate studies affirmed the important of initial
setting time as it facilitates the transportation, placing and compaction of green
cement mortar/concrete. While final setting time period facilitates safe removal of
form or scaffolding.
Figure 2: Graphic Results of the Initial/Final Setting Times for the three Cement Companies
Research question 3
Classic responses by the users
The documentation of typical responses was built on the analysis of two key issues
which include soundness and setting time of three different cement companies
under study. The users ’views were recorded during the interview sessions.
Generally, the users have similar characteristic of using all the three companies ’
cement (Ashaka, Dangote & BUA) but their responses appeared to be different. To
this end, the major findings of this research were summarised in the following
order: All the 7 users acknowledged that the soundness and setting time of Ashaka
cement indicated stability in the volume of change in the process of setting out
and hardening. This supersedes that of BUA which five users indicated its
soundness and setting time as stable and lastly the Dangote cement which 3 users
reported its soundness and setting time as stable.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of this study, it was concluded that Portland cement being
the main binding constituents of concrete, its quality affects the properties of the
concrete produce from it. For a qualitative concrete to be produced, the cement to
be used should be of good quality. Therefore, there is need to study the
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Angulu, et al.
characteristics and quality of the cement used in the production of concrete.

Soundness and setting times are some of the important qualities needed in the
cement, the lack of these qualities may lead to defects in building construction.
This study, was carried out to analyze the soundness and setting times of Portland
cement of three cement companies in Nigeria, thus: Ashaka cement, Dangote
cement and BUA cement. The outcome of the laboratory analysis revealed that the
three cement companies ’products complied with the code requirement for
standard cement for construction work in Nigeria and the world over. Conclusively,
it is imperative to note that this study is not sponsored. The analysis revealed that
the three cement companies ’products complied with the code requirement for
standard cement for construction work in Nigeria and the world over.
REFERENCES
American Concrete Institute (ACI, 2021). Definition of portland cement. Retrieved from:
https://www.concrete.org/tool/frequentlyaskquestions.aspx?faqid=671
British Standard Institutes, BS 4550 (1978). Methods of testing cement. London: Her
Majesty’s stationery office, United Kingdom
British Standard Institutes, BS 12: Part 1 (1996). Methods of testing cement sampling.
London: British Standard Institution.
Chindo, I. G. & Obi, N. I. (2015). Building collapse in Nigeria: the causes, effects,
consequences and remedies. International Journal of Civil Engineering,
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR WHOLE-LIFE COST DATA

TRANSFORMATION AND MODEL SELECTION IN THE
BUILDING SECTOR
Ibrahim, A. M.1, Bala, K.2, Ibrahim, A. D.3 and Zubairu, I. K.4
1,2,4Departmentof Building, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria.
3Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria
Data for Whole Life Costing (WLC) is obtained from multiple sources in different
formats. This inhibits data sharing between built-environment costs professionals
thereby adding to data related problems often associated with WLC. This paper
presents a proposed framework for mapping WLC data to models, as well as
transforming data into a variety of formats. Framework components, variables and
processes were identified from literature and synthesized into a conceptual
framework. Also, a matrix of transformation logic was produced to compliment the
model selection process. Seven data related scenarios and possible decisions/
courses of actions were derived from the framework. Additionally, seven useful data
types and fourteen data formats were identified. Of the fourteen formats random
statistical data, probability density functions and fuzzy membership functions were
found to be the most important in terms of transformability ranking. The framework
provides strategic decision guide for cost professionals during the preparation of
WLC data and the selection of a suitable model, while the transformation processes
provides a procedural guide for converting data into different formats. The findings
set the stage for the development of transformation and integration algorithms to
support computer coding, and the design and implementation of a database that
would facilitate the storage and retrieval of data in multiple formats.
Keywords: data integration, data sharing, data transformation, whole life cost
data, whole life cost models
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development agenda requires building projects to be economically
efficient so that, they are free of under or over investment over their life cycle. An
indispensable tool that helps in the evaluation of economic sustainability of a
building is the Whole Life Costing (WLC) technique (Boussabaine & Kirkham 2004;
Ellingham & Fawcett 2006). As a technique, WLC is used for the assessment of the
1 alibramak@gmail.com
2 balakabir@yahoo.com
3 adibrahim2@yahoo.com
4 ibrakhazu@gmail.com
Ibrahim, et al. (2021) Conceptual framework for whole-life cost data transformation and model
selection in the building sector In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
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cradle-to-grave cost of a building or its part, component or system. It represents

the present value of the sum of the initial, operating, maintenance, and terminal
costs of a built asset. It is essentially used as a decision-making tool to facilitate
the selection of the best option (design, component, building, system etc) from a
host of competing alternatives; for design optimisation; and for budgetary
purposes (Flanagan & Jewell 2005; Hoar 2007). A typical WLC requires cost,
physical, economic, and performance data. These data come from diverse sources
in different forms and varying characteristics like tangibility, certainty and
availability (Kishk et al. 2003). The application of the technique in especially the
developing countries, despite its usefulness, is retarded by a number of challenges.
Higham, Fortune, and James (2015), and Opawole et al. (2020), identified these
challenges to include; data, client, process, politics, government, practice, and tools
related.
The data related problem centres on data scarcity, difficulty in data sharing, and
inconsistent databases. Firstly, the dearth of reliable historical data makes WLC
expensive to conduct due to cost of data collection which reduces confidence in
the reliability of the results (Al-Hajj et al. 2001). Secondly, data for WLC is elicited
from different sources and in different structure, which necessitates data
adjustment in order to bring it to a common basis in terms of type, structure, time,
and location. Such adjustment is imperative to data sharing between different
models, if model-data mismatch is to be avoided (Saridaki, Psarra, & Haugbølle
2019). Data adjustment or transformation is a complex process and unless it is
simplified, data elicitation and processing will remain tedious thereby aggravating
the data scarcity problem. Thirdly, existing databases are inconsistent and
inaccurate. Al-Hajj et al. (2001) described them as ’constructed ’rather than
’historical-based ’with data background information often not recorded making
them unreliable.
Kishk et al. (2003) underscore the importance of data transformation during the
selection of a modelling technique. They proposed an integrated framework for
WLC that facilitates the selection of an appropriate modelling technique on the
basis of data tangibility, availability and certainty. The framework however
considers only the two extremes of data availability (available data, and no data),
eliminating possibilities of having incomplete data as suggested by Ilg et al. (2017).
The aim of this paper is to develop a WLC framework that facilitates data
transformation, as well as the identification and selection of an appropriate WLC
model and data format. It is strongly believed that built-environment cost
professionals will find the framework a useful guide for data/model matching, data
transformation, and sharing as well as providing the basis for the development of
a robust WLC database.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Purpose of WLC
Whole Life Costing (WLC) can be described as a technique that facilitates the
systematic computation of the total cost of an asset or its part, from concept to its
end-of-life (Hoar 2007; Norman 2007). It is essentially used to aid decision-making
when choosing between competing alternatives (building investment options,
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design alternatives, systems, or components); optimisation of designs,

performance, system, or components; and forecast of costs for budgetary purpose
(Kishk et al. 2003; Hoar 2007).
Data requirement for WLC

Data for WLC can be both quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative data is
numerical in nature and represents cost data (like initial, operating, maintenance
repair, and terminal cost), physical data associated with dimension of a building
(e.g. gross floor area, floor to ceiling height, external perimeter etc), economic data
(like interest rate, inflation rate, discount rate etc), and performance data (like
maintenance cycles, life expectancy, occupancy time, electricity consumption,
water consumption, gas consumption etc). These data are useful in WLC using
quantitative techniques like Net Present Value (NPV) (Kishk et al. 2003; Flanagan &
Jewell 2005). Qualitative data on the other hand is subjective and often derived
from expert judgement/opinion (e.g. condition, quality, aesthetics, comfort and
maintenance ratings, intangible costs and benefits). These kinds of data are used
in qualitative WLC using weighted evaluation techniques (Norman 2007). Dell’Isola
and Kirk (2003) proposed a pair-wise weighted evaluation technique suitable for
analysing qualitative WLC data. Kishk (2002) and Kishk, Al-Hajj, and Pollock (2002)
modified the technique using Fuzzy Set Theory (FST). Norman (2007) noted that, it
is imperative to have a blend of both quantitative and qualitative approach so that
computed WLC results can be moderated with professional judgement and
experience.
Data related challenges

The dearth of historical data has been reported by many authors (Flanagan & Jewell
2005; Higham, Fortune, & James 2015) and remains the most important challenge
to WLC. In an attempt to mitigate the scarcity problem, Kishk and Al-Hajj (2000)
developed an innovative FST based approach that utilizes expert opinion and
judgement. Another data related problem is the lack of uniformity in the source,
type and structure of WLC data. This means that before data can be used in a
different setting, substantial adjustments (often complex and costly) must be made
to normalise and express it on a common scale. In order to simplify the adjustment
process, there is the need to automate the process so that data can easily be
converted and shared for use in different environment.
Another data related problem resides with the limitations of existing databases.
These databases which are supposedly designed to provide a system that simplifies
WLC data storage and retrieval are rather inconsistent. Al-Hajj et al. (2001) argued
that the databases are based on "expert opinion", trades publication data, and
manufacturers ’data, and that, background information and measures of
uncertainty are often lost during data storage as the context information on the
data is often not recorded. This is particularly a problem as data relating to a
proposed project is often generated from multiple sources.
Quantitative WLC data formats
Quantitative data used in WLC comes in different formats depending on availability
and nature of uncertainty. Crisp, single or point data is a discrete and precise value,
free of variability and thus used in deterministic WLC (Boussabaine & Kirkham
2004; Ashworth & Parera 2016). Where the nature of variability in the data is not
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clear, interval data can be used to represent the uncertainty. Range of values are
used to mark the lower and upper bounds of the data. A variable represented by
interval data can take any value within the bound (Bruns, Paredis, & Ferson 2006).
WLC can then be done deterministically using interval arithmetic. Another format
is the three-point data that marks the lower and upper bounds, as well as the best
estimate of the data (Boussabaine & Kirkham 2004). Sensitivity analysis can be
performed within the data bound to identify the most sensitive variables (Flanagan
et al. 1987). A variant of the three-point data introduced by Dell'Isola and Kirk
(2003) for use in Confidence Index (CI) approach to WLC, is conditional, and require
the data to meet dual criteria. First the high and low 90% must be obtained from
same source as the best estimate and should represent knowledgeable estimate
rather than guess work. Second, the difference between the present values of the
best estimates and the present value of the lower and upper 90% bounds must be
within 25% of each other. The approach is designed around probability theory and
assumes uncertainty in WLC data to be normally distributed, and the lower and
upper 90% bounds to correspond to the true 90% mark on a normal probability
distribution.
Where sufficient sample of historical data is available, objective frequency

distributions can be generated and a suitable representative probability
distribution identified (Kishk & Al-Hajj 2001). Bossabaine and Kirkham (2004)
identified some popular PDF as normal, lognormal, beta, Weibull, Pareto,
exponential, and gamma. The PDF can then be used in simulation models.
Alternatively, such data can form the basis for developing regression models
(Ashworth & Parera 2016). Statistical data may however turn out to be non-random
which makes it unsuitable for stochastic modelling. In such a situation, other
modelling techniques like Artificial Neural Network (ANN), Genetic Algorithms
(GA) and Fuzzy Set Theory (FST) or their combination may be deployed. Ross (2004)
demonstrated how fuzzy sets can be generated through intuition, inference, rank
ordering, ANN, GA, and inductive reasoning.
Sample size in statistics is an important determinant of the kind of analysis to apply.
Spiegel and Stephens (1999) noted that, small sampling theory requires a sample
size of less than thirty for its application. In fact, Stephen and Berenson (2005)
showed that, the central limit theorem holds where the sample size is at least thirty
for a population that is not normally distributed.
Where historical data is not sufficient to form a definitive distribution, as a result
of say missing data, heuristics may be used to augment the data (Goh et al. 2010)
based on expert judgement. Data augmentation techniques like Convolution
Neural Networks (CNN) (Zheng et al. 2020), Bayesian data augmentation approach
(Tran et al. 2017), and Markov-chain Monte Carlo (van Dyk & Meng 2001) have been
successfully used in the fields of medicine, imagery, music amongst others. There
usability for WLC needs to be explored.
Subjective probabilities are used where WLC data is not available. These
probabilities are systematically collected from experts and a subjective PDF
formulated. The PDF can take the form of uniform, triangular, and trapezoidal
density functions (Seeley 1998). A procedure for the development of subjective
probabilities has been recommended by Galway (2007). Wang, Chang and El-
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Sheikh (2012) have demonstrated the development and use of subjective

probabilities during simulation of WLC.
Another form of data used in WLC is linguistic variables. These are expert
statements that are either ambiguous, vague or imprecise. Such statements are
best expressed using fuzzy numbers (Zimmermann 2001; Ross 2004). Fuzzy
numbers can take different shapes like rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal and
Gaussian. Kisk and Al-Hajj (2000) have demonstrated the application of Fuzzy Set
Theory in WLC of building projects.
WLC Models
A model is a prototype of a real object or its characteristics, procedure, or system
(Anderson, Sweeney & Williams 2004; Fellows & Liu 2007). The goal is for the
prototype to closely represent the real object. Models come in different forms
depending on how they mimic reality. A model that is a replica of a real object is
called iconic model (Kirkham 2015). Analog models are physical in form but are not
exact replica of the object they represent. Symbolic or mathematical models
represent a scenario with a system of symbols, logical or mathematical expressions
(Kirkham 2015). Another classification is based on the transparency of model’s
internal structure. In this class models can be either black-box or white-box. The
internal structure of a black-box model is opaque, that is not completely known to
the modeller. Such models use some form of heuristics to generate output based
on some given input data. Examples are Artificial Neural Networks (ANN), and
Genetic Algorithms (GA). The internal structure of a white-box model is transparent
in the sense that, it is completely known to the modeler. Symbolic models are
transparent as their structure is known to the modeller (Fellows & Liu 2007).
Two broad classes of cost models have been identified by Skitmore and Marston
(1999). These are cost-product and cost-process models also referred to as
‘Designers ’cost models ’and ‘Constructors ’or ‘production cost models ’respectively
by Ashworth and Parera (2016). The cost-product model relies on information from
completed projects to model cost of proposed developments. Cost-process
models on the other hand mimic construction process based on operations or
activities often at a detailed level, to model cost of proposed projects (Kirkham
2015). Another important classification of cost model is based on the way
uncertainty is treated. Deterministic models assume perfect information. They take
precise cost data as input and produce output that is interpreted as certain
(Ashworth & Parera 2016). The second group is stochastic model which recognise
reality to be full of uncertainty and thus model cost as a random parameter based
on probability theory (Bowen, Wolvart & Tailor 1987; Ashworth & Parera 2016). The
third group expresses uncertainty as non-random and model cost in terms of fuzzy
sets or heuristics (Boussabaine and Kirkham 2004).
The purpose of WLC models is to ease process complexity and improve efficiency
in achieving the core objectives of WLC. Boussabaine and Kirkham (2004) identified
three WLC modelling techniques. They include deterministic, stochastic and FST
based techniques. Kim, An, and Kang (2004) also described how regression analysis
can be used to model the relationship between variables in WLC.
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Uncertainty and risk in WLC data

The desire to predict decisions, performances and costs that will occur many years
into the future, coupled with the dearth of reliable historical data makes WLC prone
to uncertainty (El-Haram et al. 2007). Zimmerman (2001) described uncertainty as
the lack of quantitative and qualitative information needed to adequately prescribe
or predict both deterministically and numerically the characteristics of a system.
He further identified the causes of uncertainty as lack of information,
overabundance of information, conflicting evidence, ambiguity, measurement
error, and belief. Huijbregts et al. (2003) identified three types of uncertainty in
WLC: parameter (data related uncertainty), model (uncertainty in mathematical
relationship) and scenario (uncertainty in normative choices).
Parametric uncertainty is data related, and occurs due to lack of information, over-
abundance of information, measurement error, ambiguity, and unrepresentative
data (Huijbregts 1998; Zimmerman 2001). Goh et al. (2010), further classified
parametric uncertainty into aleatory and epistemic. They described aleatory
uncertainty as intrinsic variability in data that does not completely vanish with
additional information. Epistemic parametric uncertainty occurs primarily due to
lack of knowledge on the true value of a parameter and can be reduced with
additional information. It is more difficult to assess and thus require new approach
(Xu et al. 2012). Oberkampf and Helton (2001) had suggested the need for a
modelling approach that will take into account epistemic and aleatory uncertainty
in WLC separately, so as to avoid underestimating the overall impact of uncertainty.
Scope et al. (2016) identified the sources and nature of parametric uncertainty.
They grouped multiple sources of data, estimation error, inherent randomness, and
data gaps under aleatory; linguistic vagueness, ambiguity, imprecision, lack of data,
and unrepresentative data under epistemic; and data collection error under both
aleatory and epistemic. Aughenbaugh and Paredis (2006) described how interval
or probability bounds analysis can be used to separate aleatory and epistemic
uncertainties.
RESEARCH METHOD
Gregg, Kulkarni and Vinz´ (2001) stated that, the development of an information
system based on a concept that is rooted in literature, and which solves a problem
in a new way at organisational or individual level constitute a research. They noted
that, traditionally, research in information systems takes up either a positivist/post
positivist or interpretive/constructivist approach. Recent development in
information technology makes these paradigms unsuitable for Information
systems-based research. This is because the explanations, justifications and
methods associated with the paradigms are insufficient for software engineering
researches (Deng & Ji, 2018).
Gregg, Kulkarni and Vinz´ (2001) proposed a 3-stage framework for information
system research, the philosophical paradigm of which they called ‘socio-
technologist/developmentalist paradigm’. They stressed that, while
positivist/postpositivist paradigm focuses on the confirmation of prepositions, the
interpretive/constructivist paradigm is concerned with the generation of new
concepts and the socio-technologist/developmentalist paradigm is concerned with
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the creation of new ideas. The stages of the proposed framework are
conceptualisation, formalisation and development.
The conceptual stage is the first and most important stage. This stage involves
defining the research problem by grounding it in literature to generate theoretical
constructs and define the needs and specification for the research effort. This stage
is very important that none of the two subsequent stages can stand as a research
without it.
The formalisation phase involves a systematic description of the system concept

using mathematical and/or logical technique which helps to avoid misconceptions
and misunderstanding about the system. Tools that could be used include
flowcharts, unified modelling language, heuristics etc.
The developmental stage involves the generation of prototypes as a proof of
concept, proof by demonstration to test the validity of a proposed solution in a
controlled environment. Prototyping is an iterative process with each subsequent
stage seeking to improve on the success of a previous stage. It aims to assess the
feasibility of the design and test the functionality of the proposed system. Typical
activities at this stage includes: mathematical modelling and evaluation, math/logic
proofs, analytical and numerical modelling, and computational analysis.
This research adopts the 3-stage information systems methodology framework

proposed by Gregg, Kulkarni and Vinz´ (2001). Figure 1 is a summary of the research
method adopted. The research begins with problem identification narrated in the
introduction section. A literature review was then conducted to articulate types,
purpose and classifications of cost models, data requirement, data format and
transformation, and risk and uncertainty in WLC, which then provides the basis for
identifying framework component, processes, constructs and variables that were
then synthesized using basic flowchart symbols to design the conceptual
framework. It should be noted that, the development stage of the research process
is outside the scope of this paper as the intent is to propose a conceptual
framework as a first step.
Figure 1:Research Process
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Model selection framework
Figure 2 shows a flowchart representation of the conceptual framework.
Figure 2: Conceptual framework for data transformation and model selection
In the figure, oval, rectangle, and diamond shapes represents beginning/end of the
process, operations, and decisions respectively. Solid arrows show the direction of
flow of activities, while dotted arrows show the direction of mapping of data type
to modelling technique. The framework portrays seven different scenarios that
relates seven quantitative data types to six modelling approaches.
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The first scenario is when WLC data is qualitative, the use of standard pair-wise
weighted evaluation technique by Dell’Isola and Kirk (2003) or the modified FST-
based technique is recommended.
Where the data is quantitative, evaluation is on the basis of availability, certainty,

sample size, variability, and nature of uncertainty. The second scenario is where
data is available and certain. This scenario is rare in real life given the level of
uncertainty associated with WLC data. In this situation however, precise single-
point data and deterministic models should be the preferred data format and
model respectively.
The third scenario is where quantitative data is available, uncertain, of large sample
and random. A frequency distribution should be prepared based on a which a
standard PDF can be fitted. If this is done successfully, then, the relevant parametric
uncertainties should be identified and assessed as recommended by Goh et al
(2010), otherwise the data is treated as non-random.
The fourth scenario is the case where data is available, uncertain, of large sample,
and non-random. Non-stochastic analysis involving black-box models like ANN
and GA is recommended for this kind of data. Alternatively, fuzzy sets can be
generated by classifying and assigning membership values to the data set for use
in fuzzy model.
The fifth scenario is where quantitative data is uncertain but of small sample. Small
samples of data are not sufficient for constructing a frequency distribution, let
alone determining the variability of the data set. This kind of data should be used
for interval, three-point estimates, and sensitivity analysis using deterministic
models.
The sixth scenario is where quantitative data is available but incomplete. In this
situation, data augmentation should be attempted as a first step. Where the data
is successfully augmented, then depending on the sample size, scenario four or
five can be initiated, otherwise, the situation is treated as the case of unavailable
data.
The seventh scenario is where quantitative data is not available. The only option in
this situation is to elicit subjective data from professionals. Subjective probabilities
or FMF should be obtained from expert opinion and used in stochastic and Fuzzy
models respectively.
Data transformation processes

Table 1 is a summary of data types, data levels, data formats, and applicable
transformation procedures.
From the table, seven data types, fourteen data formats, and six data levels can
be identified. The data types are: Single-Point data (SPD), Range or interval data
(RD), Three-Point Data (TPD), Stochastic Three-Point Data (STPD), Fuzzy Data (FD),
Probability Density Function (PDF), and Statistical Data (SD).
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Table 1: Summary of data transformation

Data
Level SPD RD TPD STPD FMF PDF
format
1 SPD - - - - -
Compute the
2 RD - - - -
average
Use the
Use the likely lower &
3 TPD - - -
value upper
values
Use the
Use
Use the likely expanded
4 STPD expanded
value bounds &
bound
likely value
5 FD -
Use the
expanded
Use the Use the Transform
bounds,
Use lowest & lowest, using prob.
defuzzified
5a1 RFMF defuzzified highest highest, & Pos.
value, &
value of FMF values of defuzzified consistency
confirm the
the FMF value of FMF principle
25%
condition
5b1 TFMF As above As above As above As above As above
5c1 TrpFMF As above As above As above As above As above
5d1 GFMF As above As above As above As above As above
5 PDF
Use the Transform
Use the
range, modal PDF into FMF
Use the lowest & Use the range
value, & using
5a2 OPDF modal value highest & the modal -
confirm the pro./pos.
of the PDF values of value
25% consistency
the PDF
condition principle
5b2 SPDF
Transform
Use the
PDF into FMF
average value Use
using
5b21 UPDF of lower & adjusted
pro./pos.
upper bounds
consistency
bounds
principle
Use lower
Transform
and upper
PDF into FMF
Use Use adjusted bounds, likely
Use the likely using
5b22 TPDF adjusted bounds & the value, &
value pro./pos.
bounds likely value confirm the
consistency
25%
principle
condition
Use lower
and upper
Use lower & Transform
bounds,
upper bound PDF into FMF
Use range average of
Use the mean and the using
5b23 TrpPDF of likely the likely
value average of pro./pos.
values values, &
range of consistency
confirm the
likely values principle
25%
condition.
6 SD
Use the
Transform
expanded
PDF into FMF Convert data
Use the range range, mean
Compute the Use the using to frequency
6a RSD and modal value &
average. range. pro./pos. distribution &
value confirm the
consistency fit-in a PDF
25%
principle.
condition
Use the range
Compute the Use the Develop a
6b NRSD & modal - -
average range FMF
value
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FD has four variants or formats: Rectangular Fuzzy Membership Function (RFMF),

Triangular FMF (TFMF), Trapezoidal FMF (TrpFMF), and Gaussian FMF (GFMF). PDF
has two main variants, i.e. Objective PDF (OPDF) derived from historical data and
Subjective PDF (SPDF). The SPDF has three sub-variants or formats which are:
Uniform PDF (UPDF), Triangular PDF (TPDF), and Trapezoidal PDF (TrpPDF).
Statistical Data (SD) has Random SD (RSD) and Non-random SD (NRSD) as its
variants.
The direction of transformation is chosen such that no additional information is

needed during the conversion process. On this basis, six levels of data were
observed. The lowest level is the SPD as it cannot be transformed to any other level,
followed by RD, TPD, STPD at the 2nd 3rd and 4th levels. Both FD and PDF are at
the same 5th level as each data type can be transformed to the other. Statistical
Data (SD) is at the 6th and highest level as it can be transformed to five lower levels.
Table 2 is a ranking of the data formats based on the number of transforms they
can generate. From the table, RSD is ranked 1st as it generates six number
transforms. In contrast, NRSD also a variant of SD ranked 9th as it can generate
only four transforms. PDFs and FMFs have the same ranking (2nd) as they can each
be transformed to five other formats. They are a special class of data as each data
type can be transformed to the other. Unlike the other PDFs, UPDF can only provide
three transforms and is ranked 10th alongside STPD.
Table 2: Transformability ranking of data formats

Number of
Data format Abbreviation Ranking
transforms
Random statistical data RSD 6 1
Objective probability density function OPDF 5 2
Trapezoidal probability density function TrpPDF 5 2
Triangular probability density function TPDF 5 2
Rectangular fuzzy membership function RFMF 5 2
Triangular fuzzy membership function TFMF 5 2
Trapezoidal fuzzy membership function TrpFMF 5 2
Gaussian fuzzy membership function GFMF 5 2
Non-random statistical data NRSD 4 9
Stochastic three-point data STPD 3 10
Uniform probability density function UPDF 3 10
Three-point data TPD 2 12
Interval data RD 1 13
Single Point data SPD 0 14
The implication of the ranking is that, data formats with the highest ranking are
more flexible, so should be preferred since they provide a wider option for
transformation. Thus, SPD should be the least desired while RSD should be the
most preferred.
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CONCLUSION
A conceptual framework for data characterisation and model selection was
proposed. Based on the framework, seven scenarios engendered by different mixes
of data attributes, generates a mapping of seven quantitative data types onto six
modelling approaches. For each scenario, possible logical decisions in terms of
the most befitting data type or format and model or modelling technique to deploy
were suggested. Two of the seven scenarios identified are not common in WLC
practices. The first involves incomplete data where data augmentation is suggested
as a first option prior to describing data as unavailable. The second scenario
involves the resolution of data variability into epistemic and aleatory uncertainty
which reduces the likelihood of underestimate.
To compliment the model selection process, data transformation procedures were

articulated, based upon which transformability ranking for fourteen varieties of
data formats was determined. Based on the ranking, the most important data
formats are random statistical data, probability density functions and fuzzy
membership functions. Generally, the framework provides a guide to built-
environment cost professionals for; selecting a suitable data format for WLC in
different situations; converting WLC data into different types and subtypes which
improves data usability and share ability. It also provides a mapping of the data
format to an appropriate model which helps in minimizing model-data mismatch.
Finally, this paper has cleared the ground for the development of transformation
algorithms and the design and implementation of a database that would facilitate
WLC data storage and retrieval in a variety of formats.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
CONSTRUCTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: NEED FOR

NEW CONCEPTS AND THEORISING OF CONTEXTUAL
SPECIFICITIES TO THE GLOBAL CORPUS OF KNOWLEDGE
George Ofori1
School of the Built Environment and Architecture, London South Bank University, UK
Studies on construction industries in developing countries have resulted in a

distinct field of knowledge. The aim of this study is to contribute to the debate on
whether new perspectives and concepts of the body of knowledge of construction
in developing countries must be found because of the requirements and contexts
of developing countries. The study is based on a review of the literature on the
body of knowledge of construction in developing countries. It is found that
developing countries need high volumes of constructed items, but the capacity of
the construction industries in these countries, and their performance require major
improvement. Research should contribute to improving the industry’s capability
and performance. However, progress in the development of the body of
construction in developing countries has stalled. Subjects on which further research
is most needed are outlined. It is concluded that the construction industry in
developing countries requires more sophisticated approaches and analyses than
their industrialised countries counterparts. It is necessary to reconsider construction
in developing countries to enable research on the subject to contribute to practice
in improving the performance of the industries in those countries.
Keywords: body of knowledge, capacity and capability, construction in developing

countries, research new perspectives
INTRODUCTION
Research objectives and method
At the ARCOM 2018 Conference, a panel discussed “Alternative Frames of Thinking
on Construction in Developing Countries”. Ofori (2019) followed up on this with a
paper. This study considers the arguments further.
The objectives of this study are to:
 Consider why it is essential to improve the capacity, capability and performance

of the construction industries of developing countries
1 oforig3@lsbu.ac.uk
Ofori, G. (2021) Construction in developing countries: need for new concepts and theorising of
contextual specificities to the global corpus of knowledge In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs
417
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 Discuss the history and current state of the body of knowledge on construction
in developing countries
 Consider ways in which the existing body of knowledge on construction in

developing countries should be amended to reflect the context of developing
countries.
The paper is based on a review of the literature on the body of knowledge on
construction industries in developing countries.
IMPORTANCE OF IMPROVING CONSTRUCTION IN DEVELOPING

COUNTRIES
What is a developing country?
The common definition of a “developing country” is based on gross national
income (GNI) per capita. World Bank classifies countries with GNI per capita of
US$1025 and below in July 2019 as Low Income; Lower-middle Income countries
fall between US$1026 and US$3995; Upper-middle Income countries are between
US$3996 and US$12,375; and High Income countries have GNI per capita of
US$12,375 and above (World Bank Data Team, 2019). “Low income” and “Lower
middle income” nations are “developing countries”. Many authors do not agree
with this classification (see Meikle, 2019). It is worth noting that the classification is
undertaken every year, and countries can be reclassified under the categories. Also,
developing countries differ among themselves in many regards, including their
prospects for development (Han and Ofori, 2001).
Where construction is concerned, Ofori (2012b) noted differences between

developed and developing countries by considering: features of the construction
industry, projects and products; performance of the industries; and driving forces
of construction including: environmental issues and climate change; safety and
health; poverty alleviation; globalization; technology development and innovation;
information and communications technology (ICT); quality and productivity; and
disaster prevention and reconstruction.
Improving construction: the need and the task
The capacity and capability of the construction industries in developing countries
should be enhanced to enable them to provide the economic and social
infrastructure for the countries’ long-term development. UN (2019) notes that
poverty, hunger and disease are concentrated in the poorest and most vulnerable
countries. The Post-2015 Development Agenda for addressing this is based on
attaining 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. The Economist
Intelligence Unit (2017) notes that infrastructure is at the heart of efforts to meet
the SDGs. World Bank (2017c) estimates that in Sub-Saharan Africa, closing the
infrastructure quantity and quality gap relative to the world’s best performers could
raise GDP growth per capita by 2.6 percent per year. The latest SDG Report (UN,
2019) indicates that the rate of extreme poverty fell from 36 percent in 1990 to 16
percent in 2010 and to 10 percent in 2015 (over one billion people rose from
poverty over 25 years). However, the pace of change is declining; on current trends,
6 percent of the global population will be living in extreme poverty in 2030. Some
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736 million people lived on less than US$1.90 a day in 2015 (413 million were in
sub-Saharan Africa).
Since 2008, over half of the world’s population has lived in urban areas; this is
expected to be 60 percent by 2030 (UN, 2018). Cities can be made inclusive,
sustainable and dynamic hubs of economic activity and innovation, but face
problems in managing air pollution, unplanned land use, inadequate housing and
infrastructure, growing slum population, lack of basic services, urban sprawl, and
vulnerability to disasters. UN (2018) noted that between 2000 and 2014, the slum
population rose from 807 million to 883 million. UN Task Team on Habitat III (2017)
notes that, in the next 30 years, nearly 2.5 billion people will be added to the world
urban population. New cities and planned extensions will have to be built.
Thus, the developing countries have huge volumes of construction needs.

However, the construction industries in developing countries lack the capacity and
capability to meet the infrastructure demands of these countries (Ofori, 2007). Their
performance falls short of what clients and beneficiaries desire, and that of their
industrialised country counterparts; they are unable to contribute towards
improving standards of living, or creating a conducive environment for investment
(Rwelamila and Ogunlana, 2015). Thus, research should help improve the
performance of the industries.
Nature of construction industries in developing countries

What is the current nature of the industries? Mir et al. (2007) found that challenges
facing construction industries in developing countries include: insufficient
education and training; absence of government commitment; lack of long-term
vision and planning for the industry; fluctuations in workload; ineffective
budgeting; defective contract documents; corrupt procedures; payment-related
delays; problems of bonding and insurance; lack of adequate financial resources;
foreign exchange constraints; non-availability of equipment and spare parts; and
poor information.
Are new approaches in construction knowledge, techniques, practices and

procedures needed to enable construction industries in developing countries
address the infrastructure needs and challenges? The body of knowledge on the
construction industry in developing countries should be understood in order to
explore what new perspectives need to be considered to enable it to make an
effective contribution towards improving the performance of the industries in
those countries.
CONSTRUCTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

History of studies on construction in developing countries
Arguably the first significant work on the construction industries in developing
countries is the report by the United Nations Expert Group on Housing
(Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 1962). That group concluded that the
level and quality of housing, sanitation and other infrastructure in the developing
countries was poor. It argued that, among other actions, efforts should be made to
improve the capacity and capability of the construction industries if these
conditions were to be addressed. Abrams (1964) (a member of the expert group)
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reached made similar recommendations. Turin (1969, 1973) investigated the role
of construction in the economy and in national development; and made industry
development proposals. Major reviews of the field by the early 1980s were
presented by Kafandaris (1980) and Drewer (1980).
The first books on Construction in Developing Countries were: World Bank (1984)
and Wells (1986). Ministry of Works (1977) was a major report on Tanzania’s
construction industry by a group of international experts in an extensive, three-
month country study. Multi-lateral organisations such as the International Labour
Office (ILO) (Edmonds and Miles, 1984), United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements (1991) and United Nations Industrial Development Organisation
(UNIDO) (1969) commissioned studies on construction in developing countries.
The main areas of the subject of construction in developing countries which have
been studied can be outlined as (Ofori, 2015, 2019):
 Materials Development – research and development on local materials;

development of manufacturing of materials; promotion of their adoption by
addressing obstacles to the take-up; policy directions such as incentives and
training of tradespersons (Syagga, 1993; UNIDO, 2008)
 Human Resource Development – skills gap analyses; education and training

with focus on trades; development of courses deemed relevant to developing
countries; continuing professional development (ILO, 2001; Loganathan et al.,
2017)
 Technology Development – development of ‘appropriate’ and labour-based

technologies; technology transfer; mechanization; government policies;
manufacturing of equipment; ICT applications (UNCHS, 1992; CIDB, 2015)
 Corporate Development – contractor development; joint ventures; registration

and accreditation; development of consultants (UNCHS, 1996)
 Institution Building – administrative framework; development of professional

institutions and trade associations; formation of industry development agencies
(CIDB, 2015; Ofori-Kuragu et al., 2016)
 Regulations, Procedures and Practices (Ofori, 1993; Windapo and Rotimi, 2012).
Giang and Low (2010) and Ofori (2015) present good recent reviews of the subject.
It should be noted that there are also wrong characterisations, as some of the work
is wrongly attributed. Ofori (1993, 1994) considered progress in research on
construction in developing countries, and implementation of its results, and
suggested that the field was at a crossroads. For example, the changes in the role
of construction in the economy over time, found by Turin (1969) which Strassman
(1970) termed the “middle-income country bulge”, has been called “Bon Curves”
by many authors (Ruddock and Lopes, 2006) (after Bon (1992)).
“Construction in Developing Countries” is a module in some universities such as
University College London, UK and University of Reading, UK. The field has a global
research group, CIB W107 on Construction in Developing Countries (which was
established as Task Group 29 in 1998). The Journal of Construction in Developing
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Countries (first published in 2006), is its main publishing outlet. The literature on
the field provides the framework for industry development policies such as industry
development strategies for Sri Lanka (National Advisory Council on Construction,
2014) and Ethiopia (Ministry of Urban Development and Construction, 2012).
Recent important works include the Construction Industry Capacity Framework, a
diagnostic tool for analysing any construction industry (Arup, 2018); and the study
of the industry in India (Loganathan et al., 2017). Thus, construction in developing
countries can be considered to be an established subject with a body of knowledge.
Current state of the field

The body of knowledge on construction in developing countries has failed to grow
in the last decade; there has been no significant breakthroughs. Ofori (2012a,
2012b) on new aspects of the subject, and on considering contemporary issues in
construction from the perspective of developing countries respectively, addressed
the lull. It is critical to grow and improve the body of knowledge because the
countries’ needs are huge and growing, as discussed above. Thus, it is necessary to
provide the countries with guidance to prepare their industries for their future
challenges.
It could be argued that the construction industry is the same everywhere, and the
same principles should apply universally; thus, there is no need to focus on any
particular segment. Others would suggest it is necessary to build new knowledge
to suit the special circumstances of developing countries. Ofori (2012b) analyzes
differences between industrialized and developing countries and their construction
industries and introduces the expression, “developing country exceptionalism”. He
suggests that, given these differences, the body of knowledge on construction in
developing countries should be modified to be most applicable in developing
countries.
Various authors have suggested topics for further research on construction in

developing countries. For example, CIB W107 suggests these topics in its research
roadmap (Rwelamila and Ogunlana, 2015): Construction in a Model of
Development; Sustainability in Housing; Human Resource Development;
Modernising the Traditional; Gender Equity; Financing and Procurement;
Governance and Management; Information Technology Applications on Projects;
and Industry Development. Ofori (2016) suggested that researchers should
consider the possibility of leapfrogging.
SOME PROPOSALS FOR DEVELOPING NEW CONCEPTS

In this section, how the body of knowledge on construction in developing countries
can be reconsidered to make it more relevant to those countries is discussed.
Project management in context of developing countries

The areas of knowledge and project management processes and activities under
them as in the Project Management Institute (PMI) Body of Knowledge (PMI, 2017)
are: Project Integration Management; Project Scope Management; Project Schedule
Management; Project Cost Management; Project Quality Management; Project
Resource Management; Project Communications Management; Project Risk
Management; Project Procurement Management; and Project Stakeholder
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Management. In the developing countries, construction projects involve many

more tasks than those in these ten areas. Thus, there is a need for a different
conceptualisation of project management in the context of developing countries.
Stuckenbruck and Zomorrodian (1987) note that in developing countries, project
management should only be applied when certain technical, political, and
environmental conditions are met, and when it is incorporated into an indigenous
framework based on local values, beliefs and behavioural patterns.
A possible new project management area of knowledge is “Management of the

Business Environment” which covers the context of the project and participating
organisations. This includes the regulatory and administrative framework,
procedures and practices in the industry, and the infrastructure. Rodinelli (1976)
noted that political, economic, operational, social and physical difficulties either
delay projects or cause them to fail. Similarly, Watermeyer (2018) describes the
underlying context of projects which includes cultural, ethical, societal, political,
economic and physical risks in the region where the built item is required. Another
new area of knowledge is “Operating and Facilities Management”. Effective
operation of the built item is a determinant of project success. Strategic facilities
management where inputs from operation of buildings help to improve the design
of new buildings is useful in developing countries (Jensen et al., 2019). Preparation
of as-built documentation or three-dimensional models to facilitate the
management of the facility should be given attention (Chong et al., 2019); as should
the building of capacity for maintaining the built item (World Bank, 1984; Morgan
et al., 2017).
Parameters for assessing project performance

Project performance parameters need to be framed to suit the context of
developing countries. New parameters (to supplement the usual cost, time, quality,
health and safety and environmental performance) include: affordability and life-
cycle costing; and employment generation (see Ofori, 2012a, 2019). These are now
discussed.
“Affordable housing” is topical in most countries (see, Senate Economics
References Committee (2015) on Australia; and Mutero (2018) on African
countries), but critical in developing nations where the housing shortage is
greatest. UN (2017) considers adequate and affordable housing a component of
the right to an adequate standard of living. Effective consideration of affordability
over the long-term to cover the life-cycle ownership of built items would enable
countries to invest in projects which are appropriate in their contexts.
In developing countries, it is pertinent to derive benefit from the employment
generation potential of construction. This should be addressed in the technological
choice, procurement approach and terms of contract (ILO, 2001; Mella and Savage,
2018). In rural areas, work opportunities on projects can be used to enhance
income (Watermeyer, 2018). This requires a new definition of, and modelling for,
construction productivity in developing countries which involves consideration of:
job creation and decent jobs; and a balance with time, cost, quality and health and
safety.
Other objectives of projects in developing countries include (Watermeyer, 2018):

strengthening of indigenous building materials and methods; and job
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opportunities for small and medium firms. Industry policies, project evaluation
models, and project management systems should be formulated to enable the
wider range of objectives and performance parameters to be attained.
Safeguarding in construction in developing countries

In most countries, the social image of the construction industry is poor (ILO, 2001;
PwC, 2014; Morrell, 2015) owing to the physical demands involved; a high rate of
accidents and fatalities; low pay; a reputation for corruption; and lack of trust from
the public. Many programmes have been introduced in different countries to
change the picture. For example, in the UK, key performance indices track
performance at industry level on aspects relating to ‘people’ including (Staff
Turnover, Sickness Absence, Safety – Industry Working Hours, Qualifications and
Skills, Training, Investors in People, and Staff Loss) (The KPI Team, 2018). The
Considerate Constructors Scheme (undated) commits registered sites, companies
and suppliers to care about appearance, respect the community, protect the
environment, secure everyone’s safety, and value their workforce. Similar schemes
can be considered in developing countries.
In welfare and safeguarding, focus has been on the construction industry’s workers.
However, construction projects have impacts on people living in their environs.
Moreover, the project’s workers might settle temporarily in the community, with
possible unintended social consequences. Thus, consideration of welfare could be
broadened. The World Bank, (2017a) and other lending institutions have social
safeguarding policies for projects they fund. For example, in 2015, the Bank
suspended a highway project in Uganda due to contractual breaches related to
workers’ issues, social and environmental concerns, and allegations of sexual
misconduct and abuse by contractors, and only lifted it in 2017 after working with
the government to support the affected communities and address social problems
(World Bank, 2017b). There is a case for establishing the concept of Social
Safeguarding and Benefit in Construction. Researchers could build on the existing
policies of the lending institutions (World Bank, 2017a) to devise the concept.
Culture as a key in project management in developing countries
Many authors argue that the notion of the project is a Western one; and project
management is culturally bound (Koster, 2010). Thus, it is necessary to make
changes to the way project management is practised if it is to work in developing
countries (Russell-Hodge and Hunnam, 1998; Rwelamila, 2012). Lizzarralde et al.
(2013) found differences in how power and authority are exercised, and in the roles
assumed by stakeholders on projects in developing countries. They noted that such
differences are often considered to be problems to be ‘fixed’ but should be
understood as project governance mechanisms of adaptation to different
environmental conditions. Rodinelli (1976) noted that: “Cultural, political and
social traditions, in many cases, inhibit the use of American or European project
management procedures. Even the most efficient multinational corporations
undertaking new ventures in Third World countries find unanticipated crises arise
continuously to obstruct the smooth execution of major projects”. Al-Sedairy and
Rutland (1994) and Youker (2007) highlighted the unique nature of project
management in developing countries. Rwelamila et al. (1999) suggested that poor
performance on construction projects in Africa could be explained by a failure to
apply the ‘ubuntu’ concept in the management approach.
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Culture should be more fully applied in planning, design and project management
in developing countries. Reviews of many projects and national development plans
show that a major cause of poor project outcomes is failure to involve the
community effectively (Choghuill, 1996). Participation of the community and the
hierarchical traditional systems could be optimised with appropriate project
strategies.
Materials, technologies and skills fitting the context of developing countries

Developing countries should seek to apply the best appropriate technology and
practice and in their contexts and resource circumstances (Ofori, 2016). In some
cases, it will involve modifying an existing technology, practice or procedure to suit
their contexts. In others, it will mean developing new approaches peculiar to the
countries’ needs and circumstances. Thus, technologies and practices considered
to be only applicable in "more sophisticated" industries, including advanced digital
applications, new materials, and off-site construction, should be considered. For
example, off-site applications are not new in developing countries; Richard (2004)
has long proposed their use to address housing problems. The potential of
leapfrogging should be pursued in research and development on technology and
its application.
Local materials, techniques and their production and application systems which
have been disregarded or are not popular because they are considered to be
unsuitable for the sophisticated should be revisited (UNIDO, 2008). Sojkowski
(2015) noted that “western material and construction techniques are seen as
correct, modern, permanent, and for the affluent, the vernacular is viewed as
substandard, outdated, temporary, or for the poor”. The modernised traditional
technologies and materials which have been developed, such as, in Ghana, the
modified Atakpame building (with mud walls reinforced with a wooden frame) and
landcrete blocks (with a low cement content) are of merit, given the current focus
on sustainability. Incentives for developing such items, and initiatives for their
application through demonstration effects in their usage could be studied. The
labour-intensive road construction programme of the ILO (Tembo and Blokhuis,
2004) which developed techniques, equipment, tools, skills and firms, merits
further research and development to upgrade and upscale it.
There is potential to combine the traditional with the local. For example, in human
resource development, construction trades training can be upscaled by combining
traditional apprenticeship and formal courses as in the Ghana Skills Development
Initiative (GFA Consulting 2019). To succeed, it will be necessary to introduce
modularisation, recognition of prior experience, accreditation and progression of
trained tradespersons to high qualification programmes.
New ideas for broad industry development
Construction industry development should be sharpened in developing countries.
In the UK, not much has been achieved from the many industry reviews (Bailey,
2018). Developing countries should undertake industry reviews and develop ways
forward. Some principles include: strategic prioritisation of initiatives, starting with
those with no prerequisites and with synergies; joined-up thinking; and sharing of
good practice and cautionary information from elsewhere. The considerations
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include: the role of construction in national development plans and policies;

preventing and addressing fragmentation of the industry to avoid stratification and
adversarialism; institution building and synergisation with recognition of local
systems; and the role of government and merits of state leadership.
CONCLUSION
It is important to consider the context of the developing countries including the
legal structures, institutions, infrastructure and culture and their influence on
practices and procedures in undertaking research on, as well as in applying, the
body of knowledge on construction in those countries. This will enable further
principles, tools and techniques for these countries to emerge. Considering the
context and needs of the developing countries, it is evident that the construction
industry requires a richer, more complex knowledge base than what pertains in the
industrialised countries. It is also pertinent to note that this special field of
construction in developing countries has the potential to contribute to the broader
Construction Management and Economics body of knowledge. Finally, it should be
noted that specific effort will have to be invested to attain the intentions outlined
in this paper. The leadership of CIB W107, of leading researchers on the area and
of journal editors and administrators of the leading industry development agencies
who are persuaded of the need for this additional element will be useful in these
regards.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
CONTRACTORS’ SELECTION AND ITS EFFECTS ON WATER

INFRASTRUCTURE DELIVERY
Mkasi P.1, Ogbeifun E.2 and Pretorius J. H. C.3
1,2,3Postgraduate
School of Engineering Management, Faculty of Engineering and the Built
Environment, University of Johannesburg, South Africa.
Recognising the impact of the dearth of water infrastructure on the economy and
social wellbeing of the citizens, the government of South Africa has continued to
invest in the development of suitable water infrastructure. Unfortunately, the
current pace of water infrastructure delivery is not complementary to the
investment made, due to an ineffective procurement system that fails to produce
quality performing contractors. The work quality of contractors influences the
successful execution of infrastructure delivery. Therefore, it is imperative to
evaluate the current procurement system. In this research, the single site case study
method of qualitative research was adopted. Semi-structured questionnaires,
complemented by interviews, were used as instruments for data collection. The
participants were drawn from the supply chain management functions unit, the bid
adjudication committee, technical team, consultants, and contractors. The findings
revealed that the combined effects of the use of an ineffective procurement system
and low capacity of professionals in the in-house team of the client have
contributed to the delays in procuring the services of the specialist sub-contractors
required for the execution of the rehabilitation scheme of the Clanwilliam Dam
project. Therefore, this research recommends the adoption of contractors ’pre-
qualification to facilitate the selection of quality contractors as well as to increase
of the capacity of the in-house professionals.
Keywords: Clanwilliam dam, contractors ’pre-qualification, selection of quality

contractor, procurement process, water infrastructure delivery
INTRODUCTION
Water is a basic resource necessary for life, energy, farming and other economic
growth. While water is needed for various uses, it is a scarce resource that is
unequally distributed and, most of the time, used inefficiently. South Africa receives
an annual average rainfall of 465 mm, which is about half of the world’s average of
860 mm (DWS, 2019). The effective management of this resource is necessary to
meet the current and future water demand. Water infrastructure is built by the
government to regulate, monitor and provide clean water to all users. The
infrastructure includes dams, pipelines, water treatment plants and canals. Water
1 Mkasineli27@gmail.com
2 Edogbe2002@yahoo.com
3 jhcpretorius@uj.ac.za
Mkasi, Ogbeifun and Pretorius (2021) Contractors’ selection and its effects on water infrastructure
delivery In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
419
Mkasi, Ogbeifun and Pretorius
infrastructure is capital intensive in terms of development, operation and

maintenance. The critical phases of design, construction, operation and
maintenance of water infrastructure require a team of highly skilled human
capacity of diverse professionals. If these professional human capacities are not
integral to the in-house team of the organisation (such as the National Department
of Water and Sanitation – NDW&S), their services can be sourced through
appropriate procurement systems. However, when the procurement process is not
effectively managed, it could lead to engaging incompetent professionals, low
skilled consultants, and poor-quality contractors. The net effect of this action
results in the delays in water infrastructure delivery, loss of investments and
revenue.
The background to this research is the execution of the rehabilitation project of the
Clanwilliam Dam. The Clanwilliam Dam was built in 1935 on the Olifants River in
the Western Cape, near the town of Clanwilliam. Safety inspections on the dam
showed that remedial work is required to stabilise the dam wall distortions. In
addition to strengthening the existing wall, it was decided to increase the storage
capacity of the Dam. The proposal included raising the dam wall by 13 m, which
would provide an additional storage capacity of 70 million m3 per annum. This
would improve the reliability of water supply, provide additional resources to
farmers and enhance the tourism potential of the benefiting municipalities. A
feasibility study confirmed that the rehabilitation was both technically feasible and
economically viable. The design of the rehabilitation scheme was prepared by the
in-house engineering department of the National Department of Water and
Sanitation, Infrastructure Development Unit, with professional inputs from a
specialist consulting civil engineering firm.
The contract for the rehabilitation project was awarded to the in-house
construction management unit of NDW&S, as the main contractor for the project.
Work on the project officially commenced in October 2018 and was scheduled to
be completed in 48 months. However, before the commencement of work, the
contractor requested the appointment of sub-contractors necessary to execute
specialist work before and during the rehabilitation process. The three critical
specialist service providers required were:
 Drilling and blasting,
 Drilling and grouting of the foundation, and
 Preparation of concrete surfaces.
Subsequently, the tender documents for each specialist’s work were submitted to
the procurement unit. Unfortunately, by June 2019, none of the sub-contractors
had been appointed. These delays have had negative impacts on the project
timeline and contract price.
Therefore, this paper explores the factors responsible for the delays in the
execution of the Clanwilliam rehabilitation plan.
420
LITERATURE REVIEW
The success of infrastructure delivery depends significantly on the quality of
contractors. The three performance indicators of time, cost and quality, commonly
referred to as the iron triangle, have been used as the factors for measuring project
success in the last couple of decades (Atkinson, 1999). However, Toor and
Ogunlana (2010), suggest that these performance measures can no longer be the
sole determinant of project success, in view of current realities. In their opinion,
other factors that should be considered in the discussion are safety, efficient use
of resources, effectiveness, satisfaction of stakeholders and reduced conflicts.
According to Tookey et al. (2001), the correct selection of the procurement method
is fundamental to a successful selection of the project execution team (PET)
members, especially the contractors (Mchopa, 2015). Therefore, a successful
procurement exercise should commence at the selection of appropriate and
suitable procurement route(s).
Selecting procurement route
The process of selecting the appropriate procurement system depends on the

client’s objectives. According to Oyegoke et al. (2009), the construction
procurement priorities of the client are shifting from lowest cost to best value
procurement. In the opinions of Ruparathna and Hewage, (2015), procurement is
an avenue that integrates value for money (VFM), sustainability and safety into a
construction project. A project’s VFM performance relies on the procurement
method (open, restricted, etc.) and the procurement route selected, for example,
the traditional design, bid and build (DBB) system (Escamilla and
Ostadalimakhmalbaf, 2016), the design and build (DB) system (Idoro, 2012), or the
relationship-based procurement system (Jefferies et al., 2014). Seeking the best
VFM requires, among other things, diligent procurement planning and design.
Marinelli and Antoniou (2019) noted that, although procurement options are well
established in terms of procedure, organisation and governance, many of the
procurement exercises (especially through the traditional procurement system)
have failed to produce the best VFM, because of the practice of patronising the
lowest bidder (Deep et al., 2017).
Procurement has the potential to impact on public project performance, because
the process determines the quality of the PET, which includes the consultants and
contractors. The construction project delivery system has changed over the past
decades, transitioning from traditional procurement to the introduction of a range
of alternatives which include design and build, design-build-maintain, private
finance initiative, and partnering and project alliancing (Walker and Hampson,
2003). Clients are advised to choose the procurement route which best suits the
needs of the project. To select a quality contractor for the effective execution of
water infrastructure projects, the procurement process should begin with the pre-
qualification of suitable contractors.
The influence of pre-qualification of contractors in an effective procurement
system
The selection of quality contractors holds the potential of engaging adequately
resourced contractors, knowledgeable in the project at hand, reducing the
421
incidence of rework, capable of producing an overall quality project, which is

delivered within schedule, reasonable cost and enabling the client to achieve VFM
(Jafari, 2013; Ruparathna and Hewage, 2015). Therefore, it is necessary to introduce
systems that will assist in filtering prospective contractors, with the aim of selecting
the most suitable one(s) for the infrastructure type to be executed. This filtering
process is commonly referred to as the ‘pre-qualification ’process. To achieve good
results in the pre-qualification process, Jafari (2013), proposed a pre-qualification
model which uses the Quality Function Method. This model considers both the
client’s requirement and the contractor’s capabilities, focusing on the contractor’s
capacity to perform, evidence from previous projects executed and financial
stability as tools to identify a suitable contractor. The information in the pre-
qualification document should be comprehensive. The process should include a
detailed examination of the documents submitted by each contractor,
complemented by physical verifications. The category or categories of contractors
to be invited for pre-qualification should be specified, so that the shortlisted
contractors will be approximately equal in capacity and capability (Ogbeifun et al.,
2018). At the end of the pre-qualification process, a shortlist of suitable contractors
is produced. The shortlisted contractors are then invited to tender for the
construction project. This approach holds the potential of selecting quality
contractors, simplifying the process of tender evaluation, providing an opportunity
to examine the technical competency, balanced pricing and a workable schedule
or project timeline of the contesting contractors. This process should lead to
objective decisions on the chosen contractor(s) (Jafari, 2013).
RESEARCH METHOD
The aim of this research is to explore the impact of the selection of suitable
contractors on the effective execution of water infrastructure projects. The case
study method of qualitative research was considered as the most suitable to answer
the research questions as the case study strategy is suitable for the in-depth study
of the different perceptions and concerns of the research participants in a real-
world situation (Yin, 2014). In addition, it focuses on responding to the how and
why questions about contemporary occurrences or systems and improving systems
or organisations (Yin, 2014). Procuring the services of suitable contractors to
execute the rehabilitation project of the Clanwilliam Dam is a real problem in a real
world.
Population, sample and sampling
The population for this research was all the staff of the Department of Water and
Sanitation responsible for infrastructure development. However, due to resource
and time constraints, the purposive method of sampling (Day and Bobeva, 2005)
was used to select participants (influenced by the role they play), from the supply
chain management function, technical team, heads of departments, contractors
and consultants directly involved with the rehabilitation project of the Clanwilliam
Dam. The 15 officials, shown in Table 1, who responded to the invitation are highly
knowledgeable about the subject of the research and actively participated in the
research exercise.
422
Table 1 Participants
S/No Cluster Number Designation

selected
1 Selected Heads of Unit/Division
1a Mechanical and Electrical 1 Senior Management.
Integrated Environmental
1b 1 Senior Management
Engineering
1c Infrastructure Development 1 Engineer
1d Strategic Asset Management 1 Senior Management
1e Hydrological Services 1 Senior Management
1f Supply Chain Management 2 Senior Management
2 Technical Team 3 Engineers
3 Contractor 3 Project Manager and Engineers
4 Consultant 2 Project Manager and Engineer
Total 15
In qualitative research, there are no strict rules on the sample size, the principle is
to attain ‘saturation ’of information from a truly representative population
(Hennink et al., 2011). Nevertheless, when using homogeneous samples, the
participant size of 6-8 is ideal. Nevertheless, a sample of 12 or more may be
necessary when dealing with heterogeneous population (Zyzanski et al., 1992). The
participants for this research are considered heterogeneous because they are from
different professional backgrounds and perform different functions in the
Clanwilliam Dam rehabilitation project. The goal is not to increase the quantity of
the sample but to concentrate on the quantity and diversity of information to be
collected, that effectively address the research questions (Hennink et al., 2011).
Data collection and analysis

The data was collected in two stages, first using a semi-structured questionnaire
with open-ended questions to collect preliminary information from participants.
Secondly, one-on-one interviews were conducted with one selected individual
within these clusters:
i. Engineering (Mechanical/Electrical)
ii. Infrastructure (Asset management, Integrated environment
iii. Hydrological services
iv. Supply chain management
v. Technical team
The semi-structured questionnaires were delivered to the respondents
electronically, commonly referred to as ‘the self-administered questionnaire (Yin,
2009). The questions were open-ended, which allowed an elaborate account from
respondents. After the analysis of the preliminary data, face-to-face interviews of
forty minutes each were held with five (5) participants from the specified clusters
above. This second phase of data collection was done to enable these key
participants to provide additional and succinct information necessary to answer
the research questions. The principles of content analysis of qualitative data were
used in the analysis of the information collected (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005).
423
To ensure the reliability and validity of the research, participants were drawn from
the strategic and tactical levels of leadership as they are knowledgeable about the
subject of the research (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005). The information provided by
the respondents and the synthesis of the researcher were circulated to respondents
for confirmation of accuracy in interpretation.
The details of the data collected, and the results of the analysis are shown in the
findings and discussion section.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section provides the information gathered from the participants using the two
instruments for data collection, their analysis and discussions of best practices
gleaned from literature, starting with the background to the research.
Findings and analysis
An excerpt of the data collected from the interview responses and the analysis is
shown in Table 2. For the sake of brevity, this paper will focus on the Questions 1-
6, which are relevant to the procurement process and the impact of contractor
selection on infrastructure delivery. According to Wong, (2008), qualitative data
analysis involves making sense of the vast amount of data by reducing the volume
of raw information, followed by identifying important patterns, extracting meaning
from the data, and creating a logical chain of evidence. The principle of content
analysis of qualitative data was used for the purpose of summarising and
tabulating data. The analysis of the data collected provides an explanation,
understanding or interpretation of participants ’experiences and situation (Sunday,
2019). The synthesis from the analysis of respondents ’information led to the
identification of suitable themes. The three themes identified and discussed in this
paper are: Procurement management and improvement require end-user’s
involvement, Quality contractors enhance project delivery and Pre-qualification of
contractors, as shown in Table 2.
Discussion of findings
The research findings, summarised as suitable themes (Table 2), are procurement
management and improvement require end-user’s involvement; quality
contractors enhance project delivery, and pre-qualification of contractors. These
themes are discussed in the following sub-sections.
Procurement management and improvement require end-user’s involvement.

The above theme is the product of information gleaned from responses to survey
Questions 1, 2, 3 and 4. The participants observed that there are inherent
deficiencies in the current procurement process, noting that relevant internal units
of end-users are not involved early in the project procurement process. They
further opined that the deficiencies in the procurement process “have not been
able to address the issue of selecting poor performing contractors”. The desire to
improve the infrastructure delivery processes in South Africa has led to the
development of the Standard for Infrastructure Procurement and Delivery
Management (SIPDM). It was meant to guide public institutions on procurement
practices in the delivery of suitable infrastructure and provide contract
management standards that will ensure value for money and on-time delivery
424
(National Treasury, 2016). Nevertheless, participants observed the following, as

major, deficiencies in the current procurement system:
 No clear implementation processes.

 Lack of training in the use of SIPDM.
 Over centralisation of supply chain management (SCM).
 Low input from operators of procurement system when developing new
ones.
This suggests that, if meaningful improvements in the procurement system are to
be achieved, it requires timely and active participation of the end-users, where their
experience and areas of concern in previous endeavours are highlighted. These
observations should be carefully crafted into the development of new systems. The
procurement documents and procedures should be user friendly, with reduced
technical difficulties, incorporating adequate training for prospective users.
Furthermore, the current practice (over-centralisation of operations), where the
procurement process is managed by the SCM unit established by Treasury, is
slowing down effective procurement performance.
Table 2. Analysis of responses

Interview Questions Synthesis of Participants’ Response Suitable Theme
1. In your opinion, what do
Deficient procurement process: Internal
you think are the causes of the
procedures not involved early in project
delays in the execution of water
procurement. Poor planning and budget
projects in this department,
constraints; Low professional capacity.
especially the rehabilitation of
Procurement
Clanwilliam Dam
management and
2. In your opinion, has the No; The procurement system has not addressed improvement
selected method of procurement the issue of poor performing contractors; The require end-user’s
been able to effectively deliver consultants are lagging in enforcing quality involvement
technical services needed for the assurance; Tenders cancelled due to errors in
raising of Clanwilliam? specifications.
Internal procedures are not involved early in
3. How involved is internal
project procurement; Difficulty in cost control;
audit in the process of water
Incomplete bill of quantities, frequent variation
infrastructure procurement?
orders.
Although SIPDM was supposed to be an
4. There have been several improvement on previous procurement systems,
improvements on the infrastructure no clear implementation process; Lack of training
procurement system (SIPDM), have in the use of SIPDM; Low input from operators of
these improvements translated to the procurement system in the development of
effective delivery of water new ones; Decentralisation of supply chain
infrastructure and why? management to the end-user; Due to faults in
SIPDM, FIDPM was introduced in 2019.
With quality contractors, projects are delivered

Quality
5. What are the impacts of on time, within cost, safety and with quality; Low
contractors
the quality of selected contractors operation and maintenance costs; Meet national
enhance project
on effective water project delivery? objectives; Improve service delivery and satisfy
delivery
water demand.
6. What additional processes Adapt CIDB construction procurement process;

do you suggest we can introduce Conduct contractors’ pre-qualification first
Pre-qualification
into the procurement system that before invitation to tender; Assess the
of contractors
will assist in the selection of competence and performance capabilities of
competent contractors? contractors.
425
In the opinion of reference (Atkinson, 1999), a decentralised SCM system, in most

cases, produces optimal results. This is in tandem with the suggestion of
participants that “supply chain management (SCM) should be decentralised to the
end-users”. This approach will allow for the adaptation of procedures peculiar to
respective end-users and their projects, with the potential of the speedy execution
of the procurement process. It is, however, crucial that SCM decentralisation
obtains organisational support and the deployment of skilled SCM practitioners.
This will facilitate the procurement of suitable service providers for the execution
and effective delivery of the much-needed water infrastructure.
During the continuous search for the improvement of infrastructure delivery, the
SIPDM was amended and in 2019 replaced by the Framework for Infrastructure
Delivery and Procurement Management (FIDPM). According to the National
Treasury, changes were made to the SIPDM system due to misalignment with other
relevant government policy prescripts (National Treasury, 2019/2020). The
objectives of FIDPM are to promote VFM in all the phases of infrastructure delivery,
as well as the allocation of responsibilities for decision making to definite persons
or portfolios. Like the deficiencies observed with the implementation of the SIDPM
system, the new FIDPM may not achieve the desired objectives if the SCM processes
are not decentralised and the end-users adequately empowered to use the new
scheme. Nevertheless, to achieve success in infrastructure delivery, the participants
believed “clients or project coordinators should be actively involved in the
development or amendment of the procurement system and the decision on the
selection of the most appropriate project procurement route”. The chosen
procurement route should produce a quality contractor suitable for the execution
of the project at hand.
Quality contractors enhance project delivery
The role of the contractor is central to the realisation of the construction project’s
objectives. It therefore suggests that stakeholders should be meticulous in the
process of selecting suitably qualified contractor(s). The participants affirmed this
position, noting that when a quality contractor is selected, a “project can be
delivered timely, within cost allocated, quality specified, executed safely and
environmental regulations compliant”. Research evidence abounds that the use of
the concept of the price of the ‘lowest bidder ’as the determining factor to award
a contract has fatal flaws, resulting in the execution of low-quality work with high
life-cycle cost (Jafari, 2013). In South Africa and other developing countries,
emphasis on the capability of the contractor should include the quality and
quantity of relevant equipment, personnel and previous projects completed. In this
regard, it is important to commence the process of contractor selection from the
pre-qualification process.
Pre-qualification of contractors
The contractor is the most visible active force on the construction site among the
PET members. Therefore, the selection of this group of actors requires careful
consideration (Ogbeifun et al., 2018). Contractor selection involves a multi-faceted
decision-making process with multiple selection criteria. In practice, the contractor
selection process follows a two-stage process, known as the pre-qualification and
post-qualification stages (Jafari, 2013). The pre-qualification process involves
inviting many contractors to submit the information required by the procuring
426
client, so that an array of eligible contractors can be identified (Jafari, 2013). The
client should provide comprehensive information in the pre-qualification
document, followed by a detailed examination of the documents submitted by
each contractor and physical verification, in terms of completed projects, the
company’s profile and financial capacity. The document should specify the
boundaries for the prospective contractors to be invited for the pre-qualification
exercise to ensure that the shortlisted contractors will be operatives of similar
capacity and capability (Ogbeifun et al., 2018).
Furthermore, participants observed that one of the major setbacks in the process
of selecting the specialist contractors required for the rehabilitation exercise of the
Clanwilliam Dam was that “prospective contractors, invited to tender for the
specialist services, did not meet the requirements stipulated by CIDB”. These facts
were only discovered at the bid evaluation stage. If the client had adopted the
concept of pre-qualification of contractors before the invitation to tender, the
problem of prospective contractors not meeting the required grading criteria of
CIDB would have been avoided.

The research focused on exploring the factors responsible for the delays in the
execution of the rehabilitation work on the Clanwilliam Dam project. A feasibility
study was conducted, which confirmed that the proposed rehabilitation exercise
was both technically feasible and economically viable. The decision to execute the
rehabilitation exercise through in-house units was made to save money. However,
the project awarded, scheduled to commence in October 2018 and be completed
within 48 months, had hardly taken off as of December 2019. This is largely because
of the late discovery of the need for sub or specialist contractors.
The factors responsible for the delays were explored and found to include the
deficiencies in the current procurement system and lack of sifting of prospective
contractors. It was discovered that the procurement system does not have a clear
implementation process; it encourages over-centralisation of SCM, does not
provide for continuous training nor does it incorporate the opinions of end-users.
As a result of the lack of comprehensive tender document, it only became obvious
at the bid evaluation stage that the majority of the contractors did not satisfy the
criteria for the level of work they were bidding for. The conclusion is that the delay
in appointing quality specialist contractors for the execution of the Clanwilliam
Dam rehabilitation exercise is due to the combined effects of a defective
procurement system and the low human capacity of cognate professionals in the
in-house team of the client. Therefore, this research recommends the adoption of
the concept of pre-qualification of contractors to ensure that only contractors with
acceptable criteria, capacity and capabilities are invited for the tender process.
Secondly, the client should improve on the human capacity of the in-house team
in all areas of procurement management.
427
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
COVID-19 PANDEMIC AND CO-WORKING ENVIRONMENT:

ANALYSIS OF SHARED OFFICE SPACE IN FEDERAL CAPITAL
TERRITORY (FCT), ABUJA, NIGERIA
Tosin B. Fateye1, Abiodun K. Sodiya2, Victoria O. Odunfa3, Ayodele A. Ibuoye4 and
Adewale R. Adedokun5
1,4Departmentof Estate Management, Kaduna State University, Nigeria
2Department of Estate Management and Valuation, Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Nigeria
3Department of Estate Management, The Polytechnic Ibadan, Nigeria
5Department of Estate Management, Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria
The study examined the impact on Covid-19 pandemic of shared office spaces business
in FCT, Abuja. The host (managers) and the customers (users) of shared office spaces
constitute the study population. A total of 16 shared office spaces selected participated
in the survey exercise. The choice of selection was based on location i.e. those operating
within Central Business District, Abuja and showed interest to participate. All the 16
managers (host) and 58 customers (users) that gave attention to participate were
administered with questionnaire. The study employed descriptive statistical tools such
as frequency distribution, percentage and weighted mean score (WMS) to analyse the
data. The study found that majority of the managers i.e. 56.27% were female, 43.75%
were of age bracket 31-40years and 81.75% were HND/B.Sc. school certificate holders.
The users were more of male gender (63.79%) with dominance age group of 21-50years
representing 89.64% and about 79.31% were holders of HND/B.Sc. certificate.
Professions in the real estate industry accounted for 55.75% of the managers ’
professional background. The start-up/entrepreneurs and freelancer were the major
users of the shared office facilities. The reasons for high rate of patronage by the users
(WMS) were affordability (4.069), concentration (3.879) and flexibility of time/price plan
(3.793). The managers ranked challenges (WMS) such as low patronage/demand (4.688),
passive economic activities (4.063) and users ’psychological effects (4.000) as the
prominent ones faced during the pandemic period. Meanwhile, the COVID-19 safety
measures that exhibited prominent impact on the business activities were stay-at-home
order and social/physical distancing with respective WMS of 4.438 and 4.125. The study
concluded that the negative effects on property market and by extension shared office
spaces businesses suggests the need for sustainable policy framework that will protect
the economy and by extension real estate sector from the future occurrences of any
outbreak of global pandemic
Keywords: challenges, co-working, covid-19, health, shared office
1 fateyetosin@gmail.com
2 abiodun.sodiya@googlemail.com
3 odunfavictoria@gmail.com
4 ayodele.ibuoye@googlemail.com
5 daconsulting11gmail.com
Fateye, et al. (2021) Covid-19 pandemic and co-working environment: analysis of shared office
space in Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West
Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 431-447
431
Fateye, et al.
INTRODUCTION
The outbreak of Covid-19 pandemic is rapidly changing the ways of doing business
in all sectors of global economy. The increasing fatality rate associated with the
novel coronavirus in both the developed and developing countries has
necessitated the need for structural adjustment in social interaction especially at
crowded places. Local and international health organizations have put in place
safety and regulatory measures aimed at reducing the fatality and the widespread
of the novel virus. The introduction and strict enforcement of the measures such
as stay-at-home order, restrictions on social gathering and crowded places among
others have direct or indirect effects on economic sustenance (NDCC, 2020; WHO,
2020).
Meanwhile Verschuur, Koks and Hall (2021) explained that the introduction of
Covid-19 health safety protocol and guidelines to be strictly adhered to by the
citizens were meant to ensure balance between survival of lives and livelihoods.
However, the author further expressed that some measures including ban on
movement of goods and services except the essential products, economic short-
down, restriction on social gathering, discouragement of crowded places including
physical/social distancing have made it difficult for some business such as aviation,
transportation, hospitality, agro-allied and real estate businesses to strive amidst
the pandemic period.
For instance Maliszewska, Mattoo and Mensbrugghe (2020) study reports 2.0 and
2.5% fall in the respective global and the developing countries below
benchmark.Verschuur, Koks and Hall (2021) added that global maritime recorded
loss in revenue estimated to be 7.5-9.% and amount to 255-412 US$ billion. In
Nigeria Andam, Edeh, Oboh, Pauw and Thurlow (2020) discovered that for 8-week
of lockdown (March-June, 2020) the country GDP fell by 23% at the pandemic
period, agro-food system alone fell by 11% and the lockdown scenario contributed
9% to rise in the nation poverty level
The resultant adverse effects of the Covid-19 safety measures were not limited to
Nigerian real estate sector. For instance in Lagos State, Oyedeji (2020) reported
that real estate market experienced static business transactions at the pandemic
period. Similarly, a study by Olanrele and Thontteh (2020) on Covid 19 and new
normal in Nigeria property market showed that, at the demand side, the property
market experienced low demand of real estate products, while at the supply side;
there is a drastic reduction in the investment confidence during the pandemic
outbreak.
The attendant effects of the novel coronavirus tend to vary in magnitude and level
of significance across the property sub-markets (Deloitte, 2020a). The effects may
seem to be more felt on some property sub-market such as co-working shared
office facilities. Co-working office space is a new growing concept in real estate
industry. The ideal is to provide sharing office facilities for different individuals to
work outside conventional office on time schedule and rental basis (Robelski,
Keller, Harth and Mache, 2019). The concept was introduced to ensure flexibility of
workspace, cost effective and social/business interaction among the co-workers in
the community. However, the consequential effects of the deadly coronavirus may
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Fateye, et al.
not only defeat the primary objectives of the emerging innovative flexible
workplace but can also mar the viability of the investment.
Asides that there is limited empirical studies on relationship between covid-19 and
property market compare to a large body of empirical studies in other fields such
as medical and science related professions. The few available local studies
investigated the impacts on general property market. Therefore, a study to
investigate the effects of Covid-19 pandemic on shared office space market
especially in one of the Nigerian epicenters such as Federal Capital Territory (FCT),
Abuja becomes pertinent; owing to the peculiarities of the co-working
environment; and to reveal the emerging issues in the fragile property market.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Impact of Covid-19 pandemic on economy: from global and local perspectives
Amidst the global discussions on the outbreak and dynamics in the widespread of
the novel coronavirus, studies have examined the impact of the global health crises
on different economies the across globe. For instance, Ozli and Arun (2020) studied
the spillover impact of Covid-19 pandemic on global economy. The authors
attempted to know how social distancing policies affect pricing of stocks in capital
market. The study discovered that monetary policy decisions, increasing number
of lock-down days and travel restriction on international movement have
prominent adverse effects on economic activities in the stock market.
In East Asian and Pacific region, Maliszewska, Mattoo and Mensbrugghe (2020)
modeled the interaction of potential impact of Covid-19 with gross domestic
product (GDP) and trade. The study reported that the resultant effects of the global
health challenges cause 2% fall in the global GDP below its benchmark. Also about
2.5 and 1.8% decreased in the GDP below minimum benchmark for developing
countries and the industrial world respectively. On trade, the authors noted that
the worst hit trade were outputs of domestic services and traded tourist services.
Similar report was given by Verschuur, Koks and Hall (2021) study. The author
revealed that, ports in China, Middle-East and Western Europe were collapsed. Loss
of revenue in the global maritime trade was estimate to be 7.5-9.6% and amount
to 255-412 US$ billion
In Nigeria, Andam, Edeh, Oboh, Pauw and Thurlow (2020) studied the impact of
Covid-19 on food system and poverty. The authors assessed the implications of
lockdown polices on agro-food supply system in the country. The reviewed periods
were 8-week lockdown (March-June) and economic recovery period till December,
2020. The study found that the country GDP fell by 23% at the pandemic period,
while agro-food system alone fell by 11% and the lockdown scenario contributed
9% rise in the nation’s poverty level. Ozili (2020) attempted to examine the
interaction between Covid-19 pandemic and economic crisis with a focus on
Nigeria experience. The author discovered that spillover effect of Covid-19
pandemic cause a decline in the demand for oil product and disturbed economic
activities from taking place.
The negative effects of the pandemic were also empirically noted in the Nigerian
real estate market. For instance, Oyedeji (2020) studied how real estate transactions
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Fateye, et al.
are being affected by the attendant consequences of COVID-19 health challenges

in Lagos property market. The author sampled opinion of estate surveying and
valuation firms practicing in Lagos and discovered that office property was the 3rd
hardest hit by the pandemic after hospitality and retail property types. Also
77.632% of the respondents agreed to static condition of real estate transaction at
the pandemic period. The findings corroborate the result of a study by Olanrele
and Thontteh (2020). The study investigated the implications of COVID-19 and
‘New Normal ’policy for the Nigerian real estate sector. The authors observed a
negative effect of the global health crises on property market, with a plunge at the
short run, and a capital flight from real estate to digital services investment due to
changing working style of people (new normal).
Co-working space: concept and characteristics
Co-working space is a new concept in real estate; changing the working lifestyle of
private individuals and corporate organizations in the vast knowledge based
economy (Foertsch, 2014 and Spinuzzi, 2012). Co-working space is a shared
workspace, office environment, joint use of spaces practically conceived as office
renting facilities where different groups such as freelancers, remote workers, start-
up entrepreneur and other independent professionals working together in various
degrees of specialization (Seo, Lysiankova, Ock, and Chun, 2017 and Foertsch,
2017). The Co-working spaces in a simple form comprises of rented office facilities
such as a desk with a wi-fi connection hire by an independent professional to carry
out its official daily work.
In the work of Vanichvatana (2018), three major forms of setting up co-working

spaces were identified. The first form is shared office which is referred to a situation
where a business let/sublet a desk to outsider. The second form is co-working
business where a business set-up an office spaces to be hired out by outsider and
the third form is co-working incubators i.e. office spaces that are set-up in a form
that will accommodate services such as advertising, promotion and training in the
rented working space. The author stressed that traditional office space differ from
co-workspace in the sense that the conventional workspaces encompass the
workspace itself and other complementary offices such as meeting, circulating,
waiting, filling and storage spaces which are virtually not part of co-workspace..
In literature, authors from academics and practitioners have shared similar viewed
on the purpose of co-working business but divided thoughts on the origin of the
concept. For the later, authors including Foertsch and Cagnol (2013) and Spinuzzi,
(2012) have linked the origin of co-workspace to recent development in San
Franisco in 2005, while Bunnell and Linden (2011) argued that the origin of the
concept can be traced backed to DeKoven in 1999. Fost, (2008) and JLL (2016)
explained that, co-working environment was first noticed in Berlin in 1995 as a
physical location for hackers community, later in New York in 1999 with appreciable
co-working environment at West Street, before the concept was officially launched
in 2005 in San Franisco following the designated co-working community located
in Brad Neuber. However, the concept of co-working spaces has witness
appreciable increase in its adoption in most capital cities of the world including
the United States, United Kingdom, Asia, Thailand etc. (JLL, 2016; Creffield, 2016;
Ewart-James, 2016). The reviewed literature on the impact of COVID-19 pandemic
on the global and local economies were summarized in Table 1
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Fateye, et al.
Conventional office vs. Shared office workspace

The need to provide flexible work place that is cost effective to accommodate self-
employed small/medium business owners that cannot afford bigger office deals
fortified the widespread adoption of shared office workspace in many cities of the
world. Vanichvatona (2017) opined that conventional office spaces are
characterized with huge operational costs such as electricity, telephone and
communication costs, management fee, service charges, and local property tax.
However, the huge cost involved in renting and maintaining conventional offices
especially in central business districts may overwhelm some categories of office
users; denied them of having access to office facilities in some core urban centers
to underdo their daily business activities.
The emergence of co-working office space has brought a paradigm shift to office
property market. The shared office spaces offer the small/medium scale enterprises
that cannot afford to rent an office but are in dire need of office facilities a temporal
office accommodation to carry out their business activities at the city centers on
time sharing basis. Spinuzzi, Bodrožić, Scaratti and Ivakli (2019), Gandini, (2015)
and Spreitzer, Bacevice, and Garrett (2015) posited that some set of users prefer
co-work office space to their conventional office settings for some reasons. They
include conveniences, concentration, networking and collaboration in co-working
community. Other users enjoy patronizing co-working spaces because of their
strategic locations to place of interests e.g. independent professionals, freelancers,
employee of corporate organizations/company, NGOs and government officers.
Yank and Bisson (2019) added that the desired outcomes of either the users or the
work engaged within the co-working spaces are geared towards innovations,
creativity, collaboration and social well-being of the participants. The concept of
co-working space is better explained by the flowchart model developed by Yank
and Bisson (2019) shown in Figure 1.
Fig. 1 Co-working space concept
Source: Yank and Bisson (2019)
Vanichvatona (2017) pointed out that, the flexible working environment has its own
disadvantages. The author identified the disadvantages of working in co-
workspace to include time wasting for unwanted socialization, constant change of
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Fateye, et al.
non-fixed chair, privacy, noise and sometimes high cost of renting and commuting
to centers where most of the facilities were located especially for small scale
business owners. Soe et. al. (2017) surveyed the opinions of both the managers and
the users of co-working spaces in South Korea on the important influencing factors.
The authors concluded that both the hosts and the users identified relationship
facilitation, service diversity and flexible price plan as the prominent influencing
factors of sustainable co-workspace operation. The unique characteristics of the
co-workspace have strengthened the popularity and widespread adoption of the
concept in both development countries and the emerging economies including
Nigeria.
For instance, in Nigeria capital territory, Abuja, more than twenty-three (23) shared
office spaces are available for patronage. Some of them include Regus City Centre,
Ventures Park, Davelt Cospace, Smart Office, Rutyono Office, Work and Connect,
Novare Shared Offices, Harmony Innovation Hub, Savvy Instant Offices, Pin Co-
working/Co-living, Box Office Hup, Aiivon, StoneBricks Hub, Savy Innovation
offices, The Ruby centre, Redwoof Place, Civic Innovation Lab etc. all located in
Abuja, Nigeria. The shared office spaces are rented on daily, weekly and monthly
basis. The rent charge varies across the shared office and largely depends on
available facility in the apartment. The range of rent charged par day is #2,000 -
#5,000 and for month is #20,000 - #40,000. Figures 3&4 show the example of the
settings of shared office space facilities in FCT, Abuja, Nigeria.
Table 1 Summary of literature reviewed

Authors Research Focus Major Findings Gap
COVID-19 and Global Economic Crises

Global economic
The authors discovered that manufacturing The study
impacts of COVID-19
companies are the hardest hit sector, total concentrated on the
Verschuur, Koks lockdown measures
collapse of value-chain in the port industry, impact of Covid-19
and Hall (2021) stand out in high-
attributed the negative Covid-19 impact to on shipping service
frequency shipping
closure of school and public transport. industry
data
Increasing number of lockdown days,
monetary policy decisions and international The study examined
Spillover of COVID-19:
Ozili P. and Arun travel restrictions severely affected the level the global economic
impact on the Global
T. (2020) of economic activities and the closing, situation amidst
Economy
opening, lowest and highest stock price of Covid-19 pandemic.
major stock market indices
The study reported a decrease in the global
Maliszewska,
The potential impact of domestic output below global GDP The authors did not
Mattoo and
COVID-19 on GDP and benchmark, with output of domestic examine real estate
Mensbrugghe
trade services and traded tourist services having services in isolation.
(2020)
the biggest negative impact.
COVID-19 Implications on Local Economy: Nigeria Experience

The study found that the country GDP fell
The study is
Andam, Edeh, Impacts of COVID-19 on by 23% at the pandemic period, while
limited to food-
Oboh, Pauw and food systems and agro-food system alone fell by 11% and the
system sector of
Thurlow (2020) poverty in Nigeria lockdown scenario contributed 9% rise in
the economy
the nation poverty level
436
Fateye, et al.
Table 1 cont’d Summary of literature reviewed

The result did not
The author discovered that spillover specifically
COVID-19 pandemic
effect of Covid-19 pandemic cause a address the
and economic crisis: the
Ozili (2020) decline in the demand for oil product and condition of
Nigerian experience
disturbed economic activities from taking property market
and structural causes
place. at the pandemic
period
The office market
considered is
Transaction in hospitality, retail and office
general and may
The Impact of COVID-19 property markets experienced prominent
not depict the
on Real Estate impact of COVID-19 pandemic and about
Oyedeji (2020) true condition of
Transaction in Lagos, 77.63% attested to the static condition of
shared office
Nigeria real estate transactions at the pandemic
spaces sub-
period.
market
experience
The authors observed a negative effect of
the global health crises on property
COVID-19 and the ‘New The result lacks
market, with a plunge on the short run,
Olanrele and Normal’: Implications empirical basis of
and a capital flight from real estate to
Thontteh (2020). for the Nigerian Real assessing real
digital services investment due to
Estate Sector estate sector
changing working style of people (new
normal).
Co-working Offices Space: Concept and Characteristics

Coworking space as a The study pointed out that, co-working The investigation
third-fourth place: spaces will grow worldwide reasons of co-working
Yank and Bisson
changing models of a attributed to increase in knowledge spaces is limited
(2019)
hybrid space in based economy, digital working lifestyle to its concept and
corporate real estate and mobile technology. characteristics
Spinuzzi The study
Co-working space is driven by the logic
Bodrozic, Community in assessed the
of coexisted with another and the logic
Scaratti, and coworking attributes of co-
of collaborative community
Ivakli (2019) working spaces.
The users’
80% of the users visited co-working
Investigating users’ perception of
space, spent minimum of 1 hour per visit
Vanichvatana Perspectives of Bangkok on co-
with average of 3-4 time per week, while
(2018) coworking Space: Cases working space is
the choice of place is largely depend on
of Bangkok CBD limited to the
location
case study
The most important success factors by
The study did not
Priorities of Coworking the hosts were community,
considered the
Seo, Lysiankova, Space Operation Based communication, space and interior,
impact of external
Ock, and Chun, on Comparison of the service diversity and price plane. While
forces on the
(2017) Hosts and Users’ the users prioritized relationship
business
Perspectives facilitation, service diversity, price plane
performance
and networking
Most co-working spaces are fixed/hot
Characteristics Of Co- Limited to
Vanichvatona desk, located at central business districts
Working Spaces In characteristics of
(2017) (CBDs), often provided with Wi fi, snacks,
Bangkok co-working space.
drinks, printing, mail box and projector
The study
The study concluded that manifestation
The rise of coworking deployed context
of a rethinking work to facilitate network
Gandini, (2015) spaces: A literature review approach
of collaborative production in the core
review and lack empirical
urban centres.
findings
Sources: Authors ’Compilation from reviewed literature, 2021
437
Fateye, et al.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Study Area
The study used FCT, Abuja, Nigeria as the case study. FCT Abuja is a cosmopolitan
city and the seat of federal power in the country. The city has witnessed a strong
wave of physical, demographical, social and infrastructure growth and
development in the recent decades. FCT Abuja is the home of affluence, political
and individual, conglomerate of top government offices, head offices of
organisations and potential real estate investment destination. The Abuja property
market is characterised with high rent/value. The office sub-market of the city
comprises sky scrapers super structure and command higher market rent.
The choice of using FCT, Abuja is attributable to the fact that, FCT has often times
reported by the concerned authorities as the second epicenter since the outbreak
of the coronavirus after Lagos. For instance, NCDC reported a total case of 67,412
and 87,510 at month end of November and December 2020 respectively. Lagos
state recorded the highest case of 23,238 and 30,188 in those two months; followed
by Abuja having cases of 6,770 and 11,705. In January 2021, Abuja has 16,565 Covid
19 cases next to Lagos with 47,819 cases out of a total case of 128,674 reported
across the country (Nigerian Centre for Decease Control; NCDC, 2020, 2021). The
upsurge in the number of cases is attributed to non-adherence to the safety
protocol on the part of citizens. This has further strengthened the advocacy on
Covid 19 safety protocol particularly in the epicenter with more emphasis on social
distancing, wearing of facemasks in the public places, intermittent stay-at-home
order among others. As a result, the economic activities in all sectors experienced
huge setback including property market such as hospitality, leisure, recreation and
shared office facilities but at varying degrees.
Method
The study is descriptive and non-probabilistic in nature. A purposive sampling
technique was used to elicit data from 16 managers (host) and 58 users of selected
shared office facilities. The choice of selection was based on location (central
capital), those in operation and are willing to participate in the survey exercise. A
total of 16 managers (host) of shared offices spaces were administered
questionnaire, while some of them that showed interest to be interviewed (less
than 20%) were engaged with discussions on the subject matter of the study. For
the users, a total of 58 questionnaires were distributed to them with the aid of two
trained research assistants, on the permission of the host. Some users declined to
participate and gave reasons such as tight schedule and limited time, while other
users see the survey as a means of distraction. Therefore, the questionnaire survey
was not done proportionately but consideration was given to users that showed
interest to participate, and their size vary across the sampled shared office spaces.
Also, the period of the field survey exercise which was towards the end of the first
wave of the novel coronavirus (September to October, 2020) contributed to the
few number of the shared office spaces that opened for business activities and low
response rate recorded during the field survey exercise.
The responses gotten from the survey exercise were analyzed by descriptive
statistical tools such as frequency distribution table, percentage and weighted
mean score (WMS). The study measured the respondents' options on 5-point Likert
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Fateye, et al.
scale. The scale with corresponding assigned weight is given as Strongly Disagree
(SD: 1); Disagree (D: 2); Unsure (U: 3); Agree (A: 4) and Strongly Agree (SA: 5). The
weighted mean score (MWS) can be expressed mathematically as:
∑𝑇𝑊𝐹
Weighted Mean Score (WMS) = ----------------------- eqn (i)
𝑁
(1≤ MWS≤5)
Where
w= assigned weight ranges from 1 (least) to 5 (highest)
TWF = total weighted frequency
N= total number of respondents.
However, for clarity of boundary for proper ranking and rating of the estimated
weighted options, the study adapted the ranking demarcation of Rooshdi, Majid,
Sahamir, and Ismail (2018). The ranking style was modified to suite the study
analysis (see Table 2).
Table 2: Scale for weighted options

Likelt Scale Authors’ Specification for RI Modifications by the study
Scale Range Remarks Scale Range Remarks
5 0.8 ≤ RI ≤ 1.0 High 4.1 ≤ WMS ≤ 5.0 Strongly Agreed

4 0.6 ≤ RI ≤ 0.8 High-Medium 3.1 ≤ WMS ≤ 4.0 Agreed
3 0.4 ≤ RI ≤ 0.6 Medium 2.1 ≤ WMS ≤ 3.0 Unsure
2 0.2 ≤ RI ≤ 0.4 Medium-Low 1.1 ≤ WMS ≤ 2.0 Disagreed
1 0 ≤ RI ≤ 0.2 Low 0 ≤ WMS≤ 1.0 Strongly Disagreed

The study examined the socio-demographical distribution such as age, gender,
marital status and highest educational qualification of those who manage as well
as the users of shared office facilities in FCT, Abuja; and the results were presented
in Table 3. The age bracket of the managers with highest parentage (43.75%) is 31-
40yrs. Second to the age group is 41-50yrs with 37.5%. Age range of 21-30yrs and
51-60yrs represent 12.5 and 6.25% respectively, while none of the managers were
found within the age ranges of less/equal to 20yrs or more than 60yrs. For the users
of the office facilities, 36.20, 31.03 and 22.41% of them were in the age range 31-
40yrs, 21-30yrs and 41-50yrs respectively. Age bracket 51-60yrs accounts for
6.90%, less than equal 20yrs is 3.45% while users' in the age group above 60yrs
were not represented.
The gender type of those who manage the facilities are more of female (56.27%)
than their male (43.75%) counterpart. While 62.50% of the managers are married;
37.50% are yet to be married. However, the male category of users recorded higher
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Fateye, et al.
percent (63.79%) than the female users (36.20%). Lager percent of the users were
married (48.27%) and 37.93% of them were singles. Divorce accounted for 8.63%
while 5.17% were either widow or widower. Managers that have obtained
HND/B.Sc. and M. Sc. account for 81.25 and 18. 75%. For the users, 79.31% have
possessed HND/B.Sc. while those with M. Sc. degree represent 18.96%.
By implications, the shared office facilities are patronized by all age brackets,
whether married or single but at varying degrees; with dominant age group 31-
50yrs. This age group dominated the country's workforce in the labour market. The
management of the facilities are more of females than the male counterpart and
majority of them are single. This may be due to the less rigour and energy demand
task characterized with the operations of the time sharing office space system. Also,
the unique nature of feminine gender in the area of warm reception could make
business owners prefer female to male managers.
Table 3 Socio-demographical characteristics of the respondents

Managers Users
Profile Category
Freq. % Freq. %
<20yrs - - 2 3.45
21-30yrs 2 12.50 18 31.03
31-40yrs 7 43.75 21 36.20
41-50yrs 6 37.50 13 22.41
Age 51-60yrs 1 6.25 4 6.90
>60yrs - - - -
Total 16 100.00 58 100.00
Male 7 43.75 37 63.79

Female 9 56.27 21 36.21
Gender
Total 16 100.00 58 100.00
Single 10 62.50 22 37.93

Married 6 37.50 28 48.27
Divorcee - - 5 8.63
Marital Status Widow/widower - - 3 5.17
Total 16 100.00 58 100.00
NCE/OND - - - -
Highest HND/B.Sc. 13 81.25 46 79.31
Educational M.Sc. 3 18.75 11 18.96
Qualification Ph.D - - 1 1.73
Total 16 100.00 58 100.00
Source: Authors ’Field Survey, 2020
In Table 4, the study looked into the areas of specialization of the managers
especially in the built environment on one hand and the nature of the business
activities engage in by the users of the shared office space on the other hand. The
result of the analysis showed that, managers with expertise in estate/property
management account for 43.75%; those with specialties in facility management
profession represent 12.50%. Number of personnel from engineering related field
was examined in the course of survey while those managers in the category of
'others' represent 43.75%. This implies that the employment of management
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Fateye, et al.
personnel of shared office space facilities is not limited to estate/property

management field, as other professions can be employed for the job. Low
employment of experts in facility management profession is attributable to the less
qualified professionals in the field; and most of the qualified ones engage in
managing sophisticated and equipped quipped property such as high rise
buildings. Those managers whose their specialization falls in the category of
'others' indicates experts from other professions such as architecture, quantity
surveying, building etc. and by extension from accounting, law, businesses
administration etc.
From the users' perspective, the study investigates the nature of business engaged
in while making use of the facilities. The study found that, 36.21% of the users work
as an independent professional/freelance. Users who are identified as start-
up/young entrepreneurs represent 25.86%. Those that work with corporate
organizations/businesses and the governments represent 22.42 and 20.34%
respectively; while 5.17% of the users fall in the 'others' category as shown in Table
4 This result implies that, shared office space facilities are mostly used by
individuals who are working independently either as a professional such as experts
in ICT related businesses or as a freelance in mass communication/advert industry.
The patronage of some users working with national/international corporate bodies
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) were also noted to be substantial.
Officials from government ministries, departments and agencies also patronized
the office facilities though at relatively lower rate. Therefore, the facilities are
available for use to people from all works of life though the rate of patronage vary
and largely dependent on their nature of the business activities.
Table 4 Managers area of specialization and users’ nature of business

Response Category Freq. %
Estate/Property Management 7 43.75
Facility Management 2 12.50
Engineering - -
Manages area of specialization
Others 7 43.75
Total 16 100.00
Independent professionals/
15 25.86
Freelancer
Start-Up/Young Entrepreneurs 21 36.21
Corporate Businesses/
13 22.42
Organizations
Users nature of business Government Officers 6 10.34
Others 3 5.17
Total 58 100.00
Source: Authors ’Field Survey, 2020
Table 5 presents the opinions of the managers on the general performance of the
business especially amidst the rising Covid 19 related cases in the epicenter of
Abuja. The study examines the public awareness, performance and consequential
impacts as well as the likelihood prospects of the business especially at the post
Covid era. The managers agreed on the competitive performance (WMS: 4.313) of
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Fateye, et al.
the business in the study area though the business was identified to be a young
and evolving concept in the office property market (MWS: 3.063). The managers
expressed strong agreement on the negative impact of Covid-19 pandemic being
felt by all business concerns (WMS: 4.689). However, the manager were optimistic
about the possibility of the shared office spaces market to come out stronger and
perform better at post-Covid 19 era (WMS: 4.563).
Table 5 Operations of shared office space market amidst Covid 19 pandemic 19 in FCT, Abuja
Statements SD D U A SA TWF WMS Rating
Covid19 pandemic has negative
Strongly
effects on the operation of the - - - 20 55 75 4.689
Agreed
business
High optimistic about the
Strongly
performance of the market at post- - - - 28 45 73 4.563
agreed
Covid 19
The market perform competitively - - - 44 25 69 4.313 Agreed
Increasing rate of adoption of the
1 6 18 24 - 49 3.063 Unsure
office type in FCT, Abuja
Source: Authors ’Field Survey, 2020. Note: SD-Strongly Disagreed; Disagreed-D; Unsure-U;
Agreed-A; Strongly Agreed-SA; Total Weighted Frequency-TWF; Weighted Mean Score-WMS
In Table 6, further analysis was carried out to know the major reasons why the users
prefer the co-working environment like shared office space to conventional office
type. The result of the analysis shows that, people choose to patronize and work in
shared office space due to some prominent reasons. They are (WMS): affordability
(4.069), concentration (3.879), and flexibility of time/time plan (3.793) and strategic
location (3.707) ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4h position respectively; while reasons
such as convenience and networking have 3.672 each and occupied 5th position.
However, some reasons relating to relaxation/recreation activities (2.448) and
study/researching (2.431) were identified to be the least forms of reasons in the
study area.
The increasing rate of patronage and users' preference for shared office space in
FCT, Abuja is strongly linked to affordability and flexibility of time/price plan in
terms of letting and other incidental costs of getting shared office accommodation.
Most of the users are either independent professionals/freelance or start-up/young
entrepreneurs. These categories of private individuals are attributable to low
earning capacity, little capital/finance and largely small scale businesses; and they
may not be able to afford the rental price and maintenance of conventional office
property especially those located at strategic places in the Central Business
Districts (CBD). The users also rate conveniences and concentration as part of the
major reasons of patronage; users in this category may include those working with
corporate bodies/ NGOs. Some of them secured the office facilities to avoid
distraction from friends and colleagues in their conventional office (head/branch
offices), while some that considered convenience as top priority could be either
those who enjoy working independently or in collaboration with others in such co-
working environment.
Another prominent reason that is been considered by users is the strategic location
of the facilities to place of interest. Almost all the shared office spaces are located
at prime location within the capital territory where economic activities and business
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Fateye, et al.
transactions is at pick. However, those small scale business, contracts,

professionals, or freelancers that cannot afford to get conventional office space at
the city centers of commercial activities often leverage on shared office space
facilities present around those areas to do their office work. However, reasons such
as relaxation/leisure activities were less important for visiting shared office space.
The less significant of these reasons may be attributed to the fact that, share office
spaces do not have complementary accommodation to enjoy quiet time for leisure
and recreational activities. Studying/researching in a co-working environment may
not be encouraging due to the nature of the activities that the facilities were made
for. Rather people prefer to visit leisure/recreational centers for fun play or library
for academic work.
Table 6 Reasons for patronage of the shared office facilities by the users
Reasons SD D U A SA TWF WMS Ranking

Affordability - - 33 128 75 236 4.069 1
Concentration on job - - 57 108 60 225 3.879 2
Flexibility of time/price plan 2 4 48 96 70 220 3.793 3
Strategic location 3 16 18 108 70 215 3.707 4
Convenience - - 69 124 20 213 3.672 5
Networking 1 6 48 128 30 213 3.672 5
Office facilities - 10 42 140 20 212 3.655 7
Recreation/leisure 13 44 21 64 - 142 2.448 8
Studying/research 7 58 36 40 - 141 2.431 9
Source: Authors ’Field Survey, 2020 Note: SD-Strongly Disagreed; Disagreed-D; Unsure-U; Agreed-
A; Strongly Agreed-SA; Total Weighted Frequency-TWF; Mean Weighted Score-WMS
On the other hand, the views of the managers were examined on some challenges
encountered in the operations of the business amidst the rising cases of Covid 19
in the study area. Their submissions were analyzed via WMS and presented in Table
7. The result of the analysis showed that low patronage/demand and passive
economic activities were ranked in the 1st and 2nd position having WMS of 4.688
and 4.063 respectively. Users' psychological effects (4.000); increase in
maintenance cost (3.873) and decrease in lettable space capacity (3.250) occupied
the 3rd, 4th and 5th position. The least challenge experienced by the managers is
the low compliance of the users to Covid-19 safety protocol and overstressed office
facilities with WMS 1.938 and 1.438 respectively.
Generally, the adverse effects related to Covid 19 outbreak are felt in all sectors of
the economic activities across the country. The strong indication of the managers
experiencing low level of patronage/demand as a result of passive economic
conditions signals that business operations in co-working office sub-market is not
an exception to the global health pandemic effects. Like other business, the health
crisis caused drastic reduction in the level of users of shared office facilities, which
will in turn have negative effect on the return on investment.
Some other prominent challenges are increase in cost of maintenance, users'

psychological effect and decrease in lettable space capacity. The need to procure
some Covid-19 safety protocol kits such as hand sanitizer, nose mask, water stand
for regular washing of hands etc. as mandated by concern authorities will result
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Fateye, et al.
into adding extra-cost to the business operations. Also, the regular public
orientations about how to contact and preventive measures to be observed to
avoid being contacted contribute to reduction in the patronage. The increase in
lettable space capacity of the office sharing could be as a result of the need to
increase spacing to ensure social distancing.
However, the least forms of challenges identified by the managers are accessibility
to safety kits, low compliance with the safety protocol and over stretched facilities.
The managers witness less challenges in these area of their business operations
because people have been well informed and sensitized through all available
media; especially the educated ones, who are extra conscious of getting contracted
with the novel coronavirus. To ensure public/community health safety, the non-
pharmaceutical Covid 19 prevent kits were made available at affordable rate and
accessible to all. Challenges such as overstretched office facilities become
insignificant due to low level of patronage experienced as a result of the rising
wave of the pandemic.
Table 7 Challenges of encountered in the operation of shared office space market amidst covid
19 pandemic in FCT, Abuja
Challenges SD D U A SA TWF WMS Rank
Low patronage/demand - - - 20 55 75 4.688 1
Passive economic activities - - 6 44 15 65 4.063 2
Users’ psychological effects - - 9 40 15 64 4.000 3
Increase in the cost of business
- - 12 40 10 62 3.873 4
operation
Decrease letable space capacity - 8 18 16 10 52 3.250 5
In accessibility to Covid preventive
2 12 9 20 - 43 2.688 6
kits
Low compliance of users’ with
7 12 3 4 5 31 1.938 7
Covid 19 safety protocol
Overstressed office facilities 10 10 3 - - 23 1.438 8
Source: Authors ’Field Survey, 2020, Note: SD-Strongly Disagreed; Disagreed-D; Unsure-U;
Agreed-A; Strongly Agreed-SA; Total Weighted Frequency-TWF; Mean Weighted Score-WMS
Analysis in Table 8 aims at revealing the prominent components of non-

pharmaceutical Covid-19 safety measures that affect the operations of shared
office space market and to what extent in the study area. The components are stay-
at-home order, social distancing, regular washing of hands, use of hand sanitizer
and wearing of face mask in public places. The managers ranked the adverse effects
of stay-at-home order (4.438) and social distancing (4.125) relatively higher and
occupied 1st and 2nd position in that order, while the impact of hand sanitizer
(1.567); wearing of face mask in public (1.438) and regular washing of hands (1.375)
were rated relatively low and occupied 3rd, 4th and 5th position respectively on
the ranking table.
The strict enforcement of stay-at-home order and social distancing become

necessary owing to the rising cases of the deadly novel virus in the country.
Government was forced to compel people to stay at home and strongly
discouraged social gatherings/events in a bid to curtail the virus. But the measures
have negative impact on the economy at aggregate level and operation of
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Fateye, et al.
businesses including shared office space ventures. However, the less prominent
effects of non-pharmaceutical Covid 19 safety measures such as hand sanitizing,
washing of hands and the wearing of face mask in public places can easily be
complied with without having serious havoc on economic activities.
Table 8 Non-pharmaceutical Covid 19 protocol affecting operation of shared office space in

FCT, Abuja
Covid 19 Safety Measures SD D U A SA TWF WMS Ranking
Stay-at-home order - - - 36 35 71 4.438 1
Social/physical distancing - - 9 32 25 66 4.125 2
Hand sanitizing 8 14 3 - - 25 1.563 3
Wearing of facemask 9 14 - - - 23 1.438 4
Washing of hand regularly 10 12 - - - 22 1.375 5
Source: Authors ’Field Survey, 2020 Note: SD-Strongly Disagreed; Disagreed-D; Unsure-U; Agreed-
A; Strongly Agreed-SA; Total Weighted Frequency-TWF; Mean Weighted Score-WMS

The study analyzed the attendant effects of Covid-19 pandemic on co-working
environment of shared office spaces using FCT, Abuja as a case study. The primary
objectives of the study include the operations of the business, users' preference for
patronage, impact of the novel coronavirus and associated challenges encountered
by the managers. Opinions of the managers and the users of shared office space
facilities office were sampled and analysed via descriptive statistics. The study
found out that shared office space market is worst hit by Covid-19 pandemic most
especially the consequent effects of non-pharmaceutical Covid 19 safety measures
such as stay-at-home order and social distancing. However, the users who are
majorly independent professionals/freelance and the start-up/young
entrepreneurs prefer the co-working environment to conventional office type due
to some prominent reasons such as affordability, conveniences, flexibility of
time/price plan, concentration on job and strategic location of shared office space
facilities to individuals place of interests. The prominent challenges experienced by
the managers are low patronage/demand, passive economic activities, increased
maintenance cost; while issues relating to adherent to the safety protocol,
accessibility to safety kits and overstretched on office facilities were the least
challenges in the study area. Conclusively, the wrath of the novel coronavirus dose
not spare the emerging and innovative flexible working environment; as worst hit
was felt on operations of the shared office spaces and by extension the real estate
market generally.
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Models and Institutional Entrepreneurs: Leading Disruptive Change. April 13th -
14th, 2018, Dubrovnik, Croatia, Governance Research and Development Centre
(CIRU), Zagreb, 376-389
Verschuur J, Koks E. E., & Hall J. W. (2021). Global economic impacts of COVID-19 lockdown
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Yang E., & Bisson C. (2019) Coworking space as a third-fourth place: changing models of
a hybrid space in corporate real estate. Journal of Corporate Real Estate 21(4) 324-
345: DOI 10.1108/JCRE-12-2018-0051
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
DESIGN TRENDS AND FUTURE PLANNING FOR INCLUSIVE

DEVELOPMENT IN TROPICAL BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Asiah Abdul Rahim1, Nur Amirah Abd Samad2 and Wan Mohamad Amin W
Seman3
1Department of Architecture/KAED Universal Design Unit (KUDU), Kulliyyah of Architecture &
Environmental Design, International Islamic University Malaysia.
2Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering & Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.
3KAED Universal Design Unit (KUDU), Kulliyyah of Architecture & Environmental Design,
International Islamic University Malaysia.
A brief history of the introduction of Universal Design and Accessibility in Malaysia

where it has been established since 1990 of three Malaysian Standards regarding
design for access to buildings. Coping with the demands of providing accessibility
for Persons with Disabilities (PwDs) and the elderly has been a challenge for these
past three decades. The intention is to distinguish current Universal Design trends
and the level of public and professional awareness of inclusive development.
Furthermore, an exploration of integrating inclusive development within the
tropical built environment and our social construct of Asian culture and lifestyle. As
a summary, to cater design for diverse age and ability is esteemed in providing
recommendations or innovation design solutions to accommodate access design
that complements in creating an accessible built environment.
Keyword: accessibility, access design solution, inclusive development, universal

design
A BRIEF HISTORY OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN MALAYSIA

Essentially, the barrier-free concept was developed after World War II, when many
troops returned from the war with disabilities such as amputation and hearing loss.
As a result, rehabilitation centres that were deemed accessible for these injured
soldiers were built. Furthermore, with the low mortality rate in Europe around that
time, creating accessible facilities to accommodate their elderly population that
were steadily increasing. Malaysia had just gained its independence when the
prime minister at that time declared it in 1957 and initiated rebuilding the nation.
The primary focus was on essential development for education, agriculture,
economy and infrastructure. As the development was targeting the larger
population, therefore, the erected buildings were not accessible. Gradually, urban
1 arasiah@iium.edu.my
Rahim, Samad and Seman (2021) Design trends and future planning for inclusive development in
tropical built environment In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
449
Rahim, Samad and Seman
and rural development remained a government priority throughout the 1960s and
1970s.
Looking into global initiation of United Nations (UN) initiatives regarding Persons
with Disabilities (PwDs) human rights movements, listed here are the chronology
of the initiatives that lead to local context. Stein et al. (2008) listed the chronology
that signifies the United Nation (UN) General Assembly's progress in the 1980s.
The UN International Year of Disabled Persons in 1982, has constituted the
International Decade of Disabled Person the following year of 1983 until 1992.
Furthermore, the General Assembly in 1982, in efforts to encourage national-level
programs to achieve equality, adopted a World Programme of Action Concerning
Disabled Persons. Consequently, in 1993, the UN's Standard Rules on the
Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities was assimilated as a
basic technical and economic alliance for policy-making with monitoring
mechanism establishment.
American's with Disabilities Act (ADA) was conferred in 1990 as part of the
International Decade for Disabled Persons from 1983 to 1992. As a result, it has
become a globally recognised legal framework for protecting people with
disabilities from discrimination in numerous domains of employment, access and
equal opportunities (Kose, 2011; Manley, 1996). Emphasized by Kose (2011), the
ADA movement accelerated the Japanese government to introduce some
accessibility measures at the national level and find ways to integrate new trends
toward accessibility into their policy initiatives by enacting the Japanese with
Disability Act in 1993. As for in the United Kingdom (UK), coined by Clarkson et al.
(2015), the incorporation of the Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) in 1995 as a
rights-based legislative measure focuses on access to services in achieving social
inclusion for PwDs.
Discernment in Asian countries has affected advocacy issues at Asia Pacific region
under the United Nations Economic and Social Commission of Asia Pacific
(UNESCAP) as highlighted by Nur Amirah et al. (2018) where several Asian
countries, including Malaysia, have signed the Proclamation of the Asian and Pacific
Decade of Disabled Persons for its first decade of 1993-2002. The second decade
of 2003 until 2012, the UNCRPD and its Optional Protocol was embraced when
developed in 2006. According to Tah et al. (2016), Malaysia has been committed to
promoting and protecting the rights of PwDs, which is manifested by enacting the
Persons with Disabilities Act in 2008. Following the acceptance of UNCRPD into the
Malaysian legal framework, the government began formulating policies and
implementing relevant measures to ensure compliance with UNCRPD rules.
450
Figure 1 Cross-timeline of the United Nations initiation of international treaties on disability

human rights leads to the establishment of legal disability legislative globally, regionally and
locally in Malaysia. (Source: N. Amirah A.S., 2020)
UNIVERSAL DESIGN TRENDS AND THE AWARENESS OF INCLUSIVE

DEVELOPMENT
According to Harrison (2011), the UNESCAP Decade of the Disabled addressed the
problems that many Asian faced between 1993 and 2002. Lack of access to
buildings deprived people of their rights to education, work, and social or religious
spaces. He stated that pilot projects were being explored in Bangkok, New Delhi,
and Beijing, focusing on a 1km2 region of the city and working with local officials,
building owners, and other stakeholders having an interest in the area to propose
ideas to enhance access in any manner feasible. BIWAKO Millennium Framework
for Action Towards an Inclusive, Barrier-Free and Rights-Based Society for Persons
with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific, October 2002, is binding on Malaysia as a
member of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the
Pacific (UNESCAP).
It was established in 2008 by the KAED Universal Design Unit (KUDU), Kulliyyah of
Architecture & Environmental Design, International Islamic University Malaysia
(IIUM) to conduct and provide training on accessibility audits for local authorities
on various building typologies in Malaysia, including waterfront facilities, heritage
buildings, markets, shopping malls, and transportation hubs. Only 25 percent of
the case studies in this 2008 pilot study were deemed to be accessible.
Collaboration with government agencies and local authorities led to the
development of a module for access audits as a basis for evaluating the level of
accessibility in built environments. Following this research, government agencies,
local authorities, and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) collaborated to build
an access audits module to evaluate the level of accessibility in the built
environment.
Societal attitudes towards PwDs have improved in recent years, but there is some
hesitation among professionals in the construction industry and building owners.
The reluctance to invest in PwDs facilities, probably for additional costing or the
451
mistaken beliefs of hampering the aesthetic quality for buildings to be more user-
friendly. For instance, providing an accessible lift at a two or three-storey building
will incur an unnecessary cost to small business. A ramp or handrails could disturb
the appearance of a building façade or ruin the aesthetic appeal of a building.
Design experts are becoming more aware of the need for buildings to be user-
friendly, yet there are still areas of ignorance or reluctant acceptance when it comes
to meeting merely the minimum needs of people with disabilities. Seemingly, the
situation in Malaysia is presently at this phase, where in the UK happens in the
1990s, but for Malaysia, the current lack of public awareness for PwDs and their
difficulties in accessing the built environment hence the oblivious attitude.
Harrison et al. (2015) anticipate that attitudes towards disability may continue to
improve, but there is no room for complacency. Even though western countries
have been designing the accessible built environment, they still have to have a
thorough commitment to ensuring the social sustainability of PwDs in inclusion
and participation. Legislation to require accessibility is not the same as Universal
Design but is a critical reinforcement to achieve an accessible built environment.
The UNESCAP have taken the initiatives to improve the quality of life of the PwDs,
and governments have already started preparing the code of practice and
standards for providing facilities. However, many ASEAN countries are not able to
fulfil those requirements for many other reasons (Asiah et al., 2015). This
shortcoming results from the inadequate comprehensive disability law that
mandates non-discrimination principles in many other countries in Asia and the
Pacific region (Perlin, 2012). Hence, the concerns also affect the enactment of non-
discrimination laws in Malaysia.
INTEGRATION OF INCLUSIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ASIAN SOCIAL

CONSTRUCT AND TROPICAL BUILT ENVIRONMENT
A sustainable design for accessibility should be considered in all of our physical
development in order to make our cities world class. Accessibility in the built
environment is increasingly relevant to Malaysia, not only to prepare for the ageing
population, PwDs but also the whole population at large. The statistics of PwDs
registered under the Department of Social Welfare, Ministry of Women, Family and
Community Development, Malaysia (DSM/JKM) on 31st December 2020 has a total
of 588,159 people to date and will increase as more PwDs are to register. Nearly
80 percent of people with disabilities, according to this estimate, reside in
developing nations. The UNCRPD was established to safeguard and expand the
rights and opportunities of the world's estimated 650 million disabled persons.
Most of countries, including Malaysia, have ratified the convention and agreed to
adopt and enact laws to ensure that people with disabilities have equal access to
education, employment, and cultural life; the right to own and inherit property; not
be subjected to discrimination in marriage, children, etc.; and not be unwilling
subjects in medical experiments.
PwDs, the elderly, as well as a wider variety of abilities or disabilities are the target
users of accessible built environments, and numerous investigations have been
conducted to determine the best techniques and approaches for creating and
administering an accessible built environment. Based on user-centered design
theory, inclusive design involves the successful collection of knowledge about the
452
end-user, which must be represented in a manner that can be accessed by the

designer, according to Keates and Clarkson (2003). When the end-user information
is translated into a concept, the designer must have the appropriate tools and
methodologies at his disposal to test it against the end-needs user's and desires.
As Emory Baldwin also pointed out, too many homes are constructed for the
"average" individual, despite the fact that very few people actually fit this
description of "average". People come in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and talents,
and they go through a lot of changes in their lifetime. In his view, architects and
designers prefer to create houses based on the client's appearance as it is now, and
fail to take into account changes in the client's physical abilities and way of life
over time. As a result, the requirements of any one individual should be properly
met, but the needs of another individual should not be unduly compromised.
Special attention should be focused especially on health and safety. In numerous
cases, the usage of assistive devices by certain persons helps them to navigate the
built world. Everyone's requirements should be considered while designing new
surroundings. The layout and structure of an existing building or the external
surroundings are likely to impose significant constraints.
Sustainability, according to Amer Hamzah M.Y. (2013), includes serving societal

expectations in a way that can go on indefinitely without hurting or diminishing
natural resources The ability of future generations to satisfy their own desires
without jeopardising current generations' ability to meet their own needs. We may
say that universal design has anything to do with sustainability, which is defined as
meeting all present and future requirements.
Figure 2: Cross Match of the Sustainable Solution. (Source: Amer Hamzah M.Y.,2013)
FUTURE ANTICIPATION OF UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR MALAYSIA

In addition, towns and governments began looking at codes to make their settings
more accessible, as described by Harrison et al. (2015). Instead of relying on
voluntary guidelines, notwithstanding the best intentions of the designers, clients
and building owners are now required to include accessibility elements in all new
projects. To that end, he noted that the Ron Mace's Seven Principles of Universal
Design stipulated that facilities should aim to be usable ‘to the greatest possible
extent’, rather than ‘by all’, acknowledging that there are limits to providing this
inclusion to everyone in all situations. It is vital for designers to be aware of these
453
limits in order to create better and more integrated designs. In addition, learning
more about how we design may help us expand our abilities and become more
creative designers.
Comprehensive and integrated environment of barrier-free architecture is difficult

to regulate as well as this is required by the law. The most crucial aspects of an
accessible environment might not be connected at the interfaces due to they are
given to various agencies and are regulated by different laws, which many faced
major difficulty to handle. However, public buildings may be accessible and usable
by a variety of disabled persons, whereas the road system is under another
authority's jurisdiction with its own requirements. Simple narratives about a person
going to the clinic will be subject to norms and limitations that vary considerably.
The consequence of a well-thought-out design that considers all users equally at
the outset rather than as an afterthought is clever, sensitive, engaging, and non-
exclusive.
According to Kamarul Syahrul Kamal et al (2004), the more active approach to
tropical architecture, however, attempts to harness certain climates elements for
energy and increased efficiency. He recommended of the new design to meet the
requirement of modern living according the following concepts;
i. Roofs are frequently steeply pitched in order to assist water drainage and
to offer a wide vented roof area below which heated air may disperse,
keeping the building cold where gaps between wooden slats beneath the
roof eaves might enable air to pass through.
ii. Eaves with large overhangs are vital for shielding windows from the sun and
rain, providing shade and reducing unwanted glare.
iii. There are several ways to enhance natural ventilation, like leaving gaps
between the overlapped roof eaves or cutting out flat patterns above the
window.
iv. Maximizing natural ventilation in a building is essential and can be
accomplished by a variety of methods, like constructing a house on stilts so
that wind speed rises with height or including holes in the walls of tall
structures might help promote airflow.
v. While wide windows and roof or wall air vents have a comparable effect, the
designs must also keep rain from entering.
vi. Orienting a particular building towards the direction of the prevailing wind
is important where the airflow can be increased by arranging houses in
random order as opposed to the regular patterns seen in most housing
estates which trap air and prevent adequate ventilation.
vii. Design wide open areas within the home and minimise the number of room
barriers to stimulate air flow and cooling since the lack of internal walls
results in improved cross ventilation. Choosing the right construction
materials is also crucial in tropical architecture. In addition to being plentiful,
local timber has a low thermal mass, which means that less heat is retained
454
and transferred into the structure. The heat is radiated into a structure via
bricks, concrete, and glass.
Essentially, tropical architecture is based on the principle of adapting to and/or

utilising the local tropical environment in order to enhance living circumstances for
residents. Heat and rain are kept out, while natural ventilation and sunlight are
encouraged. The passive response to tropical architecture has been practiced for
centuries and is, today, slowly making a comeback in modern residential design.
Therefore, the challenge continues until all problems can be mitigated in order to
achieve the status of Inclusive City for Malaysian urban environments.
REFERENCES
Amer Hamzah Mohd. Yunos, (2013) Malaysia’s green protocols initiatives, presentation of
the 3rd international conference on universal design in the built environment 2013
(icudbe 2013).
Asiah, A. R., Nur Amirah, A. S., & Che Raiskandar, C. R. (2015, 2nd -3rd March 2015).
Overview of Universal Design Application and Accessibility in Major Cities of ASEAN
Countries. 2nd International Conference on ASEAN Community 2015, Kuala
Lumpur.
Clarkson, J. P., & Coleman, R. (2015, 2015/01/01/). History of Inclusive Design in the UK.
Applied Ergonomics, 46, 235-247.
Harrison, (2011) international conference on universal design in the built environment
2011 proceeding 1, 3.
Harrison, J., & Dalton, C. (2015). The Familiar and the Strange: The Limits of Universal
Design in the European Context. Journal of Universal Design in the Built
Environment, 1(1), 49-67.
Kamal, K. S., A.Wahab, L., & Che Ahmad, A. (2004). Climatic Design of the traditional Malay
House to Meet The Requirements of Modern Living. The 38th International
Conference of Architectural Sceince Association ANZAScA 'Contexts of
Architecture'. Launceston, Tasmania.
Kose, s. (2013). Japanese struggle toward inclusive built environment: can it catch up with
the speed of ageing and economic changes?, proceedings of the 3rd international
conference on universal design in the built environment 2013 (icudbe 2013). Isbn:
978-983-3142-30-9.
Kose, S. (2011). The Impact of Aging on Japanese Accessibility Standards In W. F. E. Preiser
& K. H. Smith (Eds.), Universal Design Handbook (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Manley, S. (1996). Walls of exclusion: The role of local authorities in creating barries-free
streets. Landscape and Urban Planning, 35, 137-152.
Nur Amirah, A. S., Ismail, S., & Asiah, A. R. (2018). A Review of Universal Design and
Accessibility Legislations in Implementation Strategies Among Asian Countries. In
Proceeding of The 12th SEATUC Symposium: Engineering Education and Research
for Sustainable Development. Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Perlin, M. (2012). Promoting Social Change in Asia and the Pacific: The Need for a Disability
Rights Tribunal to Give Life to the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities. SSRN Electronic Journal.
S. Keates, & J. Clarkson (2003) countering design exclusion. Bridging the gap between
usability and accessibility. Universal access in the information society 2.
455
Stein, M., & Lord, J. E. (2008). Future Prospects for the United Nations Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities. ARNADOTTIR, F3, 17-40.indd.
Tah, I. H. M., & Mokhtar, K. A. (2016). Malaysia’s Ratification of the UN Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UN CRPD). International Journal of Business,
Economics and Law, Vol 11(Issue 4 (Dec)).
Retrieved from http://www.archfoundation.org/2013/06/sustainable-visitable-and-
universal-bydesign/#sthash.shgh4kza.dpuf
Retrieved from http://www.informedesign.org/_news/sustain01_06.pdf
Retrieved from World Health Organization report (2011).
UNCRPD. United nation convention on rights of persons with disabilities (2006). Article (2):
definition - universal design and article (9): accessibility.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
DETERMINATION OF FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LABOUR

OUTPUT ON CONSTRUCTION SITES IN GHANA
Joseph Henry Acquah1, Humphrey Danso2 and Emmanuel Bamfo-Agyei3
1Works Department, Local Government Service, Ghana
2Department of Construction & Wood Technology, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills
Training and Entrepreneurial Development
3Department of Building Technology, Cape Coast Technical University.
Labour output affects construction performance in most developing countries. This

study aimed at determining the factors that influence labour output on
construction sites in Ghana. The research design adopted for the study was a
descriptive survey. The study focused on site-level operatives in active operation at
their various construction sites. A sample size of 220 site-level operatives was
considered. A questionnaire was used as data collection instrument. The study
revealed that payment delay, inspection delay, rework, poor communication,
unavailability of needed tools, lack of labour supervision and shortage of materials
are the major factors that affect labour output in construction sites. The study
concludes that labour output of construction workers in Ghana is affected by
several factors. It is recommended that construction managers regularly inspect
and pay attention to the quality of construction materials and tools used in projects
to eliminate inspection delay and unavailability of needed tools.
Keywords: construction sites, inspection delay, labour output, payment delay,

labour productivity
INTRODUCTION
Construction is the biggest and most challenging sector in the world (Dorosh,
2020). The construction industry was expected to grow by 3.6% by 2020 before the
eruption of the COVID-19 crisis, with revenue forecast at USD 15 trillion by 2024
(Global Powers of Construction [GPoC], 2020). In 2020, the estimate of growth in
the construction industry fell to 0.5%, but the numbers vary across the regions.
Emerging markets were projected to decline by 2% in 2020, before rebounding to
5% in 2021, while mature economies are expected to decline by 1.5% in 2020,
followed by a 2% growth in 2021 (GPoC, 2020). Construction projects around the
world have undergone significant costs and time overruns with low labor
1 acqtechnical@gmail.com,
3 emmanuel.bamfo-agyei@.cctu.edu.gh
Acquah, Danso and Bamfo-Agyei (2021) Determination of factors that influence labour output on
construction sites in Ghana In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
457
Acquah, Danso and Bamfo-Agyei
production identified as a major reason for project delays and overruns of cost
(Herrera, Sánchez, Castañeda & Porras, 2020).
Labour output has become a big problem in the construction industry in most
developing countries, hence affecting construction performance (Adamu, Dzasu,
Haruna & Balla, 2011). Ghana Statistical Service (2019), reported that the
construction sub-sector recorded the least growth rate of -2.1% in the 2nd quarter
of 2019 compared to 0.6% in the 1st quarter of 2019. Also, in the year 2020, the
construction sub-sector grew by 0.9 percent in the 2nd quarter of 2020, compared
to -1.7% in the 1st quarter of 2020 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2020). This means
that Real Estate developers, institutions in the industry are in a great challenge of
growth within the industry sector, of which the cost of plants, labour, and materials
are not exceptional. Labour output is one of the greatest threats in construction
projects in Ghana. Many of the building construction work in Ghana still rely heavily
on manual labour in their assembly (Bamfo-Agyei, Thwala & Aigbavboa, 2020).
Ghana Statistical Service (2018) report revealed that the construction industry
employs over 600,000 workers, amounting to about 7% of the working population
in Ghana who are required to deliver the constructed facilities to the clients on
time, within budget, and meeting the specified standards of quality. Consequently,
there is a growing and continuous interest in productivity studies all over the world
because of the importance of labour output in the management and control of
project costs (Attar, Gupta & Desai, 2012).
Productivity remains an intriguing subject and a dominant issue in the construction

sector, promising cost savings and efficient usage of resources (Enshassi et al.,
2007). Present construction contracts are not capable to recovery for productivity
loss due to field factors (Construction Industry Institute (CII), 2000). With all the
project-cost components such as labours, materials, and equipment; labour
component is considered the riskiest. Whereas other components (equipment and
material) are determined by the market price, and prices are consequently beyond
the influence of project management. Labour cost in the construction industry is
estimated to be about 33- 50% of the entire project cost (Hanna et al., 2008). Jarkas
and Bitar (2012) and Jarkas et al. (2012) pointed out that, labour cost, in most
countries, comprises 30-50% of overall project. Because labour is more variable
and unpredictable than other project-cost components, it becomes necessary to
understand the effects of different factors on labour productivity. An increase in
labour productivity can reduce the labour cost in a direct proportion. It can either
benefit or reduce a project’s profit, making it of vital interest to the construction
industry for its success (Hanna et al., 2008).
Identifying the factors that affect the labour output on construction site is
important to the performance of the construction industry. There is therefore the
need to determine the factors that affect labour output on construction sites,
especially in developing countries context (Adamu, Dzasu, Haruna & Balla, 2011).
458
In response to this, the current study aims at determining the factors that influence
labour output on construction sites in Ghana.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Labour is one of the basic requirements in the construction industry. Labour output
usually relates manpower in terms of labour cost to the number of outputs
produced (Borcherding & Liou, 1986). Labour is a task that requires the exertion of
body or mind or both. It is regarded as an important resource in construction
because it is the one that combines all the other resources namely materials, plant
equipment, and finance to produce the various construction products as expressed
by Fagbenle (2011). This then leaves labour as the major resource opened to
improvement. The construction sector is a strategic part of every society, it is one
of the largest employers and attracts a large amount of investment (both public
and private) while being responsible for providing the necessary infrastructure to
nations. Construction employs more than 7% of Europe’s workforce and is the
largest industrial employer in the continent (Proverbs et al., 1999). Building
construction, in particular, consumes approximately 70% of construction
investment in developing countries (World Bank, 2015). The battle to complete
construction projects on time and within budget is ongoing, being fought when
faced with low labour output. Aynur et al. (2008) noted that construction labour
accounted for the largest percentage of total project costs in developing countries
(i.e., as much as 40% of direct capital cost in large construction projects).
Despite the new technology builders have access to, the excess of construction
material, the equipment and financing available, contractors were still faced with
rising construction costs, longer project timelines, and cost overruns (Jarkas & Bitar,
2012). Much of the leakage had occurred in labour, where weak output had eroded
investments made by contractors. The level of labour output in a country and the
construction industry in particular may be determined by a number of factors.
According to Attar et al. (2012), the identification and evaluation of factors affecting
construction labour output have long been critical issues facing project managers
with respect to increasing productivity in construction. Understanding the critical
factors that both positively and negatively affect productivity has been posited to
be necessary for the enhancement of construction labour productivity and project
performance (Enshassi et al., 2007; Attar et al., 2012). Reflecting this perspective,
Jergeas (2009) reported that there are undue cost overruns, delays and losses of
productivity associated with the delivery of major capital construction projects
everywhere in the world. Jergeas's study found that researchers and practitioners
have identified poor management practices that lead to poor performance, such
as scope changes, design errors and omissions, lack of proper planning and
scheduling and improper management of tools, equipment, materials and labour,
among many other factors. Several insights and recommendations have been
459
proposed which are yet to be implemented in a manner that will result into tangible
productivity and expected project performance (Jergeas, 2009).
Attar et al. (2012) noted ineffective management to be a primary cause of low

productivity and identified a lack of alignment among goals, contractual conflicts,
difficulties in measuring productivity, weak commitments to continuous
improvement and a lack of labour force focus as barriers to improving productivity.
Enshassi et al. (2007) observed that, despite having been intensive investigations
made into factors affecting labour output, researchers have not agreed on a
universal set of factors with significant influence on productivity nor has any
agreement been reached on the classification of these factors. Those authors,
however, grouped factors affecting construction labour output into 10 categories:
manpower, leadership, motivation, time, materials/tools, supervision, project,
safety, quality and external factors. Kazaz et al. (2008) considered labour output
factors under four groups – organisational factors, economic factors, physical
factors and socio-psychological factors – deriving these four from the theory of
motivation.
Adamu et al. (2011) identified 10 labour output-influencing factors among

operatives in indigenous construction organisations in the north-eastern states of
Nigeria: the absenteeism of gang members, instruction delays, supervisory
incompetence, lack of materials, low wage levels, an unfriendly working
atmosphere, repetitious work, a lack of proper tools, interference between
operatives, changing crew members and inspection delays. The study found that
low wages, a lack of materials and an unfriendly working atmosphere most affected
labour output. Durdyev and Mbachu (2011) researched key constraints and
improvement measures for on-site labour output using 56 sub-factors. The factors
were identified under eight broad categories of internal and external constraints:
project management/project team characteristics, project finance, workforce,
labour-related factors, unforeseen events, technology/process, statutory
compliance and other external factors.
Attar et al. (2012) identified factors affecting construction labour output under 15
categories: design factors, execution plan factors, material factors, equipment
factors, labour factors, health and safety factors, supervision factors, working time
factors, project factors, quality factors, financial factors, leadership and
coordination factors, organisation factors, owner/consultant factors and external
factors. The study further recognised some of these factors as being among the
top ten to affect the labour productivity of small and medium-sized companies,
large companies and all companies in general and it was observed that labour-
related factors cut across all groups. Although labour-related factors featured
prominently among those factors identified as affecting construction labour
output, none of these studies considered their influence on construction labour
productivity across geographical demarcations by comparing the views of building
460
craftsmen and site supervisors – important project team members who are directly
involved with construction labour productivity matters. Fagbenle (2009) identified
three main factors that are affecting site performance as: shortcomings in labour
management (unfair wages, lack of motivation etc.); extraneous reasons (harsh
weather, breakdown of law and order etc.); and labour’s shortcoming (lateness,
idleness, poor workmanship etc.). Fagbenle (2009) grouped the factors affecting
the environment of construction projects under cultural, economic, political, social,
physical, aesthetic, financial, legal, institutional, technological and policy. Other
influencing factors identified include traditional measures such as health, safety,
material, size and scope (Fagbenle, 2011).
METHODOLOGY
The research design adopted for the study was a descriptive survey. Considering
the nature of the study, the descriptive survey design was deemed appropriate in
terms of collecting data from a large group of respondents within a relatively short
period. The study population includes site-level operatives of some selected
construction sites in the Metropolitans and Municipalities of the Central and
Western regions of Ghana. These groups of site operatives were considered for the
research as they were considered to have a large proportion of their labour force
engaged on sites.
Purposive sampling was employed in selecting all the construction site level
operators for the study because of the activities required to be studied. The study
focused on site-level operatives in active operation during the period of the study.
Since it is not economical to consider the entire population due to time and other
logistic reasons, a sample size of 220 site level operatives consisting from Cape
Coast Metropolis, Mfantesman Municipality, Awutu Senya East Municipality, and
Secondi-Takoradi Metropolis. For data collection and analysis, a questionnaire was
employed as a data collection instrument.
A questionnaire was used to collect data that was not directly observable from the
participants about their characteristics, experiences and opinions. Closed-ended
questions were used for the reason that they are easy to ask and quick to answer,
they require no writing by either respondent, and their analysis is straightforward.
5-Point Likert scale response was used. Analysis was undertaken to generate a
descriptive picture of the data gathered through a questionnaire. In this study,
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 was used in analysing the
data. The contribution of each of the variables was examined and the ranking of
the attributes in terms of their criticality as perceived by the respondents was done
by the use of Relative Importance Index (RII) which was computed using equation
(1):
𝛴𝑊
𝑅𝐼𝐼 = (0 ≤ 𝑅𝐼𝐼 ≤ 1) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (1)
𝐴∗𝑁
461
Where:
W – is the weight given to each factor by the respondents and ranges from 1 to 5,
(where “1” is “strongly disagree” and “5” is “strongly agree”);
A – is the highest weight (5 in this case) and;
N – is the total number of respondents.

Factors that affects labour output in construction sites
Table 1: Responses on factors that affect labour output in construction sites

Responses (Ranking) Mean
Factors affecting labour output ΣW RII RANK
1 2 3 4 5 (ΣW/N)
Payment delay 6 19 11 105 42 706 3.86 0.772 1st
Inspection delay by managers 11 17 14 103 38 690 3.77 0.754 2nd
Rework 8 30 7 97 41 682 3.73 0.745 3rd
Poor communication between
13 26 8 98 38 672 3.67 0.734 4th
managers & labourers
Unavailability of needed tools 3 38 18 97 27 655 3.58 0.716 5th
Lack of labour supervision 10 27 24 97 25 650 3.55 0.710 6th
Shortage of materials 10 35 13 97 28 648 3.54 0.708 7th
Accidents during construction 6 33 31 99 14 631 3.45 0.674 8th
Personal problems of labour 18 29 13 99 24 631 3.45 0.670 9th
Lack of skills of labour 14 44 13 85 27 617 3.37 0.670 9th
Labour dissatisfaction 14 43 12 96 18 609 3.33 0.666 11th
Unsuitability of storage 14 44 16 86 23 609 3.33 0.666 11th
Poor health of labour 8 56 10 89 20 606 3.31 0.662 13th
Misunderstanding of laborers 12 65 19 73 14 562 3.07 0.614 14th
Working overtime 16 62 15 74 16 562 3.07 0.614 15th
Labour absenteeism 18 68 15 68 14 542 2.96 0.592 16th
Site restricted access 42 53 7 61 20 512 2.80 0.559 17th
Physical fatigue 19 84 12 55 13 509 2.78 0.556 18th
Raining 30 69 28 43 13 489 2.67 0.534 19th
Unsuitability rest area on site 24 91 23 38 7 461 2.52 0.504 20th
Delay in responding to requests 29 84 25 37 8 459 2.51 0.502 21st
Power outage 29 90 17 42 5 454 2.48 0.496 22nd
Inadequate coordination 31 84 30 32 6 446 2.44 0.487 23rd
Stringent inspection 33 88 29 26 7 435 2.38 0.475 24th
Variation orders 40 86 25 25 7 423 2.31 0.462 25th
Site layout problems 37 92 24 25 5 417 2.28 0.456 26th
Design complexity level 35 99 23 20 6 412 2.25 0.450 27th
Unclear specifications 45 90 15 28 5 406 2.22 0.443 28th
Labour disloyalty 35 108 19 17 4 395 2.16 0.431 29th
Alcoholism and drug abuse of
37 105 19 19 3 395 2.16 0.431 30th
labours
Lack of competition between the
52 83 17 30 1 393 2.15 0.429 31st
Laborers
Inadequate transportation for labours 39 104 17 20 3 393 2.15 0.429 32nd
Confinement of working space 42 101 17 19 4 392 2.14 0.428 33rd
Implementation of government laws 48 98 18 18 1 375 2.05 0.410 34th
Shortage of experienced labour 58 87 17 19 2 370 2.02 0.404 35th
High Temperature 58 96 17 11 1 349 1.91 0.381 36th
462
Table 1 shows the Relative Importance Indices (RII) and the rankings of the factors
that affect labour output in construction sites. As indicated in Table 1, thirty-six (36)
factors were identified by respondents to affects labour output in construction
sites.
As depicted in Table 1, seven items were identified as the main factors that affect
labour output in construction sites with RII ≥ 0.7 and mean values ≥ 3.5. these
factors in the order of ranking are payment delay, inspection delay by managers,
rework, poor communication between managers and labourers, unavailability of
needed tools, lack of labour supervision and shortage of materials.
The finding concurs with the study by Attar et al. (2012) noted that unavailability
of suitable tools, payment delay, inspection delay, and ineffective management to
be a primary cause of low productivity and identified a lack of alignment among
goals, contractual conflicts, difficulties in measuring productivity, weak
commitments to continuous improvement and a lack of labour force focus as
barriers to improving productivity. Reflecting this perspective, Jergeas (2009)
reported that there are undue cost overruns, delays and losses of productivity
associated with the delivery of major capital construction projects everywhere in
the world due to factors such as payment delay, lack of labour supervision,
inspection delay, and shortage of materials. Jergeas’s study found that researchers
and practitioners have identified poor management practices that lead to poor
performance, such as scope changes, design errors and omissions, lack of proper
planning and scheduling and improper management of tools, equipment,
materials and labour, among many other factors.
The view of the construction workers that payment delay affects labour output in
construction sites supports the study by Lema (1995), who mentioned that non-
financial benefits such as transport, meals, and uniforms have a high effect on
labour productivity. Christian and Hachey (1995) indicated that payment delays in
the construction industry are adversarial and disastrous.
Late payment affects a company’s cash flow and may ultimately lead to a business’s
failure. Timeliness of payment is important to avoid the risk of the late-payment
problem. A study by Zou et al., (2007) pointed out that project-funding problems
have been identified as cost-related risks, time-related risks, and quality-related
risks which can significantly influence the delivery of a construction project. The
risk of delayed payment from the owner impacts the duration and cost of the
project. These risks cause the project’s cost to increase abnormally and,
subsequently, delay the project’s progress.
The agreement of the construction workers on inspection delay by site
management as a factor that affects labour output aligns with the past studies
(Guhathakurta and Yates, 1993; Olomolaiye et al., 1996) that inspection delay
negatively affects labour output. Olomolaiye et al., (1996), mentioned that
inspection delays are an important process; for example, because contractors
cannot cast concrete before inspection of formwork and steelwork, the inspection
delay contributes to delays in work activities. It completely stops the task that
requires the presence of supervisors, such as casting concrete and backfilling.
Additionally, it delays the inspection of completed work which, in turn, leads to a
delay in the commencement of new work. According to the study by Fugar and
463
Agyakwah-Baah (2010) in Ghana, the inability of clients (building owners) to

honour payments on time was determined as the first major factor that causes
delays in building construction projects in Ghana. Makulsawatudom et al. (2004)
on the same issue pinpoint the labour output on-site might be affected negatively
by inspection delay by site managers.
The site operative’s agreement that rework affects labour output in construction
sites agreed with a similar study by Frimpong et al. (2003), who found that reworks
are the main factors that cause delay in the construction of projects in Ghana.
Alaghbari et al. (2007) study in Malaysia indicated that from a list of thirty-one (31)
factors, clients, contractors and consultants agreed that rework were the main
factors causing delay. Sweis et al. (2008) studied the causes of delay in residential
projects in Jordan and concluded that financial difficulties faced by the contractor
and rework orders by the owner are the leading causes of construction delay. Abd
El-Razek et al. (2008) in a similar study in Egypt found that the most important
cause of delay is rework by contractors during construction projects.
Communication problems identified by the construction workers as a factor that
affects labour output buttress with the finding of Hickson and Ellis (2014) that poor
communication affects labour output. Hickson and Ellis pinpoint that relaying
information from management to labour and vice versa is challenging for both
parties but it is essential on the job site. Communication was rated 7th in the
productivity categories in Jiukun et al., (2009), 6th in the Makulsawatudom and
Emsley (2003) list of critical factors, and 6th in Henry et al., (2007). Inaccurate or
ambiguous instruction has been identified as a particular concern for labourers.
Fagbenle et al., (2011) indicated that communication affects labour productivity.
Fagbenle indicated that for construction labours to be effective, they must clearly
understand what is required to be done on site. Communication within
organizations is a vital ingredient of motivation. For example, employees are likely
to be motivated by recognition and constructive feedback from their line manager.
The agreement that unavailability of suitable tools is the factor that affects labour
output supports the study by Paulson (2015), who found that the unavailability of
suitable tools affects labour productivity. This result is also supported by Heizer
and Render (1990), who confirmed that unavailability of suitable tools on sites
affects job site productivity. The finding also concurs with the study by
Makulsawatudom and Emsley (2003) who found unavailability of suitable tools as
the 2nd factor that affects labour output and the 2nd most important productivity
category in Jiukun et al., (2009). Unavailability of suitable tools is due to delinquent
project management or as a result of economic constraints on the contractor, this
problem could be solved with better planning.
CONCLUSION
Labour output is one of the main determinants of the success of any construction
project. The study aimed at determining the factors that influence labour output
on construction sites in Ghana. Seven factors were identified as the major factors
that affect labour output in construction sites in Ghana. These are payment delay,
inspection delay, rework, poor communication, unavailability of needed tools, lack
of labour supervision and shortage of materials. The study concludes that labour
464
output of construction workers in Ghana is affected by several factors. It is

recommended that construction managers regularly inspect and pay attention to
the quality of construction materials and tools used in projects to eliminate
inspection delay and unavailability of needed tools. Regular inspection and use of
appropriate materials and tools will reduce both the time taken to finish the work
and the wastage of materials.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK FOR PUBLIC PRIVATE

PARTNERSHIP PROJECT GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA
Atoyebi Kayode Emmanuel1 and Ojo Stephen Okunlola2
1,2Department of Building, Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria
The widening gap in infrastructural deficit especially in the developing world has
forced governments to explore innovative financing methods where private sector
investments are attracted through a mutually beneficial arrangement called Public
Private Partnership (PPP). However, PPPs are not solutions to all infrastructural
problems due to variation in project type and settings. Despite the various benefits
of application of PPP in project management, there has not been a unified
structure/framework for successful implementation of PPP arrangement in project
governance in Nigeria. This study therefore attempts to develop a framework for
implementing PPP projects with a view to enhancing the service delivery
performance of PPP in project governance in Nigeria. Conceptually, the studied
reviewed critical factors affecting PPP in project governance, project governance,
Critical Success Criteria (CSCs) and Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for PPP in project
governance. Using examples from both developed and developing world, the study
established the inter-connectivity between elements of PPP structure, Critical
Success Factors (CSFs) and Critical Success Factors (CSFs) in the development of the
framework to enhance service delivery performance of PPP in Project Governance
in Nigeria. It was concluded that the success of PPP project governance in Nigeria
fundamentally depends on the adoption of an integrated framework.
Keywords: framework, governance, infrastructure, Nigeria, public private

partnership
INTRODUCTION
All over the world, project governance is adjudged to characteristically provide the
best indication of who is involved in the project; and who in the project
organisation is responsible for any course of action through its life cycle (Ekung,
Agu1 & Iheama, 2017). In a broader sense, it is defined as the set of policies,
regulations, functions, processes, and procedures and responsibilities that define
the establishment, management and control of projects, programmes or portfolios
(APM, 2012). The term project governance has attracted research attention
considerably in the construction industry and many institutions and industries have
also applied the term to suit their application (Bekker & Steyn, 2008). However, the
overriding application in the context of the construction project is centred on three
1 emanlin004@gmail.com Tel: +234 806 535 1588

2 stephenojo79@gmail.com
Atoyebi and Ojo (2021) Developing a Framework for Public Private Partnership Project Governance
in Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
469
Atoyebi and Ojo
basic variables: organization, management, and policies framework (Patel &

Robinson, 2010). In mega project delivery, project governance involves the
coordination, management and prompting the distribution of resources to achieve
targeted goal of infrastructure development (Patel & Robinson, 2010).
As established by World Bank (2015), the success of any project does not occur
accidentally, rather, it occur as a result of careful conceptualization, design,
implementation and factoring of all the variables which may influence the success
of a project in a given locality. Studies revealed that determining project success
varies with every project perspectives and there is no established framework or
specific criterion for judging construction project success (Davies, Crawford &
Lechler, 2009). Project success is traditionally assessed based on three major criteria
namely: time; cost and quality (Khosravi & Afshari 2011). These success criteria are
what Atkinson (1999) referred to as the “iron triangle”. However the challenges
associated with the management of projects has forced government to explore
new and innovative financing methods in which private sector investment can be
attracted to provision of infrastructure through a mutually beneficial arrangement
called Public Private Partnership (Adhazi & Bowles 2001; 2001a; 2001b).
According to Koppenjan (2005) and Liu et al (2016), public–private partnership

(PPP) is an innovative procurement approach in which public and private actors co-
operate to develop infrastructure and deliver public services, sharing the risks,
costs and benefits. The goal of public private partnership (PPP) is to bring every
project to successful service delivery and operation that would maximally deliver
its sets goals. The adoption of PPP has created a room to address numerous
challenges associated with traditional procurement method and to ensure that the
socio-economic values of public projects are captured effectively with the aim to
combine the skills, expertise, and experience of both sectors to deliver higher
standard of services to citizens (Koppenjan, 2005). As a particular type of
collaborative governance, PPP governance is about steering the decision and
action processes in the private, public, and civic sectors (O‘Leary, Gerard, &
Bingham, 2006).
In recent times, the public-private partnership (PPP) concept has gained

considerable attention among governments in both developed and developing
countries (Cheung et al., 2012) due to its numerous benefits for successful project
delivery. However, despite the enthusiasm from the public and private sectors,
there has been slow progress in the implementation of the PPP policy as well as an
increased number of failed or distressed projects particularly in developing
countries (World Bank 2015a; Osei-Kyei, 2015, Chan, Javen & Ameyaw, 2016). Also,
due to challenges inherent in the implementation and the vague knowledge of
many PPP model or projects, the question on the successful delivery of its
objectives and benefits remains a daunting task.
In Nigeria, evidences have shown that PPP has been adopted in a wide range of
sectors for infrastructure service delivery across the nation and suitable for all types
of infrastructural projects (Babatunde, Opawole and Akinsiku, 2012; Gbadegesin&
Aluko, 2014). However, Cheung et al. (2012) cautioned that PPPs are not a cure for
all problems and not suitable for all project settings. Diverse range of PPP forms
have been implemented with success and some with failures depending on the
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Atoyebi and Ojo
objective(s) of the project due to numerous factors across each locality (Zhang,
2005). Many experts in the industry are aware of the effectiveness and benefits of
PPP but are unable to determine how best to achieve maximum success and goals
optimally (Agyemang, 2011; Cheung, Chan & Kajewski 2009). These pose a serious
challenge to the realization that partnership arrangement such as PPP are
particularly good vehicle for bringing about project objectives and the definite
objectives of achieving the goals of PPP synergy vary among stakeholders.
The success of PPP projects has become inevitable as there has not been a unified
structure/framework for the successful implementation of PPP arrangement in
project governance. Assessing the success of PPP in projects governance requires
in-depth variables relative to the uniqueness and nature of PPP projects. This study
therefore develops a framework for implementing PPP projects with a view to
enhancing the service delivery performance of PPP in project governance in
Nigeria. Conceptually, the studied reviewed crucial underlying factors such as PPP,
project governance, Critical Success Criteria (CSCs) for PPP in project governance,
Critical Success Factors (CSFs) for PPP in project governance and the factors
affecting PPP in project governance in Nigeria.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This review of literature encompasses the concepts and models relevant for the
development of a framework for public private partnership project governance
with consideration for the Nigerian experience. The study reviewed the concept of
PPP, project governance. It highlighted and extracted components of the
concession model (user pays) and the UK Private Finance Initiative (public sector
pays) to allocate responsibilities and risks between the public and private partners
in different ways in Nigeria. It further analysed PPP Experience and Project
Governance in Nigeria. Using the structure of the elements of Critical success
criteria (CSC) for PPP projects and Critical success factors (CSFs) for PPP projects,
the paper developed a framework to enhance service delivery performance of PPP
in project governance.
The concept of Public Private Partnership

PPPs are the long-term contractual relationships formed between public sectors
and private entities, aiming to procure and provide public assets and relevant
services through the use of private sectors ’resources and expertise (European
Investment Bank [EIB], 2004). In another parlance, it also refers to as long-term
participation between government and the private sector for the provision of
infrastructure and public services (Bovaird, 2004; Harris, 2004).Van Ham &
Koppenjan (2001) also defined PPP as a cooperation of some sort of durability
between public and private actors in that they jointly develop products and services
and share risks, costs and resources that are connected with these products. The
defining features of PPPs, compared with other forms of private participation in
infrastructure, include risk transfer, long-term contract relationships, and
partnership agreements (Li & Akintoye 2003).
PPP is an innovative procurement approach in which public and private actors co-
operate to develop infrastructure and deliver public services, sharing the risks,
costs, and benefits (Koppenjan, 2005). This implies that a public-private partnership
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Atoyebi and Ojo
is a contractual arrangement between a public agency and a private sector entity

and through the agreement, the skills and assets of each sector are shared in
delivering a service or facility for the use of the general public. It is a means of
utilizing the private sector resources in a way that is a combination of outsourcing
and privatization with government partnerships. This because nations are
increasingly relying on creative financing and asset management to maintain and
improve infrastructure because PPP provides a more efficient and cost-effective
means of providing the same or better level of service, at a savings to the general
public (Agyemang, 2011).
There are several types of partnerships in which public and private sector can
engaged in – policy partnerships, partnerships for delivery of public services,
capacity building partnerships, economic development partnerships and
infrastructure partnerships. Depending on the context (policy, service, capacity,
economic development or infrastructure), a partnership between public, private
and non-profit partners will be defined in different ways (Roman, 2015). Roman
(2015) further opined that PPP is conceptualized as a contractual agreement
between one or more public agencies and one or more private sector partners for
the purpose of supporting the delivery of public services or financing, designing,
building, operating and/or maintaining a certain project for the public good. These
types of partnerships are usually developed with the implicit and explicit objectives
of leveraging additional financing resources and expertise, which otherwise might
not have been available for public purposes through traditional procurement
practices.
Models of PPP
There are various types of PPPs, established for different reasons, across a wide
range of market segments, reflecting the different needs of governments for
infrastructure services. Although the types vary, they are however been put in two
broad categories of which PPP can be identified. The first is the contractual type
consisting of the concession model where the ‘user pays ’and the second is the
Private Finance Initiative (PFI) model where the ‘public sector pays’.
Concessions, which have the longest history of public-private financing, are mostly
associated with PPP. By bringing private sector management, private funding and
private sector know-how into the public sector, concessions have become the most
established form of this kind of financing. They are contractual arrangements
whereby a facility is given by the public to the private sector, which then operates
the PPP for a certain period of time. Oftentimes, this also means building and
designing the facility as well. The normal terminology for these contracts describes
more or less the functions they cover. Contracts that concern the largest number
of functions are "Concession” and "Design, Build, Finance and Operate" contracts,
since they cover all the elements: namely finance, design, construction,
management and maintenance. They are often financed by user fees (for water
project, gas and electricity, public transport, among others, but not for “social PPP
projects” such as health, prisons, courts, education, and urban roads, as well as
defence).
The second type is based on the UK Private Finance Initiative (PFI) which was
developed in the UK in 1992. This has now been adopted by parts of Canada,
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Atoyebi and Ojo
France, the Netherlands, Portugal, Ireland, Norway, Finland, Australia, Japan,

Malaysia, the United States and Singapore (amongst others) as part of a wider
reform programme for the delivery of public services. In contrast to concession,
financing schemes are structured differently. Under PFI schemes, privately financed
contracts for public facilities and public works cover the same elements but in
general are paid, for practical reasons, by a public authority and not by private
users (public lighting, hospitals, schools, roads with shadow tolls, that is, payments
based on traffic volume, paid by the government in lieu of tolls).
The capital element of the funding enabling the local authority to pay the private
sector for these projects is given by central government in the form of what are
known as PFI "credits". PFI is not just a different way of borrowing money; the loans
are paid back over the period of the PFI scheme by the service provider who is at
risk if the service is not delivered to standard throughout. The local authority then
procures a partner to carry out the scheme and transfers detailed control and in
theory the risk, in the project to the partner. The cost of this borrowing as a result
is higher than normal government borrowing (but cheaper when better
management of risks and efficiency of service delivery is taken into account).Based
around different types of contract and risk transfer, these are PPP models that
allocate responsibilities and risks between the public and private partners in
different ways.
Project governance
Project governance has been conceived as how the organisation directs and
controls its projects in order to efficiently, effectively and transparently makes
decisions. Nevertheless, project governance as a term is probably one of the most
misunderstood, terms in modern project management. It has attracted research
attention considerably in the construction industry and therefore immersed in
definition uncertainty. Due to a the lack of a comprehensive, formal definition,
various industries, institutions and organisations have adopted the term and
derived their own connotations to suit their specific applications (Bekker & Steyn,
2009). The information technology industry, for example, associates project
governance with protection of and access control to information (Turbin, 2003:
OGC, 2005), while the public-private partnership (PPP) related organisations (Miller
& Hobbs, 2005) use the term to describe the macro controlling environment within
which projects should function. The definition related to public-private partnership
is simply the quest to improve overall project performance.
The definitions for project governance vary from very narrow to very broad (Ahola
et al. 2014). For example, Turner and Simister (2001) adopted an economics-based
perspective on project governance, defining the concept narrowly as a contract
type used in the project (such as fixed price or cost plus), whereas other authors
have offered considerably broader definitions for the concept. For example,
according to Ruuska et al. (2009), project governance employs principles for
responding to project stakeholder demands, documentation procedures,
communication and contractual arrangements. Many institutions and industries
have also applied the term to suit their application (Bekker & Steyn, 2008).
However, the overriding application in the context of the construction project is
centred on three basic variables: organisation, management and policy framework
(Patel & Robinson, 2010). In mega project delivery, project governance involves the
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coordination, management and prompting the distribution of resources to attain

agreed goals (Patel & Robinson, 2010).
The summary of the main features of project governance as internal to a specific

project consists of the following:
 A project is a nexus of interdependent economic transactions between legally

independent firms;
 The project is a powerful organizational actor that is directed by a specific

joint goal (such as the construction of a building);
 The short-term and long-term goals of firms participating to the project may
conflict with each other – and the goal of the project;
 A governance structure consisting of shared coordination, control, and

safeguarding mechanisms needs to be put in place to align the interests of
multiple organizational actors to work towards a joint goal;
 The governance structure of the project should be aligned with both internal
(organizational capabilities) and external contingencies (regulatory practices).
PPP EXPERIENCE AND PROJECT GOVERNANCE IN NIGERIA

Public Private Partnerships
The emergence of PPP schemes serves as basis for rapid infrastructural
development without directly impacting on the government's budgetary
constraints. This comes to agree with the philosophy behind the Nigeria's
privatization and commercialization decree of 1999. In recognition of the potential
role of PPP in infrastructural development in Nigeria, the government in 2008
established the Infrastructure Concession Regulatory Commission (ICRC) to
develop and take the lead on development of a harmonized PPP policy in the
country (NIQS, 2010; Ibrahim & Haddary, 2010). Though the concept is relatively
new, there is the increasing need to create a more workable and more efficient
procurement protocol to improve the current practice and secure the future of PPP
projects in Nigeria.
The most popular PPP delivery mechanisms used for a variety of infrastructural
projects in Nigeria are the Joint Venture (JV) and the Build-Operate-Transfer
approaches (Ibrahim, Price and Dainty 2006). Although the application of PPP
requires some well levelled structure for implementation, there is no specific PPP
structure at the federal level of government in Nigeria (Ibrahim and Haddary, 2010).
All the concession projects are under the auspices of the National council of
privatization and the Bureau for Public Enterprise (BPE) (Global Legal Group, 2007).
Nigerian government and her different agencies have implemented several

infrastructural projects using the Public-Private Partnership mechanism. For
example, the domestic terminal of Murtala Muhammed International Airport,
Lagos, which was partially destroyed by fire in 2000, was re-built through a
syndicated medium term refinancing facility from a consortium of six Nigerian
banks (Akinyemi 2010). Other examples include Bi-Courtney MM2 airport project
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in Lagos; terminal operation of sea- ports in Lagos, Warri and Port Harcourt (Njidda
2009; NIQS, 2010) and Lagos–Ibadan Expressway expansion project (NIQS, 2010).
States in Nigeria with known involvement in PPP are the Federal Capital Territory
(FCT) Abuja, Lagos, Rivers, and Cross River. For instance, in 2004, Lagos state
government promulgated the Lagos State Roads, Bridges and Highway
Infrastructure (Private Sector Participation) Development Board Laws which
provided a legal structure for PPP to come into play (Global Legal Group, 2007).
Notable PPP projects in Lagos state include: the Lagos state light rail project and
the Lekki expressway project. Those in FCT Abuja include: BOT market and Katampe
district engineering infrastructure. Many other state governments in Nigeria have
expanded the scope of PPP utilization to include roads, railways, airports, hospitals,
water supply, power generation and distribution, waste management,
transportation, ferry services, facility management, tourism, and such other
commercial infrastructure as shopping complexes, security surveillance, markets
and hotels and public conveniences (Omagbitse, 2010). However, the major
challenge to the execution of the of projects in the country is governance.
Project Governance in Nigeria

In Nigeria, increasing numbers of studies have demonstrated strong relationship
between project governance with project success (Jooste, 2009; Awuzie &
McDermott, 2012; Ogunsina & Ogunsemi, 2012). Many projects in Nigeria are
trailing behind set objectives not just in cost, time, quality but in other success
parameters such as local content development (Awuzie & McDermott, 2012),
empowerment, employment, technology transfer and other socio-economic
pushes (NPC, 2004). Jooste (2009) maintained that the lack of proficiently governed
projects is common place in developing countries.
Using the Agency Theory, Ogunsina & Ogunsemi (2012) identified three basic
challenges inherent to project governance structure in Nigeria. These include the
possession of hidden action and agenda; the agent as utility amplifier seeking first
his own interest, and the cost of monitoring agent’s activity in the project web.
Studies in other parts of the world (OGC, 2008; Levitt et al., 2005), identified other
challenges to include: lack of clear links between the project and the organisation’s
key strategic priorities including agreed measures of success, and lack of effective
engagement with stakeholders. Others include lack of skills and proven approach
to project management and risk management, little attention development and
implementation into manageable steps, initial priced based evaluation of
proposals rather lifecycle value for money, the lack of appropriate project team
integration between project board and the supply chain also impedes the
governance of projects, heightened levels of uncertainties and risks and
dimensions of social and political conflicts (Levitt et al., 2005).
ASSESSMENT OF THE SUCCESS IN PPP PROJECTS

Project success has been defined in diverse ways by researchers and each definition
varies depending on the type and size of project (Chan& Chan, 2004). As an
approach towards achieving project success, PPP has been widely applied across
the world by governments to provide a sequence of important public services (e.g.,
health, education, water and electric power supply, and transport) since the global
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financial crisis, owing to the limited funds available for main infrastructure
development. Despite more and more successful operations of PPPs, there are
some project failures such as cost overruns, schedule overruns, and stakeholder
dissatisfaction. There are numerous criteria and factors critical to the success of a
PPP projects and their effective performance evaluation. According to Yong (2010),
the debate about PPP has moved from the ideological argument of their
advantages and disadvantages to the management about how to structure them
well to achieve the predetermined goal, and therefore performance evaluation
must be properly addressed during PPP delivery.
There are some explanatory factors that account for the success and failure of PPP
projects and there are some indicators with which the success and failure are
determined or measured, especially in relation to PPP projects. (Zhang, 2005).These
indicators for measuring the success or otherwise of PPP projects are called Critical
Success Criteria (CSC) while the explanatory factors are called Critical Success
Factors (CSFs). These concepts are different but related. CSC comprises the
successful outcomes of projects and are the parameters on which success is
measured while CSFs are the driving forces to achieve successful project outcomes;
the set of circumstances and facts, which facilitate project success.
Critical success criteria (CSC) for PPP projects
Over time, researchers have criticised the exclusive use of the conventional success
measures of time, cost and quality for construction projects. Some have suggested
the incorporation of other subjective success measures. For instance, Ahadzie et al.
(2008) identified environmental impact and customer satisfaction as important
additional success measurements aside the traditional set of success criteria for
mass housing building projects (MHBP) in developing countries. Furthermore,
ToorA and Ogunlana (2010) emphasized that safety, effectiveness, satisfaction of
stakeholders, efficient use of resources and reduced conflicts are the success
criteria which are very important in assessing large scale construction projects
success compared to the traditional measures. Also, Westerveld (2003) strongly
opined that clients ’appreciation, contracting partners ’appreciation, stakeholders ’
appreciation, users ’appreciation and project personnel appreciation are important
success measures aside the conventional criteria of time, cost and quality.
Notwithstanding, the traditional success criteria do not fully incorporate the proper
implementation of construction projects but mainly focus on the contribution of
profit (Cserháti, 2014). In addition, the traditional measures are geared towards the
satisfaction of project clients and contractors without considering other external
stakeholders ’expectations (Westerveld 2003; Al-Tmeemy et al. 2011). In this
regard, it is always essential for project managers to establish a clear set of success
criteria which integrate both objective and subjective measures in order to properly
evaluate construction projects success (Cox et al.2003).
It has been opined that success measurement is necessary to realize the full
objectives of PPP and is critical to project success (Beatham et. al., 2004;
Gunasekaran & Kobu 2007; Liu et al. 2014). The success of PPP projects is based on
identifiable agreed standard, goals and objectives (indicators) of PPP concept
which form its Critical Success Criteria (CSC) for evaluation. And despite the fact
that there is a large strand of literature on CFC with a focus on the traditionally
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procured projects, studies also abound that identified success criteria for Public-
Private Partnership projects in terms of greater value-for-money and provision of
adequate financial return to the private investor (Ng et al. 2010), cost savings
(Hambros 1999), reduction in construction time and maintaining a high level of
service quality (Akintoye et al. 2003) and satisfaction of stakeholders (Leung et al.
2004; Udayangani et al. 2011). Considering the uniqueness of PPP projects,
Akintoye et al. (2003) and Skietrys et al. (2008) opined that their success criteria will
differ from the traditionally procured projects. Therefore, to have a full
understanding of a successful implementation of PPP requires using some critical
success criteria which are key points in measuring success of PPP projects.
Critical success factors (CSFs) for PPP projects
Morledge and Owen (1999) developed the concept of CSFs further to identify
certain weaknesses associated with the practical application of Rockart’s method.
These include: subjectivity; bias, human inability to process complex information,
change in relation to surrounding environments; imprecise definitions and
generalisations, and qualitative performance measures. Critical success
elements are significantly important to help firms or organizations to identify key
factors that firms should focus on in order to be successful in a project (Rowlinson,
1999). In terms of CSFs of PPP projects, studies have emerged since the 1990s. In
general, there are two types of literature on the CSFs of PPP: studies that evaluate
the CSF of PPP projects in general and studies that assess the CSFs of a specific PPP
project.
To implement Public–Private Partnership (PPP) projects efficiently and effectively it

may be necessary for all the stakeholders to be fully aware of the various success
factors that can aid its successful implementation. Several PPP projects are
currently under taken in Nigeria and other developing countries like India, Nepal,
Latin America and as well as other African countries such as Egypt, South Africa,
Kenya, Uganda, Mozambique to mention a few for their infrastructure
developments. As discussed in some studies in Nigeria (Dada and Oladokun, 2008;
2012; Agboola, 2011; Babatunde, Opawole and Akinsiku, 2012; Olaniyan, 2013)
there are several critical success factors (CSFs) that are investigated for successful
implementation of PPP projects. Equally linked to these identified CSFs are also
some critical success sub-factors that contribute to each category of CSF as well as
to overall performance of PPP projects.
A number of authors have identified CSFs for PPP projects. Tiong (1996) identified
six CSFs for private contractors in competitive tendering and negotiation in BOT
contracts as: entrepreneurship and leadership; right project identification; strength
of the consortium; technical solution advantage; financial package
differentiation; and differentiation in guarantees. Qiao, Wang, Tiong, and Chan
(2001) established eight CSFs in BOT projects in China as: appropriate project
identification; stable political and economic situation; attractive financial package;
acceptable toll/tariff levels; reasonable risk allocation; selection of suitable
subcontractors; management control; and technology transfer. Jefferies et al.
(2002) explored CSFs for BOOT procurement system specific to a Stadium in
Australia.
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The relationship between CSFs and CSCs for PPP projects

The concepts CSC and CSFs have been used interchangeably by some management
literature. However, these concepts are different but related. Based on the
explanations above and as explained by Lim and Mohamed (1999), CSFs are the set
of circumstances and facts, which facilitate project success. This implies that CSFs
are actually the driving forces to achieve successful project outcomes (Rockart
1982). They are not themselves the successful outcomes. On the other hand, CSCs
are the successful outcomes of projects and they are the parameters on which
success is measured (Chan et al.2002). In PPP project implementation, both
concepts are important in achieving success; they collectively operative within the
framework of PPP projects success. In essence, there is a tight relationship between
them in achieving PPP projects success (Lim, 1999).
Technically, to determine PPP projects success, the CSC for PPP projects act as the
dependent variables, whereas the CSFs for PPP projects become the independent
variables. To clearly illustrate the difference and relationship, reduced public and
political protest could be considered a critical success criterion for PPP projects.
For this criterion to be realised, it depends of several critical factors which include
transparency, frequent communication and user fee adjustments. Though the
critical factors influence the projects ’success, they do not form the basis for
judgement but the critical criterion.
This study therefore proposes a framework of PPP project governance based on
the objectives set for the study. The initial component of the framework is the
project governance. This comprises elements such as organisational goal,
organisational capabilities, regulatory practices including coordination, control and
safeguarding mechanisms. These elements are seen as contributors towards the
PPP structure for a particular project. The PPP structure consists of objectives of
PPP, parties involved in PPP, types of PPP, models of PPP, including legal and
administrative frameworks for PPP. Both the project governance and the PPP
structure contributes to the critical success factors (CSFs) which are presented in
their five categories adopted in this study. These are favourable economic
condition, project implementation, effective procurement, government control and
stable political and social environment. These CSFs together with PPP structure
have direct influence on the Critical Success Criteria (CSC). These are project
performance indicators and they are manifested in terms of cost of project, time of
completion, quality of project, stakeholders ’satisfaction, value for money and
environmental impact, among other success criteria. It is these success criteria that
will be the basis of measurement of the success of any PPP project and the
framework for the study will aim at achieving enhance service delivery performance
of PPP in project governance.
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Atoyebi and Ojo
Figure 2.1: Framework to enhance service delivery performance of PPP
Source: Author’s review, 2020
From the framework, elements of project governance (organizational goal,

organizational capabilities, regulatory practices etc.) have a direct link to the
structures of PPP (objectives of PPP, parties involved in PPP, types and models of
PPP, legal and administrative structures etc.). This in unison determines the critical
success factors (favourable economic condition, project implementation, effective
procurement etc.) Afterwards the critical success criteria for the project (cost of
project, time of completion, quality of project etc.) are determined. All these
variables lead to enhanced service delivery performance of PPP in project
governance.
CONCLUSION
The governments are increasingly using public private partnership (PPP)
procurement arrangement to deliver works and services in both developed and
developing countries. The private sector is being used to providing public facilities
through partnerships in order to address the infrastructural deficit without the
financial commitment to the government, so that the limited available resources
could be channelled to other sectors. The utilization of PPP as a procurement
option has been adjudged with several benefits. These include provision of
better infrastructure solutions than an initiative that is wholly public or wholly
private, faster project completion and reduced delays on infrastructure projects by
including time-to-completion as a measure of performance and therefore of profit,
higher return on investment when compared with traditional approach, early
appraisal of risks to determine project feasibility and achievement of high quality
standards throughout the life cycle of the project.PPP as a method of construction
in Nigeria failed many times because majority of the stakeholders do not detailed
the organization and implementation of PPP principles in line with its objectivity
and goals. For PPP implementation to be successful there must be a balance of
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interest among stakeholders involved and a PPP framework must be designed to

best achieve the government objectives in pursing PPPs.
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482
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL HOUSING AGENDA TO SOLVE

HOUSING DEFICIT IN SUB-SAHARA AFRICA: A CASE FOR
OGUN STATE, NIGERIA
Babatunde Adekoyejo Jolaoso1 and Olusegun Olaopin Olanrele2
1Department of Architecture, School of Environmental Studies, Moshood Abiola Polytechnic,
Abeokuta. Nigeria
2Department of Real Estate, Faculty of Built Environment, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
50603, Malaysia
The cumulating housing deficit and its consequences in most Africa nations has
called for a review of housing policies and initiatives across the sub-Sahara Africa.
Scholars have advocated integrative social housing (SH) strategy as possible
solutions for adequate supply of housing to the citizenry. The paper reviewed the
State’s policy initiatives to solving housing provision challenges in Ogun State,
Nigeria. The aim is to showcase the efficacy of social housing programme as a
sustainable option to providing housing that meets the need of low-medium
income group of the population in terms of accessibility and affordability. The study
adopts qualitative research approach, using content analysis of reviewed literature
and a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) of 10 professionals in the built environment
from the academia. The study found that there is neither a specific
policy/programme for social housing nor development models in Ogun State. The
paper suggests policy reforms incorporating SH initiatives within the notion of
affordability in the open-market economy. This study in its contribution to solving
housing problem, viewed social housing with the involvement of the Private Sector
as a possible solution to eradicate housing supply deficit in Sub-Sahara Africa.
Keywords: development models, housing supply, intervention, policy, social

housing
INTRODUCTION
Housing supply deficit and its resultant homelessness, slum development and
informal settlements in most Africa cities, necessitate the review of policies and
initiatives in the housing sector (Olanrele, Jolaoso and Adegunle, 2018). The
government inability to meet the housing demand of its population in various
markets has led to concession of the provision of housing by the government to
the profit focused private sector, which in turn brought about housing units of
exorbitant prices that are unaffordable to the target-inhabitants. Housing policies
and projects in Africa, especially in Nigeria, have always been seen as politically
1 koyejolaoso@gmail.com; koyejolaoso@yahoo.com
2 olanrelesegun@yahoo.com
Jolaoso and Olanrele (2021) Development of social housing agenda to solve housing deficit in sub-
Sahara Africa: a case for Ogun State, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 483-499
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Jolaoso and Olanrele
motivated interventions against fair and equity consideration for those who are
really in need of the housing units. Therefore, the prevalence of housing
inadequacy and supply deficit in urban centres continues to grow unabated with
the concomitant proliferation of informal, slums and squatter settlements resulting
in overcrowding (Olanrele et al., 2018). Omirin (2002) and Ogunba (2009) attributed
the housing supply deficit in Nigeria to inadequate funding. This implies that, both
the supply and demand end of housing delivery are greatly affected by financial
ability and capability.
Daramola (2004); Moskalyk (2008) and Ibem (2011) agreed of the government
intervention in housing provision for the low-income population in the form of
Private Public Partnership arrangement since 2002 but the evidence shows that the
products of the PPP in the housing sector are far above the affordability level of
the target low income group. Addo (2014) was of the opinion that housing should
be revisited as social policy programme; that, the public sector cannot leave such
a social programme completely in the hands of the profit oriented private sector;
and therefore, advocated that an effective Public Private Partnership application to
housing sector can efficiently address the low income housing, if sincerely pursued
towards innovative multiple (high-rise/multi-floor) dwellings against the single
family houses introduced by the colonial masters. Jolaoso, Arayela, Taiwo and
Folorunso (2017) underscored the importance of the deployment of integrative
informal housing and social housing as strategy towards addressing the housing
needs and supply for the different categories of citizens, especially for the urban
poor.
It is in this stead that Olanrele, Jolaoso and Adegunle (2018) noted that, a good
number of studies have investigated the failure of many developing nations in
housing provision and the findings attributed the challenges to finance, land
tenure system, cost of building materials and several other factors. Their study
opined that, effective housing delivery should encompass availability, adequacy,
accessibility, affordability and acceptability; these are intertwined as their interplay
determines the efficiency and sustainability of housing delivery in any nation.
Hence, the need for government’s demonstration of commitment to her social
responsibility towards increase in housing supply through social housing
development initiatives.
In Nigeria, between 1950 and 1990, government was directly involved in the
initiation, direct construction, maintenance and management of housing. Housing
delivery was mostly in the form of official quarters or residences for the military,
public and civil services ’employees which were adopted to address the challenges
of quality and adequate housing. The establishment of the Federal Mortgage Bank
of Nigeria (FMBN) in 1978 was to ease the problem of home finance. In addition,
there were various site and services scheme from government for the rich people
to buy plots and develop their houses. Various housing estates were also
developed to increase the housing by both the federal and state governments in
Nigeria (such as Gowon housing estate in Lagos, Federal Housing Estate, Sagari
Estate across the country by Federal government and different state housing
scheme evolved in the states too. In 1990 the mortgage finance system was
liberalised and Primary mortgage institutions were licenced to ease the access to
mortgage loan following the National Housing Policy supported with the National
484
Housing Act 0f 1992. The adoption of private participation in housing delivery led
to the establishment of Real Estate Developers Association of Nigeria who have
access to the National Housing Fund from the FMBN to increase housing
development activities. However, all these initiatives and policies have not been
able to create enough housing units for the citizenry and individuals (especially
low/medium income group) still go through building development process on
instalment basis as they have fund which takes more than 10 years to complete.
This paper examines previous government’s policy initiatives towards housing

provision in Ogun State, Nigeria and advocate the social housing strategy with the
aim of providing accessible, affordable, acceptable, replicable and self-sustaining
housing that will meet the housing need of the target-groups of low, lower-
medium and medium income population. The specific objective of the paper is to
proffer a practical demonstrable solution through a proposed pilot social housing
scheme in the study area, capable of increasing the number of existing dwelling
units in the study area by about 100%.
The Laderin Workers ’Estate in Abeokuta was selected as pilot scheme for social
housing scheme practical demonstration for Ogun State, Nigeria, taking into
consideration the social needs and the economic capacity of the target-groups of
the low and lower-medium and medium income population/households. Laderin
Workers ’Estate is within Abeokuta and within the contiguous location of the
administrative as well as the seat of power of the capital city of Ogun state, Nigeria.
It has an estimated projected population of about 624,700 with a density of about
5246.2/km² and an area coverage of about 879.0km². It has a relatively population
growth rate of 3.36%/year and possesses advantage of leveraging on subsisting
government land acquisitions. Abeokuta hosts most of the Federal and State
governments ’Ministries, Departments and Agencies; an international stadium,
hospitality businesses, auto technician workshops, train station; markets, public
and private investments institutions, public and private housing estates, light
industries etc. It has ease of access to fleets of hotels and tourist centres for
recreational and cultural events like Olumo rock, Lisabi Day, traditional adire (tye
and dye) Carnival, Drums Festival etc.
The area is currently experiencing gradual integrative transformation as Central

Business District with the on-going urban renewal, upgrading of infrastructure,
standard rail and road expansion. Laderin Workers ’Estate comprises 217 plots on
17,360m² with an estimated 1302 households. Subsisting government land
acquisition along that corridor for urban physical expansion or development can
be leveraged upon for the social housing delivery that can be accessible,
affordable, acceptable, replicable, and self-sustainable. To this study, the target-
group in Nigeria is categorised as those in public/civil service’s salary grade level
1-9 which are usually categorised as workers earning ₦30,000 – ₦167,875 (about
$75- $425) per month as salary.
HOUSING SUPPLY INITIATIVES - AN OVERVIEW

In the developed (western) countries, the direct involvement of the government in
the housing supply/delivery have drastically reduced from the 20th century.
Between 1950 and 1975, government operated as initiator and provider of
485
affordable units by direct construction, maintenance and management, which

resulted into rural-urban migration. By the end of 1975 and early 21st century, the
government focussed on the provision of housing was to address the challenges
brought about by the post-war backlogs of housing deficits in the forms of social
housing projects, provision of subsidies for housing construction and support to
institutional structures. Today, the government of most western countries have
withdrawn as provider of housing to become enabler and facilitator through the
support of private sectors with focus on rental and ownership; providing subsidies
and allowances to deserving individuals and organised private sector entities to
engage in housing delivery (UN-Habitat, 2011; Gilbert, 2004; and Calavit and
Mallach, 2009)
In a developing country like Nigeria, the review of literature shows that, between
1950 and 1990, government was directly involved in the initiation, direct
construction, maintenance and management of housing. Housing delivery was
mostly in the form of official quarters or residences for the military, public and civil
services ’employees which were adopted to address the challenges of rural-urban
migration, urban poor and slum formation through conventional and non-
conventional approaches (such as self-help, site and services, site without services,
slum upgrading, etc.). Government’s involvement in housing of most developing
countries has also shifted from being provider into dual role of a provider and
enabler or facilitator or both in order to meet the ever-growing housing needs.
Thus, government of Nigeria have gradually shifted from being the provider and
enabler of the supply of housing and houses to being the facilitator and regulator.
As a result, the supply of housing is being driven by the market forces through the
participation of private developers and investors especially on rental, ownership
and commercial housing schemes (Ibem, 2011; UN-Habitat, 2011; and Gilbert,
2004). It therefore, underscores the relevance or importance of the development
of social housing.
Historical review of housing policy development in Nigeria in the past five decades
indicates that, housing policy initiatives and programmes have been by way of
intervention in housing provision for the citizenry in the form of skeletal or quasi
manifestation of housing schemes like mass housing, low-cost housing, staff
quarters, workers ’estates and civil servants housing estates or schemes at the
Federal, State, Local government levels (Arayela, 2002, 2004; Jolaoso, et al, 2008;
Arnott, 2008; Kalu, Agbarakwe and Anowor, 2014 cited in Jolaoso, 2017a; and Ibem,
2011a).
In Ogun state, the housing initiatives include the housing estate inherited from the
defunct western region at the state’s creation in 1976, the Ibara housing estate for
the civil servants. Between 1976 and now, more housing estates were developed
by the Ogun State Housing Corporation including Oke Ata Housing Estate, Ewang
Housing Estate, Asero Housing Estate, Elega Housing Estate, Laderin Housing
Estate etc, for both the civil servants and the public. In the area of housing finance,
the state established Gateway Savings and Loans Limited, a mortgage finance
outfit. Site and services scheme were also created for individuals to buy plots and
develop their dream houses. With the private participation initiative in housing
supply, various private developers were allocated land for development. The
Obasanjo Hill Top Estate is one of the private developers ’contribution to housing
486
delivery. Most of these estates are beyond the affordability level of the low income
group even the Laderin Estate that was tagged ‘Workers Estate’. Laderin Estate is
equally poor in term of infrastructure provision, the cause for the choice Laderin
Estate for this study.
Social housing
Attempts have been made by researchers and authors to define or described social
housing in different contexts. Some authors have often conceived of or
interchangeably understood social housing in the context of low-cost or low-
income housing, affordable housing, mass housing, informal housing, slum
upgrading or incremental housing and accretions as housing solution for the
poorest people. Ayala and Geurts (2013) defined social housing as the provision of
a formal housing solution, in principle, which has sufficient potential to be
attractive to the market when government provides adequate incentives or
interventions.
In the Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler (KPMG)’s Report of 2012, social housing
was used to describe public, community and transitional housing, in agreement
with the position Van der Moolen (2015); Priemus (2010); Peppercorn and Taffin
(2013) and Czischke, 2017). It can therefore be inferred from these definitions and
descriptions that, social housing (SH) is a solution to housing provision or supply;
as well as a form of housing provision designed to directly provide housing
assistance to target-groups, who are mostly in need and ordinarily are unable to
afford or access such from the private housing markets without support. Therefore,
social housing entails public sector, private sector and a target group’s ’
participation in housing delivery. Anecdotal evidence (from the government
officials and building industry players through informal discussions with the lead
author) has also revealed that there is little or no clear-cut policy on social housing
in Nigeria. There is neither context-specific programme nor practical-based
project(s) in the notion of social housing in place. However, it is observed that
current efforts to achieving this are underway through pockets of discussions
among relevant stakeholders towards the formulation of a comprehensive and
effective National policy on social housing (Federal Government of Nigeria, 1991,
Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2002, 2006; Ogun State Ministry of Housing, 2008).
In realization of the need to strike a balance between the housing need of the
people, political willingness and the financial realities, the Ogun State Government
under the 2011-2015 transformation agenda built a number of new housing
estates at designated areas across the three (3) senatorial districts. These were
characterised by uncompleted and inefficient infrastructure; use of dysfunctional
earth road, water and electricity supply; and are without schools and other socio-
economic facilities (Ibem, 2011a). These were allocated-to-own at highly subsided
construction prices to eligible civil and public service workers that are National
Housing Trust Fund (NHTF) contributors or participants under the mortgage
system through Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN). However, events have
shown deterioration in infrastructure arising from default or low rate of repayment;
low earnings and delay in salary payment; as well as the realities of the
government’s inability to continue funding direct construction of houses, as there
seems to be no succinct mechanisms for dealing with defaults in repayments (Ibem,
2011; Jolaoso, 2017a; Olanrele, et al, 2018).
487
Based on the account of the housing affordability audit exercise conducted by the
Value Chain Projects Consultant Limited on the Ogun State Housing Corporation’s
delivery of affordable housing (Q1-2017-2018 Pilot-starter homes project), the
scheme appears not to be faring any better in delivering the expected result. The
delivery cost and offered price for sale per dwelling unit of one-bedroom
apartment at ₦3.5million ($11,500) is practically out of reach of the targeted
population. Most of the houses remain largely unoccupied, while those occupied
or subscribed for are by the rich, who ordinarily can afford even at over and above
the going or offered prices and are not really in need of the houses but at best, can
be described as speculative buyers or subscribers. In spite of these initiatives, there
is practically insufficient housing provision for the low income group and this
situation is prevalent in most developing countries (Boamah, 2014; Olanrele et al.,
2018). Thus, the initiative by the government of Ogun State appears to have
suffered the lack of social housing scheme(s) as previous authors had highlighted
(Omirin, 2002; Mahama & Antwi, 2006; Ogunba, 2009; ; Muhammad & Bichi, 2014
and Kabir & Bustani, 2017). Fuller Centre Report (2014), Maigua (2014); and
Awuvafoge (2013) have revealed that, the obstacles to social housing projects are
numerous and include the following:
i. Elite supplanting of the programme and inability of the government to

apply the lessons from the previous experiences of failures.
ii. Low earning power, high interest, and inflation rates to attract direct
financial institutions and developers ’investment.
iii. Inadequate policy and implementation strategies for social housing delivery
iv. Lack of government commitment, political will, and Nepotism/political

compromises at the detriments of the target population for which the
programme was intended.
v. Prohibitive high value and cost placed on land.
vi. Inadequate affordable and long-term mortgage facilities
vii. High cost of and tedious procedure for obtaining land-title and
development permit.
viii. Inadequate or poor knowledge or enlightenment about the advantages
associated with social housing towards increasing the housing stock,
especially for the urban poor.
ix. Inadequate investment in research, training and development of
appropriate skills, materials and construction technology for the production
of buildings and maintenance of social housing
The foregoing suggests the need for this proposal as a pilot scheme that can
possibly be replicated in other locations in the State and elsewhere in Nigeria.
488
METHODOLOGY
The study adopted the combination of content analysis of related reviewed
literature and a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) qualitative study approach (Mitlin,
2011). The FGD panel of ten (10) comprises two (2) each from five (5) professional
groups of Architecture, Building Technology, Urban & Regional Planning, Quantity
Surveying and Estate Management & Valuation. These participants were selected
from amongst academic staff of the School of Environmental Studies of the
Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta whose core area of interest is housing and
urban studies. They are all professionally qualified, competent, registered to
practice in Nigeria and are in active practice for at least ten years in their respective
discipline.
The focus group discussion was moderated by the researcher with two other
research assistants from amongst the panel members as recorder and observer.
Questions addressed at the discussion largely borders on the Government’s
housing policies and initiatives; housing supply, affordability, accessibility and
acceptability; finance, socio-economic groups and design considerations;
development models, key stakeholders and their roles. In addition, a list of
parameters/factors extracted from the literature review and policy analysis were
presented to the discussants to rate their agreement on a likert scale of 1-5,
ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The discussion was a two-day
event and was held at a meeting room in the Academic Planning Unit of the
Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta that was found convenient for the purpose.
The contents of identified common themes from opinions and responses to the
issues were collated and analysed in relation to information extracted from the
reviewed literature. These were presented as findings and constitute the major
basis for the proposal on the social housing scheme. Audio-visual recording was
not taken, and anonymity of the participants was maintained in order to gain the
confidence of participants. Figures 1 and 2 illustrates the block diagram and flow
chart of research methodology respectively.
Figure 1: Block diagram of research methodology (Author’s illustration)
489
Figure 2: Research methodology flow chart (Author’s illustration)
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The panel was unanimous that, there is neither any clear-cut policy nor any
practical-based project(s) in the notion of social housing in place in Nigeria; and
that, social housing (SH) can be described as a solution to housing challenge in the
nation, while corroborating the opinion that SH is a form of formal housing
solution with adequate potential to be attractive to the market. The submissions
appear to agree with the positions of Ayala and Geurts (2013) and Jolaoso et al.
(2017) and also affirmed the need for the development of a practical and context-
specific social housing agenda for Ogun State, Nigeria.
To drive and develop the social housing agenda, the study sought information
across and discussed on the most relevant development models or key parameters
as extracted from the literature (Moss, 2003; SHF/Development works, 2004;
Gilbert, 2004; Moskalyk, 2008; Calavita and Mallach, 2009; Social Housing
Foundation, 2010; Ibem, 2011; UN-Habitat, 2011; UN-Habitat and Gilbert 2011; and
Czischke, 2017).
Table 1 present the fourteen (14) development models or key parameters extracted
from the reviewed literature and the rated responses by the FGD. Out of the 10
discussants, seven (7) fully participated to the end and gave their responses to the
listed parameter distributed to them at the beginning of the FGD. The other 3 who
left earlier did not return their questionnaire. The responses from the participants
agreed that the tenure, stakeholders, target groups, delivery strategies, housing
needs assessment, financial, access to land for development and design
490
considerations are the eight (8) key development parameters by according the
parameters the most favourable response possible (MFRP). The delivery agent,
management and maintenance, cooperative and community participation are the
four (4) development key parameters that have least favourable response possible
(LFRP) by the discussants, while the performance agreement and performance
quality are the two (2) development models or key parameters with neutral
responses possible (NRP). The key development models/parameters identified and
discussed by the FGD panel members are presented in turn below.
Target groups models

These were classified as low, lower-medium, medium and high-income groups. The
low and lower-medium are employees in the public and civil services whose regular
minimum average monthly earnings or income is between ₦30,000 and ₦115,735
(about $75 - $293) and are regular contributors to the National Housing Trust Fund
(NHTF).
Table 1: Participants’ responses/opinions on questions relating to development models in

scalogram analysis
Development Summated/Likert’s-type 5-point scale, Number of
S/N Models or NoP responses and scores
Parameters SA (5) A (4) UD (3) D (2) SD (1)
1 Tenure 7 4 20 3 12 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 Delivery agent 7 1 5 1 4 5 15 0 0 0 0
3 Stakeholders 7 4 20 2 8 1 3 0 0 0 0
4 Target groups 7 3 15 4 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 Delivery strategies 7 3 15 4 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
Housing needs
6 7 4 20 1 4 1 3 1 2 0 0
assessment
7 Financial 7 3 15 4 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
Accessing land for
8 7 3 15 4 16 0 0 0 0 0 0
development
Management &
9 7 1 5 2 8 4 12 0 0 0 0
maintenance
Performance
10 7 1 5 2 8 3 9 1 2 0 0
agreement
11 Cooperative 7 1 5 1 4 4 12 1 2 0 0
Community
12 7 1 5 1 4 4 12 1 2 0 0
participation
13 Performance quality 7 0 0 1 4 1 3 5 10 0 0
Design
14 7 5 25 2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0
considerations
Cumulative Total 98 42 170 33 128 14 63 9 18 0 0
Source: Author’s Computations
SA: strongly agree; A: Agree; UD: Undecided; D: Disagree; SD: Strongly Disagree; NoP: No. of
participants
The prospective applicants from this target group constitute the possible
beneficiaries of not exceeding 40% of any designated social housing scheme
provided. The medium and high prices houses are for employees in the organised
491
private sectors, public and civil services, whose regular minimum average monthly
earnings or income is above ₦115,735 but less than ₦197,500 (about $293 - $500)
and are regular contributors to the NHTF. The prospective applicants from this
target group constitute the possible beneficiaries of not exceeding 60% of any
designated social housing scheme provided. The panel also identified private social
rental and commercial housing development model as components of the 60% of
any designated social housing scheme provided, in which prospective applicants
from the organised private sectors could benefit from as rent-to-own and/or
outright ownership schemes in the proportion of 30%:70% respectively.
Stakeholders model
The panel underscores the importance of stakeholders in the development of
sustainable social housing delivery in Nigeria. It identified and agreed on the
relevance of Government’s MDAs like Ministry of Housing, Ministry of Works and
Infrastructure, Ogun State Housing Corporation, Ogun State Property and
Investment Corporation (OPIC), Gateway Holdings Limited (Property section),
Works Departments in the existing 57 Local Government Areas (LGAs) and Local
Council Development Authorities (LCDAs) of Ogun State, especially in the areas of
administrative, regulatory functions, coordination and communication schedules
through the creation of awareness and enlightenments on pre-conditions or
eligibility requirements, process, procedures, duties and responsibilities;
obligations, sanctions amongst other matters connected therewith and related
thereto. Their roles should also include publicity and mobilisation of prospective
participants and stakeholders; providing specific financial supports, land or land
banking finance and land preparation. The roles of NGOs like the registered group
formations or associations in the form of community development associations
(CDAs), cooperative societies, civil/public service, trade unions; civil societies ’
organisations, faith-based organisations, professional associations, building
materials manufacturers ’associations, consumers/end-users and general public
were noted to be apt. The importance of their roles cannot be overemphasised,
especially in the areas of rights, obligations and responsibilities; needs assessments
and development; sensitization, coordination and feedbacks to government and
financiers.
Delivery strategy model

Having noted several stakeholders and the possibilities of harnessing and
deploying their human, financial and material resources to drive and develop social
housing agenda, the panel came to conclusion on the need to encourage the
consolidation of the plethora of groups ’actions in housing delivery under a
centrally coordinated delivery agent to be designated as Social Housing Mandates
Association (SHMA). The panel came to a position that, the SHMA should be
saddled with the responsibilities of engaging, collaborating and coordinating
inputs or involvements of private developers, investors, financiers, Governments ’
Ministries, Departments, Agencies (MDAs), registered group formations and
associations like Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC), Trade Union Congress (TUC),
Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU), Academic Staff Union of Polytechnics
(ASUP), Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT), Senior Staff Association of Nigeria
Universities/Polytechnics (SSANU/SSANIP), Non-academic Staff Unions (NASU)
and others in pursuance of the social housing agenda. SHMA is therefore, expected
to operate as coordinating organ under the Private-Public Participation
492
arrangement and as a not-for-profit private institution for the public good and
within the ambience of affordable open-market economy.
Tenure model
The tenure models identified and adjudged relevant by the panel are leasehold
tenure model for a period of 99 years in line with the extant Land Use Decree (LUD)
of 1978 and Land Use Act (LUA) of 2004 as amended. The social rental tenure model
for the low-medium income groups; the private social rental and commercial
housing development tenure model, which are further stratified for the benefit and
accessibility of prospective applicants with regular monthly income who are either
in the civil or public service employment, or in the organised private sector
employments, the medium and high-income groups too are inclusive.
Housing needs assessment model

The panel identified the participation of the private developers in the housing
sector as strictly a business venture and had not in any way attempted to mitigate
the housing problem of the low-income group. This position corroborates Olanrele
et al. (2018) that, only the medium and the high-income groups can afford their
housing products. It was recognised that, though the government had been
making concerted efforts to improve the housing situation in the country, the
operating policies, programmes and projects are not pro- social housing
development. The panel was unanimous in stating that, housing supply in Nigeria
is inadequate, which agrees with the UN assertion of 17 million estimated deficit
and acknowledged government, private individual, corporate organisations and
related group formations as the major players in the development of housing in
Nigeria (Olanrele et al., 2018). It was similarly agreed upon that, there is a huge gap
between housing demand and supply, which underscores the need for the
development of template and the conduct of survey research towards the
generation of comprehensive data for the formulation of social housing delivery
policies, programmes and projects.
Land access model for development
Access to land for the development of social housing are available across the 57
LGAs and LCDAs of Ogun State, which is through release of public land under the
extant LUD, 1978 and LUA, 2004 (as amended) by acquisition with or without
compensation or by expropriation, land adjustment or land capturing and pooling
or assembly. It can also be by unlocking serviced idle land or by transforming
undeveloped land for the public good or overriding public interest and for private
social housing projects at subsidised rate or value. Such land can then be
designated and physically delineated into layouts or development plans, possessed
and use for social housing delivery that would be driven by social responsibility.
The social housing scheme should essentially be mixed-development, comprising
below–the-market-price or subsidised incremental social rental, rent-to-own,
private ownership and commercial types of developments. Other model options
for accessing land include group acquisition, ownership and documentation of
land by employers or cooperative societies for and on behalf of individual
members of such formations, which need to be encouraged by the government.
There is also the need to review the extant Land Use Act towards making the
process of registering land titles, obtaining Governor’s consent and secured-tenure
493
less cumbersome or without bureaucratic encumbrances and without heavy taxes,

levies, rates and fees.
Financial models for social housing projects, incentives and interventions

The most attractive, relevant and applicable financial models identified and
considered by participants in the focus group discussion (FGD) for the
development of social housing projects are State Budgetary Finance Commitments
(SBFC) with initial equity offers on commercial components of social housing
projects (SHPs) as social responsibility; Designated Consolidated Housing Fund
(DCHF) for SHPs through contributions from National Housing Trust Fund (NHTF),
Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN), group formations like
CDAs/Unions/Associations or Cooperative, Private Mortgage Institutions and
donors/donor agencies. These models can be guaranteed by government’s buy-
back finance and regulatory framework or guidelines to engender trust, confidence
and interest in the participants/investors. The FGD also observed the inherent
challenges of low earnings, savings and low disposable income for housing; loop-
sided risk sharing, economic, policy and political instability; non-commercial
viability and lack of political will to effectively and efficiently drive housing supply.
Findings further revealed that, the determination of contributors ’affordability and

eligibility to access NHTF credit facility depends on the respective contributor’s
years-left-in-the-service or remaining years expected in active employment which,
must not be less than twenty years. The panel agreed with the position of Jolaoso
et al. (2012) that, there is the need for upward review of salaries for workers
(especially for the low-income earners) to enhance contributors ’affordability and
eligibility status towards facilitating their access to credit/loan facility for rentals,
home acquisition or ownership through NHTF or mortgage.
Design considerations and typologies of social housing

Findings from the FGD show that, in making the delivery of social housing projects
effective, consideration must be given to the design of house typologies within the
minimum allowable planning, design and development standards. Attention
should be given to the socio-economic, cultural, demographic characteristics and
aspiration of the prospective end-users through the provision of functional spaces
(like 1-3 bedroom dwellings) with capacity to expand on incremental basis;
provision of basic amenities and infrastructure based on available disposable fund
for SHPs; possibility of integrated densification with abutting land use and public
spaces to create more dwelling units within the same plots-area coverage and
minimal vehicular-pedestrian conflicts. The use of available indigenous building
materials and manpower as avenue for job creation and economic enhancement
are necessary factors.
PROPOSAL ON PILOT SOCIAL HOUSING SCHEME

For the proposed Pilot Social Housing Scheme in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria,
(Figures 3-7 and Table 2) are presented as demonstrable solution towards
increasing the number of existing dwelling units, that will be accessible, affordable,
acceptable, replicable and self-sustaining to the target-groups of low, lower-
medium and medium income population in Ogun State. The following critical
assumptions were made with respect to the proposed design and typologies.
494
i. The scheme shall be driven by the government as a demonstration of her

commitment to social responsibility and public good
ii. Provision of starter-core (twin) dwelling units of one (1) bedroom each per
unit of about 80m² each on a plot of about 540m² area coverage. Thus, two
(2) dwelling units of 160m²/plot of 540m² as against the existing situation
of a dwelling unit/plot of 540m²
iii. The physical development plan or masterplan shall be based on the concept
of densification, while the design and construction of the dwelling units shall
be incremental basis (starter-core and/or shelter types)
iv. The scheme shall be for rental and ownership at prices between
₦1,580,000.00 - ₦4,740,000.00 ($4000-$12,000) per dwelling unit.
v. Prospective beneficiaries or eligible individual or corporate shall essentially
be in compliance with the NHTF requirements.
vi. Prospective individual beneficiary or eligible individual shall have
opportunity of accessing mortgage credit/facilities of up to ₦5 million
($12,658.23), while the prospective corporate beneficiary or eligible
ccorporate and private sector entities shall have opportunity of accessing
mortgage credit/facilities of up to about ₦10million ($25,316:46) for the
components directly relating to Social Housing Projects only (NHTF, 2005
and FMBN, 1993).
Table 2: Achievable result of the proposed social housing scheme for the study area of Laderin
Workers Estate, Abeokuta comprising 217 plots on 17,360sqm area coverage with a 100%
increase in the number of dwellings over and above the existing dwelling units.
Existing Situation Proposal
S/N Descriptions items
Number Sq.m/dwelling Number Sq.m/dwelling
1 Total Plots 217 117,180sqm 217 117,180sqm
2 Average Plot size 1 15 x 36 m 1 15 x 18m
3 Average Plot Area coverage 1 540 sqm 1 270 sqm
Dwelling Typologies (Prototype Incremental Development: 1- 3 Bedrooms)
1- Bedroom 86 80sqm 172 80sqm
4
Estimated total study area
5 217 17,360sqm 434 17,360sqm
coverage
Estimated Households Size (@ 6
6 1302 N/A 2604 N/A
Person per Dwelling)
7 Shops/commercial/communal nil - 9
8 Parks/green/Recreation Yes Decentralised 3 Grouped and
Private and Decentralised
9 Schools, health, etc, Yes 1
substandard
Source: Author’s Fieldwork
vii. Delivery strategy models are by public-private partnership initiatives.
495
viii. Participation of NGOs/CDAs/Consumers in the needs ’assessments, project

delivery, maintenance and management.
ix. The target-groups are the civil/public service workers at the low and lower-
medium income bracket for the social rental scheme (40%) and medium and
high in civil/public and organised private sectors for private social rental and
ownership comprising the balance of 60% in the proportion of 30:70
respectively.
x. Delivery Agent Model shall be a Not-for-Profit Private Institution as Social

Housing Mandates Association (SHMA) for public good within the notion of
affordable open-market economy and operate as Coordinating Organ of the
PPP.
xi. The Social Housing Mandates Association (SHMA) shall engage, collaborate
and coordinate inputs of private developers/investors, financiers, and other
stakeholders.
xii. The Financial Model for the Project is expected to be from State Budgetary
Finance commitments with initial equity offers on commercial components
of SHP; Donors/donor agencies; Designated Consolidated Housing Fund for
SHP in respect of contributions from
NHTF/FMBN/CDAs/Unions/Associations/Cooperatives; Private Mortgage
Institutions guaranteed by government framework and guidelines through
buy-back finance guarantee.
xiii. The Management and Maintenance Model shall be participatory model in

the decision making and taking processes through involvement of the Social
Housing Mandates Association (SHMA), CDAs, residents/end-users, general
public and the designated regulatory organ; formulation of unambiguous
and context-specific tenancy/landlord and management and maintenance
agreement manual. The Ministry of Housing shall be the regulatory,
monitoring and evaluation organ, who shall register interests under Social
Housing Mandates Association (SHMA) and shall set guidelines/framework
for tenants/landlord agreement manual, standard of operations,
monitoring, evaluation and control; and define rights, privileges,
obligations, roles, duties, sanctions and rewards.
496
Dwelling typologies with prototype incremental development
Figure 7: Typical Floor Plan of a fully developed twin-3-bedroom dwelling unit per plots of 540 m²
CONCLUSIONS
This study has examined the housing inadequacy and demonstrated that Social
Housing scheme(s) can be part of solution to solving the housing supply challenges
in developing country like Nigeria. From the findings, it is suggested that massive
review of all relevant and subsisting housing policy and Acts, such as: NSITF, 1993;
FMBN, 1993; NHTF, 2005, National Housing Policy (2012) be carried out to
succinctly accommodate and effectively integrate shades of SHP models; as well as
to provide for better compensation mechanism and protection against negative
effect of political instability and manipulations. This will help in the development
of SHPs operational guidelines or manual that will in turn lead to the establishment
of realistic repayment-default prevention and control mechanisms; formation of
organised Social Housing Associations; and access to affordable land and
mortgage credit facilities.
It is also pertinent for the government to offer and grant buy-back guarantee or
pay-off option while collaborating with stakeholders in re-financing or re-
capitalising PMIs and FMBN schemes to accommodate lower interest rate payment.
This will engender risk-sharing platform, stimulate trust and public confidence that
will in turn promote and mobilise voluntary participation of investors, private
497
developer and other stakeholders towards the delivery of SHPs. The study foresees
SHP as an efficient and effective solution for increasing the housing supply,
especially for the target-groups in the urban cities. Its acceptance, viability and
participation are largely driven by social responsibility, ability and willingness to
pay, which can be made more effective through PPP while the government plays
transitory roles from provider to regulator as social responsibility or right.
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Ayala & Geurts (2013), Course handbook and curriculum for Postgraduate Diploma
Programme on developing social housing projects (DSHP), Institute for housing
and urban development studies, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, Netherlands, pp.3-
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Boamah, N. A. (2014). Housing Policy in Ghana: The Feasible Path. Ghana Journal of
Development Studies, 11(1).
Czischke, D. (2017). Collaborative housing and housing providers: towards an analytical
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Daramola, S. A. (2004). Private, Public Participation in housing delivery in Nigeria. Paper
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Federal Government of Nigeria (1991). The National Housing Policy. Lagos: Federal
Ministry of Works and Housing. Abuja.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2002). Government white paper on the report of the
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Federal Republic of Nigeria (2006). Housing sector reforms. Federal Ministry of Information
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Gilbert, A. (2004). Helping the poor through housing subsidies: lessons from Chile,
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Gilbert, A. (2011). Policy guide to rental Housing in developing countries, Quick policy
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Ibem, E. O. (2011). The contribution of public-private partnerships (PPPs) to improving
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Ibem, E. O. (2011a). Evaluation of public housing in Ogun State, Nigeria. (PhD thesis),
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(PhD Thesis), Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure,
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
DIURNAL TEMPERATURE CHANGES AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

EXPERIENCE: CASE STUDY ANALYSIS OF INDOOR
CONDITION IN A SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT IN NIGERIA
Eludoyin Oyenike Mary1
Department of Geography and Planning Science, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko,
Ondo State, Nigeria
Studies have shown that school residence and hostels thermal environments could
impact on thermal comfort and learning performance. Majority of current
researches on the school indoor thermal environment have been focusing on urban
areas, but notably little research has been conducted on rural and medium-size
urban schools. The present study characterized the daytime thermal condition (in
terms of the ambient air temperature change) in a University campus in southwest
Nigeria, and examined the perception of students in the halls of residence on
thermal condition and their strategies for coping with extreme thermal cases.
Ninety-eight (98) copies of a set of structured questionnaire were administered,
and the weight and body temperature of the respondents were measured
alongside with the ambient temperature and relative humidity at morning and
afternoon sessions, making a total of 196 sessions. Diurnal thermal range varied
between 32.4°C and 35°C in the morning and between 26.5°C and 30.9°C in the
evening. Thirty-five (35%) percent of the subjects (young male and female students,
aged 18 – 45 years) associated thermal discomfort with restlessness and profuse
sweating but 13% did not feel any significant thermal stress within the study period.
Also, effects of thermal stress varied diurnally; whereas 65% of the subjects
experienced heat rashes and headache in the evening and afternoon, respectively,
about 10% experienced profuse sweat and chest constriction in the morning. Lastly,
perception of thermal stress varied with room temperature, subjects ’body weight,
period of the day and ventilation. The study concluded that thermal discomfort in
the area is influenced by indoor and outdoor atmospheric conditions as well as
subjects ’physical and physiological characteristics.
Keywords: indoor characteristics, perception, physiology, temperature, thermal

stress
INTRODUCTION
Background to the study
The school thermal environment is known to impact learning from primary to
tertiary institutions (Liu et al., 2017; Jiang et al., 2020; Guevara et al., 2021). The
school’s residential and classroom environment are examples of indoor thermal
environment that forms an important part of the consideration for satisfaction,
1 baynick2003@yahoo.com
Eludoyin (2021) Diurnal temperature changes and physiological experience: case study analysis of
indoor condition in a school environment in Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West
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globally, probably because people are likely to spend averagely more than 90% of
their time indoors, and students would spend about 30% of their lives in schools
(De Giuli et al., 2012; Korsavi, et al., 2021).
Typical human body maintains a core temperature within a narrow range of 37o C
but humans tend react to changes in environmental temperature with alteration in
body conditions and some other physiologic factors (Subedi, 2021). Appropriate
indoor conditions are therefore necessary, especially for schools which house
people of different ages and of different economic, social and ethnical background
since studies have revealed that the factors affecting thermal comfort for adults,
infants, children and adolescents may be dissimilar (e.g. Kadlec, 2021). Apart from
ages and experience, factors such as clothing type, metabolic rate and the activity
levels are not the same for optimal conditions between the two groups. On the
other hands, many schools in developing countries are usually not provided with
atmospheric conditioning systems, due to economic reasons. Here, the indoor
temperature, humidity, wind speed and other parameters would vary along with
the outdoor parameters, which could greatly affect students ’psychological
experience (Liu et al., 2020).
Thermal comfort is the condition of the mind that expresses satisfaction with the
thermal environment (Wang & Liu, 2020). It is also the absence of discomfort, when
a person feels neither too warm nor cold (Sansaniwal et al., 2020). Many people
would feel comfortable at room temperature (20-22oC) but variations occur with
different individuals and personal attribute level, including activity level, clothing,
and humidity (Lee & Ham, 2021). In many schools, students may not be able to
open or close windows to change their status randomly at will, and classrooms in
developing countries often have high density of students, such that there can be a
large variation in the thermal sensation between the students in classrooms, halls
of residence and other people in the community (Al-Khatri et al., 2020; Munonye,
2020). Perception on thermal comfort is typically defined in terms of the physical,
psychological sensations generated by the thermal environment stimuli, activity,
clothing, experience and human expectation (Aulicems, 1998).
Main factors that influences thermal comfort are those that determine heat gain
and loss (including metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air temperature, mean
radiant temperature, airspeed and relative humidity), psychological factors (such
as individual expectations and responses also affect thermal comfort; Schweiker et
al., 2018). Thermal comfort may vary based on the location of the environmental
condition; i.e. indoor or outdoor environment. Indoor spaces are important and
contribute greatly to livability and vitality (Hakim et al., 1998); people are also not
directly exposed to sunshade, changes in wind speed and other characteristics in
the outdoor environment but are affected by the interaction between the medium
of their building materials, and available infrastructure in the rooms and immediate
environment. The relationship of physical parameters to physiological response of
humans, however remains poorly understood (Hartmann & Bung, 1999).
A number of bio-meteorological indices have been developed to describe human
thermal comfort levels. Most of these indices are based on the assumption that
people’s exposure to an ambient climatic environment has enabled them to reach
thermal equilibrium overtime (Nagano & Horikoshi, 2011). Examples of the indices
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include the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) (Zhang & Lin, 2020) which predicts the
mean thermal response of a large population of people. It is often measured on a
seven-point scale (hot, warm, slightly warm, neutral, slightly cool, cool, and cold)
or Predicted Percentage Dissatisfied Index (PPD), which is defined as the
quantitative prediction of the percentage of thermally dissatisfied people at each
PMV value. The PPD was originally developed as an indoor thermal comfort index,
but has also been commonly adopted in outdoor thermal comfort studies in which
a large group of people are being surveyed (Liu et al., 2020). Similar subjective
method is the Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) (Davtalab et al., 2020)
which is the air temperature at which, the human energy budget is maintained by
the skin temperature, core temperature and sweat rate equal to those under the
conditions to be assessed (Klous et al., 2020). The indices translate the valuation of
a complex outdoor climatic environment to a simple indoor scenario on a
physiologically equivalent that can be easily understood. The subjective indices
have been combined with climatic data to assess human thermal response to the
local environment (Elnabawi & Hamza, 2020).
Concept of thermal comfort and heat stress
Human thermal comfort is the state of mind that expresses satisfaction with the
surrounding environment according to ASHRAE standard 55 (Arif & Yola, 2020).
One of the most important properties of the human body is to keep constant the
internal body temperature (37.5°C); also known as homoeothermic property. Zhang
& Wang (2020) described human beings as homoeothermic who need to maintain
their body temperature by thermoregulatory and/or behavioral adjustments to
adapt to changing environments. Thermal comfort often depends six fundamental
factors that are clothing, air temperature, radiant temperature, humidity, air
movement, and metabolic heat (Bennetts et al., 2020), and these factors have been
described as the determinants of human thermal balance [1]:
𝑀±𝑊 =𝑆±𝑅±𝐶±𝐾−𝐸 (1)
Where
M = metabolic heat production,
W = energy consumed/absorbed by mechanical work,
E = heat transfer via evaporation
R = heat transfer by radiation,
C = heat transfer via convection,
K = heat transfer via conduction, and
S = heat storage
The human heat balance suggests that heat input source varies with the ambient
temperature, such that heat source within the body is often the one that is
metabolically generated in normal climatic conditions (Luo, 2020). In
uncomfortable conditions, when the ambient temperature is greater than skin
temperature, the heat input is combined by heat transfer from the environment
with that generated by metabolic activities within the body. Heat is transferred
between the body and the surrounding environment; either as dry heat transfer via
conduction (between solid surfaces contacting with each other), convection
(between a solid surface and its surrounding fluid) and radiation (via emission or
absorption of electromagnetic waves) or as sweat evaporation (heat transfer via
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respiration) (Fig. 1). The heat storage (S) in the equation reflects the thermal debt
situation of the body, such that when the body is in a thermally neutral state, it (S)
is zero; it becomes positive when the heat loss is less than the heat production,
which causes rise in body temperature. On the other hand, the S will be negative if
heat loss is greater than the heat production, and this may cause a fall in body
temperature.
Heat stress, the overall effect of excessively high temperature that disturbs the
body's thermal comfort and cold stress, a condition marked by abnormally low,
internal body temperature which develops when the body loses heat faster than it
produces it, are the extremes of thermal comfort (Di Napoli et al., 2020; Tomczyk
et al., 2020).
Figure 1. Heat transfer between the human body and surrounding environment
(Source: Zhang & Wang, 2020).
For steady exposure to cold and warm environments, thermal comfort and neutral
temperature sensations lie in the range for physiologic thermal neutrality (28°-
30°C), in which there is no physiologic temperature regulatory effort.
Discomfort increases more rapidly below 28°C than above 30°C, while thermal
sensation for both heat and cold increases rapidly on each side of the neutral.
Discomfort correlates best with lowering average skin temperature towards cold
environments and with increased sweating towards hot environments. In general,
discomfort is associated with a change of average body temperature from 36.5°C.
The same conclusion follows for transient changes when the subject goes from
comfortable to uncomfortable, neutral to cold, and neutral to warm. However, cold
stress would actually occur in cold environment just as heat stress would occur in
hot environment. If a body cannot maintain thermal equilibrium, the amount of
heat gained by the metabolism cannot offset the amount of heat lost from the
body to the environment. If the equilibrium of the body's core temperature is
maintained, heat or cold stress will not accumulate. However, the body seldom
maintains a precise thermal equilibrium.
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Awareness about the impact of weather on human physiological experience

Increasing awareness of continued accumulation of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere that is expected to cause an increase in global temperature (Adenuga
et al., 2021) has increased the amount of discussions in the field. Much discussed
include the impact of climate on the following:
1. heat-related mortality and morbidity (Santamouris & Osmond, 2020);
2. infectious diseases, particularly those that are arthropod-borne (Wu et al.,

2021);
3. malnutrition and dehydration from threatened food and water supply (Rosinger
& Young, 2020);
4. general public health infrastructural damage from weather disasters and sea-
level rise, aggravated by climate-related forced human migration (Bell & Masys,
2020); and
5. tourism and thermal comfort (Zhu et al., 2020).
Most of these researches appear to have been motivated by the potential

usefulness of climate information within planning processes for comfort, tourism
and recreation. They mostly address bioclimatology as being adjunct to a variety
of decision making processes ranging from those related to such things as study
of human health, diseases prevalence, development and location of appropriate
recreational facilities, or determining the length of the recreation season during
which a facility will operate, to those as specific as planning future activities
involving personal decisions of when and where to go for a holiday. There has also
been interest in the indirect effects of climate. Thus, depending on the weather
sensitivity of the human livelihood activity, information gathered through the study
of bioclimatology can help in the planning, scheduling and promoting of
alternative indoor entertainment facilities. It can also be used to condition tourists'
expectations of climate at certain locations (Pérez & Cantos, 2020).
Research problem and objectives
Given the increased concerns of the effects of thermal comfort indices on man has
translated into research, many researchers have attempted to understand the
views, severity and implications of these effects as well as seeking to understand
how people cope with them (Antoniadis et al., 2020). An understanding of the
nature of thermal comfort index of a region or area is important. This ensures a
better understanding of the thermal conditions and comfort of the people. The
study on the University environment is underpinned by the assumption that ivory
towers should serve as template from which communities can learn. Students are
also characterized by diverse demographic, social and economic background, and
as such, understanding their perceptions and feeling under similar climatic
conditions encouraged curiosity about varying perceptions and coping strategies,
hence this study.
Specific objectives are therefore to examine the perception of a set of
systematically selected students on thermal condition in their University (Obafemi
Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria), characterize the diurnal thermal condition in
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the study area and examine prominent coping strategies against thermally
uncomfortable weather/climatic condition.
STUDY AREA
The study area, Obafemi Awolowo University campus in the southwestern Nigeria
(Fig. 2), has a population of over 30,000 students and many hundreds of staff
(Babatimehin et al., 2020). The area is climatically distinguished by two distinct
seasons; wet/rainy and the dry seasons, which is experienced April - October and
November-March, respectively. Mean annual rainfall is about 1237 mm. The
vegetation is naturally rain forest but now has many areas that are covered by
herbs, grasses and light forest due to human interferences. Analysis of the land use
pattern suggests that the built-up area of the campus can stratified into Students ’
residences, Staff quarters, and Administrative and Academic area, which consists of
administrative blocks, classrooms, amphitheater and other hall facilities, library,
student union building and places for entertainment, recreation and sports.
Students ’accommodation facilities (halls of residence) are separated from the
Academic and Administrative blocks. Cafeterias and markets are also separated to
another section of the University land while staff quarters and an extensive land for
agriculture and land/water-related researches are made to occupy a large space
on the University campus, as well. The staff quarters contain over 500 housing units
for senior academic and administrative staff and more than 30 semi-detached units
for junior staff. Junior staff quarters are located towards the end of “Road 7” linking
the campus with the city of Ile-Ife via the ‘Second Gate’. The staff quarters are well
planned with great care; the uniformly consistent and attractive environment,
based on the principles of garden city planning features, is planned to give a sense
of belonging. The Students halls of residence include, Awolowo, Fajuyi,
Postgraduate/Murtala Mohammed, Angola, Mozambique, Moremi, Ladoke
Akintola/Sport, Education Trust Fund/ETF and Alumni Halls. Each hall is capable of
accommodating between 1,000 and 5,000 students.
Fig. 2. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife (Adapted from Babatimehin et al., 2020)

The study design was experimental, and data were obtained in two weeks in May
2018. Use of daily data for weather analysis is common and acceptable in
climatological researches, since weather is the atmospheric condition for a short
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time, a synthesis of which can be used for prediction (Duarte & Sentelhas, 2020).
Data used for this study included the ambient air temperature, taken at different
period of the day (0800 – 1000 and 1600 – 1800 Local Standard Time, which are
peak periods of activities in the University). Data also include responses of a
purposively selected participants on feelings, thermal discomfort and coping
strategies, as well as their body characteristics. Selected participants were male and
female students, aged 18 – 45 years. Responses were obtained from participants in
halls of residence, following a multistage procedure;
 Seven halls of residence were systematically sampled, considering gender,

level of dominant residents (postgraduate versus undergraduate halls) and
location (based on compass direction).
 From selected halls, three blocks of rooms (1st, 50th and 99th rooms) at the
upper and lower floors were targeted for even distribution and
understanding of thermal conditions.
 In all, a total of 98 copies of questionnaire were administered in the hostels;

two (Angola and Mozambique) has only one floor - bungalow buildings.
Air temperature and relative humidity were obtained using handheld thermometer
and hygrometer, while perception on using a set of structured questionnaires. Also,
a handheld Global Positioning System (etrex version) was used to take the
coordinates of the halls of residence and specified locations in the study area. Body
temperature of the participants and their weight were measured using clinical
thermometer and a mechanical bathroom weight measuing scale, respectively.
Results were analysed using isotherms and percentage distribution.
Analysis of the data were acheved using statistical and kriging interpolation in
standard statictical software. Specifically, the map was done using PAlentological
STatitics (PAST 3) while other analysis was achived using SPSS (IBM 21 version)
software.

Outdoor and indoor air temperature changes
Outdoor air temperature varied more in the evening than the morning time across
the university campus, and surprisingly the morning time was warmer than the
evening time, although the evening time showed more variability (27°C – 30.9°C
compared with 32.3°C – 35.2°C) (Fig. 3). Higher outdoor temperature during the
morning-time suggests that heat generating activities may be more in the morning
than the evening. Students cook more in their hostels, and the movements to
attend lectures appear to be at peak in many days. The study period was within the
lecture periods of the University, when students often rush to attend classes, and
when many practical activities were taking place, outside the halls of residence.
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Fig. 3. Time variant and average daily isotherm distribution across the University area
Also, vehicular activities at this period also peaked throughout the university
campus unlike in the evening when most of the activities may be concentrated
towards the exit gates, when workers leave for their homes. Fig. 3 also shows that
areas around the halls of residence had higher outdoor temperature, suggesting
an impact of activities in the residential halls of residences. Fig. 4 shows the
variation in the mean room temperature across the selected halls. Room
temperature appeared to vary with location, that is, the surrounding environment
of the halls.
Temperatures tend to decrease as one moved away from one of the halls (although
highest at Angola) towards the academic areas in the morning. Angola hall houses
100 level undergraduate students, and the journey to the academic area requires
passage through all the other halls, except Ladoke Akintola/Sport and ETF halls.
Average indoor temperature however dropped/decreased at Moremi hall. Moremi
hall is surrounded by relatively more open space than the other halls, and
characterized with extensive grassland.
Heat condition and perception in the hostel rooms
Less than average (45.8%) of respondents resided in rooms without fan, and 34.5%
were found discussing/chatting at the time of the study. Others were either doing
nothing/lying down (resting) will only few (< 7%) were found studying (Table 1).
Over 70% described the rooms at the time of the study as either warm or hot (41.2%
and 39.1%), probably because the study occurred in the dry season (March 2018).
Comparison of the effect of the presence or absence of ventilation (either
uncovered, with fan or without a fan) suggest that body temperature tend to be
differently modulated by fan and natural air (Fig. 4). The lower than the average
human body temperature observed in most of the subjects may be due to local
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conditioning, especially the fan and clothing style, which may initiate hypothermia,
if it occurs for long (Bradley-Siemens, 2020).
Fig. 4. Mean daily indoor/room temperature across selected halls in the University campus
Table 1 Situation attributes of respondents

Variable Option Frequency Percentage (%)
Male 122 43
Gender
Female 162 57
Partially uncovered 36 12.7

Description of
Room with fan 118 41.5
location
Room without fan 130 45.8
Resting 64 22.5
Chatting 98 34.5
Reading 23 8.1
Sitting 17 6.0
Activities
Watching a movie 10 3.5
at interview
Studying 19 6.7
Eating 14 4.9
Cooking 26 9.2
Working 13 4.6
Effects of heat
Relatively higher proportion of the participants complained of restlessness in the
event of heat surge, others complained of increased level of perspiration or
sweating, especially in the afternoon (Fig. 6a). Fig. 6b revealed that many of the
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temperature-related sicknesses exhibited temporal/diurnal variations. For

example, more cases of tiredness, dizziness and sweating were recorded in the
evening while heat rash and headache occurred more in the afternoon.
Furthermore, reportage of the effects appears to be gender biased, as majority of
the participants that reported dizziness, headache and heat rashes were female
while the male participants mostly reported chest constriction, sweating and
tiredness (Fig. 6a). Also, majority of those who claimed to sweat much were from
the partially covered room and those who were restless were surprisingly from the
rooms with fan (Fig. 6b).
Fig. 5. Change in body temperature with change in air temperature across different environment
Fig. 5. Reported effects (a) of high temperature and diurnal variations (b)
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Fig. 6. Perception on the role of gender and room type on physiological feeling
Apparently, no coping strategy was exhibited by the participants other than trying
to be active, and or responsive to the prevailing temperature; such as taking shower
when it is hot, using cover cloth when it is cold, taking nap, among others (Fig. 7).
Given this and other information from majority of the participants, it became
almost obvious that knowledge about physiologic climate and coping strategies is
shallow.
Fig. 7. Coping strategies to extreme heat condition by participants
Many (over 42.2%) of the participants were actually new to the term, thermal
comfort, physiologic comfort or bioclimate, and less than 20% considered heat
stress a problem that require a major concern in the study area.
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IMPLICATION OF THE STUDY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS
A number of issues emanating from this study indicate poor knowledge of
physiological climatology, human biometeorology and thermal comfort among
participants, who were University students at the time of study. The study revealed
that surrounding environment, indoor condition as well as personal attributes of
subjects are important in the discussion of thermal comfort. The main implication
of this study is that accommodation and classroom condition can impact
significantly on learning activities. The study is however limited by not correlating
the thermal characteristics of the subjects with their academic performances, which
might require a strictly controlled environment. Nonetheless, this is a preliminary
study, and efforts are on to enlarge the scope of the study to include the perceived
resultant variables.
In all, the study also showed the need for better understanding of the role of
gender orientation, building materials, ventilation, among other variables that have
been shown to be relevant to physiologic or thermal comfort in developed
economies, as they relate to the sub-Saharan African countries. More experimental
researches in the area of thermal comfort in the region is recommended to improve
awareness to the effects of extreme temperature events, such as heat stress, heat
stroke, among others. It is hoped that such improved focus on experimental
research can improve innovative coping strategies for heat and/or cold stress
events in the region.
REFERENCES
Adenuga, K. I., Mahmoud, A. S., Dodo, Y. A., Albert, M., Kori, S. A., & Danlami, N. J. (2021).
Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in Sub-Saharan African
Countries. Energy and Environmental Security in Developing Countries, 393-409.
Al-Khatri, H., Alwetaishi, M., & Gadi, M. B. (2020). Exploring thermal comfort experience
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
EFFECT OF CEREAL FLOURS ON THE PROPERTIES OF

CONCRETE
Alfa Nasirudeen Musa1 and Adeleke Babatunde Kazeem2
1Bentomat Values Nigeria Limited, Suite 206 Bahama Plaza Gudu District Abuja, Nigeria
2Darik Homes Limited, Plot 1217 Cadastral Zone B02 Durumi District, Abuja
In hot weather in order to overcome accelerating effect of high temperature

retarding admixture are added to concrete to slow down the initial hydration so
that concrete remain plastic and workable for longer period of time which will gives
room to high volume placements. The research is aim at investigating the effect of
cereal flours made from maize and sorghum on the properties of concrete; this is
with a view to establishing the results of the selected cereals as retarder in concrete.
The mix used for the research was calculated using the BRE method and the water
cement ratio of 0.6 was used. The mix ratio of 1:1.13:3.40 was used. Trial test was
conducted with maize, sorghum, wheat and millet. The cereal was ground, sieved
and added in various percentages by weight to the cement, mix and cast in a cube
of 100 by 100 by100mm mould left in the mould for 24 hours then demould and
immersed in water for seven days. After seven days it was tested for compressive
strength, the sorghum and maize gave the highest and higher values of
compressive strength respectively and therefore used for the main work. The same
procedure was used for the main work the samples used were produced in three
different batches. The first sets of batches were the control samples which also
served as source of comparison. The second and the third batches had various
percentages of maize and sorghum flour added respectively. The curing was done
by complete immersion for 1, 3, 7, 28 and 56 days for all the samples. It was
observed that the maize flour has higher starch content, PH and solubility than the
sorghum flour. The cyanide content of sorghum flour was higher than the maize
flour. The compressive strength increase as the age of curing increases. Sorghum
flour had higher values of compression strength than maize flour. The optimum
compressive strength of the test specimen is achieved at 3% dosage of maize and
sorghum flour added to the cement. Maize and Sorghum flour improved the
workability of concrete; it was observed that as the dosage of cereal flour increases,
the slump increased. Maize and sorghum flour also delay the setting time of
cement, for sorghum flour added to cement the setting time is achieved at 410
minutes while for maize is 248 minutes. Sorghum and maize flour are good sources
of retarding admixture to concrete.
Keywords: cereal flours, compressive strength, concrete, retarding admixture,

setting time
1 alfanasir04@gmail.com; +2348067822932
2 bldrbabs309@gmail.com
Alfa and Adeleke (2021) Effect of cereal flours on the properties of concrete In: Laryea, S. and Essah,
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INTRODUCTION
Concrete is a construction material made by mixing cement paste (Portland cement
and water) and aggregate (sand and stone). The cement-paste is the “glue” which
binds the particles in the aggregate together (Malhotra, 2000). (Shetty, 2005) stated
that the strength of cement-paste depends on the relative proportion of water and
cement, a more dilute paste been weaker. They further stated that concrete
hardens through chemical reaction between water and cement without the need
for air. The relative proportion of cement-paste and aggregates affects the
strength, a high proportion of the paste making stronger concrete.
Due to high temperature when concrete is mixed freshly the water demand for
adequate workability is high, other problems associated with this high temperature
are increase in concrete shrink loss, difficulties in placing concrete as a result of
high rate of setting, increased tendency of plastic shrinkage cracking (Khan and
Muhammad, 2004). The hot weather also has tendencies of increasing the
temperature of fresh concrete resulting in lower ultimate strength and thermal
cracking (Otoko, 2014). As a result of the above mentioned problems associated
with fresh concrete due to hot weather retarders are introduced in producing
concrete in hot climate so that concrete remain plastic during mixing, transporting,
placing, compacting and finishing. These conventional retarding admixtures are
rare to find and expensive (Alibaba, 2017) thereby making search for alternative
materials to be necessary. The importance of the use of retarder for producing
concrete in hot climate cannot be over emphasis as set retarding concrete
admixtures delay the chemical reaction that takes place when concrete starts the
setting process (Mihai and Rosca, 2008). Retarders as admixture in concrete a lot
of initial setting problem could be solved.
According to Okafor (2008), several compounds have been found to exhibit

retarding action in concrete and their performance is covered in the British
standard BS 5075: Part 1 (1982). Some of these compounds include soluble zinc,
salt, borates, sugar and carbohydrate derivatives. Cereal flours are carbohydrate
derivatives; they are good source of retarding admixture. Cereal flours are relatively
cheap, produced locally in very large quantities and the production of flour from
their grains does not require any complicated technology. Using cereal flour will
avail more opportunities for the farmers in terms of increase in income from the
sale or yield from their farms, this will also create more job opportunities that will
increase the standards of living.
Okafor (2008), observed that cassava flour considerably improved the workability
of the fresh concrete and delayed the setting time of cement by up to 6 hours.
Cassava reduced the early strength of concrete but the long term strength will be
improved. According to Otoko (2014), a small quantity of cassava powder (0.05%
by weight of cement) has the potential of increasing the workability as well as the
long term strength of concrete. Also Abalaka (2011) observed that the compressive
strength of sugar as admixture is at peak at 0.05% of sugar concentration. He also
ascertained that the maximum strength of cassava powder as admixture is at 0.05%
of cassava starch concentration. For the purpose of this research, the researcher
intends to investigate the effect of two cereal flours namely maize and sorghum
on the properties of concrete.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Retarding admixtures
Retarding admixtures slow down the initial hydration of cement, lengthening set
time. According to the European Federation of Concrete Admixture Associations
(2005), retarding admixture make up of 1.5% of admixtures sold in Europe.
Retarders are beneficially used in hot weather condition in order to overcome
accelerating effects of higher temperature and large masses of concrete on
concrete setting time (American Concrete Institute, 1999). It functions by coating
the surface of C3S (Tricalcium Silicate) components, thus, delaying the reaction
with water. Reaction products are slow to form as such the setting and hardening
of concrete are delayed reducing early compressive strength (Rixom et al., 1999).
According to the European Federation of Concrete Admixture Associations (2005)
Retarders can be used in hot weather to prevent early stiffening and;
 To increase working life, especially when used in conjunction with

superplasticisers.
 To allow the placing of a large pour of concrete over several hours.
 To place concrete in layers without cold joints.
 To extend the time between mixing and placing (e.g., for long transport time).
 Prevent setting of the concrete in the truck in case of delay.
According to the National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (2001), for large jobs,
or in hot weather, retarding admixture should be added to concrete to allow more
time for placing and finishing. Most retarders also function as water reducers.
Retarders should meet the requirements for type B or D in ASTM C 494 – 12 (2002).
Retarding admixture are used to offset unwanted effect of high temperature such
as acceleration of set and reduction of 28 day compressive strength and to keep
concrete workable during the entire placing and consolidation period (ACI
Education Committee, 2013).
Types of retarding admixture

According to ASTM C494 – 12 (2002), there are three (3) kinds of retarders namely
 Type C (Retarding Admixtures) this simply retards the hydration of Portland

cement
 Type D (water reducing and Retarding Admixtures) this does not only retards
the hydration but also acts to disperse the cement particle and thereby
provides water reduction. According to Dias, Dewapriya, Edirisooriya and
Jayathunga (2010) the most commonly used chemical retarder is the type D.
The main differences between type C and D are the water – reducing
characteristic in type D that gives higher compressive strengths by lowering
water – cement ration (Dias et al., 2010).
 Type G ( High range water reducing and retarding admixture)
Chemical Composition of retarding admixture
Retarding Admixtures consists of both organic and inorganic agents. The main
ingredients of organic retarders are as follows:
 Lignosulphonic acids and their salts. Example sodium (Na), Calcium (Ca) or
Ammonium (NH4).
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 Hydro-carboxylic acids and their salts.

 Carbohydrates including sugar.
The main ingredients of inorganic retarder are oxides of
 Lead and zinc

 Phosphates
 Magnesium
 Fluorates and borates
Advantages of retarding admixtures
 In large scale construction, retarding admixtures permits greater flexibility in
extending the time of set and prevention of cold joint.
 Retarding Admixtures improves workability, cohesion and extends setting
time, provide protection against delays and stoppages and facilitates keeping
workable concrete for extended period.
 Facilitates finishing in hot weather, improves pumpability, cohesion and
workability of concrete.
 Reduces bleeding and segregation where poor sand grading are unavoidable.
 Reduces adverse environmental effects of various nature on concrete and
embedded steel by consideration of reduction in permeability.
Where retarding admixture are used
Retarding admixture are used in concrete to offset the accelerating effects of high
temperature which decrease setting time to avoid compilation when unavoidable
delays between mixing and placing occur ( United State Department of
Transportation (FHWA, 2015). Retarding concrete admixtures are used to delay the
chemical reaction that take place when the concrete starts the setting process.
Retarding admixture are used in concrete pavement construction, allowing more
time for finishing concrete pavements reducing additional costs to place a new
concrete batch plant on the job site and helps eliminate cold joints in concrete,
retarders can also be used to resist cracking due to form deflection that can occur
when horizontal slabs are placed in sections. Most retarder also functions as water
reducers and may entrain some air in concrete, (Khan et al.,2004).
According to Mihai et al., (2008), retarder serve best to compensate for unwanted
accelerations of working times due to changes in temperature of cement or due to
other admixture side effects. They also are used to extend the working time
required for complicated or high – volume placements and for retarding the set of
concrete at a surface where an exposed aggregate finish is desired. Retarding
admixtures are used
 Where long transportation of ready mixed concrete is required then premature

setting can be usefully avoided by this type of admixture.
 When concrete is being placed or transported under conditions of high
ambient temperature.
 In case of large concrete pours.
 Concrete construction involving sliding formwork.
Retarders are used in varying proportions, often in combination with other

admixtures, so that, as working temperatures increase, higher doses of the
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admixture may be used to obtain a uniform setting time (Mihai et al.,2008). Simple
retarders typically consist of one of four relatively inexpensive materials: lignin,
borax, sugars, or tartaric acids or salts (Khan et al., 2004). Retarding admixtures are
widely appreciated as these can improve both mixing water efficiency and delay
initial set of concrete mixes. This improvement in water is used to provide increased
strength, density and workability without rise in cement, while retardation of
setting times permits ignorance of cold joint where delay in transporting and
placing concrete take place. Retarding admixtures are used on towers, chimneys,
high building, tunnels/shaft lining and offshore construction.
Problems associated with the use of retarding admixtures
The prime function of retarding admixture is to delay the setting of concrete.
Over usage of retarding admixture on concrete can result to the following side
effect
 Excessive dosage may excessively delay hardening of concrete

 A decrease of early strength within the first 24 hours
 Increase bleedings
 An increase in slump
 A slight increase of the plastic shrinkage
 Creep, drying shrinkage
 Durability are not significantly affected by the inclusion of retarding admixture.
Possible Cost of Retarder Admixture
The production cost of concrete we use in construction is very high so we use
different methodology to bring down the high price for example different types
of admixtures are used to enhance the properties of concrete. Retarders are used
to enhance the properties of concrete in hot weather (Kumar, 2015). Producers
uses admixture to bring special properties to the fresh or hardened concrete;
these special properties are related to the reduction of water consumption,
increased resistance to compression or extension of the setting time, and others,
they also can improve the durability, workability and strength of a concrete
mixture and also is used to overcome difficult situations in construction such as
casts in hot or cold weather, pumping requirements, early strength requirements
or specifications of a water/cement ratio very low.
Retarding admixture are usually not manufactures in Nigeria, not really available
and expensive. According to Alibaba (2017) the available retarding concrete
admixtures in Nigeria market are:
 Sodium Gluconate set retarding concrete admixture

 Retarding concrete admixture
 Sodium Naphthalene set retarder concrete admixture
 Lignin Sulfonate water retarder
According to Alibaba (2017) one ton of sodium gluconate retarding concrete

admixture cost range from 140,000 naira to 150,500 naira, one metric ton of
sodium gluconate retarding concrete admixture cost range from 192,500 naira to
210,000 naira, one ton of retarding concrete admixture cost range from 140,000
naira to 525,000 naira, one ton of sodium Naphthalene set retarder cost range from
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150,000 naira to 200,000 naira, and one metric ton of Lignin Sulfonate water
retarder calcium cost range from 4,000 naira and above.
Effect of retarders on cement paste

When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after
which there is little formation of further hydrates for typically 2–3 hours (Ballieu,
2013) The exact time depends mainly on the cement type and the temperature
(Portland Cement Association, 2015). This is called the dormant period when the
concrete is plastic and can be placed (Baradan, 1998). At the end of the dormant
period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of calcium silicate hydrate and
calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly (Portland Cement Association, 2015).
This corresponds to the setting time of the concrete. Cement paste/concrete set
gradually under the standard laboratory condition (temperature 230C and relative
humidity not less than 90%) ASTM C 191 – 77, (2013). Outside the laboratory
concreting is done under harsh or mild weather. In Northern part of Nigeria
concreting is usually subjected to hot weather which is defined as any combination
of high air temperature low relative humidity wind velocity and intensities of solar
radiation (Khan et al., 2004) tending to adversely affect the quality of fresh and
hardened concrete.
Cereal flour as retarding admixtures
According to Ioannis and Persefoni (2008) Cereal crops are mostly grasses
cultivated for their edible seeds (actually a fruit called Caryopsis). Cereal grains are
grown in greater quantities worldwide than any other type of crop and provide
more food energy to the human race than any other crops. The seven principal
cereals grown in the world are wheat, maize, rice, barley, oats, rye and sorghum
(FAOSat, 2014). Their mature dry kernels (seeds) are often called cereal grains. All
cereals crops belong to the grass family Gramineae that accounts for the major
portion of the monocot (monocotyledonae) division of flowering (seed –
producing) plants (Lantican, 2001).
Cereal flours are carbohydrate derivatives; they are good source of retarding
admixture. ASTM C494 – 12 (2002), defined retarding admixture as admixture that
are used to slow down the speed of the reaction between cement and water by
affecting the growth of the hydration products and/or reducing the rate of water
penetration to the cement particles.
According to the European Federation of Concrete Admixture Association (2005),

Retarding admixture are used for the following purpose
i. In hot weather to prevent early stiffening;
ii. To increase working life, that is increase workability;
iii. To allow the placing of a large pour of concrete over several hours;
iv. To place concrete in layers without cold joints;
v. To extend the time between mixing and placing (e.g., for long transport
time);
vi. Prevent setting of the concrete in the truck in case of delay.
Soluble carbohydrate derivative admixtures like sugar, water soluble carbohydrate

such as soluble starch (cassava and cereal flours) and dextrins are effective
retarding admixtures. Very small dosage of the order of 0.05 to 0.1 percent of mass
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of cement is enough. 0.05 percent sugar can delay initial setting time by about four
hours (Gambhir, 2004).
MATERIALS AND METHOD

Materials
The materials used in the research include cement, sand, crushed granite, water,
sorghum flour and maize flour.
Cement
The cement used for this research work was ordinary Portland cement OPC, grade
42 conforming to BS 12:1996 manufactured by Dangote Cement Company
obtained from Samaru Zaria.
Coarse aggregate
The coarse aggregates used were crushed granite with maximum nominal size of
20mm and was then sieved by using sieves conforming to BS 812 – 103.1:1985
Fine aggregate
The fine aggregate used in this research work was sieved conforming to BS 812 -
103.1:1985. The fine aggregate used was sourced from a river in Zaria and having
nominal maximum size of 5mm.
Water
Clean tap water deemed for drinking was used for the production and curing of
concrete samples for this research. The water conforms to BS EN 1008.2:2002.
Cereal flours
The cereal was obtained from Seed Production unit of Institute for Agricultural
Research (IAR), Ahamdu Bello University, Zaria. The maize used is Sammaz 15 and
the sorghum used is Samsara 17. The cereals were grinded in the milling centre of
the same Institute. The milling machine was thoroughly washed, allowed to dry and
used to ground the cereal seeds to powdered texture. The cereal flour was taken
to the laboratory of Department of Building, Ahamdu Bello University Zaria and
sieved in accordance with BS sieve number 85 (standard sieves and mesh size) to
remove any chaff present in the flour.
Proximate analysis of sorghum flour

The samples of the sieved cereal flours were taken to Faculty of Agriculture,
Department of Animal Sciences (Biochemical Laboratory Unit), Ahamdu Bello
University, Zaria to determine the starch content, PH value, solubility and cyanide
content.
Preparation of specimen
Trail mix
A trail mix was designed using BRE method from which the quantities of the various
constituents of concrete was derived using concrete mix of 1:1.13: 3.40 (1 part of
cement, 1.13 parts of fine aggregate and 3.40 parts of coarse aggregate) and water
cement ratio of 0.6.
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The various constituents of the concrete mix were batched as obtained from the
design, the batching was done by weight using an electronic scale, after which the
portion of the cereal flour was thoroughly mixed with the cement and added to
the aggregates mixed dry until an homogenous mixture was achieved. Water was
then added and the mixing continued for few minutes after which the concrete was
placed in a 100 x 100 x 100 mm mould in three layers, each layer was compacted
25 times with a tamping rod to exclude all voids in the concrete, the cast concrete
was allowed to set for 24 hours after which it was demoulded and put in a curing
tank; the curing method used was complete immersion.
This process was repeated for concrete mixes containing four different cereal flours
namely maize, sorghum, millet and wheat and percentages of cereal flours added
to the cement were 1% to 5% respectively. After 7 days of curing the cast samples
were removed from the curing tank and sun dried for 2 hours and then tested for
compressive strengths by placing them in crushing machine and the crushing load
of each specimen was recorded.
After the tests were carried out and the results compared with the control mix (that
is mix without any cereal flour). It was observed that the samples containing maize
and sorghum had the higher and highest values of compression respectively; hence
they were used to conduct this research.
Final mix
The proportioning of the mix was carried out by batching the various quantities of
the constituents as derived from the concrete mix design using the BRE method.
The mixing was done using mixing machine, but each cast sample was cured for
different period of 1, 3, 7, 28 and 56 days. For the control mix (that is no cereal
flour added) and the specimen with maize and sorghum in the various percentages
of 1% to 5% respectively. The mould were clamped together to prevent leakage of
cement paste and it was ensured that every batch of mix was placed in mould to
produce cube samples with regular surfaces. The samples were demoulded after
24 hours and then transferred into the curing tank for curing until the desired age
for testing ( 1, 3, 7, 28 and 56 days) was attained. The properties of the hardened
concrete samples tested were compressive strength.

Proximate analysis of cereal flour
Table 1 presents results of the proximate analysis test of cereal flour used for the
research, Maize (Sammaz 15) and sorghum (Samsara 17). It was observed that the
maize has higher starch content, PH and solubility than the sorghum. The starch
content of the maize was 85.62%, PH was 7.94%, and solubility was 4.78% while
the starch content of sorghum was 83.57%, PH was 7.31% and solubility was 4.19%.
The cyanide content of sorghum was higher than maize, the cyanide content of
sorghum was 2.22% and maize was 0.8%. The maize flour is more alkaline than the
sorghum flour this means that the maize flour may have lower compressive
strength of the test sample (Sharma and Sood, 2015). From Table 1, the P value
shows that there is significant difference between the starch content, PH, solubility,
cyanide content of maize flour and sorghum flour.
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Table 1: Proximate analysis of maize and sorghum flour

Maize flour added to Sorghumflour added
Parameters P Value
concrete to concrete
Mean ± S.E Mean ± S.E
STARCH (%) 85.62 ± 0.00 83.57 ± 0.00 0.00
PH(%) 7.94 ± 0.00 7.31 ± 0.00 0.00
SOLUBILITY(%) 4.78 ± 0.00 4.19 ± 0.00 0.00
CYANIDE(%) 0.80 ± 0.00 2.22 ± 0.00 0.00
Results for tests on fresh concrete specimens

Workability test of concrete
Table 2 presents the Slump test results of the fresh concrete made with maize and
sorghum flours as admixture. It was observed as the dosage of the cereal flour
increases, the slump increased for both maize and sorghum. The maize flour
increased from 49mm to 120mm while the sorghum increased from 38mm to
98mm.the P value shows that there are significant differences between the slump
test result of maize flour added to concrete and sorghum flour added to concrete.
Table 2: Slump test result of maize and sorghum flour added to concrete
Percentage dosage of
cereal flour added to Maize (mm) Sorghum (mm) P Values
concrete
Mean ± S.E Mean ± S.E
0% 30.00 ± 0.32 30.00 ± 0.32 1.00
1% 49.00 ± 0.32 38.00 ± 0.32 0.00
2% 55.00 ± 0.32 51.00 ± 0.32 0.00
3% 60.00 ± 0.32 57.00 ± 0.32 0.00
4% 80.00 ± 0.32 74.00 ±0.32 0.00
5% 120.00 ± 0.32 98.00 ± 0.32 0.00
Setting time test

Table 3 presents the setting time of cement produced with different dosage of
cereal flour. The results and P value show a significant delay in both the initial and
final setting time of cement added with cereal flour. For the maize flour added to
cement both the initial and final setting time increases as the dosage level of maize
flour increases. For sorghum flour added to cement the initial setting time increase
from 1% to 4% and falls at 5% this might probably be due to the fact that the
cyanide content of sorghum is higher than that of maize while the final setting time
of sorghum increases as the dosage level of sorghum flour increases.
As the accumulation of cyanide content increase the initial setting time increase.
This is attributed to the increased cyanide content of the cement due to the
increased quantity of the admixture, the cyanide probably alter the alkalinity of the
cement environment. However, this condition appears to cease as cyanide
becomes exhausted and the retarding action of the carbohydrate restored hence,
the final setting time remains unaffected (Okafor, 2008).
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Alfa and Adeleke
Table 3: Setting time of cement with cereal flour as admixtures

Initial setting Final setting
Initial setting Final setting
Dosage of time maize time maize
time sorghum time sorghum
admixture flour added P flour added P
flour added to flour added to
(%) to cement to cement
cement (mins) cement (mins)
(mins) (mins)
Mean ± S.E Mean ± S.E Mean± S.E Mean ± S.E
0 111.02±0.31 111.02 ± 0.32 1.00 201.2±0.34 201.20 ± 0.34 1.00
1 150.04±0.32 221.10 ± 0.33 0.00 248.0±0.32 242.10 ± 0.33 0.00
2 178.06±0.32 338.00 ± 0.31 0.00 317.3±0.20 379.00 ± 0.31 0.00
3 353.22±0.32 381.00 ±0.32 0.00 353.0±0.16 399.10 ± 0.33 0.00
4 210.04±0.35 410.10 ± 0.33 0.00 402.2±0.34 446.1 ± 0.31 0.00
5 248.00±0.32 212.50 ± 0.44 0.00 437.9±0.19 492.00 ± 0.27 0.00
Results for tests on hardened concrete

Density
Table 4 shows the average density of concrete test samples at different ages of
curing. It was observed that there is no uniform change in the density of the sample
as the dosage of cereal flour increases with increase in time of storage in water
tank. This may be due to the shape of the mold, mixing and compaction. It was also
observed that the density of the test concrete samples with cereal flour is higher
than that of the control samples. This might be due to the increase in consistency
achieved when cereal flour was introduced to the concrete.
Table 4: Densities of concrete with cereal flour admixtures
Cereal flour 1day 3days 7days 28days 56days

Dosage (%) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3) (Kg/m3)
0%(control) 2300 2421 2486 2440 2526
1% maize 2335 2485 2493 2534 2547
2% maize 2417 2490 2498 2562 2546
3% maize 2380 2483 2497 2450 2547
4% maize 2368 2448 2312 2537 2549
5% maize 2370 2370 2480 2543 2546
1% sorghum 2360 2510 2479 2480 2540
2% sorghum 2375 2490 2460 2486 2544
3% sorghum 2349 2477 2425 2510 2500
4% sorghum 2342 2486 2450 2523 2511
5% sorghum 2344 2480 2400 2480 2440
Compressive strength
Compressive strength of concrete with cereal flour as admixture
Table 5 shows the compressive strength of concrete containing cereal flour as
admixture, it was observed that the compressive strength increases as the dosage
of the cereal flour increases. There was increase in strength from 1% to 3% dosage
of the maize flour and drop at 4% and 5%. The trends of strength development in
sorghum flour added to concrete is similar to that of maize flour added to concrete
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Alfa and Adeleke
except that the sorghum flour has higher results due to the effect of dispersion of
cement particle and formation of denser gel due to delayed setting (Okafor, 2008).
Other factor may include improved degree of compaction, increase in consistency
and enhanced workability (Neville et al., 2010). It can also be observed that at 28
and 56 days the 4% and 5% dosage level of maize flour admixture added to
concrete has a lower compressive strength compared to the control concrete. From
1% to 3% dosage of maize flour admixture added to the concrete the strength
increases more than the control concrete.
Table 5: Compressive Strength of Concrete Containing Cereal Flour

Percentage Control(N/mm Maize(N/mm Sorghum(N/m F- P-
Day
(%) 2) 2) m2) factor value
Mean ± S.E Mean ± S.E Mean ± S.E
1 1 7.92 ± 0.18a 8.30 ±0.37a 11.80 ± 1.20b 8.51 0.05
3 11.00 ± 0.55a 13.40 ± 0.29a 17.80 ± 1.24b 18.53 0.00
7 16.60 ± 0.73 17.00 ± 0.27 19.50 ± 1.56 2.42 0.131
28 25.30 ± 0.37 25.50 ± 0.39 25.20 ± 1.30 0.035 0.965
56 30.20 ± 0.58b 25.80 ± 0.37a 25.20 ± 1.30a 20.76 0.00
2 1 7.92 ± 0.18a 10.20 ± 0.26b 12.10 ± 0.33c 63.66 0.00

3 11.00 ± 0.55a 14.60 ± 0.73b 19.40 ± 0.48c 49.79 0.00
7 16.60 ± 0.73a 17.20 ± 0.56a 21.52 ± 0.72b 15.65 0.00
28 25.30 ± 0.37 25.60 ± 0.67 25.20 ± 1.30 0.057 0.94
56 30.20 ± 0.58 27.90 ± 2.00 30.80 ± 0.34 1.57 0.25
3 1 7.92 ± 0.18a 13.60 ±0.45b 13.60 ± 0.67b 45.99 0.00

3 11.00 ± 0.55a 17.20 ± 0.64b 20.50 ± 0.75c 54.10 0.00
7 16.60 ± 0.73a 19.40 ± 0.81a 23.90 ± 0.71b 23.86 0.00
28 25.30 ± 0.37 26.10 ± 0.74 28.02 ± 1.17 2.80 0.10
56 30.20 ± 0.58 30.80 ± 0.59 32.80 ± 1.14 2.78 0.10
4 1 7.92 ± 0.18a 11.80 ± 0.37b 11.10 ± 0.18b 62.15 0.00

14.10
3 11.00 ± 0.55a 15.60 ± 1.19b 7.88 0.007
±0.60ab
7 16.60 ± 0.73 18.40 ± 0.50 18.32 ± 0.99 1.74 0.216
28 25.30 ± 0.37b 20.04 ± 0.56a 24.80 ± 1.39b 10.54 0.002
56 30.20 ± 0.58b 24.90 ± 0.64a 23.42 ± 2.26a 6.51 0.01
5 1 7.92 ± 0.18a 8.80 ± 0.46a 11.60 ± 0.29b 33.43 0.00

3 11.00 ± 0.55a 11.40 ± 0.66a 14.50 ± 0.50b 11.18 0.002
7 16.60 ± 0.73 18.00 ± 0.57 18.00 ± 0.44 1.85 0.20
28 25.30 ± 0.37c 20.40 ± 0.43a 23.42 ± 0.55b 29.13 0.00
56 30.20 ± 0.58b 23.60 ±1.12a 28.28 ± 1.91ab 6.57 0.01
Source: Laboratory Research Work (2016)
n = 5; data analyzed using one –way ANOVA followed by turkey multiple comparison post hoc
test. Values along the same rows with different superscripts a, b, are significantly different (p ≤
0.05).
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Alfa and Adeleke
From Table 5, 1% to 3% dosage of sorghum flour added to concrete the

compressive strength increases as the ages of curing increases, at 4% and 5%
dosage of sorghum flour added to concrete there is a negative effect on the
compressive strength at 28 and 56days, the test sample is lower in strength
compared to the control concrete. This is attributed to the prolonged retarding
action of the sorghum flour due to the high dosage level of the sorghum flour
(Okafor, 2008). The optimum dosage is 3%, the compressive strength increases as
the age of curing increases. From Table 4.13 the F – factor and P – values are
significant where the superscripts a and b are different. For instance at 1% dosage
of sorghum flour added to concrete as admixture the F – factor and P – value are
significant at day 1, 3 and 56.
CONCLUSION
After carrying out the experiments, observation, analysis and discussion on the
effects of cereal flour on the properties of concrete the following conclusion were
drawn
1. Proximate analysis showed that maize flour has higher starch content, PH
and solubility than sorghum flour. The cyanide content of sorghum flour is
higher than maize.
2. Maize flour and sorghum flour delays the setting time of cement, for
sorghum the setting time is achieved at 410 minutes while maize is 248
minutes. Maize flour as admixture in concrete did not adversely affect the
compressive strength of concrete. At 56 days the maximum compressive
strength is 30.8 N/mm2while that of sorghum at 56 days is 32.5 N/mm2.
The control is 30.2 N/mm2.
3. 3% dosage of maize and sorghum flour appeared to be the approximate
dosage for the concrete mix. The optimum compressive strength of the test
specimen is achieved at 3% dosage of maize and sorghum flour.
4. The use of sorghum flour as admixture in concrete gives better result in the
compressive strength than maize flour.
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Cement Mortar and Concrete. Abubakar Tafawa Belawa University Journal of
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Ballieu, P. (2013). Concrete Setting Retarder Mechanism.Retrieved from

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Khan, B., & Muhammad, U. (2004). Effect of a Retarding Admixture on the setting time of
Cement Pastes in Hot weather. JKAU: Engineering Sciences 15 (1). 63 – 79.
Kumar, D. (2015). Sugarcane Molasses in Concrete as Water Reducing – Retarding
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Lantican, R. M. (2001). The Science and Practice of Crop Production.UPLB, College, Los
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Malhotra, V. M. (2000). Role of Supplementary Cementing Materials in Reducing
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Okafor, F. O. (2008). The Potentials of Cassava Flour as a Set-Retarding Admixture in
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Otoko, G. R. (2014). Minimising Hot Weather Effects on Fresh and Hardened Concrete by
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Portland Cement Association, (2015). How Concrete is Made. Retrieved
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Rixom, M. R., & Mailvaganam, N. P. (1999).Chemical Admixtures for Concrete (3rd Ed.). E
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Sharma, H., & Sood, H. D. (2015). Effect of Concentration of Alkaline Water on Strength of
Concrete. International Journal of Civil Engineering (IJCE), 2(2). 4 – 6.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
EFFECT OF PALM KERNEL SHELL AS COARSE AGGREGATE ON

THE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
A. G. Ibrahim1, A. Yahya2, M. M. Gambo3, S. Gambo4 and J. Usman5
1,4,5Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria-
Nigeria
2Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Kaduna state University, Kaduna-
Nigeria
3Policy, Research and Partnerships Unit, Shelter Afrique, Nairobi, Kenya
The prospective shortage of conventional aggregate and the environmental impact

due to its production are some of the driving forces promoting the use of
agricultural or industrial wastes as aggregate for concrete production. This study
investigated the influence of palm kernel shell (PKS) as partial replacement of
coarse aggregates on the properties of concrete. Concrete specimens containing
0-30% PKS to partially replace coarse aggregate (crushed granite stone) were
produced and subjected to workability, compressive and tensile strengths,
abrasion, absorption and sorptivity tests. The specimen with 0% PKS is the control
for comparison. The result showed that PKS improved workability but reduced
compressive strength, tensile strength and abrasion resistance of concrete.
However, the specimen containing 10% PKS showed comparable performance with
the control. Therefore, 10% PKS could be used to partially replace crushed granite
stone for concrete production.
Keywords: absorption, aggregates, concrete, durability, palm kernel shell (PKS),

sorptivity
INTRODUCTION
Concrete is defined as an artificial material resulting from a carefully controlled
mixture of cement, water, fine and coarse aggregates, which takes the shape of its
container or formwork when hardened and form solid mass when cured at a
suitable temperature and humidity (Alawode & Idowu, 2011). Fine aggregate is
generally natural sand and is graded from particles 5mm in size down to the finest
particles but excluding dust. Coarse aggregate is a natural gravel or crushed stone
usually larger than 5mm and usually less than 160mm in ordinary structure (Mohd,
1 getsomsc12012@gmail.com
2 yabdurrahman1987@gmail.com
3 mgambo@shelterafrique.org
4 gambo12845@gmail.com
5 jamilonline05@gmail.com
Ibrahim, et al. (2021) Effect of palm kernel shell as coarse aggregate on the properties of concrete
529
Ibrahim, et al.
Johnson & Hilimi, 2008). Coarse aggregate deposits consist of gravel or crushed
granite that can be readily used in concrete after minimal processing.
The prospective shortage and the environmental impact associated with the
conventional coarse aggregates are among the driving forces motivating the use
of wastes as aggregate in concrete. In addition, the utilization of waste as
aggregates in concrete helps to minimize the environmental burden related to its
discriminate disposal (Osei & Jackson, 2012). Moreover, the use of agricultural
wastes such as Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) as replacement for coarse aggregate in
concrete production seems to be a feasible solution to the problems in terms of
practical and economic advantages.
The palm oil industry produces wastes in terms of palm kernel shells (PKS) and
palm oil fibres which are usually dumped thereby impacting the environment
negatively without any economic benefits. Palm kernel shells are hard,
carbonaceous and organic by- products of the processing of the palm oil fruit.
Palm kernel shells consists of small size particles, medium size particles and large
size particles in the range 0-5mm, 5-10mm and 10-15mm respectively (Alengaram,
Mahmud, Jumaat & Shirazi, 2010). The shells have no commercial value, but create
disposal and waste management problems.
Several research efforts have been carried out into the use of palm kernel shell as
replacement of coarse aggregate in concrete production. Alengaram, Jumaat and
Mahmud (2008) used palm kernel shells to produced structural lightweight
concrete of up to 35 N/mm2 compressive strength. The suitability of sawdust and
palm kernel shells as replacement for fine and coarse aggregate in the production
of reinforced concrete slabs was investigated (Olutoge 2010). Result showed that
25% sawdust and palm kernel shell substitution reduced the cost of concrete
production by 7.45% as well as producing lightweight concrete slabs. Alengaram,
Muhit, Mohd and Jumaat (2013) discovered that concrete made from palm kernel
shells had low workability, water absorption capacity of more than 10% with higher
initial surface absorption than ordinary concrete. It also showed higher ductile
behaviour, higher shear strength, had 8 times the normal amount of creep and
reached compressive strength values of 48N/mm2. Palm kernel shells concrete had
thermal conductivity of 0.43 W/mK (lower than 0.76 - 3.68 W/mK) usually observed
for normal weight concrete. Oyedepo, Olanitori and Olukanni (2015) investigated
palm kernel shell as partial replacement for aggregate in asphaltic concrete. Results
revealed that crushed palm kernel shell up to 20% can be used as partial
replacement of coarse aggregate in asphaltic concrete heavy traffic roads and up
to 60% in medium traffic roads. Thus, palm kernel shell is suitable in the production
of asphaltic concrete there by achieving free-littering environment as well as
economic benefit. Gupta, Singh, Ahmad and Ambedkar (2017) compared concrete
produced with palm kernel shell as partial replacement of coarse aggregate and
found that around 10% partial replacement of coarse aggregate with palm kernel
shells in concrete gives a significant decrease in the cost of construction and weight
of the concrete without much affecting the compressive strength of concrete.
Proportioning based on the principles of absolute volume method was used to
obtain specific properties of lightweight concrete using PKS (Gibigaye, Godonou,
Katte and Degan 2017). Mix proportions of C:S: PKS in weight of 1:1.60:0.96 and
1:1.53:0.99 with cement content of 450 kg/m3 and WC = 0.45 resulted in obtaining
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Ibrahim, et al.
appropriate values for workability (≥ 20 mm), density (1800 ≤ d ≤ 1900 kg m3) and
cylindrical compressive strength (≥ 15 N/mm2). Response surface methodology
was used to design constituent mix proportions of light-weight concrete
containing Nigerian palm kernel shells (Oyejobi, Jameel, Sulong, Raji and Ibrahim
2019).
Moreover, Fanijo, Babafemi, and Arowojolu (2020) investigated the performance of
concrete made with PKS (as a replacement for coarse aggregate), and laterite (as a
partial replacement for fine aggregates). Results showed that the concrete mixtures
with only PKS show better workability compared to the control mixture or mixture
containing laterite with mechanical properties decreasing as percentage content
of PKS and laterite increased in the mix. It was concluded that concrete mixtures
with PKS and laterite at 20% or less could be considered in concrete production.
Analysis of variance of the results showed that an optimum compressive strength
could be reliably predicted. The properties of lightweight concrete made with
different sizes (6, 8, 10, & 12 mm) of PKS and mix (each consisting of 25% PKS) was
investigated by Danso and Appiah-Agyei (2021). Results showed that a specimen
produced with 12mm PKS has better compressive and tensile strengths than other
samples in addition to having good bond with other constituent materials.
Although, several works have been done on the use of palm kernel shell as
replacement for coarse aggregate in concrete production, however, there is need
to determine the physical property, mechanical properties and the durability
characteristics of such concrete at a go. The PKS could be used for construction
purposes in areas where they are easily available and accessible and places where
natural occurring aggregates are not readily available or expensive with the view
to promoting them as construction material.

Materials
The materials used in the experiment are as follows
Cement
The cement used in this research was blended cement of Dangote brand (43.5) that
satisfied the requirement of BS EN 197-1:2011. The oxides composition and the
physical properties of the cement are presented in Table 1.
Aggregates
Naturally occurring river sand with maximum particles size 4.75mm and retained
on 150µm was used. Prior to its use, the sand was sieved to reduced impurities, silt
content and large particles in accordance with BS EN 12620:2013 and used in the
experiment. The coarse aggregates used were crushed granite of 20mm maximum
size and retained on 5mm which were obtained from quarry site located at the
outskirt of Zaria, Kaduna state. The bulk density of the aggregates as presented in
Table 2 shows that the fine aggregate has a bulk density of 1800kg/m³, crushed
granite 1680kg/m³ and palm kernel shell (PKS) 730kg/m³. According to ASTM C330
(1999), the bulk density for sand and crushed granite which are normal weight
aggregates is 1450 kg/m³ to 1800 kg/m³ respectively. The bulk densities obtained
are within the stated range. For the PKS, bulk density of 730kg/m³ is within the
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Ibrahim, et al.
range recommended by ASTM C330 (1999) for light weight aggregates as cited in
Neville (2000). Other physical properties are also shown in Table 2.
Table 1: Oxides composition and physical properties of cement

Oxides composition
SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Fe2O3 MnO TiO2 ZnO Total
(%)
Dangote cement 9.135 1.357 51.115 2.341 0.04 0.027 0.003 64.018
Bulk
Specific
Physical properties Soundness Setting time (m) density
gravity
(Kg/m3)
Initial Final
2 90 185 1.53 3.11
Table 2: Sieve analysis and physical properties of aggregates
Sieve size (mm) % passing
Fine sand Crush granite Palm kernel shell

Sieve analysis 19.0 100.00 98.80 99.6
9.5 100.00 50.20 49.2
4.75 99.10 1.40 0.90
2.36 90.00
1.00 69.60
600 µm 56.20
300 µm 7.00
150 µm 2.30
Pan 0.00
Physical properties
Bulk density 1.80 1.68 0.73
Specific gravity 2.61 2.63 1.33
Water absorption (%) 1.77 1.00 21.18
Moisture content (%) 1.50 0.30 9.96
Aggregate impact value (%) 8.72 3.25
Aggregate crushing value
22.29 5.25
(%)
Methods
Concrete mix and samples preparation
An absolute volume method of concrete mixes was used in developing the
concrete in the ratio of 1:1.90:2.30. Trial test was carried out with water-cement
ratios of 0.45, 0.50 and 0.5., in order to obtain the appropriate water-cement ratio
that gives desired slump. Based on the outcomes of the trial test, a water-cement
ratio of 0.50 was adopted for the actual experiment. The mixing was done
mechanically using concrete mixer. The first mix was made up of the conventional
materials (cement, sand & coarse aggregate) which served as control. The second
mix was produced by partially replacing crushed granite with PKS at 10%, 20%, and
30 % respectively. After mixing, the specimens were then cast into cubes size
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Ibrahim, et al.
100mm × 100mm × 100mm, and cylinders 200mm x 100mm diameter. A total of

eighty-four (84) concrete cubes and forty-eight (48) concrete cylinders were
produced. The specimens produced were left in the mould for 24hours in the
laboratory, after which they were removed and completely immersed in water until
3, 7, 14 and 28 days of curing.
Tests on fresh and hardened properties of concrete samples
Fresh properties tests
Slump test was conducted on fresh concrete samples for all percentage
replacements of crushed granite with PKS as well as the control to ascertain the
workability of the concrete. Procedures from BS 1881: Part 102: (1983) was adopted
in carrying out the slump test.
Hardened properties tests

The compressive strength test of the specimen was conducted using cubes samples
in accordance to BS 1881: part 116, (1983). The specimens were surface dried after
removal from water and weighed before crushing to determine the strength
properties. Each sample was placed between the plates of compression testing
machine and loads were exerted until the point of failure. Three replicates ’cubes
were made for specimens at each curing age of 3, 7, 14 and 28 days for each
percentage replacements of palm kernel shells including the control. This
amounted to a total of 48 specimen cubes for the compressive strength test. The
average values of the maximum loads, at which each group of the three specimens
failed, were used to determine the compressive strength and the formula for the
computation of compressive strength is given below:
Failure Loads (N)
Compressive Strength (N/mm²) =
Cross sectional Area (mm²)
Split tensile strength

The split tensile strength test was carried out using cylinder specimens of 100 x
200 mm size in accordance with ASTM C496. The specimens were surface dried
after removal from water and weighed before crushing to determine the tensile
strength properties. Each cylinder sample was placed horizontally between the
loading surface of compression testing machine and the compression loads was
applied until the failure of the cylinder along the vertical diameter. Three replicates
cylinders were made for specimens at each curing age of 3, 7, 14 and 28 days for
each percentage replacements of palm kernel shells including the control. This
amounted to a total of 48 specimen cylinders for the split tensile strength test. The
average values of the maximum loads, at which each group of the three specimens
failed, were used to determine the split tensile strength and the formula for the
computation of tensile strength is given below:
2P (N)
Split tensile Strength (N/mm²) =
πld (mm²)
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Ibrahim, et al.
Where, P = Maximum Load Applied (N)
l = Length of Cylinder (mm)
d = Diameter of cylinder (mm)
Durability tests
Abrasion resistance test
Because of lack of instrument for carrying out the abrasion test, method improvised
by Ibrahim (2014) was adopted where the cubes after being cured for 28days were
dried and weighed. Then 3.5kg load was tied on a metal brush and the brush was
used to brush the surface of the specimen cubes to and fro for about 60 counts per
minute. The samples were then re-weighted to find the new weight and the
percentage loss in weight was then calculated.
Absorption test
The test procedure according to BS 1881-122 :( 1983) was adopted which involves
drying a specimen to a constant weight in an oven at 1050C for 72 hours. The
sample was allowed to cool in the oven, weighed and the mass recorded (W1). Each
sample was then immersed in water for 30 minutes. After that, the specimens were
removed from the water and dried with a cloth as rapidly as possible until all free
water was removed from the surface and re-weighed again (W2). The increase in
weight as a percentage of the original weight is expressed as its absorption as
shown below.
W2 - W1
Water Absorption (%) = X 100
W1
Where, W1 = Oven dry weight of cubes in grams.
W2 = Wet weight of cubes in grams.

Sorptivity test
Sorptivity test was performed in accordance with ASTM C1585-04. The purpose is
to determine the rate of absorption of water by unsaturated concrete (capillary rate
of absorption of water). Sorptivity is a function of the increased mass of a specimen
resulting from absorption of water, relative to the time that one surface is exposed
to water. The specimens of the concrete were removed from the curing tank and
allowed to dry. They were then put inside an oven and dried at temperature of
50±2oC for 72 hours. At the end, Abro 2000 RTV silicone sealant was applied on
the sides of the specimens in order to prevent water ingress through the sides of
the specimens. The specimens were then weighted and the masses recorded.
Specimens were subjected to Sorptivity test at 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60 minutes, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 and 6 hours and the change in masses were recorded after each testing period.
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Ibrahim, et al.

Workability
Figure 1: Workability of concrete
Figure 1 shows the slump test result of the concrete at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% PKS
replacement of coarse aggregate concrete specimens. The 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%
PKS have slump values of 51mm, 85mm, 97mm and 100mm respectively. An
increase of slump value can be observed with increasing partial replacement of
crushed granite with PKS in the concrete. The increase in value of slump can be
attributed to reduction in crushed granite aggregates that absorbed more water
than the PKS. Specimens with PKS absorb less water compare to specimens with
crushed granite (Alengaram, Jumaat, Mahmud & Fayyadh 2011).
Figure 2: Compressive strength of the concrete specimens
Figure 2 shows the compressive strength of concrete made with palm kernel shell
as partial replacement of coarse aggregate at 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% PKS
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Ibrahim, et al.
replacement levels cured at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days. It can be observed that at 3 days,

the strengths of 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% PKS specimens are 18.52N/mm²,
13.75N/mm², 11.28N/mm² and 9.40N/mm² respectively. At 28 days of curing; the
strengths are 32.02N/mm², 23.26N/mm², 22.19N/mm² and 19.98N/mm²
respectively. It can be noticed that the compressive strength of all specimens
increases with ages and 0% (control) specimen recorded the highest strength
compared to other specimens. At early age (3 days curing), the control (0%) is
higher than 10%, 20% and 30% PKS replacement of coarse aggregates specimens
by 26%, 39% and 49% respectively. At 28 days, the control is higher by 27%, 31%
and 38% respectively. The 0% specimen is higher than the target strength
(30N/mm2) by 6.7% while 10%, 20% and 30% PKS replacement specimens are 23%,
26% and 33% less than the target strength respectively. It can be observed that the
compressive strength of concrete is directly proportional to the unit weight of the
corresponding aggregates, the lower the unit weights of the aggregates, the lower
the compressive strength of the concrete. The control specimen has higher
compressive strength than specimens containing PKS. The decrease in compressive
strength could be attributed to the poor bonding between the cement and PKS.
Increase in the % of PKS in the mix creates more voids within the concrete matrix
leading to decrease in strength. This finding is consistent with the previous works
(Khankhaje et al. 2017; Fanijo, Babafemi and Arowojolu 2020). Moreover, the result
also shows that the amount and type of coarse aggregate used in the production
of concrete has tremendous influence on the compressive strength of the concrete
(Alengaram, Almuhit & Jumaat, 2013). The outcome further revealed that PKS could
only be suited to grades 20–35N/mm2 (Shafigh, Jumaat and Mahmud 2011).
Split tensile strength
Figure 3: Split tensile strength of the concrete specimens
Figure 3 shows the split tensile strength of concretes made with PKS as partial
replacement of coarse aggregates at 3, 7, 14 and 28days of curing. It can be
observed that at 3 days of curing, the 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% PKS replacement
levels of coarse aggregates achieved tensile strength of 2.79N/mm², 2.08N/mm²,
1.75N/mm² and 1.25N/mm² respectively. At 28days, the tensile strength of 0%,
10%, 20% and 30% PKS replacement of coarse aggregates are 4.27N/mm²,
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Ibrahim, et al.
3.62N/mm², 3.54N/mm² and 3.06N/mm² respectively. Generally, outcome of the

research showed that the split tensile strength decreases with increase in the
percentage replacement of crushed granite with PKS. Similar trend was observed
in the compressive strength result. This confirmed the findings of Fanijo, Babafemi
and Arowojolu (2020). But from the consideration of the ratio of tensile strength to
compressive strength, it can be seen that split tensile strength has very lower values
than compressive strength. At 28days, compressive strength was 75% higher than
the split tensile strength at 0%, 64% higher at 10%, 63% higher at 20% and 65%
higher at 30%. In practice, concrete is not usually expected to resist direct tension
because of its low tensile strength. However, the determination of tensile strength
of concrete is necessary in order to determine the load at which concrete members
may crack.
DURABILITY PROPERTIES
Abrasion resistance
Figure 4: Abrasion resistance of concrete specimens
Figure 4 shows the abrasion resistance of concrete produced with palm kernel shell
as partial replacement of coarse aggregate at 28days of curing. The 0%, 10%, 20%
and 30% PKS replacement of coarse aggregates abrasion resistance were 0.05%,
0.09%, 0.28% and 0.36% respectively. It can be seen that the level of wearing (in %)
increases with increase in the content of palm kernel shell in the concrete. Thus,
0% has the lower wearing value of 18% lower than 10% replacement, 56% lower
than 20% replacement and 72% lower than 30% replacement of coarse aggregates.
The increase in wearing of palm kernel shell concrete may be due to the lack of
proper bonding because of the shapes of palm kernel shell aggregates. It is
believed that the compaction strength of concrete is greatly affected by the shape
and texture of the aggregates. However, the wearing of palm kernel shell concrete
is lower which implies that the concrete possesses good resistance to wear.
Water Absorption
Figure 5 shows the water absorption of concrete produced with palm kernel shell
as partial replacement of coarse aggregate at 28days of curing.
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Ibrahim, et al.
Figure 5: Water absorption of concrete specimens
The water capacity absorption values of 0%, 10%, 20% and30% PKS replacement
of coarse aggregates are 3.45%, 4.01%, 5.18% and 6.92% respectively. It can be
seen that the water absorption increases with increase in the percentage content
of PKS in the concrete (Fanijo, Babafemi and Arowojolu 2020). The 0% (control)
replacement has water absorption of 11% lower than 10% replacement, 15% lower
than 20% replacement and 20% lower than 30% replacement. The high water-
absorption of palm kernel shell concrete can be attributed to the porosity of palm
kernel shell aggregates. Results showed that only 0% (control) and 10% specimens
with water absorption values of 3.45% and 4.01% satisfied the requirement of ASTM
C1585 (2004) standards which specified that the average water absorption of test
sample shall not be greater than 5%. However, the average water absorption
capacity of 20% and 30% replacement of PKS were 5.18% and 6.92% respectively.
Sorptivity
Figure 6: Sorptivity of concrete specimens
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Ibrahim, et al.
Figure 6 shows that the rate of water absorption of concrete produced with 0%,
10%, 20% and 30% PKS replacement of coarse aggregates at 28days of curing.
Results show that the rate of water absorption of concrete specimens is
0.173mm/√S, 0.1191mm/√S, 0.2262 mm/√S and 0.2024 mm/√S for 0%, 10%, 20%
and 30% PKS replacement of coarse aggregates respectively. It can be observed
that the rate of water absorption value of 10% was 45% lower than 0% (control),
53% lower than 20% and 59% lower than 30%. Despite the fact that PKS aggregates
absorbs more water than the granites, the concrete specimens with PKS have lower
rate of water absorption, which implies that PKS concrete may not absorb more
water through capillary.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results, analysis and the discussion made, the following conclusions
were drawn:
i. Palm kernel shells (PKS) possess good crushing and impact values of 5.25%
and 3.25%.
ii. The 28days compressive strength of PKS concrete falls within the standard
specification for lightweight concrete, thereby making PKS suitable as
aggregates for the construction of lightweight structures. Results showed
that PKS increased the void content of the concrete, and in turn also
decreased the mechanical properties as the amount of PKS added increased.
This was due to angular shape of the PKS particles that disturbed the
granular arrangement of concrete.
iii. The use of palm kernel shells as replacement for coarse aggregate in
concrete production can give better result at 10% replacement.
iv. Concretes made with palm kernel shells possess good resistance to wearing,
thereby encourage its uses in an environment where it will be exposed to
wear and tear.
v. The lower rate of absorption of palm kernel shell concrete suggested that
palm kernel shell concrete may not absorb more water through capillary
when exposed to an aggressive environment.
vi. The use of PKS in concrete would provide a cheap source of coarse
aggregate material thereby reducing the demand for naturally occurring
coarse aggregates.
vii. It was recommended that further study be carried out to assess the
durability of concrete made with PKS exposed to chemically aggressive
environment.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
EFFECT OF PETROLEUM CONTAMINATION ON PROPERTIES

OF COMPRESSED STABILIZED EARTH BRICK (CSEB)
K. A. N. Sackey1, M. M. Garba2, O. G. Okoli 3 and D. D. Dahiru4
1,2,3,4Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
The Niger Delta region is the epicenter of petroleum exploration and extraction
activities in Nigeria contributing to oil spills experienced in the region. Attention
has been drawn to its effects on fishing and farming activities while less attention
is paid to effects on soils for construction activities. This research ascertained the
effect the presence of petroleum had on properties of compressed stabilized earth
bricks (CSEBs) made from artificial petroleum contaminated laterite. Three sets of
bricks were produced having a binder made up of rice husk ash (RHA), carbide and
cement in predetermined proportions. Out of the three sets, two sets were made
from laterite artificially contaminated with 2% and 3% petroleum while the third set
had no contamination and acted as the control (0%). The results revealed that bricks
made from petroleum contaminated laterite performed favourably on all selected
tests in relation to the control at the various allotted test days respectively. It can
therefore be inferred that laterite having petroleum contaminants in very minute
quantities in combination with pozzolans like rice husk ash (RHA) and carbide can
be used for the production of CSEBs and utilized in building construction in the
Niger Delta region of Nigeria.
Keywords: compressed stabilised earth brick, laterite, petroleum, pozzolans
INTRODUCTION
In order to have an eventful existence, every living being requires a home for
sanctuary and convenience in the execution of everyday activities as well as for
prestige. Aminu & Ruhizal (2013) defined a home as a place for refuge, security,
comfort and dignity. It is one of the three basic requirements for any individual
apart from food and clothing. In the absence of shelter, his daily activities will be
adversely affected (Sackey, Garba, Mamman & Adeleke 2018).
As of today, houses are constructed with numerous building materials of which
concrete and steel occupy the top spots for materials used in building construction.
Generally, some of these building materials are quite expensive as well as
increasingly becoming scarce. Water bodies are steadily drying up from the twin
effects of high temperatures caused by global warming and the increase in water
1 kwekusackey@yahoo.com
2 mmagajigarbaa@yahoo.com
3 okolygody02@yahoo.com
4 daudadahiru509@gmail.com
Sackey, et al. (2021) Effect of petroleum contamination on properties of Compressed Stabilized

Earth Brick (CSEB) In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
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demands brought about by population explosion. These twin effects adversely

affected the availability of sharp sand which is an important constituent of
concrete. Also, the excessive demand for cement has led to the destruction of the
natural features of the ground topography in areas were limestone is extracted for
cement production. In addition, the gaseous discharges such as smoke and dust
released from cement producing factories affects air quality and disrupts the
photosynthesis processes for plants (Sackey, Garba, Mamman & Adeleke 2019). As
a result of these uncontrolled extractive activities, farmlands as well as plant and
animal habitats are steadily destroyed in addition to the creation of erosion and
gully formations which are some of the features of man-made disasters.
Again, the blasting of rocks at quarry sites in search of coarse aggregates has its
resultant effects in the form of noise pollution, injuries, destruction of properties
located near such quarries in addition to the depletion of scenic sites were these
rock formations are found. Many more of such activities carried out on a daily basis
with the sole purpose of extracting materials for construction jobs are slowly but
continously exhausting the non-renewable resources as well as destroying the
ecosystem.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Petroleum contaminated soil
In the Niger Delta Region, petroleum spillage is a major source of soil
contamination. As emphasized by Ayininuola (2009), he stated that the major
environmental concern in the Niger Delta region is the issue of petroleum spillage.
Low income earners in this region sometimes have to contend with two prominent
issues; the exorbitant fees attached to most houses available for rent and the use
of soil for building construction which has been accidentally contaminated from
petroleum spills. Most times, in the course of the extraction process, petroleum
spills onto the ground surface. In addition, accidents, negligence, faulty
equipments, old and unserviceable parts of equipments, etc. contribute to the
petroleum spills that often occur in the region.
Oyelowe (2015); Ezeldin & Vaccri (1996); Adeoye, Olatokunbo & Ademola (2015);
Rehman, Abduljauwad & Akram (2007) asserted that spilled petroleum does not
remain on the surface but seeps into the ground under the influence of gravity
contaminating the soil as it moves downwards. In this way, soils far away from the
point of spillage may become contaminated as a result of the horizontal movement
of the spilled petroleum when it comes in contact with underground moisture.
Studies carried out revealed that the presence of these spills in some ways
contributed to the improved engineering properties of the soils investigated.
Researchers like Onyelowe (2015), reported that contamination of engineering
soils with up to 4% petroleum was beneficial in terms of soil improvement and
stabilization. Again, Al-Sanad, Eid & Isamel (1995) as cited by Obeta &
Ohwoganohwo (2015) revealed that 4% petroleum contamination increased the
California bearing ratio of Kuwaiti sand. Also, Otunyo (2010) as quoted by Obeta
et al. (2015) affirmed that the California bearing ratio of petroleum contaminated
soils were higher than the uncontaminated soils of silty clay and sandy clay soils.
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This implies that petroleum contaminated soils can be useful for building
construction.
Compressed Earth Brick (CEB)

To adequately utilize these contaminated soils for cheap and affordable building
construction especially for low income earners, compressed earth bricks (CEBs) can
be made from such soils. This reduces the overdependence on concrete and its
constituent materials. Adam & Agib (2001), Stulz, Mukerji, Ile & Fur (1993) as
quoted by Oyelami & Van Roov (2016, p. 2) defined compressed bricks/blocks as
‘masonry which are small in size having regular characteristics and produced by
static or dynamic compression of earth in humid state followed by immediate
demoulding’.
Guillaud, Joffroy & Odul (1985) as well as Patowary, Nath, Hussain & Kakoti (2015)
affirmed that the compressed earth brick/block (CEB) is the modern outcome of
molded earth known as adobe earth block. CEB normally has a high compressive
strength. This is due to the high mechanical force (mechanical stabilization) applied
to moist soils during the production of bricks using a press to produce maximum
compaction and eliminate or reduce the presence of air pores responsible for
weakness. Numerous soil types can be used for CEB production but most times,
laterite is usually the preferred choice. This according to Oyelami et al. (2016) is
based on the fact that laterite is well graded consisting of cohesive and
cohesionless parts of a soil.
Laterite soil stabilization

Enaworu, Ugbe & Rotimi (2016) defined laterites as soils subjected to high
weathering activities and composed of iron and aluminium oxides. Laterite, mostly
a reddish brown soil has been utilized as a viable construction material. It is a
building material that is as old as mankind. It is found in the inter tropical regions
of Africa, India, South East Asia and South America were rainfall is high (Lemougna,
Melo, Kamseu & Tchamba, 2011). The reddish-brown colouration is as a result of
the presence of the oxide of iron which in combination with the oxides of silica and
aluminium accounts for the bulk of the oxides present in laterite. The Niger Delta
region has an abundant amount of laterite, some of which may have been
contaminated through petroleum spills and hence, can possibly be utilized in
building construction activities. Unfortunately, the utilization of laterite soils
though in abundance is mostly limited to use in civil engineering works involving
road construction and landfill operations (Joshua & Lawal, 2011).
To improve durability and strength of CEBs, a stabilizer such as cement is added in

predetermined amount. The addition of the stabilizer results in the formation of a
stronger and more durable material referred to as CSEB. A stabilizer improves both
the strength and index properties of the soil making it useful for construction
activities (Salahudeen & Akije, 2014 as quoted by Sadeeq, Ochepo, Salahudeen &
Tijani, 2015). Other stabilizers such as pozzolans which can be substitute for cement
or used partially with cement can as well help to improve soil properties. This is
because studies carried out on pozzolans derived from the ashes of agricultural
wastes and industrial by-products as well as from man’s industrial activities such
as welding has been shown to improve the strength of masonry bricks. Khalil (2017)
acknowledged that many of these materials such as rice husk ash (RHA), furnace
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slag, plant extracts and carbide waste are yet to be fully used in Nigeria apart from
their utilization in laboratory works. Pozzolans generally are finely grounded
materials and as revealed by Walker & Pavia (2011), they are rich in oxides of
aluminium and silica which reacts with calcium hydroxide and moisture to create
hydrated products of calcium silicate aluminium hydrate (CSAH) and calcium
silicate hydrate (CSH). These hydrates are responsible for bond development.
Masonry products such as CSEBs are durable, strong and very affordable and could
be maximized for low cost building construction.
RESEARCH QUESTION, MATERIALS, TESTS AND METHOD

Research question
What is the effect of petroleum contamination on properties of CSEBs stabilized
partially with cement, rice husk ash (RHA) and carbide.
Materials
Laterite was sourced from Dan Bazariye opposite National Animal Production
Research Institute (NAPRI) in Shika, located in Giwa local government area of
Kaduna State, Nigeria. The laterite was collected at a depth of 1.53m, air dried in
the laboratory and sieved with a wire mesh screen aperture of 9.5mm diameter.
Soil particles that passed through the 9.5mm wire mesh screen aperture were
utilized in the research. Other materials used included Portland Limestone Cement
(PLC) of Dangote brand which conformed to BS 12, 1996, RHA conformed to
ASTMC 593:2006 specification and carbide conformed to the requirement of
ASTMC 141:2005. Water satisfied the requirements of BS 3148 (1990) and the
petroleum gotten from Kaduna refinery in Kaduna State served as the contaminant
for the bricks.
Tests
Preliminary physical tests for the materials such as sieve analysis, percentage
moisture content, atterberg and specific gravity were conducted based on the
requirements of BS 1377 part 2: (1990). Proctor test (Light compaction test)
according to the specifications of BS 1377 part 4: (1990) standard and bulk density
test subject to BS 812 part 2: (1995) standard were undertaken. Furthermore, Free
Swell Ratio (FSR) test put forward by Prakash & Sridharan (2004), Prakash,
Sridharan, Prasanna & Manjunathe (2009) was carried out to determine the
expansion or swell capability of the laterite.
In addition, chemical analysis to determine the mineralogical composition of
oxides in the laterite, RHA and carbide using the XRF florescence
spectrophotometer equipment was conducted. For the brick specimens, they were
subjected to both dry and wet compressive strength tests, Abrasion, water
absorption, sorptivity and ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) tests respectively.
Method
As seen from table 2.1, the mix proportion comprised of 4% cement, 4% RHA and
2% carbide of the dry weight of the soil. This proportion was arrived at after
numerous mix proportions used in the production of the trial CSEBs were subjected
to dry compressive strength test to come up with the appropriate proportion. After
the trial tests, three sets of CSEBs were produced. The first set of CSEBs had 2%
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petroleum contamination, the second set 3% and the third set had 0%
contamination which acted as the control for the 2% and 3% contaminated CSEBs.
Table 2.1 Material proportions for petroleum contaminated 0%, 2% and 3% CSEBs
Mass Mass
Mass of Mass of Mass of Mass of Petroleum
S/N No of of of
Type of test cement carbide laterite petroleum contamination
o brick RHA water
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (%)
(kg) (kg)
Dry 20 2.4 2.4 1.2 60 15.6 0 0
1 compressive 20 2.4 2.4 1.2 60 15.6 1.2 2
strength 20 2.4 2.4 1.2 60 15.6 1.8 3
Wet 20 2.4 2.4 1.2 60 15.6 0 0
2 compressive 20 2.4 2.4 1.2 60 15.6 1.2 2
strength 20 2.4 2.4 1.2 60 15.6 1.8 3
15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0 0
Water
3 15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0.9 2
absorption
15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 1.35 3
15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0 0
4 Abrasion 15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0.9 2
15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 1.35 3
15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0 0
5 Sorptivity 15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0.9 2
15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 1.35 3
Ultrasonic 15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0 0
6 Pulse 15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 0.9 2
velocity 15 1.8 1.8 0.9 45 11.7 1.35 3
In producing the CSEBs, a calculated amount of laterite, RHA, carbide and cement
were mixed thoroughly until the mixture became homogenous. Next, water was
added to the mixture to initiate the chemical reaction process for the cement,
pozzolan and carbide in the mix before the calculated amount of petroleum was
added to those mixes that were to be contaminated. The various mixes (2%, 3%
and 0% contaminated CSEBs) were then loaded on to a Nigerian Building and Road
Research Institute (NBRRI) brick moulding machine which produces a press or
pressure of 4N/mm2 (Ramson, 2011) for compaction. After compaction, the green
bricks were extruded and taken to the curing area. Here, they were covered with
plastic sheets to prevent rapid and excessive hydration from taking place. During
the 28 days curing period, the bricks were watered daily by sprinkling to produce
moisture for hydration as well as a warm and moist environment for curing under
the polythene sheets. Five bricks for each test at an allotted test day were subjected
to the outlined tests after which the averages of the 5 bricks were determined.
For the dry and wet compressive strength tests, CSEBs were crushed at 7, 28, 56
and 90 days respectively. Water absorption, sorptivity and abrasion tests were
conducted at 28, 56 and 90 days. Lastly, UPV test was carried out on the bricks at
56 days and 90 days. No test was carried out on day 28 due to the late approval of
the UPV equipment.
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Sackey, et al.
Figures 1, 2. 3 and 4 show the various activities carried out to produce both the
petroleum contaminated and non-contaminated CSEBs.

Physical properties of laterite, RHA and Carbide
Table 3.1 Physical properties

Description
Properties
Laterite RHA Carbide
Natural moisture content (%) 15.38 ----- -----
Liquid limit (%) 38 ----- ----
Plastic limit (%) 20 ----- -----
Plastic index (%) 18 ------ ------
AASHTO Classification system A-2-6 ------ ------
Bulk density (kg/m3) 1697 ------ ------
Specific gravity 2.76 2.14 2.48
Fineness modulus 3.48 ----- ------
Condition of sample Air dried Air dried Air dried
Colour Reddish-brown Greyish-white White
Silica-Sesquioxide ratio 1.50 ------ ------
Free swell ratio (FSR) 1.12 ------ ------
Optimum moisture content (OMC %) 15.79 ----- ------
Maximum dry density (MDD g/cm3) 1.84 ----- ------
548
Sackey, et al.
From table 3.1, the natural moisture content for the laterite was 15.38% indicating
a possible high bearing capacity property to withstand imposed load. Plasticity
index was at 18% less than the maximum limit of 35%. This showed that the soil
will not be prone to alternating swelling and shrinking when moist or dry. The soil
falls under the sub-group of A-2-6 of the American Association of State Highways
and Transportation Officials AASHTO M145-91 (2003) standard classification
system showing the soil to be made up of sand, gravel with elastic silt fines. The
bulk density and the specific gravity of the soil were 1697 kg/m3 and 2.76. These
values fall within acceptable ranges for laterite soils. Also, the specific gravity of the
RHA and carbide were 2.14 and 2.48 respectively. The fineness modulus was 3.48
within the range of 2.0 - 3.5 indicating that the soil was mostly made up of fine
aggregates. The samples were all dried before use to prevent caking of the particles
by moisture. Oxide of iron was responsible for the reddish brown colouration of
the laterite while reactive amorphous silica produced the greyish-white colour of
the RHA and oxide of calcium influenced the whitish colour of the carbide.
According to Rossister (2014), the Silica – Sesquioxide ratio of a soil within the
range of 1.33 and 2 is a true laterite hence this soil with a S-S ratio of 1.50 satisfied
that requirement. The free swell ratio of this soil with a value of 1.12 can be said to
have a mixture of kaolinite and montmorillonite clay components meaning the soil
has a low expansivity. Lastly, 15.79% was the optimum moisture content at which
the soil attained a maximum dry density of 1.84 g/cm3.
Chemical properties of laterite, RHA and Carbide
Table 3.2 Chemical constituents of laterite, RHA and carbide

Concentration (wt %)
Element
Laterite RHA Carbide
Na2O 0.051 0.140 0.000
MgO 0.580 2.505 0.000
Al2O3 25.396 1.619 2.200
SiO2 56.996 82.831 6.740
P2O5 0.197 7.193 0.081
SO3 0.282 0.700 0.617
Cl 0.007 0.029 0.162
K2O 1.825 2.111 0.120
CaO 0.211 1.497 89.435
TiO2 1.946 0.118 0.074
Cr2O3 0.019 0.002 0.004
Mn2O3 0.081 0.268 0.007
Fe2O3 12.399 0.925 0.507
ZnO 0.001 0.054 0.000
SrO 0.009 0.008 0.054
From table 3.2, elements in the laterite soil that have an appreciable amount of
oxides include Aluminium, Silica and Iron with corresponding percentage values of
25.39%, 56.99% and 12.39% in that order. The RHA had a very high silica content
(amorphous silica) of 82.83% which is highly desirable for any pozzolanic material
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Sackey, et al.
to possess with regards to the reaction expected to occur with calcium oxide in the
presence of water. For the carbide, the oxide of calcium with a value of 89.43% was
the most prominent among all the other oxides present in the carbide.
MECHANICAL AND DURABILITY TEST RESULTS

Dry Compressive Strength
Fig 5: Dry compressive strength – age of curing relation for CSEBs
For the earliest average strength at day 7, 2% petroleum contaminated CSEBs

achieved an average dry compressive strength of 0.94 N/mm2, 3%; 0.77 N/mm2
and 0%; 0.99 N/mm2. For strength at 28 days, the Nigerian Building and Road
Research Institute (2006) recommended a dry compressive strength of not less than
2.0 N/mm2 at 5% cement stabilization. Average compressive strength of the bricks
at 2%, 3% and 0% were however 1.57 N/mm2, 1.51 N/mm2 and 1.66 N/mm2
respectively. It was on day 56 that 0% bricks achieved the 28 days strength with an
average value of 2.15 N/mm2. Furthermore, at day 90, 2% and 3% were finally able
to achieve the 28 days strength with 2.58 N/mm2 and 2.07 N/mm2. The 2% and
3% bricks achieved their strength late (90 days) because the bonds that were being
developed in the brick’s matrix between the aggregates was from the hydration of
the cementing gels slowing down due to the encapsulation activity of the
petroleum contamination. However, this did not prevent the contaminated bricks
from reaching the 2.0 N/mm2 28 days strength recommended. This is in line with
Tremblay, Duchesne, Locat & Leroveil (2002) as quoted by Akinwumi, Booth, Diwa
& Mills (2016) that petroleum contaminants found in cement stabilized soils slows
down hydration but cannot prevent the development of the ultimate strength of
the stabilized petroleum contaminated soils.
Presses with higher compaction pressure can be used for petroleum contaminated
soils to make bricks which will in turn lead to the contaminated bricks achieving
close to the 28 days compressive strength specified by NBRRI (2006). This is
because the higher the compaction pressure generated in the brick’s matrix, the
closer and stronger will be the bond created between the aggregates despite the
presence of the petroleum contaminants in the brick’s matrix. This implies that soils
having petroleum content higher than 3% can be used as long as a press with a
very high compaction pressure is utilized in the brick production. This agrees with
Abdullah, Nagapan, Antonyova, Rasiah, Yunus & Sohu (2017) when they affirmed
that an increase in compaction pressure would give rise to an increase in
compressive strength of CSEBs.
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Sackey, et al.
Wet Compressive Strength
Fig 6: Wet compressive strength – age of curing relation for CSEBs
The value of 1.0N/mm2 specified by NBRRI (2006) and between the range of
0.2N/mm2 to 0.6N/mm2 also specified by National Building Code (NBC 2006) as
the minimum 28 days wet compressive strength for cement stabilized bricks were
satisfied by the 0% bricks (1.37N/mm2), 2% bricks (1.14N/mm2) and 3% bricks
(1.11N/mm2) which were tested at 28 days. The graph showed that an increase in
petroleum contamination lead to a significant increase in strength as the ages of
the bricks increased. This was very much evident at 90 days when the average wet
strength of the 2% bricks (1.55N/mm2) and 3% bricks (1.61N/mm2) surpassed that
of the 0% bricks (1.47N/mm2).
From this, it can be deduced that the petroleum contamination hindered the
ingress of moisture into the contaminated brick’s matrix. This result agrees with the
assertion of Onyelowe (2015) as well as with Al-Sanad et al. (1995) as quoted by
Obeta et al. (2015) when they concluded from their studies that 4% petroleum
contamination improved the engineering properties of soil. It also agrees with the
conclusion drawn by Otunyo (2010) as cited by Obeta et al. (2015) that silty clay
and sandy clay soils with petroleum contamination had higher California bearing
ratio than those without petroleum contamination. The petroleum contaminants
occupied available pore spaces in the brick’s matrix which were not occupied by
the cementing gels. For the 0% bricks, the absence of the contaminants made
ingress of water into the brick’s matrix easy thereby creating paths of weakness
during crushing.
Abrasion
Fig 7: Abrasion – age of curing relation for CSEBs
The wearing off action was more prominent on the 2% bricks (28 days; 0.60%, 56
days; 1.09%, 90 days; 1.55%) and 3% bricks (28 days; 0.58%, 56 days; 1.24%, 90
days; 1.77%) than on the 0% bricks (28 days; 0.38%, 56 days; 0.68%, 90 days; 0.96%).
The 3% bricks having the highest amount of contamination produced more wear
551
Sackey, et al.
offs due to the influence of the petroleum contaminants in preventing the

formation of some bonds between aggregates. The encapsulation of the
aggregates by the petroleum contaminants lead to the cementing gels in the
brick’s matrix forming some weak bonds between the aggregates. Also, the
electrostatic forces of attraction between the contaminants and the aggregates
were not as strong as the forces that existed between the cementing gels and
aggregates. As a result, the abrasive force applied were sufficient in dislodging
those aggregates with weaker bonds attached to them as the bricks continued to
age. The 0% bricks had the least wear off because it was difficult for the aggregates
to be removed from the brick’s matrix due to the absence of the petroleum
contaminants which would have encapsulated the aggregates and weakened the
bonds created.
Water absorption
Fig 8: Water absorption – age of curing relation for CSEBs
The graph in fig 8 showed a very slow but steady increase in water absorption for
the 0% bricks from 28 days (18.20%), 56 days (18.51%) to 90 days (18.72%) in that
order. This probably could have been due to the high affinity of RHA for moisture.
In the case of the 2% and 3% bricks, there was a drop in water absorption at 56
days (2%; 13.38%, 3%; 9.51%) from the initial average absorption values recorded
at 28 days (2%; 20.23%, 3%; 11.07%) before a slight jump in average absorption
was recorded at 90 days (2%; 13.46%, 3%; 13.31%). It was at this time that the water
absorption of the bricks began to stabilize. The petroleum contamination sealed
available air pores in the brick’s matrix preventing the flow of moisture into the
brick as was similarly observed during the wet compressive strength test. Also, as
hydration slowed down due to the reduction in the amount of available cementing
gels present in the pores, spaces not yet occupied by the gels were taken over by
the contaminants which contributed immensely to the drop in water absorption.
Sorptivity
Fig 9: Sorptivity – age of curing relation for CSEBs
552
Sackey, et al.
This test was conducted at intervals of 0, 2, 4, 8, 20, 30 and 60 minutes respectively

for each brick at each allotted test day before computing the average sorptivity. At
28 days, the sorptivity test showed that 0% bricks had the highest average capillary
absorption value of 1.124mm/min0.5 followed by the 2% bricks with a value of
0.835mm/min0.5 and the least being the 3% bricks with average capillary value of
0.790mm/min0.5.. The drop in capillary absorption continued all the way to 90 days
for the 0% brick (0.423mm/min0.5) and 3% bricks (0.376mm/min0.5). However,
there was a slight spike in capillary absorption for 2% bricks (0.335mm/min0.5) at
90 days from that recorded at 56 days (0.287mm/min0.5). Overall, all bricks
recorded a considerable drop in capillary absorption despite the 0% bricks which
recorded the highest average value on all test days. For the contaminated bricks,
the presence of the petroleum contaminants made the ingress of water into the
brick’s matrix difficult.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Fig 10: Ultrasonic pulse velocity – age of curing relation for CSEBs
No test was conducted at 28 days hence, the zero value seen on the graph. At day
56, average UPV values recorded for 0%, 2% and 3% bricks were 1.700km/s,
1.668km/s and 1.678km/s respectively. At 90 days, a slight drop in average UPV
values for 0% (1.596km/s), 2% (1.627km/s) and 3% (1.553km/s) bricks were
recorded. This test signified that the presence of the petroleum contamination did
not have any significant effect on the UPV of the contaminated bricks (2% and 3%)
when compared to the uncontaminated bricks (0%). The low values revealed the
presence of an appreciable amount of air pores which might be present in the
brick’s matrix. This implies that a higher compaction pressure more than the
pressure used in the production of the bricks (4N/mm2) would be necessary so as
to have higher UPV values.
CONCLUSIONS
Laterite containing petroleum contaminant can be used in the production of CSEBs.
Bricks made from petroleum contaminated laterite (2% and 3%) performed
favourably and even surpassed the performance of the uncontaminated bricks (0%)
especially during the water related tests. This shows that the petroleum
contaminated bricks have the potential to perform optimally than the
uncontaminated bricks in a moist environment such as the Niger Delta region of
Nigeria where petroleum contaminated laterite is found. The dry compressive
strength gains of the petroleum contaminated bricks were slow when compared
with the uncontaminated bricks. However, the contaminated bricks were able to
553
Sackey, et al.
achieve their ultimate 28 days strength but at a later day. Higher compaction
pressures for the production of CSEBs with higher petroleum contamination
therefore shows promising possibilities for petroleum contaminated laterite.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
EFFECTS OF MAXIMUM AGGREGATE SIZES ON FLEXURAL

STRENGTH OF RECYCLE IRON AND STEEL SLAG CONCRETE
Oluwaleke Adekunle Olowu1, Akeem Ayinde Raheem2, Abiodun Yesiru Akinsanya3
and Victor Ikechukwu Opara4
1Department of Building Technology, School of Environmental Studies, Yaba College of
Technology, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria
2Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Ladoke Akintola
University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria

3Department of Building Technology, School of Environmental Studies, Lagos State Polytechnic,
Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria

4Department of Quantity Surveying, Lagos State Polytechnic, Ikorodu, Lagos, Nigeria
The needs for sustainable development to meet the increasing demand of granite
for infrastructural development couple with environmental degradation and
pollution caused by depletion of natural igneous deposit.Studies on structural
integrity of recycled iron and steel slag (RISS) as aggregate in concrete have not
been adequately investigated especially flexural characteristics of RISS concrete.
The study adopted experimental approach to evaluating the effects of maximum
aggregate sizes (MAS) on flexural strength of RISS concrete.Laboratory tests
conducted on both granite and RISS aggregate include aggregate crushing value
(ACV),aggregate impact value (AIV), Sieve analysis and X-ray fluorescence
(XRF);flexural strength test was conducted on the concrete prism. Two sets of
600mm × 150mm × 150mm concrete prism were cast viz control and treatment;
treatment concrete contains RISS aggregate at 10, 20, 40 and 60 % replacement
level. The concrete prism were subjected to flexural strength test at 28 day
curing.The results obtained for ACV, AIV and Sieve analysis showed that RISS
aggregate are durable, tough, hard and well graded. Flexural strength values for
mix ratios 1:1½:3, 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 ranges from 0.229 – 0.255 MPa, 0.210 – 0.219 MPa
and 0.152 – 0.215 MPa for treatment concrete and 0.225 – 0.234 MPa, 0.202 – 0.205
MPa, and 0.134 – 0.174 MPa for control concrete these values were within the values
of 0.130 – 0.250 MPa specified by BS 8500 -2: 2015. In conclusion flexural strength
for both concrete increases as the maximum aggregate size decreases. RISS
concrete can be use in road pavement and where high flexural strength is required.
Keywords: flexural strength, maximum aggregate size, riss aggregate, steel slag,
x–ray fluorescence
1 oluwaleke.olowu@yabatech.edu.ng
2 aaraheem@lautech.edu.ng
3 engrabiodun@yahoo.com
4 primewaters@yahoo.com
Olowu, et al. (2021) Effects of maximum aggregate sizes on flexural strength of recycle iron and
steel slag concrete In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
557
Olowu, et al.
INTRODUCTION
Demand for granite aggregate used in many Building and Civil Engineering works
have been on the increase due to Industrial revolution and Technological
advancement in the production and manufacturing of tools and machines for
obtaining granite. Depletion of stock of natural igneous rock which is the source
of granite aggregate on daily basis is cause for concern as it resulted into
environmental degradation and pollution hence the introduction of alternative
aggregate to granite.
Alternative aggregate to granite include Conditioned Pulverised Fuel Ashe (PFA)
was investigated by Dhir, McCarthy and Tittle (2000); Textile waste sludge by
Kulkarni et al. (2012) and Copper slag by Alnuaimi (2012) to mention but a few.
Recycled Iron and Steel Slag (RISS) aggregate which is the focus of this study is
industrial by-product generated from the production of iron and steel products
from iron and steel scraps which litters our towns and cities instead of from iron-
ore which is derived from the earth. The supply of iron-ore surfer setback from the
iron and steel beneficiation plant located at Itakpewhich is down and unable to
supply iron ore to the two Integrated Steel companies namely: Ajaokuta Steel
Company, Ajaokuta, Ogun State and Delta Steel Company, Ovwian, Aladja, Delta
Stateand the supplies from Brazil and Liberia is epileptic and unable to supply
billets to the three governments owned inland rolling mills in Oshogbo, Kastina
and Jos (Mohammed, 2002). Hence the rolling mills resorted to the use of waste
scrap of iron and steel referred to as RISS aggregate.
Study by Norgate et al. (2007) show that production of iron and steel via blast
furnace slag / converter / electric arc furnace requires energy demand of 23 Mj/kg
and global warming pontifical of 2.3 kg Co2/kg. Fenton (2002) reported that using
recycled steel saves 75% of energy, 90% of raw materials, reduces air pollution by
86%, water use by 40%, water pollution by 76% and mining wastes by 97%.
Similar study by Raheem et al. (2021) evaluated the effects of Water Cement Ratio
on Strength Characteristics of Concrete Produced with Recycled Iron and Steel Slag
Aggregate;Rao and Bhandare (2014) investigated the application of blast furnace
slag sand in cement concrete; the study involve Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
(GBFS) sand application as a partial substitute for Crushed Stone Sand (CSS) in
cement concrete.Kothai and Malthy (2014) considered the utilization of steel slag
as partial replacement for fine aggregate in M20 concrete grade.Khalid et al. (2014)
conducted study using iron slag aggregate replacement for granite aggregate in
M40 concrete grade.This study evaluates the effects of maximum aggregate sizes
on flexural strength of recycled iron and steel slag (RISS) concrete. Though,
standards and specifications to slag aggregate usage have been established such
as BS EN 12620: 2002 for Air-cooled Blast Furnace Slag and JIS A5011-1:2013 for
Slag Aggregate Concrete; more research are needed to be carried out to
established the structural integrity of RISS concrete in relation to its strengths.
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EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Materials
Materials used for this study includes: RISS aggregate and granite aggregate as
(coarse aggregate), sharp sand (fine aggregate), Ordinary Portland Cement, OPC
(cement) and water.
RISS aggregate was sourced from Major Engineering Company, Ikorodu referred to
as RISS A; Selsa metal, Otta referred to as RISS B and Continental Iron and Steel
Company, Ikeja referred to as RISS C. The RISS aggregate were crushed and sieved
into three maximum aggregate sizes 37.5, 20 and 12 mm; One third of each RISS
aggregate maximum aggregate sizes (MAS) was thoroughly mixed together and
used for the study.
Sharp sand for the study was obtained from Ogun River at Owode. Granite
aggregate was obtained from Ratcon Limited quarry site along Lagos - Ibadan
expressway, sieved into the three maximum aggregate sizes (MAS) of 37.5, 20 and
12 mm. OPC used as the binding agent for the study complied with NIS 444-1:
2003. The cement was sourced from Lafarge Cement Company, Ewekoro, Ogun
State, Nigeria. Water for the study was obtained from the tap at the Construction
Workshop, Nigeria Building and Road Research Institute (NBRRI), Otta, Ogun State.
The water was free of dirt and impurities.
Specimen preparation
The specimens (RISS and granite aggregate) for X ray fluorescence (XRF) were
crushed and sieved into three maximum aggregate sizes 37.5, 20 and 12 mm; One
third of each RISS and granite aggregate maximum aggregate sizes (MAS) was
thoroughly mixed together. Specimens for ACV and AIV tests (RISS and granite)
were dried, crushed and passed through 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm
sieve. The materials for concrete were batched, mixed and cast into rectangular
prism moulds of size 600 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm; the concrete specimens were
de-moulded after 24 hours, cured at temperature of 250C + 20C as per BS EN
12390 Part 2 (2000) in curing tank until testing date for flexural strength tests. Total
of 135 concrete beams were cast.
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
XRF was used to determine the percentage oxide composition in the samples of
the aggregate; the test conforms to BS EN ISO 12677 (2011). The prepared samples
of RISS A, B and C were excited with x-ray; and consequently their atoms were
ionized, electrons were ejected from the lower energy level which are K and L
energy levels which were replaced from an outer higher energy level; energy were
released because of decrease binding energy of the inner electron orbital
compared to the outer energy orbital. The energy released according to the types
of atom present in the sample was of the form of emission of characteristic x-rays.
Wavelength dispersive spectrometer was used because complex emitted x-ray of
elements was present in the samples. The intensity of the wavelength emitted by
the x-ray was measured using both gas flow proportional and scintillation
detectors. The gas flow detector measure long wavelength greater than 0.15 nano-
micron which are x-ray of K spectra and element lighter than zinc; while scintillation
detector was used to analyze shorter wavelengths in the x-ray spectrum which
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includes element from Niobium (Nb) to Iodine (I) of the K spectra; Thorium (Th)
and Uranium (U) of the L spectra. X-rays of middle wavelength were measured
using both detectors in tandem. The exact value of each element was derived by
comparing with mineral or rock standards whose composition is known using other
techniques.
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) test
The ACV test was carried out as prescribed by BS EN 1097-2: 1998; the prepared
samples of RISS and granite aggregate were filled in cylindrical moulds measure
11.5 cm in diameter and 18 cm high in three layers, each layer was tampered with
a standard rod 25 times. The test samples were weighed (W1) and place in the test
cylinders (15.2 cm diameter). The specimens were subjected to compressive load
of 40 tonnes (400 kN) gradually applied in 10 minutes. The materials passing
through 2.36 mm sieve were separated and weighed (W2). The weight of these
materials (fines), expressed as a percentage of the weight of the total sample (W1),
gives the aggregate crushing value (ACV).
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) test
The AIV test was carried out as prescribed by BS 812-112: 1990 and BS EN 1097 –
2: 1998; the prepared samples (RISS and granite aggregate) were filled into
cylindrical moulds, 10.2 cm internal diameter and 5 cm height in three layers, each
layer being given 25 strokes with a rod. The impact was provided by dropping a
hammer of weight 14.0 kg through a height of 380 mm. The samples were
transferred to the cups of aggregate impact testing machine and were tapped 25
times with the rod. The crushed aggregate were sieved on 2.36 mm sieve, the
weight (W1) of materials passing through 2.36 mm sieve expressed as a percentage
of the total weight (W2) of the sample gives the aggregate impact value. Aggregate
Impact value is expressed as the ratio of weight of materials passing through 2.36
mm (W1) to the total weight (W2) of the samples.
Sieve analysis (gradation)
In coarse aggregate analysis a predetermine quantity (weight) of prepared samples
(RISS and granite) aggregate was put on top of set of 50, 37.5, 28, 20, 14, 12, 10,
6.3 and 2.36 mm British Standard (BS) sieves placed one over the other in the order
of their aperture, the largest aperture sieve was placed at the top and the smallest
aperture sieve at the bottom. A receiver was placed at the bottom, and a cover at
the top of the whole assembly, the whole assembly was fitted on a sieve shaking
machine. Shaking was done for 10 minutes; the portion of the sample that was
retained on each sieve was weighed. The percentage of sample retained on each
sieve was calculated on the basis of total weight of sample, and from these results,
percentage passing through each sieve was calculated.
Flexural strength test
Flexural strength test was carried out as prescribe by BS EN 12390: Part 5: 2000 the
machine used conforms to (pr EN 12390: Part 4: 2000). The third point loading of
the machine was set-up, the specimen (600 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm) concrete
beam was put in place; the actuator gradually released the load steadily and
without shock at 0.06 ±0.04 N/ (mm2 s). The rate of loading was maintained
without change until failures occur. The result was read off from the analogue
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Olowu, et al.
screen and tabulated. The flexural strength was calculated as shown in equation 1,
135 concrete beams were tested for flexural strength.
𝐹×𝐿
𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 1
𝑑1 × 𝑑22

X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
Table 1 show the result of X-ray fluorescence on samples of RISS and granite
aggregates; from the table, it can be observed that the predominant oxides in RISS
aggregate are: Calcium oxide (CaO), Iron II oxide (FeO), Silicon oxide (SiO2) and
Iron III oxide (Fe2O3) in the following proportions 45.16, 24.08, 13.70 and 10.32 %,
40.22, 18.78, 10.10, and 13.76 %, 46.30, 18.85, 15.09 and 10.08 % for RISS A, B and
C respectively. Granite aggregate has Silicon oxide (SiO2), Iron III oxide (Fe2O3),
and Potassium oxide (K2O) and Sodium oxide (Na2O) as predominant oxides with
70.20, 11.56, 3.41 and 3.28 % respectively. The metallic elements in the oxides of
RISS aggregates are more ductile in nature, ability to be drawn into wire, hence
concrete produced with RISS aggregate are likely to have high tensile strengths
compared with granite aggregate.
From the presented result it was observed that the oxides in RISS aggregate which
are in high percentage are contained in low percentage in the granite aggregate;
CaO and FeO were predominant in RISS while SiO2 and Fe2O3 were the
predominant oxide in the granite aggregate which attested to the differences in
their physical and chemical properties though both contained non reactive silicon
oxide which makes RISS aggregate better and an alternative to granite aggregate
(Nippon Slag Association, 2015). The result of this study confirms the result of
similar study by Olonade et al. (2015) that the chemical composition of steel slag
includes SiO2 (42 %), Ferric oxide Fe2O3(32 %), CaO (5 %) and K2O (2 %).
Yongchang et al. (2019) reported that the major constituent of steel slag are Di
calcium Silicate (C2S), Tri calcium silicate (C3S) and Tetra calcium aluminates (C4AF)
which are major constituent of cement participated in hydration process and
enhance the strength of concrete; the oxide of these compounds were confirmed
present in the RISS aggregate used by this study.
Tahir and Ana (2011) identified the following minerals in steel slag which include
Wustile (FeO), Calcium ferrite CaFe2O4/ (CF); Screbrodolskite Ca2Fe2O5/ (C2F);
Larnite Ca2SiO4/ (C2S); Alite Ca3SiO5/ (C3S); Mayenite Ca12Al14O33/ (C12A7) and
Brownmillerite Ca2Al, Fe2O5/ (C4AF) using XRD analysis; Wang et al. (2013)
reiterated that steel slag aggregate consist of C2S, C3S, phase CaO, FeO, MgO, MnO
and C2F. Sezer and Gulderen (2015) identified the major elemental composition of
the steel slag to include Iron III oxide (Fe2O3), Calcium oxide (CaO), Silicon oxide
(SiO2) and Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) which was in the following proportion
35.22,24.62, 17.79 and 7.82 percent. This study confirms the findings of the afore-
mentioned studies on the oxides present in the RISS aggregate. From all
indications RISS aggregate contains similar composition in different proportions
and non reactive silica.
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Table 1: Chemical composition ofRISS and granite aggregates samples

LEVEL DETECTED (%)
S/N PARAMETER RISS RISS
RISS C GRANITE
A B
AVERAGE
Dark Dark VALUE
Black
1. Colour Brown Brown Grey Solid
Solid
Solid Solid
2. SiO2 13.70 10.10 15.09 12.96 70.20
3. Al2O3 1.68 1.02 1.72 1.47 11.56
4. Fe2O3 10.32 13.76 10.08 11.39 1.19
5. FeO 24.08 18.78 18.85 20.57 1.12
6. CaO 45.16 40.22 46.30 43.89 0.96
7. MgO 7.31 5.32 7.15 6.59 0.75
8. Na2O 0.19 0.04 0.22 0.15 3.28
9. K2O 0.04 0.01 0.05 0.03 3.41
10. S 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.00
11. P2O5 0.81 0.52 0.75 0.69 0.08
12. MnO 5.89 5.21 6.34 5.81 0.05
Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV)

Table 2 shows the result of aggregate crushing value test on RISS and granite
aggregate. From the table, both RISS and granite aggregate have ACV values of
9.64 and 8.58, respectively. These values are less than 10 as specified by BS EN1097
– 2: 2000. Hence, both are classified as exceptionally strong and can withstand
crushing force under load. These two aggregates are durable and can be used for
aggregate in concrete production. The result of this test confirms the result
obtained byOmopariola and Jimoh (2018) for ACV which is within 6.2 and 9.45; the
results met the requirement specified in BS EN 1097-2: 2000.
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV)
Table 3 shows the result of aggregate impact value test on RISS and granite
aggregate. From the table, the average AIV for RISS and granite aggregate are
24.33 and 20, respectively. This revealed that the aggregate can be used for heavy
duty concrete flooring, concrete pavement floor and any other concrete works as
specified in BS 812 – 112 (1990). Pajgade and Thakur (2013) and Subathra and
Gnanavel (2014) had 23.21 and 4.3, and 25.26 and 9.03 for AIV of steel slag and
granite aggregate respectively in their studies. Omopariola and Jimoh (2018) had
all the AIV in their study to be less than 30 and came to the conclusion that the
aggregate used for their study are suitable for concrete works relating the result of
their study to the specification in BS EN1097-6: 2000.
Sieve Analysis
The results of the sieve analysis conducted on RISS aggregates were presented in
Figure 1. As shown in the figure, the coefficient of uniformity, CU were 4.00, 4.61
and 4.35 and coefficient of concavity, CC were 1.33, 1.01 and 1.00 for maximum
aggregate sizes of 37.5, 20 and 12 mm respectively. These values were greater or
equal to 4.00 for CU and less than 3 for CC (Michael and John, 2006) hence the RISS
aggregate are well graded and the resulting concrete produced are dense and of
high strength.
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Olowu, et al.
Also the particle size distribution for granite aggregate used to produce concrete
in this study was as presented in Figure 2. From the figure, the coefficients of
uniformity for granite aggregate are 4.64, 4.00 and 4.00 and coefficients of
concavity are 1.76, 1.16 and 1.01 for maximum aggregate size of 37.5, 20 and 12
mm respectively. These values were greater or equal to 4.00 for CU and less than 3
for CC (Michael and John, 2006) hence the granite aggregate are well graded and
the resulting concrete produced are dense and of high strength.
Particle size distribution for sharp sand was presented in Figure 3. From the figure,
it can be deduced that the coefficient of uniformity for sharp sand was 13.3 which
was greater than 6, hence the sand is well graded and the resulting concrete
produced is dense and of adequate strength.
Table 2: Aggregate crushing value for RISS and granite aggregate

RISS AGGREGATE
GRANITE AGGREGATE
RISS A RISS B RISS C
PARAMETER
1ST 2ND 3RD 1ST 2ND 3RD 1ST 2ND 3RD 1ST 2ND 3RD
Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial
W1(Kg) 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25 3.25
W2(Kg) 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.32 0.30 0.31 0.32 0.31 0.28 0.27 0.29
ACV 9.23 9.54 9.85 10.15 9.85 9.23 9.54 9.85 9.54 8.50 8.31 8.92
Av. ACV 9.54 9.74 9.64
Av. ACV (A, 8.58
9.64
B & C)
Where:
W1 = Total weight of aggregate
W2 = Weight of aggregate passing 2.36 sieve size; ACV = Aggregate crushing

𝑊
value; Av.𝐴𝐶𝑉 = 𝑊2 × 100; Av. ACV (A, B & C) = Average Aggregate value (A, B &
1
C)
Table 3: Aggregate impact value (A.I.V) for RISS and granite aggregates
RISS AGGREGATE
PARAMETER GRANITE
RISS A RISS B RISS C
1st 2nd 3rd
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3st 1st 2nd 3rd
Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial
M1 235 232 235 234 235 236 235 234 232 234 235 233
M2 54 56 62 52 61 59 54 52 60 47 47 49
AIV 23 24 26 22 26.0 25 23 22 26 20 20 21
Av. AIV 25 24 24
Av. AIV (A, 20
24.33
B & C)
Where:
M1 = Oven dried Sample (g)
M2 = Oven dried Sample Passing 2.36mm Sieve
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Olowu, et al.
𝑀
Aggregate Impact Value (AIV) = 𝑀2 × 100
1
Av. AIV (A, B & C) = Average Aggregate Impact Value (A, B & C)
Figure 1: Particle size distribution graph of RISS aggregate for 37.5, 20.0, and 12.0 mm
Figure 2: Particle size distribution graph of granite aggregate for 37.5, 20.0, and 12.0 mm
Figure 3: Particle size distribution graph for sharp sand
Flexural Strength
Effect of maximum aggregate size (MAS) on flexural strength of concrete
Figure 4 a, b and c present the result of the Effect of MAS of 37.5, 20 and 12 mm
on the flexural strength of concrete beam samples of 100 mm × 150 mm × 500
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Olowu, et al.
mm at 28 days of curing. From Figure 4a it was observed that the flexural strength
values for 37.5, 20.0 and 12.0 mm MAS for mix ratio 1:1½:3 at 0, 10, 20, 40 and 60
% granite aggregate replacement with RISS aggregate increases by 7.76%, 8.89%
and 8.97% respectively from 0 – 60% RISS replacement while from Figure 4b the
values of flexural strength for mix ratio 1:2:4 at MAS of 37.5, 20 and 12 mm
increases from by 7.35%, 7.43% and 9.5%respectively from 0 – 60% RISS
replacement; and from Figure 4c for mix ratio 1:3:6 at MAS of 37.5, 20.0 and 12.0
mm the values of flexural strength increases by 5.47%, 5.67% and 5.75%
respectively from 0 – 60% RISS. It was observed that the flexural strength increases
as the maximum aggregate sizes decreases; the flexural strength values of concrete
beam with MAS of 37.5 mm are less than the values obtained for MAS of 20 mm
and the values of flexural strength obtained for MAS of 20 mm are less than those
obtained for MAS of 12 mm. Hence, the lesser the maximum aggregate sizes the
higher the flexural strength of concrete beam.
It was also observed that the flexural strength of treatment beams (beams with
RISS aggregate) were higher than control beams (beams without RISS aggregate),
these could be attributed to the higher percentage of Iron II oxide (FeO) and Iron
III oxide (Fe2O3) which formed major composition of RISS aggregate and the rough
texture of the surface of RISS aggregate could be another factor that resulted into
stronger bond of the aggregate and the cement paste.
Jabbar and Habeeb (2015) and Sneka et al. (2018) concluded that the flexural
strength of concrete of high strength concrete increases as the maximum
aggregate size decreases. Warudkar and Nigade (2015) observed increase in
flexural strength at 28 day when steel slag was used to replace granite aggregate
up to 75%. Kumar and Kumar (2016) observed 6 % increment in flexural strength
when 30 and 35 % of slag by weight of coarse aggregate in concrete; Adedokun et
al. (2018) confirms that flexural strength increase between 20 to 60 % of steel slag
inclusion. The results of this study confirm the results of all these studies that the
flexural strength increases as the size of aggregate decreases.
a. Mix Ratio 1:1½:3
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Olowu, et al.
b. Mix Ratio 1:2:4
c. Mix Ratio 1:3:6
Figure 4: Effect of maximum aggregate sizes on the flexural strength of concrete
CONCLUSIONS
From the results of tests conducted on the aggregate and concrete beams the
following conclusions were drawn:
1. It was concluded that both aggregate contains silicon oxide (SiO2), calcium
oxide (CaO), iron II oxide (FeO), iron III oxide (Fe2O3) and aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) as the predominant oxides.
2. Both RISS and granite aggregate are strong and durable and can be used
for aggregate in concrete
3. Both aggregate are well graded and the resulting concrete produced are
dense and of high strength.
4. The flexural strength increases as the maximum aggregate sizes decreases
5. RISS concrete has higher flexural strength than granite concrete
CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
The study had shown that RISS concrete has higher flexural strength than granite
concrete; Flexural strength of concrete is favored by decrease in maximum
aggregate size.
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Adedokun, S. I., Aniwofowose, M. A., & Odeyemi, S. O. (2018). Assessment of Steel Slag as
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Jabbar, D. N., & Habeeb, Z. D. (2015). Influence of Maximum Aggregate Size on Strength
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Omopariola, S. S., & Jimoh, A. A. (2018), A Comparative Study of the Physical and
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Pajgade, P. S., & Thakur, N. B. (2013). Utilization of Waste Product of Steel Industry,
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Sezer, I. G., & Gulderen, M. (2015), Usage of Steel Slag in Concrete as Fine and / or Coarse
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
EFFECTS OF SAND ON THE PROPERTIES OF CEMENT-

LATERITE INTERLOCKING BLOCKS
Sampson Assiamah1 and Humphrey Danso 2
1Department of Building Technology, Sunyani Technical University, Sunyani, Ghana.
2Department of Construction and Wood Technology, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skill
Training & Entrepreneurial Development, Ghana.
In recent years, the attention of researchers is shifting towards the optimization of

building materials by using local contents, indigenous materials, and local
industrial by-products that are abundant in certain localities. This study investigates
the effect of sand on the properties of cement–laterite interlocking blocks. Cement-
laterite interlocking blocks were prepared with lateritic soil which was replaced with
conventional fine aggregate (sand) from 5 to 25% by weight. Cement-laterite
interlocking blocks without sand (0%) served as control. The blocks produced were
tested to determine their density, compressive strength, and tensile strength. The
average density of cement-laterite interlocking blocks increased as the percentage
of sand content in the blocks decreases. The highest compressive strength (9.1
MPa) at 28-day curing of the cement-laterite interlocking blocks was obtained at
5% sand replacement, which is about 13% increase in strength over the control
blocks. It was further revealed in the stress-strain relationship result that the 5%
sand replacement of laterite achieved the highest stress while the 15% replacement
achieved the highest strain of the cement-laterite interlocking blocks. The highest
tensile strength (0.707 MPa) at 28-day curing of the cement-laterite interlocking
blocks was also obtained at 5% sand replacement, which is about 9% increase
strength over the control blocks. The study concludes that the sand replacement
laterite in cement-laterite interlocking blocks have the potential of supporting the
sustainable housing concept, and therefore recommends to manufacturers 5%
sand replacement of laterite in producing cement–laterite interlocking blocks.
Key words: compressive strength, interlocking blocks, laterite, tensile strength
INTRODUCTION
Cement-Laterite Interlocking Block (CLIB) masonry has the propensity to provide
sustainable construction around the world (Adedeji, 2008; Harris, et al., 1992;
Amado, et al., 2007; Chwieduk, 2003); (Calkins, 2009). Comprised of inexpensive
materials, such as laterite, the interlocking blocks can be used to provide housing
and other facilities at low cost (Ferguson, 2008; Raheem, A. A. ; Bello, O. A.;
Makinde, O. A., 2010). By creating interlocking joints between layers of blocks,
1 sampsonassiamah3@gmail.com
Assiamah and Danso (2021) Effects of sand on the properties of cement-laterite interlocking blocks
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Assiamah and Danso
Interlocking Compressed Earth Blocks (ICEBs) allow for the blocks to be dry-
stacked, without the need for mortar (Adedeji, 2012).
In the developing world, especially in metropolitan African cities, scarcity of living

accommodation has always been an issue. According to Adebakin et al. (2012), the
available housing stock is diminishing by the day due to the high level of rural drift
to urban centers. The scarcity and high cost of building materials and the need to
drastically reduce critical housing shortages, especially in the urban areas, and
developing modern housing setups in the rural areas have encouraged the search
for alternative, innovative, and cost-effective building materials. One of such local
materials that are being researched is lateritic soil.
According to Akintorinwa et al. (2012), lateritic soil abounds locally and its use is
mainly limited to civil engineering works like road construction and landfill
operations. It is less utilized in the building industry except in filling works.
Irrespective of the abundance of lateritic soils and their availability, their optimum
use in building production could positively affect the cost of buildings leading to
the production of more affordable housing units (Joshua & Lawal, 2011). Their use
in building products is not yet generally accepted because there is no sufficient
technical data on it, hence limiting its wider application in building construction
work (Danso, 2015; Udoeyo et al., 2006). Laterite is described as a product of in-
situ weathering in igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks commonly found
under unsaturated conditions (Rahardjo et al., 2004). Laterite stabilization using a
mechanical approach involves the blending of different grades of soils to obtain
the desired standard. These properties can however be improved through
stabilization to improve the characteristics and strength (Danso, 2017a). Amu et al.
(2011) described soil stabilization as any treatment applied to a soil to improve its
strength.
Recently there has been a worldwide resurgence of interest in earth building,

especially in developing countries where local earth is the most accessible source
of building material. However, most soils do not contain the mix of clay, silt, and
sand required for good earth building (Roux & Alexander, 2007). The attention of
researchers is shifting towards the optimization of building materials by using local
contents, indigenous materials, and local industrial by-products unique and
abundant in certain localities. This study, therefore, explored ways in which sand
could be utilized in cement–laterite interlocking block production. One of the early
works on laterite was by Udeoyo et al (2006) who studied the Strength performance
laterite concrete. They found that partial replacement of lateritic soil for concrete
was good.
Joshua et al. (2011) studied the cost of sandcrete blocks through partial
replacement of sand with lateritic soil. They found that partial replacement of sand
with lateritic soil blocks was cheaper. Osunade (2002) studied the effect of
replacement of lateritic soils with granite fines on the compressive and tensile
strengths of laterized concrete. He also found that the strength for compressive
and tensile were good.
Raheem et al. (2010) investigated a comparative study of cement and lime

stabilized lateritic interlocking blocks. They established that for lateritic soils to be
economical in the industry, the range of particle sizes used in moulding blocks
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must tend towards the silt fraction. This study, therefore, fills this gap by
investigating the effect of sand on the properties of cement- laterite interlocking
blocks. In order to achieve this, cement-laterite interlocking blocks were prepared
with lateritic soil which was replaced with 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% sand by weight and
the blocks were tested to determine their density, compressive strength, and
tensile strength.

Materials
Sand
The sand was obtained from Chiraa in Sunyani, and met the requirement specified
by British Standard Institution (BS EN 12620:2002+A1:2008). After procurement,
the sand was air dried to constant weight in the Building Department Workshop at
Sunyani Technical University.
Cement
The cement used is ordinary Portland cement manufactured by Dangote Cement
Company. The Cement with grade 42.5R is a fine mineral powder manufactured
with very precise processes.
Laterite
Laterite used for preparing the interlocking blocks was obtained from Koutokrom
in Sunyani. The large lumps were crushed and sieved through ASTM sieve No.8
(aperture2.36mm). The lateritic samples were reddish in colour as shown in Figure
1. The general properties of the laterite were determined by laboratory tests. These
tests were conducted in accordance with British Standard specifications (BS1377-
9:1990). Wet sieving and sedimentation were carried out to determine the grain-
size distribution of the laterite with different sizes of sieves.
Figure 1: Laterite used for moulding interlocking blocks.
Water
The water used for this study was clean and did not contain any dangerous organic
or chemical content. It was obtained from free flowing tap, supplied by Ghana
Water Company limited.
Production of cement-laterite interlocking blocks

A mix proportion of 1:6 of cement: laterite by weight (Figure 2) was used in the
work. The sand replacement of proportion 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25% to the weight
of laterite was used. The mixing was done by the use of shovel to provide a very
plastic paste. The laterite samples were mixed with cement and water-cement ratio
of 0.7 was used as control sample. For the experimental blocks, the laterite, cement
and sand replacement percentage ranging from 5 to 25% were mixed to desired
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consistency. The mixture was then loaded into the block mould for the interlocking
blocks of size 220 x 185 x 120 mm, and hydraulically moulded at a constant
pressure of 10 MPa as shown in Figure 3, and then cured for up to 28 days.
Figure 2: Batching of the materials.
Figure 3. Hydraform interlocking blocks machine with single mould and blocks
Thirty-six (36) blocks each at varied percentage (5, 10, 15, 20 and 25%) of sand
replacement of the laterite were produced, cured, and tested on 7, 14, 21 and 28
days for density, compressive strength and tensile strength. For control, Thirty-six
(36) interlocking blocks were moulded, thus 100% laterite, which can be seen in
Table 1. The total number of blocks produced for the test was two hundred and
sixteen (216).
Table 1: Types of Test and Number of the interlocking blocks moulded

Curing days
Test Sand (%) Total
7 14 21 28
0 3 3 3 3 12
Compressive
5 3 3 3 3 12
10 3 3 3 3 12
15 3 3 3 3 12
20 3 3 3 3 12
25 3 3 3 3 12
0 3 3 3 3 12
Tensile
5 3 3 3 3 12
10 3 3 3 3 12
15 3 3 3 3 12
20 3 3 3 3 12
25 3 3 3 3 12
0 3 3 3 3 12
Density 5 3 3 3 3 12
10 3 3 3 3 12
15 3 3 3 3 12
20 3 3 3 3 12
25 3 3 3 3 12
Total 54 54 54 54 216
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Curing of lateritic interlocking blocks

The blocks were first allowed to air dry under a shade made with polythene sheet
for 24 hours. Thereafter, curing started by sprinkling water on the blocks in the
morning and evening each day, and covered with polythene sheet to prevent
rapid drying as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Curing of the specimen with water and polythene sheets.
Testing of blocks
The experimental tests carried out are density, compressive strength and tensile
strength. Details of the tests are explained below.
Density
The density of the blocks was determined as per BS EN 771-1:2011+A1:2015. Three
blocks from each mix were selected and oven dried at a temperature of 105°C after
each curing age until a constant mass was recorded, indicating a normal dried
block. The dried blocks were weighed (Figure 5), their dimensions measured and
the density calculated.
Figure 5: Measuring the weight of the block
Compressive strength was performed in accordance with BS EN 12390-6 (2009)
and was carried out with a Universal Testing Machine (Model: 50_C34A2, serial no:
0294910). The blocks were tested at the curing ages of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. A
25mm thick rectangular timber platen having the same shape of the interlocking
blocks were placed on top and bottom of the block and placed in the test machine
as shown in Figure 6. The blocks were then crushed and the matching failure load
recorded. The crushing force was divided by the cross sectional area of the block
to determine at the compressive strength. Stress-strain values were obtained from
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the compressive strength test and were used to explain the stress-strain
relationship of the blocks.
Figure 6: Compressive Strength test set up
Tensile strength
The splitting tensile strength test was performed in accordance with BS EN 12390-
6 (2009). This was carried out with the testing machine (CONTROLS 50-C46G2), and
splitting jigs were positioned centrally above and below the block as shown in
Figure 7. The loading was applied constantly at a study rate of 0.05 N/mm2/s until
the split of each block. The maximum load applied at which each of the blocks
failed were recorded and splitting tensile strength calculated.
Figure 7: Tensile Strength Test

Density of sand-cement-laterite interlocking blocks
The average density of the sand-cement-laterite interlocking blocks at various
days of curing is shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Density of sand-cement-laterite interlocking blocks

Curing Day Density of blocks (kg/m3)
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
7 1937 1853 1863 1873 1941 1932
14 1864 1843 1852 1859 1893 1862
21 1795 1780 1785 1788 1799 1790
28 1784 1757 1774 1780 1790 1782
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Table 2 shows the summary of the average density of cement-laterite interlocking

blocks. It can be seen that as the curing days increase, the density decreases with
each percentage of sand replacement. This is means that as the curing days were
increasing the blocks were also losing their moisture contents gradually in order
to gain their strength, so as the days are increasing the blocks also lose their weight
at the drying stage (Danso, 2017b). In these results, the minimum density in day 7
was 1853kg/m3 (5% sand) whereas the maximum density recorded 1941 kg/m3
(20% sand), the minimum density in day 14 was 1843kg/m3 (5% sand) whereas the
maximum density recorded 1893 kg/m3 (20% sand), the minimum density in day
21 was 1780kg/m3 (5% sand) whereas the maximum density recorded 1799 kg/m3
(20% sand), the minimum density in day 28 was 1757kg/m3 (5% sand) whereas the
maximum density recorded 1790 kg/m3(20% sand).
Compressive strength of sand-cement-laterite interlocking blocks

The results of the compressive strength tests of the sand-cement-laterite
interlocking blocks are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Compressive strength tests results
The effect of curing ages on the compressive strength of sand replacement of

laterite presented in Figure 4.1 indicates that all the percentage of sand
replacements show continuous increase with increased curing age. However, only
5% sand replacement yielded higher strength above the control specimen (0%) and
the rest were all below the control specimen. This is because the sand content in
the laterite were more and does not need any sand replacement exceeding 5%.
The results show that blocks slowly gained strength at early curing age. This is in
line with previous findings that blocks containing sand content at high quantities
gained strength slowly at early curing ages (Hossain, 2005; Adesanya & Raheem,
2009a). At 28 days, there was continuous increase in compressive strength for all
the percentages of blocks with values ranging from 8.089 MPa for the control to
6.197 MPa for 20% sand replacement. The highest compressive strength (9.1 MPa)
at 28-day curing of the cement-laterite interlocking blocks was obtained at 5%
sand replacement, which is about 13% increase in strength over the control blocks.
Stress-strain relationship of the blocks

Figure 8 shows the stress-strain relationship of the cement-laterite interlocking
blocks after 28-day curing.
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Figure 8: Stress-strain relationship of the blocks at 28-day curing
It can be seen from the stress-strain curves shown in Figure 8 that 5% sand
replacement yielded the highest stress above the control level of 0% and the rest
of the percentages of sand replacement were below the control. This is due to the
fact that there was enough sand content in the laterite so in this case it was only
sand content from 0% to 5% which were needed for optimum strength. Similar
findings are also shown in a previous study (Fatemeh et al., 2012). The 10% and
15% sand replacement were subjected to higher deformation above the control
and the rest of the percentages of sand replacements are below.
Tensile strength of sand-cement-laterite interlocking blocks
The results of the tensile strength tests on sand-cement-laterite interlocking blocks
are shown in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Effect of Sand content on Tensile Strength Test Results
The results indicate that all the percentage of sand replacements show continuous
increase with increased curing age. The highest tensile strength (0.707 MPa) at 28-
day curing of the cement-laterite interlocking blocks was obtained at 5% sand
replacement, which is about 9% increase strength over the control blocks. However,
it is observed that the tensile strength of all the sand replacements from 10% to
25% were below the control specimen, which could be due to the fact that the sand
content in lateritic soil were high and does not need additional sand content
exceeding 5% which will result in the blocks specimen creating more pores. Studies
by Bahar et al. (2004) and Morel (2001) and Medjo Eko et al. (2012) with cement as
stabilizer in soil blocks recorded similar trend.
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CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn from the results:
 It was observed that the densities for cement-laterite interlocking blocks

produced with sand replacement at 20% were the highest.
 The results indicated that the highest compressive strength of 9.1 MPa at 28-
day curing was obtained at 5% sand replacement of the cement-laterite
interlocking blocks, which resulted in about 13% increase in compressive
strength over the control blocks.
 Again, it was observed that the highest tensile strength of 0.707 MPa at 28-day
curing of the cement-laterite interlocking blocks was achieved at 5% sand
replacement, which was about 9% increased strength over the control blocks.
 On the basis of the above, it can be concluded that the sand replacement of
laterite in cement-laterite interlocking blocks has the potential of being used
as building units for sustainable application. The study recommends 5% sand
replacement of laterite for cement-laterite interlocking blocks for construction
block producers. Lastly, further investigation on the use of cement laterite
interlocking blocks should be made with emphasis on the effect of addition of
natural fibres on the strength of the blocks.
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Hossain, K. M. A. (2005). Blended cement using volcanic ash and pumice.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
ENABLERS OF MUTUAL SATISFACTION IN TRANSNATIONAL

PUBLIC INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF
SINO-GHANA
Bridget Tawiah Badu Eshun1, Albert P. C. Chan2 and Frank D.K. Fugar3
1,2Dept.of Building and Real Estate, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon,
Hong Kong
3Dept. of Construction Technology and Management, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology. Kumasi, Ghana
Sino-Ghana relations have steadily grown over the years and have influenced the
increase in various economic sectors especially infrastructure development in
Ghana. The unique nature of Chinese corporations heavily engaged in Ghana’s
infrastructure development has captured research attention. Although several
studies have been done on Sino-Ghana trade and infrastructure relations, little
attention has been placed on the achievement of mutual satisfaction (MS) for both
parties. It is crucial to empirically investigate MS in these partnerships since both
parties having distinct interests, collectively work towards the provision of public
infrastructure. This study adopted a three-staged approach of identification,
assessment, and modelling of factors that enable the achievement of MS in
transnational infrastructure partnerships. This involved an extensive review of
literature and elicitation of views from purposively sampled private and public
experts. The Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) approach was adopted in
modelling the enablers which generated a systemic structure highlighting their
relationships. Results indicated that enablers of achieving MS in these partnerships
are interrelated and collectively act to create an environment of achieving mutual
satisfaction. The enablers of MS include fair risk-bearing, equal and active
participation of project parties, flexible contracting, strategic negotiation, efficient
private and public sector capabilities, equitable distribution of project benefits,
existence of mutual trust, and commitment. This paper provides an objective
approach towards the quest for achieving mutual satisfaction and summarizes
enablers that can be used in pushing the attainment of MS in China-Ghana
infrastructure relations. Findings can be used as a basis for policy development
uniquely for these partnerships to also improve the achievement of value for money
and overall project success in China-Ghana infrastructure relations.
Keywords: Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM), Mutual Satisfaction (MS), public

infrastructure, Sino-Ghana, transnational
1 beshun44@gmail.com
2 albert.chan@polyu.edu.hk
3 frankfugar@yahoo.com
Eshun, Chan and Fugar (2021) Enablers of mutual satisfaction in transnational public infrastructure
development: the case of Sino-Ghana In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
579
Eshun, Chan and Fugar
INTRODUCTION
Infrastructure is a key measure of the development of any country as it creates an
enabling environment for investments and livelihood which promotes economic
growth and development (Ajakaiye and Ncube, 2010). This has steered the desire
of most country leaders in Africa to strive for infrastructure development. Despite
the evident efforts of these leaders, infrastructure development in Africa remains a
challenge due to insufficient financial and technical resources. (Mitullah et al.,2016).
Embracing foreign direct investments (FDIs) has become the go-to for most African
countries towards bridging their infrastructure gap. In the vein of FDIs, studies
show an enormous boom in Sino-Africa relations making China the highest donor
and investor to African countries in recent times (Habiyaremye and Oǧuzlu, 2014;
Yu et al.,2019; Wang et. al., 2020).
Relations between China and Africa besides trading have seen a major impact in
the aspect of infrastructure provision. China has steadily combined the extension
and provision of financial aid for the construction of infrastructure in Africa (Alves,
2013). The Chinese belt and road initiative (BRI) in Africa has been influential in
reducing Africa’s infrastructure deficit with the provision of roads, ports, railways,
energy, etc. (Ndzendze and Monyae, 2019). China’s infrastructure engagement in
Africa mostly comes as financial or technical aid or both through state-owned firms
(Ubi, 2014) therefore projecting a unique transnational private sector initiative in
Africa’s infrastructure procurement.
African countries must maximize the Sino-Africa engagements to improve their

infrastructure by tapping more into the moving trend of transnational public-
private partnerships (TPPPs) (Cheng, 2019). TPPPs can briefly be defined as
formalized international agreements between a private sector and public sector to
deliver collective goods. In TPPPs the non-state actors (private sector) co-govern
alongside the state actors (public sector) in the provision of the collective goods
which is usually the sole mandate of the state actors (Schäferhoff et al.2009). This
describes most Sino-African infrastructure engagements as China through their
state-owned enterprises' partner with African governments in the provision of
public infrastructure.
Despite, the undeniable evidence of China’s aid in Africa’s infrastructure, there lies
some segmentation in literature on the prime motive of these investments. Some
capture the intent of engaging in partnerships that are mutually beneficial and to
promote and strengthen cooperation ties while others report that, it is some form
of debt trap and interest in raw materials (Addis et al.,2020). Thus, Chinese
investments in Africa often targeted to resource-rich countries need to be
investigated uniquely. Addis et al., (2020) further stated that the sustainability and
whether these partnerships and mechanisms culminate mutually satisfactory deals
remains unseen. The realization of maximum benefit to both parties in these
dealings requires a deliberate and concerted effort from both actors (Ndzendze
and Monyae, 2019).
Given the unique nature of Sino-Africa infrastructure relations amid possible

varying perceptions on the motives and overall achievement of mutual satisfaction
or win-win for both parties, this study seeks to identify and assess factors that
580
enable and create the environment for the achievement of mutual satisfaction in
these TPPPs. Eshun et al. (2020) conceptualized the achievement of mutual
satisfaction or win-win as a system of interacting factors. Therefore, the identified
enabling factors are assessed and modelled into a systemic structure (interactive
system) using interpretive structural modelling (ISM) depicting how these enablers
interact in attaining mutual satisfaction. The case of Ghana is considered in this
regard as engagements of China in Ghana have also seen a significant boost.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Transnational Public-Private partnerships (TPPPs)
Despite the immense growth of TPPPs in most policy domains such as social rights
and security, environmental politics, and development cooperation, views are
divided pertaining to its emergence and description (Schäferhoff et al.2009). TPPPs
are “institutionalized transboundary interactions between public and private actors,
which aim at the provision of collective goods” (Schäferhoff et al.2009). These
models generally move from a more publicly involved towards a more privately
involved or owned engagements and are described based on three criteria i.e.
actors, goals, and the sharing of risks and responsibilities. According to Park and
Jun (2016), the definition of TPPPs is not clear-cut, as the scope can be very diverse
hence this paper deduces a definition appropriate for analytical research. The
realist perspective is adopted in this study describes Transnational PPPs as the
resultant of the overlap between public and private actors ’interests which is an
initiative-based approach towards solving a problem (provision of public
infrastructure) by the collective action of these private and public actors (Park and
Jun, 2016).
Mutual satisfaction in TPPPs
Studies have shown that public and private actors have varying interests in the
delivery of public infrastructure. This has sprung up some shortcomings in the
implementation of the project and therefore requires deliberate efforts to attain
mutual satisfaction or win-win throughout the project life (Eshun et al., 2020).
According to Grimshaw et al., (2002) evidence of the achievement of mutual
satisfaction is little in these partnerships due to elements of power imbalance and
inequitable distribution of project gains. Furthermore, these partnerships due to
the dire need for funding and technical aid on the part of the public actors create
room for a leader-follower relationship where, responsibilities, management, and
deals are unfair (Shi et al.,2016). Differences in the prime interests of public and
private actors are dynamic and therefore the need to continuously thrive for mutual
satisfaction through strategic partnership activities (Kobylinska, 2017). This study
describes mutual satisfaction as a conscious and continuous effort of project actors
to ensure the prime interests of all parties are reasonably achieved. Additionally,
following the description by Eshun et al., (2020) this study also considers the
achievement of MS as a system of interacting factors where strategies should
operate simultaneously for achieving MS.
Sino-Africa infrastructure relations
The rate at which China is engaging and investing in Africa is grabbing attention
and such investments have experienced a huge leap in recent years (Ubi, 2014). In
2009, records indicated that China surpassed the world bank (the then top lender)
581
as Africa’s lender and became the largest trading partner to the continent
(Akyeampong and Fofack, 2019). China has made several infrastructure
investments in Sub-Saharan Africa (Zhang et al., 2014). The nature of Chinese
investments differs from that of other western countries due to their dominance of
state-owned enterprises and the provision of readily available financial and
technical aid hence cannot be treated like any other type of foreign direct
investment (Auffray and Fu, 2015). To mention a few, China was involved in the
Ethiopia-Djibouti Railway Project, the railway and pipeline predicted to link the
ports in Kenya to oil fields in South Sudan and Uganda, expansion of the Suez
Canal in Egypt, the Kano-Lagos railway line in Nigeria amongst others.
Sino-Ghana infrastructure relations
Dating back to 1960, Ghana and China established diplomatic relations which were
aimed towards the development and strengthening of bilateral ties between the
two countries. The relations between China and Ghana have grown over the years
and Ghana has always been well poised to benefit from Chinese interest in funding
infrastructure projects overseas (Gocking, 2020). Undoubtedly, China to some
extent has propelled Ghana’s economic and social growth as well as brought some
more tangible benefits to the country. Ghana’s infrastructure has seen
commendable improvement since the involvement of the Chinese state-owned
firms in sectors such as roads, energy, ports, among others. The Shanghai
Construction Group played a significant role in the procurement of the national
theatre in Accra which was built in 1992 (Odoom, 2017). The energy and water
sectors in Ghana have also experienced support from China like the construction
of the Bui Hydro-electric Dam and the Sunon Asogli Power Plant through dealings
with the Shenzen energy group and China-Africa development fund. In recent
times, national initiatives like the One District One Factory (1D1F), Planting for Food
and Jobs and the Year of Roads Policy have benefited from Chinese corporations
which provided the needed infrastructure such as roads, interchanges, warehouses,
and offices.
Studies on the dealings between China and Ghana have also recorded a two-sided
perspective being positive or negative to either party (Odoom 2017; Gocking,
2020). Mutually satisfactory deals for both actors are desired and fueled however
the lack of managerial knowledge cripples its full glare. Most often the tendency
of a win-lose outcome in such partnerships goes in favor of China (Bbaabla, 2015).
A recent report on an interview with H.E. Lu. Kun the Chinese Ambassador to Ghana
indicated that China is willing to take new measures to ensure the growth of
friendship ties with Ghana. He however stressed the need to carry out collective
dialogue and incorporation of effective mechanisms for more practical
cooperation.
METHODOLOGY
The approach to this study was three-phased.
Stage I-Comprehensive literature review: The study commenced with a
comprehensive literature review. This was aimed at identifying constructs or factors
captured in previous studies about obtaining mutual satisfaction or generating a
win-win situation for both public and private parties. This involved an extensive
582
probing of literature from online research libraries such as Web of science, Scopus
and google scholar. The search was focused on studies relating to construction or
infrastructure procurement, delivery, or development. The review yielded several
constructs which are summarized and presented in table 4.2.
Stage II- Semi-structured expert interview: The results from the review formed the
basis of this stage. The constructs identified were developed into the research
instrument used for the semi-structured expert interview. Studies with conceptual
and practical implications require the use of experts. The reliance on expert opinion
remains dominant in most studies as they often serve as a basis for further
empirical studies (Bhandari and Hallowell, 2021). This was aimed at refining and
scoping the identified constructs into practical context unique to the nature of
Sino-Ghana infrastructure provision. Experts engaged were academic and industry
practitioners affiliated to either the private sector (China) or the public sector
(Ghana). This study purposively contacted professionals who have been engaged
(practice or research) in the delivery of public infrastructure projects which involve
Chinese contractors and/or funding. Another relevant requirement was to engage
professionals who have expertise in TPPPs and other infrastructure procurement
routes hence they could effectively relay their current experiences and proficiency
suitable to the purpose of the study. This led to the identification of 13 enabling
factors of MS in transnational infrastructure provision also summarized in table 4.2.
Stage III- Development of the Interpretive Structural Model (ISM): The ISM method
was developed to create a systematic problem-solving approach to complex issues
(Sohani and Sohani, 2012). Results from the initial stages depict that the constructs
identified collectively enable the attainment of mutual satisfaction hence
establishing their relationships is key. Moreover, ISM can be pedigreed to Structural
Modelling (SM) which is a method that uses words and visuals in thoroughly
defined patterns to portray a structure, complex issue or system (Poduval and
Pramod, 2015). The modelling approach in ISM produces a hierarchical structure
and connectivities amongst the elements based on the pairwise relationship of the
elements from the judgment of a group of experts. According to Eshun et al., (2020)
in the delivery of infrastructure through TPPPs, the quest for achieving mutual
satisfaction can be realized if enablers are integrated and addressed as a system
considering their significant relationships. Hence making the ISM an ideal analytical
approach for this study.
The representative factors summarized in Table 4.2 were structured into an ISM
survey instrument and presented to a purposively sampled group of respondents.
Official invitations were sent out to 23 experts out of which 15 participated. Studies
have shown that the number of experts engaged in ISM does not have to be huge
(Shen et al.,2016; Xu et al., 2020). They could even be as low as two (Ravi and
Shankar (2005) if the appropriate experts are engaged. In cases of non-
convergence in relationship determination by the experts, the majority rule was
applied as per other similar studies (Shen et al.,2016; Saka et al.,2020) making the
odd number participation ideal in this case.
The ISM steps are described as follows:
 Step1: Identification of the variables affecting the system i.e. enablers of MS

in this study.
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 Step 2: Establishment of the conceptual relationship between the variables

identified in the initial step.
 Step 3: Development of the Structural Self-Iteration Matrix (SSIM) with the

enablers of MS. This illustrates the pairwise relationships among the
variables.
 Step 4: Development of the Reachability Matrix from the SSIM and

transitivity check.
 Step 5: Level partitioning based on the Reachability Matrix. This includes

determining the reachability, antecedent and intersection sets.
 Step 6: Development of a model based on the relationships denoted in the

reachability matrix and hierarchical structure projected.
 Step 7: The ISM model is checked for conceptual inconsistency.
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

Expert profiling
As captured earlier the adoption of ISM approach requires expert opinion in
creating problem solving and systemic conceptualization of an issue based on
pairwise relationships. A total of 15 experts were involved in this study. The
distribution of these experts is presented in Table 4.1
Table 4.1 Expert profiling

Demographics Category Number Percentage
Researcher 4 26.67
Engineer 3 20.00
Profession Quantity surveyor 2 13.33
Project manager 4 26.67
Contractor 2 13.33
Central Government 5 33.33
Local Authority 2 13.33
Type/ Job affiliation Private sector consultant 1 6.67
Public sector consultant 3 20.00
Academia 4 26.67
Below 5 years none
5 to 10 years 3 20.00
Years of Experience 11 to 15 years 6 40.00
16 to 20 years 4 26.67
Above 20 years 2 13.33
1-5 1 6.67
6-10 4 26.67
11-15 5 33.33
Number of Projects
16-20 3 20.00
21- 30 1 6.67
Over 30 1 6.67
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Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM)

Establishment of enablers
This section presents the results from the literature review and scoping results from
the expert interview.
Table 4.2 Identification of enablers of MS

Representative Variables
ID Literature Review Variables Sources
(Interview)
Carbonara et al., 2014; Wu et
Fair risk sharing
al., 2018; Vassallo et al., 2012
E1 Fair risk bearing
Balancing of risks and
Storbjörk et al.,2019
responsibilities
Relational and cooperative deals Storbjörk et al.,2019
E2 Flexible Contracts
Flexible contract terms Sang et al., 2019, Zhang, 2009
Equitable Revenue guarantee Carbonara and Pellegrino,
structure and sharing 2018a, Chen et al. 2018
E3 Mutually beneficial Project gains Carbonara and
Fair distribution of project gains Pellegrino,2018b, Tavakoli,
and Nourzad, 2020
Leviäkangas et al., 2016,
Strategic financial planning and
Efficient financial appraisal and Carbonara and
E4 package
funding package Pellegrino,2018b
Optimum financial computation Leviakangas et al., 2013
Zhang 2011; Zhang and Chen,
Reasonable Concession period
Rational concession period and 2013, Hadi and Erzaij, 2019
E5
price arrangements Reasonable Concession price Tavakoli, and Nourzad, 2020;
structure Zhang and Chen,2013
Mechanism for renegotiation of Mechanism for renegotiation of Domingues and
E6
arrangements arrangements Zlatkovic,2015,
Periodic reappraisal of project Zhang 2011, Zhang and Chen,
E7 Mechanism for risk reappraisal
risks 2013
Adequate skills and knowledge Leviäkangas et al., 2016;
capacity development Wakeford and Valentine, 2001
Efficient public and private sector
Technical innovation development
E8 expertise and capacity Wu et al., 2018
development
Continuous performance
Am et al., 2014
improvement and innovation
Collaborative management and
Feng et al, 2019
Equal involvement and active assessments
E9 participation of stakeholders in Am et al., 2014; Carbonara et
Active participation of both parties
decision making al., 2014
Equal involvement of parties Shakibaei and Alpkokin, 2020
Coordination mechanism Wakeford and Valentine, 2001
Domingues and
Active coordination and Effective communication and
E10 Zlatkovic,2015 ; Wakeford and
communication between parties dialogue methods
Valentine, 2001
Cooperative partnership Liou et al., 2011
Convergence of interests in Liou et al., 2011; Shakibaei
Strategic conflict resolution and negotiation and Alpkokin, 2020
E11
Contract negotiation Simultaneous maximization of
Repolho et al. 2016
interests
Balance of power between parties Grimshaw et al., 2002
Ensuring balance of Power
E12 Ensure equal bargaining power or
between parties Interview
stands
Domingues and Zlatkovic,
Commitment enhancement
E13 Mutual trust and commitment 2015; Storbjörk et al.,2019
Mutual trust Interview
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Structural Self-Interaction Matrix (SSIM)

The development of the SSIM reflects the pairwise relationships between the
enablers. The enablers are built into a matrix where these variables are written on
an X-axis and Y-axis Pane. Where Cell Eij of the matrix shows the relationship
direction between variable Ei (on the X-axis) and Ej (on the Y-axis). This reveals the
interpretive logic of the 13 enablers in the model. The relationships are defined as
follows:
V = Ei influences or helps to achieve Ej whereas Ej does not influence or helps to

achieve Ei
A = Ej influences or helps to achieve Ei whereas Ei does not influence or helps to
achieve Ej
X = Ei influences or helps to achieve Ej and Ej influences or helps to achieve Ei
O = Ei and Ej are unrelated.
Table 4.3 Structural Self-Interaction Matrix (SSIM)

i j E13 E12 E11 E10 E9 E8 E7 E6 E5 E4 E3 E2 E1
E1 X X X A A A V O V X V O X
E2 O V V A A A V V O O O X
E3 A O O O A O O O X A X
E4 O O O A A A O O X X
E5 O O O A A A O O X
E6 O V X A A O X X
E7 O V X A A A X
E8 O O V V V X
E9 X V V X X
E10 X V V X
E11 A O X
E12 A X
E13 X
Reachability Matrix (RM)

The conversion of the SSIM into a Binary Matrix is the Reachability Matrix (RM). The
RM is developed by expressing the information in the SSIM in 0s and 1s. This is
achieved through the application of the following conditional rules to the cells in
the SSIM.
If the ij entry in the SSIM is;
 X, the (i,j) in the reachability matrix becomes 1 and the (j,i) entry becomes 1
 V, the (i,j) in the reachability matrix becomes 1 and the (j,i) entry becomes 0
586
 A, the (i,j) in the reachability matrix becomes 0 and the (j,i) entry becomes 1
 O, the (i,j) in the reachability matrix becomes 0 and the (j,i) entry becomes 0
Table 4.4 illustrates the results of the conversion of the SSIM to the binary matrix.
For instance, cell E1/E7 is V in Table 4.3 and the resultant binary figure becomes 1
for cell E1/E7 and 0 for cell E7/E1 in Table 4.4 as per the conditions stated above.
Table 4.4 Reachability Matrix

ID E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12 E13
E1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
E2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
E3 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E4 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E5 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
E6 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
E7 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
E8 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
E9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
E10 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
E11 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
E12 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
E13 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
Level partitioning
This outlines the hierarchical structure of the model. To partition the variables into
levels, three computations are made i.e., the reachability set, antecedent set, and
intersection set. The reachability set is a set for the enablers (variables) which
includes itself and any other variables with a value of one in the corresponding
row. The antecedent set also includes itself and any other variables in the
corresponding column. The intersection set includes the common items (variables)
in both the antecedent and the reachability set. The level partitioning is done by
labelling the variables (enablers) with the same items in the reachability set and
the intersection set. For instance, E5 had reachability set as (3,4,5) and intersection
set (3,4,5) hence qualifies to the labelled as level one. Similarly, E11 had common
items of (1,6,7,11) in both the reachability and intersection sets and labelled as level
one.
Next, the partitioned enablers are removed from the iteration and the reachability,
antecedent and intersection sets are checked again to determine the level two
partition for the remaining enablers. The enablers with the same items in the
reachability and intersection sets are labelled at level two until no such similarities
are identified. The enablers labelled at level two are then removed from the
iteration and again the reachability, antecedent and intersection sets are checked
to define the subsequent level. The same process is repeated until all the enablers
are partitioned. The results are presented in table 4.5.
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Table 4.5 Iteration table for level partitioning

Enablers Reachability set Antecedent set Intersection set Level
Level 1
E1 1,3,4,5,7,11,12,13 1,4,8,9,10,11,12,13 1,4,11,12,13
E2 2,6,7,11,12 2,8,9,10 2
E3 3,5 1,3,4,5,9,13 3
E4 1,3,4,5 1,4,5,8,9,10 1,4,5
E5 3,4,5 1,3,4,5,8,9,10 3,4,5 I
E6 6,7,11,12 2,6,7,9,10,11 6,7,11
E7 6,7,11,12 1,2,6,7,8,9,10,11 6,7,11
E8 1,2,4,5,7,8,9,10,11 8 8
E9 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9,10,11,12,13 8,9,10,13 9,10,13
E10 1,2,4,5,6,7,9,10,11,12,13 8,9,10,13 9,10,13
E11 1,6,7,11 1,2,6,7,8,9,10,11,13 1,6,7,11 I
E12 1,12 1,2,6,7,9,10,12,13 1,12 I
E13 1,3,9,10,11,12,13 1,9,10,13 1,9,10,13
Level 2
E1 1,3,4,7,13 1,4,8,9,10,13 1,4,13
E2 2,6,7 2,8,9,10 2
E3 3 1,3,4,9,13 3 II
E4 1,3,4 1,4,8,9,10 1,4
E6 6,7 2,6,7,9,10 6,7 II
E7 6,7 1,2,6,7,8,9,10 6,7 II
E8 1,2,4,7,8,9,10, 8 8
E9 1,2,3,4,6,7,9,10,13 8,9,10,13 9,10,13
E10 1,2,4,6,7,9,10,13 8,9,10,13 9,10,13
E13 1,3,9,10,13 1,9,10,13 1,9,10,13
Level 3
E1 1,4,13 1,4,8,9,10,13 1,4,13
E2 2 2,8,9,10 2 III
E4 1,4 1,4,8,9,10 1,4 III
E8 1,2,4,8,9,10 8 8
E9 1,2,4,9,10,13 8,9,10,13 9,10,13
E10 1,2,4,9,10,13 8,9,10,13 9,10,13
E13 1,9,10,13 1,9,10,13 1,9,10,13 III
Level 4
E1 1 1,8,9,10 1 IV
E8 1,8,9,10 8 8
E9 1,9,10 8,9,10 9,10
E10 1,9,10 8,9,10 9,10
Level 5
E8 8,9,10 8 8
E9 9,10 8,9,10 9,10 V
E10 9,10 8,9,10 9,10 V
Level 6
E8 8 8 8 VI
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Results show that E8 “Efficient public and private sector expertise and capacity
development” and E1 “Fair risk-bearing” were the enablers solely captured in a level
i.e., levels VI and IV respectively. Furthermore, E12 “ensuring balance of power
between parties”, E11 “strategic conflict resolution and contract negotiation” and
E5 “rational concession period and price arrangements are captured as level I. Also,
E6, E3, and E7 namely, mechanism for renegotiation of arrangements, mutually
beneficial project gains, and periodic reappraisal of project risks were captured in
level II. The fifth level includes equal involvement and active participation of
stakeholders in decision making and the active coordination and communication
between parties.
ISM-based Model.
This is developed based on the relationships captured in the reachability matrix
and partitioning levels. The results from the transitivity checks as described in the
ISM steps showed the existence of very dense transitive links among the variables
affirming the hypothetical stand of the study that the enablers act as a system of
interacting factors that affect each other and should function jointly. The
connectivity between the enablers show that they act collectively in the
achievement of mutual satisfaction. The structural model shown in Figure 1 depicts
significant links.
Figure 1; ISM based Model
The model gives a systemic view of the enablers for achieving MS. The results
indicate that the top enablers include E12 “ensuring balance of power between
parties” E11 “strategic conflict resolution and contract negotiation” and E5 “rational
concession period and price arrangements” however the efficient public and
private sector expertise and capacity development (E8) at the bottom of the system
589
should be focused on since it initiates and forms the bedrock of the structure.
Falling at the base of the structure means it influences all the other enabling factors
hence the quest for MS should begin with deliberate capacity development of both
private and public sectors. Furthermore, the equal involvement and active
participation of stakeholders in decision making (E9) as well as active coordination
and communication between parties (E10) promotes the attainment of MS and
contributes to the fair sharing of risks and so on.
MICMAC analysis
This creates an improved interpretation of the behavior of the enablers in the
model. This analysis was much needed in this study due to the complex nature of
the links between the enablers. The main objective of this analysis is to determine
and assess the driving and dependency powers of the enablers. The driving power
is the sum of 1s on the rows and the dependency variables the sum of 1s on the
column from the reachability matrix. These values are presented in table 4.6 and
form the X and Y axis used in plotting the graph shown in figure 3. The MICMAC
analysis groups the enablers into four clusters namely independent, linkage,
autonomous and dependent variables.
Table 4.6 Driving and Dependency powers

Enablers of MS E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E11 E12 E13
Driving power (y-axis) 8 5 2 4 3 4 4 9 12 11 4 2 7
Dependency power (x-
8 4 6 6 7 6 8 1 4 4 9 8 4
axis)
The inputs of table 4.6 is used in plotting the graph for the MICMAC analysis. The
graph is divided into four equal quadrants as shown the figure 3. The top right
corner is the linkage quadrant while the top left is the independent quadrant. The
bottom right is the dependent and the bottom left is the autonomous quadrant.
Figure 2; MICMAC Analysis of enablers.
Q1- Independent enablers; these are the enablers that exhibit a high driving power
with low dependency power. They include efficient public and private sector
expertise and capacity development, mutual trust and commitment, active
590
coordination and communication between parties and equal involvement and

active participation of stakeholders in decision making. It is evident that these
independent enablers are unique in classification as they refer to the people or
human actors (i.e. the private and public sector stakeholders) involved in the
partnership.
Q2- Linkage enablers: these are the enablers with both strong driving and
dependence power. These are the variables that are unstable and any action on
these variables will have an effect on the others at the same time have feedback
on themselves. The enabler in that category is the fair risk-bearing.
Q3- Autonomous enabler- these are considered are those variables somewhat
disconnected from the system since they have low dependency and driving powers.
Flexible contracts belong to the autonomous group in this study.
Q4- Dependent enablers- they have high dependency power with low driving
power namely efficient financial appraisal and funding package, mechanism for
renegotiation of arrangements, rational concession period and price arrangements,
periodic reappraisal of project risks, strategic conflict resolution and contract
negotiation, mutually beneficial project gains and ensuring balance of power
between parties. These enablers rely on other factors to be established.
Discussion
Parties to any infrastructure project execution desire to meet their individual
interests and motives for engaging in that partnership. The expert-based ISM
model developed in this study generally affirms the hypothetical claim that the
achievement of MS acts as an ecosystem of factors interacting with each other. This
was also captured by Eshun et al.,(2020) in their study of conceptualising a win-win
scenario in public-private infrastructure partnerships. The modelling shows that the
quest for MS in Sino-Ghana relations relies on the two major actors involved. The
capacity and character exhibited by these parties go a long way to affect all the
other enablers in the system shown in Figure 2. This agrees with a study by
Ndzendze and Monyae (2019) which concluded that the realisation of maximum
mutual benefit in these dealings requires additional and concerted effort from both
China and the authorities of these African countries. Auffray and Fu, (2015) from
their Sino-Ghana study established that there is lack of managerial knowledge on
the part of the project actors which requires more effort to improve. These actors
must display a commendable degree of trust and commitment while ensuring a
balanced representation of stakeholders in decision making on the project
(Grimshaw et al., 2002; Feng et al, 2019). The use of flexible contracts is a step in
the right direction for MS as it provides the opportunity to reappraise and make
rational adjustments to terms susceptible to uncertainties (Storbjörk et al.,2019).
According to Domingues, and Zlatkovic, 2015), renegotiation of contract terms
facilitates MS as a way of adjusting to real time project dynamics. The basis of
transnational PPPs falls on the interest of the actors and the treatment of risk. MS
can be achieved if partnerships ensure fair sharing of risks as well as developing
financial models that are mutually beneficial and project reasonable payback terms
(Carbonara et al., 2014; Tavakoli, and Nourzad, 2020). Shakibaei and Alpkokin,
(2020) asserted that parties to any infrastructure project with the desire to meet or
fulfil each other’s interest must be strategic about negotiation. The negotiation
591
process allows both parties to solicit win-win or MS goals and reach a fair ground
favourable to all. Strategic negotiation should be planned such that both parties
display equal bargaining power to prevent asymmetry of terms towards the party
with the upper hand (Grimshaw et al., 2002). This will prevent the leader-follower
perception of some studies regarding China-Africa infrastructure partnerships (Shi
et al.,2020). Strategic negotiation as an enabler for MS does not only capture the
procurement stage but negotiations when conflicts arise. Shakibaei and Alpkokin,
(2020) purported that conflict resolution strategies adopted by the project
stakeholders can influence the achievement of MS during execution.
CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Generally, the involvement of the private sector to co-govern and administer the
provision of public infrastructure i.e., TPPPs tend to project varying interests, power
imbalance and opportunistic behaviour. The unique nature of Chinese corporations
investing in Ghana and Africa at large is that these firms are state-owned. This
positions the study in the theoretical lens of international relations and governance
beyond the state. Though the role of the Chinese state and its organisations in
Africa have been considered by some studies as generally pessimistic, further
reading suggests that this assertion can be contested. This has drawn a cross
perception between these actors and is gradually and consciously fuelling the need
to thrive for mutual benefits built on strategic partnership deals and activities. The
TPPP lens used in this study provides a well-structured and commonly recognised
procurement route that facilitates the objective determination of factors that
enable the achievement of mutual satisfaction in Sino-Africa relations at large. The
achievement of mutual satisfaction or win-win portrays the desire to achieve
project success in fairness to both actors (China and Ghana). Given the established
desire for MS, this study aimed at identifying, assessing, and modelling factors that
enable the achievement of MS in TPPPs. This was achieved through literature review
and expert judgement based on semi-structured interviews and the ISM
instrument. The ISM approach was used to establish the relationships and
connections between the enablers as a system. Results indicate that attaining MS
is processual and involves taking certain measures and activities while focusing on
how they influence or affect each other. The MS model presented in this study was
developed based on system principles which means that the enablers identified
must act collectively for a better realisation of MS in TPPPs. For instance, having
fairly shared risks without allowing some contractual flexibility that enables
reappraisal of risks to adapt to reality during project implementation defies the
course of promoting MS or win-win. These enablers can be used in establishing
determinants, unique to the actors involved in the TPPPs and evaluated to predict
the tendency of MS achievement from that partnership. Further investigation can
be done to assess the shortfall of Sino-Ghana infrastructure partnerships in relation
to the quest for MS and findings can be prioritised in planning such partnerships.
In view of this, policies and well-defined structures can be put in place to manage
Sino-Ghana infrastructure partnerships to ensure mutual satisfaction, promote
more of such engagements and strengthen cooperation ties.
Acknowledgement
This paper which forms part of a broader research scope is funded by the Research
Grant Council of Hong Kong through the Hong Kong PhD Fellowship scheme.
592
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595
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
EVALUATION OF HEALTH AND SAFETY COMPLIANCE OF

CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS IN SOUTH EAST NIGERIA
Chidinma Amarachukwu Emma-Ochu1, Kevin C. Okolie2 and Ikem Mbamali3
1Department of Architecture, Federal Polytechnic Nekede, Owerri, Imo State. Nigeria
2Department of Building, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Anambra State. Nigeria
3Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
This research is about the evaluation of the level of construction projects compliance to
health and safety regulations (South East Nigeria) with a view to identifying action plans for
enhancing the compliance in South East Nigeria. This study which is essentially survey based
and empirical, where quantitative data and qualitative data was derived from responses
generated by the questionnaire survey and field work. The questionnaires were administered
to indigenous construction firms and professionals in the construction industry in Abia,
Anambra, Imo, Enugu and Ebonyi States of the South East area of Nigeria which are the study
population. The tools used for data analysis were Regression using Friedman Q Test Ranking,
cross tab, while descriptive statistics used for analyzing others include bar charts, pie charts,
tables, chi square, and ranking analysis. All hypotheses were tested at 5% level of
significance. The findings revealed that there is association in level of compliance in
construction projects to existing Health and Safety (H&S) regulations in South East Nigeria.
The study further reveals that the challenges affecting health and safety compliance in South
East Nigeria are bribery and corruption, ignorance of the benefits of compliance, lack of
health and safety culture, perception of stakeholders, neglect of human rights and moral
values, non-commitment of the major construction players, inadequate training of staff and
lack of skilled health and safety personnel, non-inclusion of health and safety in contract
document & tendering process and inadequate funding. The research also found out that
there is significant relationship between health/safety regulations and enforcement of health
and safety measures in South East Nigeria and that there is significant positive relationship
between health/safety regulations and Action plan for enhancing health safety measures in
South East Nigeria. It therefore concludes that effective health and safety practices and
planning for construction projects in South East Nigeria are yet to be fully appreciated and
implemented among construction firms. This study observes that the lack of awareness and
understanding of H&S significantly hinders H&S. The study recommended that to ensure
high level of compliance in all the states, allocating H&S responsibilities, which are bound
by local laws, will significantly contribute to improving H&S and there should be workable
and mandatory H&S consultants for every project. Also the stakeholders in the construction
industry (e.g. clients and professionals) should team up to provide enforceable Health and
Safety practices and plans that are in sync with health/safety regulations in the Nigerian
construction industry and the world at large.
Keywords: construction, construction projects, health, health and safety, safety

compliance, safety
1 chidinmaeochu@gmail.com
2 Kc.Okolie@unizik.edu.ng
3 mbamalikem@yahoo.com
Emma-Ochu, Okolie and Mbamali (2021) Evaluation of health and safety compliance of construction
projects in South East Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
597
Emma-Ochu, Okolie and Mbamali
INTRODUCTION
The development of sustainable health and safety environments is becoming one
of the key issues globally. The issue of health and safety standards especially in the
construction industry in Nigeria has been a source of concern to many authors. It
is the view of Umeokafor, Umeadi, Jones & Igwegbe (2014), that in Nigeria, the
industry is not covered by any local health and safety (H&S) law, consequently
some contractors in Nigeria adopt H&S standards from developed countries and
the National Building Code of 2006 which is yet to receive legislative backings.
Okoye, Ezeokonkwo & Ezeokoli (2016) posited that the enforcement of safety
regulation is not widespread within the industry. As a result, construction workers
are killed or injured and suffer ill health than in any other industry. Dodo (2014),
stated that the first effort to regulate and control health and safety of work in
Nigeria was the factory Act of 1958 but unfortunately there is lack of provision for
enforcement of health and safety standard in the construction industry. Health and
Safety on Construction sites is imperative to provide safe working conditions to
construction workers due to intrinsic hazards and risks associated with every work
situation (Olutuase, 2014). Nigeria adopted the OSH regulatory framework of US
& UK which is supposed to be enforced by the Federal Ministry of Labour and
Productivity. The OSH regulations have to be encompassing, comprehensive and
enforceable for it to be effective and functional. The National Policy on
Occupational Safety and Health which has great goals and objectives of creating a
general framework for the improvement of working conditions and the working
environment, prevent accidents, ensure the provision of occupational safety and
health services to workers in all sectors of economic activity has not been able to
achieve these great goals and objectives due to many factors. The appraisal and
identification of the factors are the focus of this work.
Significance and motivation
This study will evaluate the level of construction projects compliance to health and
safety regulations in South East Nigeria with a view to identifying action plans for
enhancing the compliance by determining the level of compliance of construction
projects to existing health and safety regulations in South East Nigeria, identifying
health and safety compliance challenges of construction projects in South East
Nigeria and examining the relationship between enforcement of health and safety
measures and health and safety regulations, action plans for enhancing health and
safety measures and health and safety regulations in construction sites of South
East Nigeria.
This study provides a synopsis of previous construction safety research in Nigeria
in order to highlight the current state of the industry and direct future research.
The level of compliance of construction projects to existing health and safety

regulations in the South East states of Nigeria can be checked from what is
applicable at the Federal since the factories Act F1 LFN 2004 empowers the Federal
Ministry of Labour and employment (Inspectorate Division)(LPID) to oversee H&S
including enforcement. The state controllers ’maintain contact with headquarters
office in Abuja. The level of compliance to existing health and safety regulations in
the South East states is low due to lack of proper enforcement by existing authority.
598
The study done by Okoye et al. (2016), on Nigeria construction sites and Anambra
State in particular, examined and found out that the level of health and safety
knowledge among construction workers in Anambra State was moderate, the level
of health and safety compliance, in the state among the workers was low, the study
further established a very weak positive correlation between the health and safety
knowledge and compliance of construction workers. It further averred that health
and safety knowledge and compliance alone are not enough to cause behavioral
changes but safety factors like enforceable regulatory framework, management
commitment etc. Despite the tremendous infrastructural development both in
building projects and road construction going on in the five states in the South
East of Nigeria (Abia, Anambra, Imo, Enugu, and Ebonyi), most of these projects
are handled by indigenous contractors and there have been cases of construction
sites accidents which are not reported. According to Okoye et al. (2016), the
increasing level of building collapse together with the government renewed effort
in ensuring its minimization through institution of various monitoring and
compliance teams have raised the awareness level of safety issues in construction
sites in the South East but the construction workers compliance to these health and
safety regulations are still low. There is therefore the need for construction
organizations in the South East to improve their health and safety knowledge,
compliance and project performance. Given these highlighted deficiencies, it is
pertinent to further examine the challenges affecting the compliance of H&S
regulations in Nigeria. Umeokafor (2017) opines that the Nigerian construction
industry like other industries faces challenges which are not limited to: lack of
skilled manpower, unstable prices of materials, poor implementation of policies,
political instability, corruption, unethical practices but corruption is the major
hindrance to the construction industry.
According to Omobolanle & John (2017), Nigeria, the largest African country is
beleaguered with bribery and corruption, and Transparency International (2012)
ranks the country 139 out of 176 in terms of the corruption perception index.
Rantanen (2005), Ezenwa (2001), Cheung et al. (2004), Diugwu et al. (2012),
Windapo, 2013,Idubor and Osiamoje (2013)identified ignorance of the benefits of
compliance, lack of health and safety culture, perception of stakeholders, neglect
of human rights and moral values, non-commitment of the major construction
players, inadequate training of staff and lack of skilled health and safety personnel,
non-inclusion of health and safety in contract document & tendering process and
inadequate funding as challenges affecting the compliance of H&S regulations in
Nigeria amongst others.
In Nigeria, there are legislations and guidelines on health and safety but employers
do not comply with basic legislations to protect people at work. Barker in Ngwama
2016 observed that deregulation; subcontracting and informal contractual
conditions make this situation even worse. Workers often have no choice – either
they take a dirty and dangerous job, or they will have no job at all. Thankfully, the
new Bill (The Labour, Safety, Health and Welfare Bill of 2012) addresses all the
above issues, as it includes the construction industry in the definition of its
premises and stipulates severe penalties for violation. This bill covers both the
formal and informal industrial sectors in Nigeria. It seeks to repeal the Factories
Act and serve as a comprehensive OSH legislation for the workplace.
599
METHODOLOGY
This paper evaluates the level of construction projects compliance to health and
safety regulations in South East Nigeria with a view to identifying action plans for
enhancing the compliance. The research sample was drawn from registered
professionals in study area (South East area of Nigeria) and indigenous
construction firms as shown in Table 1 and Table 2 and structured questionnaires
were administered to them. South East of Nigeria is one of the six geopolitical
zones in the country. The region consists of the following states; Abia, Anambra,
Imo, Enugu and Ebonyi. The data for the study were collected from Umuahia in
Abia, Awka in Anambra, Owerri in Imo, Enugu in Enugu, and Abakiliki in Ebonyi.
The questionnaires were distributed to 1400 respondents in the five (5) states in
the South East of Nigeria that are knowledgeable and willing to participate but
1300 were retrieved but only One thousand one hundred and ninety (1190) copies
were validated for analysis. (See Figure 1). Descriptive analysis was applied on
categorical variables such as State, gender, designation of respondent and
experience. Ordinary Least Squares Regression Model was used to depict
significant predictors of Enforcement of Health and Safety Regulations (ENF) and
Action Plans for Enhancing Health and Safety Compliance (APH). Statistics were
summarized in tables and charts. Statistics were discussed at the 95% CL
(Alpha=0.05) and presented using statistical tables and charts.
Figure 1: Sample flow chart
600
Table 1: Registered professionals in study area

S/N STATE ARCHITECTS BUILDERS ENGINEERS TOTAL
1 Abia (Umuahia) 25 20 30 75
2 Anambra (Awka) 35 40 45 120
3 Imo (Owerri) 70 30 250 350
4 Enugu (Enugu) 150 50 180 380
5 Ebonyi(Abakiliki) 20 52 80 152
Total 300 192 585 1077
Source: Secretariat of various professional bodies (NIA-Nigerian Institute of Architects, NIOB-
Nigerian Institute of Builders, NSE-Nigerian Society of Engineers, NITP-Nigerian Institute of Town
Planners) 2020
Table 2: Indigenous contractors

S/N STATE CONTRACTORS
1 Abia (Umuahia) 20
2 Anambra (Awka) 70
3 Imo (Owerri) 60
4 Enugu (Enugu) 80
5 Ebonyi(Abakiliki) 30
Total 260
Source: Secretariat of various professional bodies (NIA-Nigerian Institute of Architects, NIOB-
Nigerian Institute of Builders, NSE-Nigerian Society of Engineers, NITP-Nigerian Institute of Town
Planners) 2020
Table 3: States sampled for the study

STATE Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid ABIA 124 10.4 10.4 10.4

ANAMBRA 272 22.9 22.9 33.3
IMO 420 35.3 35.3 68.6
ENUGU 280 23.5 23.5 92.1
EBONYI 94 7.9 7.9 100.0
Total 1190 100.0 100.0
Source: Survey Questionnaire of the Study, 2020
Figure 2: Bar chat and pie chart of sampled States for the study.
Source: Survey Questionnaire of the Study extracted from SPSS output, 2020
601
Each of the five States of our sample was allotted questionnaires; however the
following returns were made (Table 3 and Fig.2): Abia with 124 participants making
a proportion of 10.4%, Anambra having a proportion of 272 (22.9%), Imo 420
(35.3%), Enugu 280 (23.5%) and Ebonyi 94 (7.9%). The implication here is that Imo
State has the highest number of participant while Ebonyi State has the lowest
number of participants.
Table 4: Gender sampled for the study

Gender Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid MALE 926 77.8 77.8 77.8

FEMALE 264 22.2 22.2 100.0
Total 1190 100.0 100.0
Figure 3: Bar chat and pie chart of sampled gender for the study.
From Table 4 and Figure 3, participants were essentially male with a proportion of
926 (77.8%) as against 264 (22.2%) of the female. it is evidently clear that males
dominate the Construction sector of the Nigerian economy.
Table 5: Designation of respondent sampled for the study
DESIGNATION Cumulative Percent

Frequency Percent Valid Percent
ARCHITECT 343 28.8 28.8 28.8
BUILDER 168 14.1 14.1 42.9
ENGINEER 163 13.7 13.7 56.6
QUANTITY SURV 212 17.8 17.8 74.5
ESTATE VALUER 124 10.4 10.4 84.9
URBAN REG P 44 3.7 3.7 88.6
CONTRACTORS 136 11.4 11.4 100.0
Total 1190 100.0 100.0
602
Figure 4: Bar chat and pie chart of sampled designation for the study.
In these five Sates, Architects are 343 participants making a proportion of 28.8%,
Builders have a proportion of 168 (14.1%), Engineers 163 (13.7%), Quantity
Surveyor 212 (17.8%), Estate Valuers 124 (10.4%), Urban and Regional Planners 44
(3.7%) and Contractors 136 (11.4%). The implication is that Architects have the
highest number of participants while Urban and Regional Planners have the lowest
number of participants, across States. (Table 5 and Figure 4).
Table 6: Experience in years of respondent sampled for the study
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

EXPERIENCE Percent
Valid BTW 1&5YRS 503 42.3 42.3 42.3

BTW 6&10YRS 269 22.6 22.6 64.9
BTW 11 &15YRS 259 21.8 21.8 86.6
ABOV 16YRS 159 13.4 13.4 100.0
Total 1190 100.0 100.0
Figure 5: Bar chat and pie chart of sampled designation for the study.
603
Cursory examination of table 6 and figure 5 reveals that those with years of
experience between 1- 5 years are 503 making a proportion of 42.3%, 6-10 years
have a proportion of 269 (22.6%), 11-15 years 259 (21.8%) and above 16 years 159
(13.4%). The implication is that cumulatively those with experience between one
year and fifteen years occupy 86.6% of how long in Practice.
Table 7: Friedman Q test ranking challenges to health and safety compliance in South East,
Nigeria.
ITEMS MEAN RANK

NON-INCLUSION OF H&S IN CONTRACT DOCUMENT & TENDERING PROCESS (9) 4.92
Non commitment of the major construction players (6) 5.33
INADEQUATE FUNDING (10) 4.86
INADEQUATE TRAINING OF STAFF (7) 5.28
LACK OF H&S CULTURE (3) 5.73
PERCEPTION OF STAKEHOLDERS (E.G. CLIENTS AND PROFESSIONALS) (4) 5.59
LACK OF SKILLED H&S PERSONNEL (8) 5.17
NEGLECT OF HUMAN RIGHTS AND MORAL VALUES (5) 5.44
BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION (1) 6.53
IGNORANCE OF THE BENEFITS OF COMPLIANCE (2) 6.15
Source: SPSS Output of the Study, 2020
Test Statisticsa
N 1190
Chi-Square 372.576
df 9
Asymp. Sig. .000
a. Friedman Test
Source: SPSS Output of the Study, 2020
An SPSS Version 19 template was used to analyze the data gotten from
respondents. From Table 7 above this ranked the Challenges to Health and Safety
Compliance in South East, Nigeria. Bribery and corruption (with mean rank of 6.53)
happens to be the highest challenge to Health and Safety Compliance. This is
closely followed by Ignorance of the benefits of compliance, Lack of Health and
Safety culture , Perception of stakeholders, Neglect of human rights and moral
values , Non commitment of the major construction players, Inadequate training
of staff and Lack of skilled Health and Safety personnel with mean ranks of 6.15,
5.73,5.59 ,5.44,5.33,5.28 and 5.17 respectively. It is also evident that Inadequate
funding and Non-inclusion of Health and Safety in contract document & tendering
process with mean ranks of 4.86 and 4.92 were the least constraint to Health and
Safety Compliance in South East, Nigeria. Thus, bribery and corruption are the
worst challenge while inadequate funding is the least of the challenges amongst
professionals and stakeholders in the construction sub- sector.
The second panel of table 7 shows the various statistics with respect to Friedman’s
Q test. The Chi-Square (more correctly referred to as Friedman’s Q) is our test
statistic. It basically summarizes how differently the Challenges to Health and
Safety Compliance were rated in a single number. The df are the degrees of
freedom associated with our test statistic. It's equal to the number of variables we
compared - 1. In our example, 10 variables - 1 = 9 degrees of freedom. The Asymp.
604
Sig. is an approximate p-value. Since p (.0000) < 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis
of equal population distributions amongst the variables.
Table 8: Chi-square cross tabulation of result and the compliance variables

Variable Chi-Square P-Value Level of Sig. Remarks
HSP- HEALTH &
60.781 0.000 Significant Reject HO
SAFETY POLICY
HSA-HEALTH
&SAFETY ADVISER
HST- HEALTH &
SAFETY TRAINING
ALE-APPROPRIATE
LIFTING 39.808 0.000 Significant Reject HO
EQUIPMENT
PPE-PERSONAL
PROTECTIVE 177.987 0.000 Significant Reject HO
EQUIPMENT
FAF-FIRST AID
FACILITIES
WSS-WARNING
SIGNS AND 82.213 0.000 Significant Reject HO
SYMBOLS
RID-ROUTINE
SAFETY
INSPECTION
&DRILLS
SWM-SAFE WORK
METHODS
PTW-PERMIT TO
WORK
AAO-
ACQUAINTANCE
&ADHERENCE TO
OCCUPATIONAL
SAFETY &HEALTH
ACT
Source: Extracted from Cross Tabulation of State on Measures to Enhance Health and Safety
Compliance SPSS Output of the Study, 2020
Table 8 above helps to ascertain the level of relationship existing between

compliance level to health and safety regulations by construction firms in South
East, Nigeria. Crosstabs and Chi-Square are powerful ways to analyze survey data
with respect to association and relationships.
Thus table 8 showed all the variables used in measuring compliance level. It
compared the P-value to the level significance. Usually, a significance level
(denoted as α) of 0.05 is the rule of thumb. A significance level of 0.05 indicates a
5% risk concluding that an association between the variables exists when there is
no actual association. Consequently in all the results of table 8 above, the P-values
are 0.000. Since the P-values are less than (0.05) we conclude that all the measures
of compliance level are associated with each other in South East Nigeria.
605
CONCLUSION
The findings of this paper are as follows:
1. There is association in level of compliance in construction projects to
existing Health and Safety regulations in South East Nigeria. This agrees with
the findings of Umeokafor (2017) that there is a relationship between self-
regulation and compliance with the law. This is because, firstly, enforced
self-regulation can be a statutory requirement hence the need to comply
with the law. Secondly, the concept of self-regulation including co-
regulation is aimed at working with the regulated to develop, administer
and control activities to achieve a desired established system -compliance.
2. The different Challenges to Health and Safety Compliance in South East
Nigeria were identified as bribery and corruption (with mean rank of 6.53)
happens to be the highest challenge to Health and Safety Compliance. This
is followed by Ignorance of the benefits of compliance, Lack of Health and
Safety culture , Perception of stakeholders, Neglect of human rights and
moral values, Non commitment of the major construction players,
Inadequate training of staff and Lack of skilled Health and Safety personnel,
Non-inclusion of Health and Safety in contract document & tendering
process and Inadequate funding. Thus inadequate funding is the least
constraint while bribery and corruption is the greatest challenge to Health
and Safety Compliance in South East, Nigeria. This corroborates Umeokafor
(2017) findings that the factors influencing the self-regulation of
construction H&S in Nigeria are categorized as primary or direct factors and
secondary or indirect factors. The secondary factors are from the
institutional, social, political and cultural environments. They include money,
culture, insecurity, inadequate H&S policies, and multiple actors in H&S
regulation, cultural institutions, political influence, social status and lack of
governmental attention. He further posits that lots of Nigerians are living
on below one dollar a day and unemployment level is high. The foregoing
are reflected in the construction industry, as a lot in the industry are
unskilled, walking straight from the streets to the industry; earning a living
is their priority not H&S.
3. The research found out that there is significant relationship between

health/safety regulations and enforcement of health and safety measures in
South East Nigeria. Idoro (2011) also agrees that there is the need for
effective risk management and regulation and control of OHS in the
Nigerian construction industry.
4. There is significant positive relationship between health/safety regulations

and Action plan for enhancing health safety measures in South East Nigeria.
This corroborates the findings of Omobolanle and John (2017) that to
promote an H&S culture that would provide continuous H&S performance
improvement on construction projects, H&S legislation has to be specific,
strictly monitored, and enforced.
606
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1857-7431
Umeokafor, N., Umeadi, B., & Jones, K. (2014).Compliance with Occupational Safety and
Health Regulations: A Review of Nigeria’s Construction Industry
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PhD Dissertation, University of Greenwich 361
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Construction Companies. Journal of the Professional Builder TPB, 4(1)92-103
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
EXAMINATION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION REDUCTION

MEASURES FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IN TROPICAL
CLIMATE: A CASE STUDY OF BIRNIN KEBBI, NIGERIA
Nkeleme Emmanuel Ifeanyichukwu1, Sani Abdulrahman Tolani2, Winston
Shakantu3 and Mbamali Ikemefuna4
1,3Departmentof Construction Management, Faculty of Engineering, the Built Environment and
Technology, Nelson Mandela University
2Department of Building Technology, Waziri Umaru Federal Polytechnic, Birnin Kebbi Nigeria
4Department of Building Technology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Reducing energy consumption in the buildings sector is important and requires

significant changes in terms of technology, human behavior, operation and
management of the building in order to continue enjoying improved indoor
environment without any prejudices on the environment. It is on the premises of this
need that this study sought to examine the energy consumption reduction measures
applicable to the tropical climate taking the Kebbi state as a case and with particular
interest in residential buildings given that household consumption is one of the
important factors of reducing energy consumption. It was effected using a structured
questionnaire issued to occupant of the residential building (ranging from the less,
medium and high energy consuming building benchmarking). Also, information on the
energy consumed bills and consumption patterns of the household were collected and
examined. Data collected were analyzed using the Statistical package for Social Science
(SPSS) version 20 and the result presented using mean and Relative Importance Index
(RII) for simplicity and to rank the severity of the energy reduction measures identified
as opined by the respondents. The result revealed among others that: ‘Consider lower
energy consuming appliances, equipment when buying ’and ‘the use of Daylight for
reading and working in the building ’both (RII=0.8985) were ranked the most promising
energy saving measure in the tropical climate. Other measures arranged in their order
of viability are: ‘keeping light and lighting fixtures clean ’(RII=0.8955); and ‘Switching
off water heater, HVAC systems, pressing iron, and microwave after use ’(RII=0.8895)
among others. Consequently the Research recommends an orientation residential
building occupants on measure that can improve the human behaviour in the use of
energy such as paying attention on the energy label of appliances before purchase.
Finally, the study recommends the adoption of automatic control system as it will help
to cub human behavioural excesses
Keywords: behaviour, benchmark, energy consumption, reduction measure, residential

building
1 S224821946@mandela.ac.za
2 tolaniabdulrahman@gmail.com; starsani@yahoo.com
3 Winston.Shakantu@mandela.ac.za
4 Mbamaikem@yahoo.com
Ifeanyichukwu, et al. (2021) Examination of energy consumption reduction measures for residential
buildings in tropical climate: a Case Study of Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds)
Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra,
Ghana, 609-627
609
Ifeanyichukwu, et al.
INTRODUCTION
Household consumption is one of the important factors to be considered in
reducing energy consumption and its commensurate carbon dioxide (CO2)
emission. Because its energy use may directly cause CO2 emission. he enormity of
Nigeria’s energy problem creates a greater need for energy efficiency practice to
be adopted by residential households as electricity demand in Nigeria far outstrips
the supply which is epileptic in nature (Sule, Ajao, Ajimotokan,. and Garba, 2011).
On the other hand, because much energy is embodied in goods and services,
consumption of living commodities and service may result in indirect CO2 emission
(Manzuma, et al. 2018). The income growth, improvement of living standard, the
increasing amount of home appliance, housing and private transportation, have
driven the indirect energy consumption and increased the amount of indirect CO2
emission (Nwofe, 2014). Also, the International Energy Agency (IEA, 2011)
estimated that, residential, public and commercial buildings account for 30 to 40
percent of the world’s energy consumption and contributes 25 to 35 percent of the
current world CO2 emissions.
Growth in the use of a variety of electrical appliances is one factor contributing to
the growth of energy use in buildings in recent decades. Therefore, Amann et al.,
(2007) identified that residential energy intensity, defined as energy use per square
foot of living space, declined over the past 30 years in spite of the growing
penetration of delivered energy (which is the electricity delivered to a site plus the
fuels used directly onsite (e.g., natural gas for heating water). This measure does
not account for the losses incurred in generating, transmitting and distributing the
electricity.
The energy consumption reduction measures of a building are defined the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO, 2006) as the extent to which
the energy consumption per square meter of floor area of the building measures
up to established energy consumption benchmarks for that particular type of
building under defined climatic conditions. Sheila & Alicen, (2011) proposed that
reducing existing building energy consumption in residential buildings lie in three
synergistic approaches: to reduce energy requirements through implementation of
energy efficiency measures in design stage, services design and retrofitting to
offset the remaining building energy needs through the use of renewable energy
system for existing buildings. It is however important to consider building energy
consumption reduction measures before installing renewable energy reduction
system, as the outlay cost to invest in energy consumption reduction measures is
about half the cost of installing renewable energy generating capacity equal to
what the energy reduction measures offsets (IEA, 200). Hence, investments in
energy consumption reduction measures in residential buildings generally have
much shorter pay-back times than energy supply investment; a particular
important consideration in countries where the demand for supplies is growing
rapidly (UNIDO, 2006). Africa’s rate of urbanization of 3.5% per year is the highest
in the world, resulting in more urban areas with bigger population proportional to
the expansion of the existing urban areas; there are currently 40 cities in Africa with
populations of more than a million; and it is expected that in a few years from now,
70 cities will have population of one million or more (UNIDO, 2006).
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Globally, it has been shown that building sector consume more energy than any
other sector; consuming about 42% of the world’s total energy use. presently,
energy consumption in the world is becoming greater and fossil fuels embody
large shares to the overall energy use. Japan International Cooperation Agency
(JICA, 2005) highlighted that, coupled with the concerned issue on future
exhaustion of resources, global warming is also becoming a serious concern due
to higher concentration of CO2 emission in the air through the use of resources.
Where electricity is intermittent in developing countries and power rotation is
frequent, there is a large demand for diesel or petrol and renewable energy-based
backup or standby power generation from end users (UNIDO, 2006). The Federal
Ministry of Power Works and Housing FMPWH (2017) stated that reducing energy
consumption requirement in buildings lessens the principal and running costs of
these standby systems; thereby translating to energy consumption reduction,
reduction in the cost of energy, profitability of business outlets, reduction in noise
pollution and CO2 emissions from buildings. Buildings could be emitting as much
as 12, 600 tera-grams of CO2 higher than what they are estimating at present if no
proactive measures are taken to abate their energy demands (Forsstrom, Pekka,
Esa, Miika, Jari, Kari and Irmeli, 2011).
It is in this view the research intent to assess measures that can be used to reduce
energy consumption in residential building of Birnin Kebbi (12.43180N, 4.19560E)
with a view to identifying areas of possible improvements in energy usage, using
bench marking method.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Energy consumption in residential buildings
Worldwide, buildings consume massive amounts of energy. The United Nations
Environment Programme (year) has reported that 30–40 percent of all primary
energy produced worldwide is used in buildings. In 2008 the International Energy
Agency released a publication that estimated that existing buildings are
responsible for more than 40 percent of the world’s total primary energy
consumption and for 24 percent of global CO2 emissions. it becomes paramount
to examine energy consumption in the evolving built environment in a developing
world context and pursue energy conscious measures in the short term, while
advocating for a coherent and substantive policies as well as institutional
frameworks on the long term. Lukić, Tamburić & Stojić, 2012 affirmed that Housing
stock uses up to 40 % of total consumed energy which is significantly more than
needed to provide comfort and function. Such wasting of energy significantly
contributes to the greenhouse effect. For this reason, saving in energy
consumption of the residential buildings can contribute to solving of the global
problems such as the climate change and energy safety. Therefore, according to
Janda, (2011) energy efficiency is perceived as the action of lowering energy
demand by reducing ongoing energy usage. According to Nwofe (2014) energy
efficiency in buildings is one of the fundamental steps towards reducing the
agents/factors that could lead to global warming and climate change. It is a
common knowledge that global warming is becoming more severe universally and
poses very big risk to man. Hence, Hall (2010a) posited that buildings can
incorporate many green features, but if they do not use energy efficiently, it is
difficult to demonstrate that they are truly green. That is to say if a building is not
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energy efficient, it cannot be said to be green. Although green buildings, on

average, use less energy than conventional buildings, energy efficiency remains
elusive. Numerous ways to improve a building’s energy efficiency ranges from
insulating walls to installing automatic shut off switches for lights. Energy efficiency
can be and often is mandated by local and state energy codes, which require that
new and substantially renovated buildings comply with increasingly stringent
energy efficiency requirements. Lukić et al. (2012) observed that due to the high
consumption of energy in buildings, and due to the highest potential for energy
and environmental saving, energy efficiency is nowadays the priority of
contemporary architecture and power industry. The measures for energy efficiency
include: a series of directives and incentive mechanisms, mandatory energy
certification of buildings, indicate the urgent need to reduce energy consumption
in buildings, which results in a more comfortable dwelling in buildings, long service
life of buildings, which in turn preserves the environment.The energy crises the
country is facing coupled with population and infrastructural growth and the
unrelenting rise of energy prices have stimulated research interest towards finding
ways of alleviating or eliminating the unnecessary use of energy.
Oyedepo, (2012) stated that energy consumption reduction means improvement
in practices and products that reduces the energy necessary to provide services like
lighting, cooling, heating etc. These have endeared the principles of energy
efficiency to the building occupants thus making it the key driver of sustainable
development in many economies in the world Furthermore, increasingly energy
efficiency is considered to include not only the physical efficiency of technical
equipment and facilities, but also the overall economic efficiency of the energy
system. According to Hall 2010b, the energy performance of a building must be
calculated using standards that indicate the insulation of the buildings, the
characteristics of technical systems and installed equipment, the position and
orientation of the building in relation to other climatic aspects, exposure, its own
capacity for renewable energy sources and other factors, such as indoor
environmental quality, that could influence the energy requirements of the
building. Karolides (2002) was of the opinion that the easiest and least expensive
way of reducing operational costs in a building is to lower its energy consumption
which is best done by increasing energy efficiency. There are great energy-cutting
opportunities in simple designs that respond to location and climate. Green
buildings are designed to save energy costs by reducing the energy consumption.
Conventional (traditional) buildings consume more of the energy resources than
necessary and generate a variety of emissions and waste.
Energy consumption reduction in residential buildings
Reducing energy consumption in the buildings sector requires significant changes,
but technology alone may fail to guarantee efficient energy performance. Human
behavior plays a pivotal role in building design, operation, management and
retrofit, and is a crucial positive factor for improving the indoor environment, while
reducing energy use at low cost (Tianzhen Hong, Simona D'Oca et.al, 2015). Over
the past 40 years, a substantial body of literature has explored the impacts of
human behavior on building technologies and operation. The solution to overcome
these problems will be to build them green and smart (Samer, 2013). One of the
significant components in the concept of green buildings is using renewable
energy. Solar energy and wind energy are intermittent sources of energy, so these
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sources have to be combined with other sources of energy or storage devices

where the variety of energy source and storage devices can be managed very well
(Jiang, 2011). The attitude of residential building occupants in Nigeria shows that
there is wide ignorance in use of switching off bulbs, appliances (Television,
Computers, Microwave, Electric cooker, Water heater (ring), Electric kettle, Blender,
Toaster, Oven, and Washing machine and the likes). The awareness on energy
saving bulbs and appliance are limited to people in the urban areas while most
rural areas are still using conventional bulbs (Tungsten/Yellow filament). Also, the
price of a quality energy saving bulbs is still high and turning lights off when not
in use would save a gigantic sum of 25,235,680,000 NGN (£55m) and 375000 tons
of carbon (iv) oxide thereby preserving the environment and reducing energy cost
simultaneously (Nwofe, 2014).
Although the majority of designers appreciate that the behavior of building users
can affect energy performance, it is usually considered of little importance
compared to engineering solutions to this issue (Janda, 2011). This is despite
growing evidence to suggest that the impact of behavior can be extremely
significant. Gill et al. (2010) investigated the impact of behavior on energy
consumption at a BREEAM Excellent housing estate in the UK. Using a
psychological model of planned actions, they discovered that deliberate energy
efficient behaviors accounted for 51% and 31% of the variance in heating and
electricity use respectively between homes. While the majority of studies on
occupant behavior are limited to the domestic sector, Menezes et al. (2012)
demonstrated that the level of control occupants believe they possess over lighting
and appliances in a commercial office building also accounted for variations in
electricity consumption of up to 17%. Traditional biomass fuels have been the
single most important energy source in buildings for centuries. They still account
for approximately 10% of global total primary energy use concentrated primarily
in developing countries. Approximately 60% of all biomass is used in solid
unprocessed forms such as firewood, agricultural waste, and dried animal dung
burnt in crude and inefficient stoves and open fires for cooking and heating (IEA,
2008). Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases to which pollution from poor
combustion of biofuels indoors contribute are predicted to become the world’s
third largest cause of death by 2030 (WHO Statistics, 2008).
Measuring energy use in buildings

There are several approaches to reviewing the technologies and design principles
available today to make buildings more energy-efficient. Each illuminates a subset
of important engineering and physics issues but obscures other subsets. Each
approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, this report does not
adopt one preferred style of presentation but instead looks at three different
approaches (ASHRAE, 2008). The three methods are:
1. An integrated whole-building or system-wide approach,
2. An approach by end-use and technology description, and
3. An approach by individual “widgets” or detailed energy consumption reduction

technologies and measures.
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Integrated whole-building or system-wide approach

The first approach looks at integrated whole-building or system-wide energy use
and describes the types of technological improvements that could create savings
of a given percentage for whole buildings or whole systems. For example, a small
but growing subset of new commercial buildings achieve a savings of 50 percent
(relative to prevailing model Energy Code ASHRAE 90.1) in regulated energy use
(heating, cooling, air-conditioning, water heating, and lighting) (Amman, 2007).
Reviews of highly efficient commercial buildings (NBI, 2008; ASHRAE, 2008;
Torcellini et al., 2006) show that such buildings incorporate the following measures:
1. High-efficiency electrical lighting systems that not only incorporate state-of-
the-art lamps, ballasts, and luminaires (lighting fixtures), but also use luminaires
to provide the desired lighting in the right places (e.g., as task lighting) and use
controls that limit electrical lighting when daylighting is available;
2. Fenestration systems and designs that reduce heat gain in climates with high
cooling requirements;
3. HVAC controls that provide for the effective operation of the HVAC system
during part-load conditions;
4. Regulated energy use refers to energy use covered by building energy codes.
Such codes do not apply to plug-in office equipment, for example. There are
many reasons why efficiency at part load can be lower. Examples range from
systems that do not modulate but simply turn on or off, to chiller designs that
are optimized for efficiency at full load and work poorly at part load (perhaps
because they are not tested or marketed on the basis of such performance), to
overall systems controls that continue to operate one part of the system at full-
power use even though other parts are at partial power and do not require that
support.
5. On-site power generation such as combined heat and power systems or solar
photovoltaic generation to reduce purchased energy. Low-energy buildings do
not always operate as they were designed to do. Experience shows that in order
to maximize real-world energy savings, it is critical to properly commission and
monitor the performance of low-energy buildings and to ensure that control
systems are working properly and are adjusted to account for occupancy
conditions (Torcellini et al., 2006; Mills, 2009). The net incremental first cost of
achieving a 50 percent reduction in energy use through an integrated approach
can be at or near zero; the savings from downsizing and simplifying HVAC
systems generally pay fully for the additional costs of measures such as
additional insulation, better windows, and daylighting (Goldstein, 2008). But the
next increment of savings, up to 60 percent, has very few exemplars. For
residential buildings, a whole-house energy management approach can result
in a 50 percent or greater savings in heating and cooling and a 30–40 percent
savings in total-home energy use, and also cost-effectively (DOE, 2004a; Dunn,
2007).
6. An integrated approach involves the design of the HVAC system with that of
the envelope system and the lighting system and its controls. Current design
practice involves designing the envelope of the building independent of such
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integrative consideration, then passing the design onto HVAC engineers, who
design the HVAC system without looking back at what could be done differently
at the envelope or without looking forward to how lighting designs could
enable improved HVAC designs.
Approach by end-use and technology description
Because whole-building studies focus on the level of savings achieved and the cost
of getting there, they often do not specify the kinds of energy-saving measures
used and how relevant they would be to broad-scale application across the
economy. Instead, the savings estimates sometimes are based on measured results
from demonstration buildings or multi building projects, or on case studies; they
sometimes consider simulated energy savings based on integrated designs of new
buildings or retrofits; and they sometimes are based on more than one approach.
Other studies, however, rely on the end-use and technology description approach
to identifying energy efficiency potential. This approach assigns energy use to
major end-use categories and reviews the specific technologies and measures
available for reducing energy use in each category (often ordered by cost-
effectiveness). The end-use approach is based on text and explanation of
technologies and measures. Most of these technologies and measures could be
incorporated into existing buildings. As an example, space heating is the largest
user of energy in residential buildings, and cooling is the second-largest or close
to second-largest user. Similar energy-saving measures and strategies can be
applied to both. These efficiency measures and strategies include the following
(Scheckel, 2007; Amann et al., 2007)
Increasing insulation in all components compared with what is done according to

current practice, including the use of selective coatings on windows. These coatings
are chosen on the basis of the local climate, to reduce thermal transmission (by
increasing the thermal-infrared emissivity and reflectivity of the window). They are
most effective on west-and east-facing windows in climates requiring cooling or in
transitional climates where an efficient shell can obviate the need to buy an air
conditioner. Moving ducts into the conditioned space for new construction, and
reducing leakage through on-site pressure testing in both new and existing homes.
Improving heating and cooling systems themselves, for example, by using
programmable thermostats, by using higher-efficiency furnaces that condense
water vapor produced by the combustion of methane (or other fuels) to extract
additional energy and achieve efficiencies over 90 percent, by using variable-speed
and higher-efficiency motors and fans for air circulation, and by using ground-
source heat pumps (for electric heating) or gas-fired heat pumps.
Upgrading equipment for cooling, focusing on better heat transfer from

evaporators and condenser coils in air conditioners and employing variable-speed
drives that allow units to operate efficiently at partial loads (rather than turning on
and off frequently). This measure can control humidity more effectively, as well as
save energy.
Changing ventilation systems to provide sufficient fresh air to a system that uses
the proper amount of mechanical ventilation while sealing the home to nearly
airtight standards. Controlling ventilation can greatly mitigate indoor air quality
615
and mold problems while also offering the opportunity to recover both latent and
sensible heat from the exhaust airstream.
Using evaporative cooling. While once-through evaporative coolers work well only
in desert climates, indirect systems that transfer sensible heat from the humidified
airstream can provide comfort in a much broader zone of climate while using about
one-quarter or less of the energy of compression-based cooling.
Making greater use of passive solar heating and cooling, although this design
technique has not yet found widespread acceptance in the marketplace owing to
the difficulties of custom designing the orientation and thermal characteristics of
each home. After space heating and cooling, the next-largest user of energy in
residences is water heating. Water-heating energy use can be reduced both by
improving the efficiency of the water-heating device itself and by reducing the
demands for hot water, including for clothes washing and bathing, throughout a
home. Substantial gains have been made in the best-performing clothes washer
and showerhead products compared with standard products. Heat-pump water
heaters, which have become very popular in Japan, can reduce electricity use by
two-thirds relative to an electric-resistance water heater. Older showerheads use
3.5 or more gallons per minute; newer ones meeting current standards use 2.5 or
fewer gallons per minute, and a few newer models use about half this level of water
flow to provide a comfortable shower (Harrod & Hain, 2007). Similar lists of
technologies for residential lighting and appliances are found in most studies of
efficiency potential. Beyond technologies themselves, efficiency can be improved
through residential lighting design that raises the ratio of productive light output
(lux on the visual task) to power use in homes to a level comparable to that in office
buildings.
The major sources of energy use in commercial buildings are heating, ventilation,
cooling, and lighting. Studies of energy efficiency potential usually look at specific
measures within these categories, such as improving the rated efficiency of rooftop
air conditioners by 20–30 percent or substituting 100 lumen per watt lamp-ballast
combinations for existing product combinations that provide fewer than 70 lumens
per watt.
Energy benchmarking method
Benchmarks are representative values for common building types against which a
building’s actual performance in terms of energy use can be measured. The
benchmarks permit the comparison of the performance of a building to established
standards to know whether or not the building’s use of energy is efficient
(Manzuma, 2020).
Chung, Hui and Lam (2006) describe energy benchmarking as a tool for enhancing
the reduction or efficient use of energy in residential and office buildings. Also,
Bloyd, Mixion and Sharp (1999) in their work shows that "benchmarking can be
viewed as the first step in understanding and setting goals for energy consumption
reduction improvements in buildings". Energy consumption reduction
benchmarking can be seen as a tool used for monitoring changes in energy use, it
also served as a basis for the design and retrofit in the budgeting for efficient
energy use in efficient residential buildings (Lee, 1998 and 2004). However, energy
benchmarking approach enable building owners understand the performance of
616
their buildings compared to similar buildings. Filippin (2000) in his work used a
sample of energy consumption data and the floor area to calculate the Energy Use
Intensity (EUI); for school buildings in central Argentina. The calculated Ellis were
then ranked as a benchmark table and often used for judging the energy-use
performance of a commercial building (Kinney and Piette, 2002). Therefore, energy
saving potential by the method of benchmark can be classified as whole building
metered approach or retrofit isolation approach.
Whole building metered approach

The whole building metered approach uses a main meter to measure the energy
flow to the whole building (ASHRAE Guideline 14. 2002). Energy flow is usually
electric, gas oil and thermal. These approaches involve the use of monthly utility
bill data or data gathered more frequently from a main meter. The ''whole building
metered" approach, also called "main meter" approach encompasses procedures
that verify the performance of the retrofits for those projects where the whole
building pre- and post-retrofit data are available to determine the savings. Utility
billing data (usually monthly data) are the basis of data analysis. Continuous
measurements of the whole-building energy use before the retrofit and after the
retrofit on a more detailed measurement level (weekly, daily or hourly) are also
required (APEC, 2001). Consumption and demand values taken from sub-meters
are acceptable for use under the whole building approach, where the meter
measures energy use of a significant portion of the building area or a group of
subsystems (e.g., motor control center). The data will have to meet all the
requirements for a utility meter. Sub-meters arc particularly useful in multiple
building sites served by one utility meter (Energy Star, 2004). It is most appropriate
to use a whole building metered approach when the total building energy
performance is to be assessed, rather than the performance of specific retrofit
(Energy Star, 2004). According to Cui (2006) there are two paths for the whole
building approach with the respective criteria and requirements for its applicability,
namely, the whole building prescriptive path and the whole building performance
path. The former one is most appropriate when the expected savings are greater
than 10% of the measured energy use or demand and when the data are
continuous and complete with no data points to be excluded, and are expected to
remain this way in the post-retrofit period.
METHODOLOGY
Research design
This study was conducted through field survey. The field work of this research was
conducted using various research instruments, each adopted to meet a particular
research need. The work involves the collection of quantitative data through
energy benchmarking, and the use of a well-structured questionnaire as the
instrument for primary data collection. The survey yielded data from the meter
energy bills and on the energy consumption patterns of the household.
The study area

The research was conducted in Kebbi State (11.49420 N, 4.23330 E) in the
northwestern part of Nigeria. It has a tropical continental-type climate with a wet
season that lasts from April to October in the south and from May to September in
the north—the dry season lasts for the remaining period of the year. The
617
temperature is generally high with a mean annual temperature of about 26°C in all
locations. But during the harmattan season (December to February) the
temperature can go as low as about 21°C; between April and June, it can rise as
high as 40°C (Bello & Jeb, 2014).
The State was created out of a part of Sokoto State on 27th August, 1991. Kebbi
State is bordered by Sokoto State to the North, Niger State to the South, Zamfara
State to the East. Dosso region in the Republic of Niger to the West and Benin
republic to the Southwest (Mukhtar, 2016).
Data collection
Firstly, questionnaires were distributed and data collected used to categorize the
households into low, average and high energy consumption respectively. A more
detailed examination of selected houses in each category furnished some peculiar
energy use behaviors and consequently measures through which energy use can
be reduced were identified. Energy benchmarking approach enables building
owners understand the performance of energy consumption of their building
compared to similar buildings. In this case, an examination of the actual
investigated residential buildings, including a visual inspection of each of the
associated equipment in the selected houses, dimension of space and energy
measurements were carried out. Historical data of purchased energy were reviewed
to identify patterns of electrical energy usage and compare them with distribution
company average benchmark. The energy benchmark for a two-bed room building
measuring 95M2 to 120M2 in Birnin Kebbi range between 200KWh and 250KWh
while for three bed room measuring 121M2 to 145M2, it ranges between 300KWh
– 350KWh monthly with eighteen hours (18hrs) daily of electric energy supply
(KEDCO, 2019).
Data analysis
Responses from the questionnaires survey were analyzed using a computer-based
software called Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) IBM version 20 and
results were presented as percentages. Relative importance index (RII) was used to
identify area of energy wastage and its reduction measures, which when
implemented will make the energy usage more efficient, less expensive and more
environmentally friendly.
The weighted average for each item was determined and ranks were assigned to
each item, representing the perception of the respondents
Relative Importance Index (RII) ............................................ (1)
Where,
∑fx = is the total weight given to each attributes by the respondents.
∑f = is the total number or respondents in the sample.
K = is the highest weight on the likert scale.
Results are classified into three categories as follows (Othman et al, 2005) when;
618
RII<0.60 -it indicates low frequency in use
0.60≤RII<0.80 -it indicates high frequency in use.
RII≥0.80 –it indicates very high frequency in use.

Demographic information on sampled buildings
From the result presented in Table 1, nine (9) of the buildings falls under less energy
consuming building (LECB) with an average energy consumption of 2640KWh
(year), Twenty one of the buildings falls under the more energy consuming building
(MECB) with an average energy consumption 3840KWh (year) and the remaining
Thirty seven buildings falls under high energy consuming building (HECB) with an
average energy consumption of 4680HWh (year) forming the population of the
study are in Birnin – Kebbi (KEDCO, 2019).
The table show the number of building under each category of energy
consumptions from energy billin company, nine of the residential buildings were
the LECB, which represented 13.43% of the studied residential buildings; twenty
one(21) were in the category MECB representing 31.34% of the residential houses
surveyed while thirty seven (37) residential buildings were in the category of HECB,
which represented 55.22% of the studied residential buildings
Table 1 Categories of residential buildings to benchmark

Energy
Number
S/ consumption from Percentage
Building Categories of Buildings
N the Bills (%)
assessed
(KWH/year)
less energy consuming building
1 0-2640 9 13.43
(LECB)
more energy consuming building
2 2641-3840 21 31.34
(MECB)
high energy consuming building
3 3641-4680 37 55.22
(HECB)
Total 67 100
Source: Field Survey, (2019)
Table 2, show a comparative examination of the energy consumption of the billing

company, the benchmarked energy consumption and the actual energy
consumption. From the Table it can be discovered that the LECD used less energy
compared to the benchmarks, indicating consumption reduction use of energy in
these buildings, most of the MECD building used more energy than the
benchmarks and the remaining. Similarly, most of the HECB buildings used high
energy compared to the benchmarks, indicating inefficient use of energy in the
residential buildings
However, the estimations from the energy audits show that all the buildings were
energy efficient. This implies that all the buildings including those that were
energy-efficient from the bills can be operated on lower quantities of energy if
some measures aimed at avoiding wasteful use of energy are adopted. The
variations in the quantity of energy between consumptions from energy bills and
619
estimates from the audit could be as a result of differences in actual durations of

use of appliances and the durations used in the estimations, weather conditions,
behaviour of end-users and poor energy efficiency and management practices.
It will also be observed from Table 2 that the differences in consumption from the
bills and the audits were quite large. The implication of this is that the occupants
in the residential buildings will be able to significantly reduce their expenditure on
energy if some of the assumptions used for the audits are adopted.
Table 2 Comparison of the energy use (KWh\year) in the residential buildings to benchmark
Difference
Consumption Consumption Difference
Buildings Benchmarks From audit
from Bills from Audit From Bill (%)
(%)
LECB 2640 1200 3000 -12% -60%
MECB 3840 1800 3600 6.67% -50%
HECB 4680 2400 4200 11.43% 43%
Source: Field Survey, (2019)
Ranking of energy consumption reduction measures

The occupants in the buildings studied ranked their opinion willingness to embrace
the possible energy consumption reduction measures identified and the result of
the analysis is as presented in the Table 3.
The respondents willingly agree with the finding on the human behaviour to
reduction of energy consumption in residential building in Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi
State Nigeria. Buying lower energy consuming appliances with RII of 0.8985,
Daylight for reading and working in the building with RII of 0.8985, Keep light and
lighting fixtures clean with RII of 0.8955, Switch off water heater, pressing iron,
microwave after use with RII of 0.8895, Switch off and remove TVs, Computers...
plugs when not in use with RII of 0.8805, Ensure all openings are air tight during
cooling with RII of 0.8805, Unplug all power loads when not in use with RII of
0.8716, Lighter colour paint on walls and ceiling reduce heat emission with RII of
0.8567, Replace all incandescent bulbs with energy saving types with RII of 0.8507,
Clean the reflectors underneath the burners on the stove tops with RII of 0.8388,
Reduce heat gain by planting trees and flowers around the building with RII of
0.8268, Turning off light and appliances when not in use with RII of 0.8179, Fill the
freezer by ensuring efficient usage of the space with RII of 0.8089, Switching from
electrical to solar water heating with RII of 0.8059, Switching from the conventional
roofing system to cool roofs with RII of 0.8029, Installation of renewable energy
technologies with RII of 0.8029, Use occupancy sensors controls switches for
lighting with RII of 0.8000 and Ensure food is cooled before it goes in to the
refrigerator with RII of 0.7850 were ranked first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth,
seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, fifteenth,
sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth respectively are considered very significant
factor because their relative significant index is above 0.76. why replacing
appliances over ten years old with reduce energy consuming once with RII of
0.7582 and clean cooling coils on a regular basis for efficiency with RII of 0.7164
was ranked nineteenth and twentieth respectively and were considered significant
factor between the range of significant index of 0. 67 – 0.75.
620
Table 3 Building occupants willingness to embrace energy consumption reduction measures

WEIGHTNG/RESPONSE
Energy Consumption Reduction FREQUENCY
S/N Mean RII Rank
Measures
1 2 3 4 5 (∑f) ∑fx
Consider lower energy consuming
1 0 0 0 34 33 67 301 4.4925 0.8985 1
appliances, equipment when buying?
Daylight for reading and working in the
2 0 0 3 28 36 67 301 4.4925 0.8985 1
building
3 Keep light and lighting fixtures clean 1 1 2 24 39 67 300 4.4776 0.8955 3
Switch off water heater, pressing iron,
4 0 0 0 37 30 67 298 4.4478 0.8895 4
microwave… after use
Switch off and remove TVs, Computers...
5 1 1 0 33 32 67 295 4.403 0.8805 5
plugs when not in use
Ensure all openings are air tight during
6 0 1 1 35 30 67 295 4.403 0.8805 5
cooling
7 Unplug all power loads when not in use 0 0 4 35 28 67 292 4.3582 0.8716 7
Lighter colour paint on walls and ceiling
8 1 2 9 20 35 67 287 4.2836 0.8567 8
reduce heat emission
Replace all incandescent bulbs with
9 1 2 12 16 36 67 285 4.2537 0.8507 9
energy saving types
Clean the reflectors underneath the
10 0 0 8 38 21 67 281 4.194 0.8388 10
burners on the stove tops
Reduce heat gain by planting trees and
11 0 4 12 22 29 67 277 4.1343 0.8268 11
flowers around the building
Turning off light and appliances when
12 3 7 7 14 36 67 274 4.0896 0.8179 12
not in use
Fill the freezer by ensuring efficient
13 1 1 7 43 15 67 271 4.0448 0.8089 13
usage of the space
Switching from electrical to solar water
14 2 15 29 21 67 270 4.0299 0.8059 14
heating
Switching from the conventional roofing
15 2 3 11 27 24 67 269 4.0149 0.8029 15
system to cool roofs
Installation of renewable energy
16 0 3 13 31 20 67 269 4.0149 0.8029 15
technologies
Use occupancy sensors controls switches
17 2 3 10 30 22 67 268 4.0000 0.8000 17
for lighting
Ensure food is cooled before it goes in
18 2 6 9 28 22 67 263 3.9254 0.7850 18
to the refrigerator
Replace appliances over ten years old
19 2 6 17 21 21 67 254 3.7910 0.7582 19
with reduce energy consuming once
Clean cooling coils on a regular basis for
20 5 15 6 18 23 67 240 3.5821 0.7164 20
efficiency
Source: Field Survey (2019).
Where: (1 = Very Unwilling, 2 = Unwilling, 3 = Fairly Willing, 4 = Willing, 5 = Highly Willing)
From the findings on human behaviour to reducing energy consumption in

residential building, it can be deduced that buying lower energy consuming
appliances, daylight for reading, working, clean lighting fixtures, switch off and
unplug all power loads when not in use, finally, using lighter colour paint on walls
and ceiling reduce heat emission were found to be the most difficult challenges in
human behaviour bedevilling the reduction of energy consumption in residential
building in Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State Nigeria. This deduction tallies with that of
Howe (2011), Keith & Cassie (2009), Oyedepo (2012) and Samer (2013).
621
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ON ENERGY SAVING

MEASURES
93.05% of the respondents suggest other means or measures and state
government role in ensuring that respondent can adopt to reduce energy use in
residential building, only 50.00% of them suggested four (4) ways to reduce energy
consumption in residential building are: 16.67% of the respondent suggested that
the government should regulate through its agency the importation and local
manufacturing of sub-standard electrical appliances, 9.90% of the respondent
recommended the use of automatic control system to reduce energy consumption,
20.00% of the respondent believe that all building should be provided, installed
and protected prepaid meter in an open save place, finally 8.43% of the respondent
suggested alternative source of energy (solar, wind turbine, bio gas) as different
ways of reducing energy consumption in Gesse Housing Estate phase (1 & 2) Birnin
Kebbi area of Kebbi State Nigeria.
On the state government having a role to play in ensuring energy consumption
reduction to avoid the consequences of energy wastages, 38.05% of the
respondents suggested that providing policies, regulations and sensitisation of the
people to ensure efficient response, enforcement and implementation. The result
tally with (Sovacool et al., 2015) are therefore, currently been geared towards
reducing energy consumption due to the global problem of insufficient energy.
CONCLUSION
From the data gathered and analysed by the researcher and the major research
finding above, the researcher drew the following conclusions:
a. Less than half of the sampled residential buildings had no formal policy for
reducing energy consumption.
b. Most of the building users don’t check energy label before buying energy
consuming appliances.
c. The most selection options by building users in Nigeria is government policies.
d. The major challenges against successful implementation of reduced energy

consumption in residential building are both building design and
implementation.
e. The building services design have a lot of impact on the performance of energy
consumption reduction measures in the Nigerian residential buildings.
Conclusively, for residential building in Nigeria to continue to maintain
competitive advantage of reduced energy consumption, they must embrace
innovative and pragmatic approaches in their building services design and
selection of automatic control system.
622
RECOMMENDATIONS
The importance of the reduction of energy consumption in residential building in
Birnin Kebbi, Kebbi State Nigeria, practices cannot be over-emphasised. Therefore,
the following recommendations as drawn from the conclusions above must be well
noted.
a. For residential building to successfully achieve reduced energy consumption

they must have in place building services designed policies to guide in giving
approvals for building construction in Nigeria.
b. Certified professionals have to check and recheck building services design

before any approval of building design will be adopted,
c. The building owners and residents needs to have a full knowledge of the
building they are residing, this will enable them to fix up the specific duties and
responsibilities of every appliance in their facility.
d. The state government should try and eliminate estimated billing and prove all
residential building with meter to reduce over billing to the barest minimum.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
FACTORS AFFECTING THE DELIVERY OF BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS FUNDED BY DISTRICT
ASSEMBLIES COMMON FUND (DACF): THE CASE OF
SELECTED REGIONS IN GHANA
Aborah-Osei Castro1 and Humphrey Danso2
1,2Department of Construction and Wood Technology Education, Akenten Appiah-Menka
University of Skills Training & Entrepreneurial Development, Kumasi-Ghana
Work delivery has been one of the effective avenues for appreciating value for
money in this current economic situation, especially in the construction industry.
Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDA’s) are mandated by
legislative and executive functions to also develop local infrastructure. This, thus
prompted for the introduction of District Assemblies Common Fund (DACF) as one
of the major funding sources for infrastructure project delivery at the various
MMDA’s. However, the recognition of DACF by the MMDA’s in this respect on
construction project delivery over the years seems to have been stifled as priority
has been given to other sectors other than how these projects should be delivered.
The study sought to investigate the factors affecting the delivery of building
construction projects funded by DACF. This was achieved by employing a cross-
sectional survey in the design from participants in Ashanti, Greater Accra, and Bono
East regions in Ghana. The outcome of the study revealed that contractor, project
funding, supply chain, site, and client related factors are the 5 main factors affecting
the delivery of building construction projects. The findings again identified 7 major
effects of these factors; which were cost and time overrun, poor quality standard
work, unexploited completed project, contractor bankruptcy or liquidation,
accident/disaster, loss of workers, and profit and loss of stakeholders ’trust and
confidence. It was concluded that MMDA’s building construction project delivery
funded by DACF efficiency stands a chance to be improved. It is therefore
recommended for the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development
(MLGRD) to review DACF guidelines for utilisation and introduce a project charter
in MMDA’s building construction project delivery.
Keywords: building construction industry, District Assemblies Common Fund

(DACF), Metropolitan Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDA’s), project delivery
INTRODUCTION
Work delivery has been one of the effective avenues of realizing value for money
in all spheres of life especially in the manufacturing and service provision industry;
1 castos1985@gmail.com
Aborah-Osei and Danso (2021) Factors affecting the delivery of building construction projects
funded by District Assemblies Common Fund (DACF): the case of selected regions in Ghana In:
Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-
11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 629-644
629
Aborah-Osei and Danso
and for that matter the work delivered must be of good quality (Tausef, 2012). As
a contributor to national socio-economic development and a source of foreign
direct investment, the construction industry stands better as such realization and
impact from its emerging outcomes are greatly felt especially when the entire
process is well delivered (Ofori, 2012). According to Basheka and Tumutegyereize
(2011) in Kissi et al (2018) the construction industry accounts for a significant
portion of the world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP); this, revealed in the report
of the Ghana Statistical Service that, between 1st and 3rd quarter of 2020, the
construction industry contributed 3.6% to GDP of Ghana. This hypothesized that
the construction sector provides a substantial source of direct and indirect
employment to majority of the citizens all over the country. Delivering such
construction projects many a time is inhibited by a series of drawbacks which
impedes its original intent eventually. To this, the study sought to identify these
underlying challenges affecting the delivery of building construction projects
funded by the DACF in some selected regions of Ghana.
The DACF as established under article 252 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana
confers the purpose of the promotion of local-level development. According to
Robinson (2015), the DACF presently presents a major channel for government
development assistance, especially to the districts. There is evidence from all over
the country that the Common Fund has since its inception been the primary source
of project funding in the Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDA’s)
over the last 20 years others (District Assembly Common Fund home page, 2008).
In this light, the Common Fund has been the pillar of a vast range of projects
including physical infrastructure and human resource development at the district
level. Also, the Common Fund has assisted in the implementation of various
projects in the MMDA’s, focusing on priority areas such as education, health care
delivery, portable water supply, market infrastructure, sanitation, roads and drains
construction among others (District Assembly Common Fund home page, 2008).
Despite the recognition of DACF needs and appreciation; and the national agenda
towards the improvement of the nation’s development through DACF,
infrastructure project funded from DACF faces serious challenges (Nii - Amoah,
2014). Expanding further, he outlined the following challenges as prime from the
lot suffered: delays in disbursement of the fund, over deduction at source, abuse
of power by parliament in the approval and disbursement of the fund, the
inaccurate formula for the disbursement of the fund to the various MMDA’s,
mechanism for determination of the total revenue accrued and percentage
allocated for the fund. According to Hamzah et al. (2009), delay in construction
projects is costly and is related to four main factors such as; late payment, poor
cash flow management, insufficient financial resources, and financial market
instability. Centred on their findings, it was revealed that poor cash flow
management is the most significant factor that leads to poor project delivery,
followed by late payment, insufficient financial resources, and financial market
instability respectively. According to Ali and Rahmat (2010) in Kissi et al. (2018),
they concluded that, despite the immense contributions of the construction
industry with regards to resources and services, there have been relentless
criticisms of the poor performance in terms of quality project delivery of the major
players; and these criticisms have in the recent past occasioned an interest in
630
several studies that focused on assessing the factors affecting project delivery in
the construction industry.
Empirical evidence, however, has proved little as several studies conducted focused
on the contribution of DACF to the development of MMDA’s which is more
concentrated on socio-economic activities but not on specifics such as building
construction project delivery. This thus opens up a knowledge deficit. This study,
therefore, sought to assess the factors affecting the delivery of building
construction projects funded by DACF within some selected MMDA’s in Ghana. This
outcome will assist in examining how well the DACF concept on building
construction project delivery has been adopted, operationalized, and developed in
the country.
To this effect, this critical review of the of DACF utilization and the parties involved
are presented.
A synthesis of studies on DACF regarding project delivery in Ghana is first
presented. Also presented is the methodology employed in establishing the
underlying factors affecting the delivery of building construction projects funded
by DACF in the country since the post-independence era. Presentation and analysis
of the factors affecting the delivery of building construction projects funded by
DACF and how they can successfully aid in achieving project delivery goals were
similarly presented.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Building Construction Project Delivery (BCPD) is the process and procedures for
the design and construction of buildings and grounds (Bill Dikis, 2015). Project
delivery consists of planning, design, construction and other services necessary for
organizing, executing, and completing a building facility (GKK Works, 2013). Project
delivery systems are critical for achieving project success as they entail an essential
aspect of an organisation’s strategic planning and management processes that
seek to minimise risks and uncertainties (Gisela, 2013). Frimpong et al. (2003) as
cited by Kissi et al. (2018), assumed that the success of a project is cramped to the
project’s goals and set objectives within the explicit project scope. Similarly, the
success of a project invariably depends on the level of supervision of the project or
the managerial skills of the project manager or the site supervisor (Zwikael, 2009).
Kissi et al. (2018) further proposed that a project is administrated by many
characteristics; however, a completed project which meets its technical
requirements required quality and intended duration clearly defines the success of
a project. These assertions were further assented by Tengal et al. (2019) that value
for money, successful project closure, end-user satisfaction, timely completion of
projects and fitness for purpose were the top five monitoring and evaluation
outcome features in construction project delivery. Similarly. It has been argued that
one major factor that often derails project success is poor management of the
delivery system, such that in many occasions underperforming delivery systems
tend to undermine the inevitable uncertainties that need to be overcome to avoid
project failures (Smith, 1999 in Gisela, 2013). Kissi et al. (2018) postulated that,
although every project, whether construction or other non-infrastructural projects
comes with their peculiar challenges, those in the construction industry are quite
631
similar and repetitive. They expanded further that, one would think that
construction projects ought to be easier with experience, however, these flaws
continue to occur over and over again especially at the local government level. In
their assertion, Kissi et al. (2018) argued that inadequacies in government’s work
generally cause delays; as agreed by Hackman et al. (2021) who postulated that,
enhanced democratic governance; improved internally generated funds; utilization
of local materials improves faster infrastructure delivery. They continued that these
inadequacies tend to affect project delivery, as any delay will influence the cost,
time, and quality. Adding, they suggested that effective logistics management is
one of the major factors for productivity increase, as such they need for efficient
project delivery. It was further revealed that unrealistic timelines for the project
were a huge challenge in project delivery amongst Public Work Departments
(PWDs) in Ghana. This they attributed to other challenges such as inadequate
designs, poor estimates, and others alike. Gisela (2013) also asserted that work
delivery has been one of the effective means of realizing value for money in all
spheres of life especially in the manufacturing and service provision industry, and
for that matter the work delivered must be of good quality. Osei-Tutu and Adinyira
(2020) also concluded in their study that, the inclusion of traditional authorities in
beneficiary communities helped in an accurate identification of community needs,
minimization of cost incurred and high-quality workmanship as well as
strengthened ownership.
The study areas included Ashanti, Bono East and Greater Accra Regions of Ghana.
These areas selected were due to their geographical location in Ghana and their
cultural diverse ethnicity which can have an effect on Building Construction delivery
as proposed by H. Danso and R.O. Kwadwo (2020); where Bono East can fairly
represent the Northern-belt, the Ashanti representing the Middle-belt and the
Greater Accra representing the Southern-belt of Ghana. These will make it
authentic to generalise the findings obtained to fairly represent Ghana as a whole.
Cross-sectional survey was employed as the design of the study. This decision was
informed given the fact that the study will take a snapshot of the participants or
better still be studied once and thus not necessitating the researcher to make
follow-ups (Shuttleworth, 2010). The population of the study constituted officials
who were knowledgeable in the construction industry constituting district
coordinating directors, finance officers, head of works, planning officers, budget
officers, procurement officers, internal auditors, administrators, general secretaries
and programs coordinators within the various MMDA’s, Ministry of local
Government and rural Development (MLGRD), National Association of Local
Authorities of Ghana (NALAG) and DACF secretariats. Simple random and
purposive sampling techniques were used to select the sample for obtaining data
for the study. Both techniques were used in choosing the institutions from the
respective selected study areas. The former was used to select the MMDA’s as the
latter helped in selecting the DACF secretariat, National Association of Local
Authorities of Ghana (NALAG) and Ministry of Local Government and Rural
Development (MLGRD) from these areas. Simple random sampling is where each
member of population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample. It has
been stated that “the logic behind simple random sampling is that it removes bias
632
from the selection procedure and should result in representative samples (Research
Methodology.net, 2019). Purposive sampling again was used to select the
participants from the institutions mentioned earlier. This was possible as a list of
professionals from the respective institutions were obtained from the appropriate
quarters and a thorough background check run on them to lay bare those that
possessed the needed knowledge relative to the study. They were contacted and
used for the study eventually. The technique was used for this class since each
participant was an expert with much experience and exposed in their respective
fields (Saunders et al, 2012). Purposive sampling is a sampling technique in which
the researcher relies on his or her own judgment when choosing members of
population to participate in a study (Black, 2010). In effect, the total sample size for
the study was 334 drawn from 6 agencies, namely MMDA’s, Ministry of Local
Government and Rural Development (MLGRD), DACF secretariat, NALAG,
Consultants and Contractors were considered for the study. Questionnaire was
used to collect data from respondents on the factors affecting the delivery of DACF
building construction projects, and the effects of these factors on the delivery of
DACF building construction projects on the factors affecting the delivery of DACF
building construction projects in Ghana. This instrument was preferred on the merit
that the research objectives were quantitative in nature and thus, recommended
the use of this instrument coupled with the cost and the number of respondents
(Kothari, 2004). A 5-Point Likert scale responses was used. A Likert scale is a set of
statements (items) offered for a real or hypothetical situation under study (Joshi et
al., 2015). Respondents were asked to rate the variables whether they are strongly
affected (5), affected (4), neutral (3), unaffected (2) and strongly unaffected (1). Also,
on measures to improve the factors affecting the delivery of DACF building
construction projects and the adverse effects of these factors on the delivery of
DACF building construction projects in Ghana, the variables for both objectives
were rated as strongly agree (5), agree (4), neutral (3), disagree (2) and strongly
disagree (1). The questionnaire also captured the demographic characteristics of
the respondents. The validity of the questionnaire was determined through pilot
testing, attaining a Cronbach’s coefficient alpha value of 0.941 attested to the fact
the items met the recommended reliability threshold. According to Hair et al.
(2010), the acceptable lower limit for the Cronbach’s alpha is usually considered to
be 0.7, when reached will make the questionnaire reliable for data collection. 173
questionnaires representing 52% of the response rate was appropriately collected
from 334 questionnaires self-administered. According to Mugenda and Mugenda
(2003) in Nii and Danso (2018) and affirmed in Yehuda and Holtom (2008), this rate
is acceptable as a response rate of 50% is adequate for a study. With respect to the
interview, fifteen (15) of the professionals were engaged. The process took place in
the office of each interviewee with a time span of between 30 minutes to 1 hour.
In ensuring as well as increasing the reliability of the responses, all the interviews
were recorded.
Factor analysis was performed to identify the factors affecting the delivery of DACF
building construction projects in Ghana. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse
data on identifying the effects of the factors affecting the delivery of DACF building
construction projects in Ghana and ranked subsequently with the appropriate
justifications achieved. Kendall's Coefficient of Concordance was correspondently
used to establish a degree of agreement among respondents on the variables. The
633
quantitative data collected from the field through the use of structured closed
ended items was presented in tables and analysed on Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) software version 21.

This section presents and discusses the results of the study. The focused areas
included the demographic characteristics of respondents, factors affecting the
delivery of DACF building construction projects, and effects of the factors affecting
the delivery of DACF building construction projects delivery in Ghana.
Demographic characteristics of respondents
Table 1 Respondents’ demographic characteristics

Characteristics Category/Option Frequency Percentage
Academic Qualification BSc. Honours 79 45.7
P.G. Diploma 10 5.8
HND 33 19.1
MSc. /MEng. 28 16.2
MPhil. 7 4.0
PhD. 16 9.2
Total 173 100
Agency MMDA 129 74.6
Ministry of Local Government and Rural
18 10.4
Development (MLGRD)
District Assemblies Common Fund
4 2.3
(DACF) Secretariat
NALAG 4 2.3
Contractor 12 6.9
Consultant 6 3.5
Total 173 100
Status in Agency District Coordinating Director 26 15.0
Finance officer 26 15.0
Head of Works 24 13.9
Planning Officer 22 12.7
Budget Officer 26 15.0
Procurement officer 22 12.7
internal Auditor 3 1.7
Administrator 14 8.1
General Secretary 1 0.7
Programs Coordinator 5 2.9
Researcher 4 2.3
Total 173 100
Work Experience 5 years or less 29 16.8
6 - 10 years 102 59.0
11 - 15 years 29 16.8
Above 15 years 13 7.5
Total 173 100
Professional Body Yes 93 53.8
No 80 46.2
Total 173 100
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The outline of respondents ’demographics expressed descriptively is presented in

Table 1. Featuring on the table includes respondents ’academic qualification,
agency, status in agency, work experience and professional body.
Factors affecting the delivery of DACF building construction projects in Ghana.

Factors analysis was used to categorize the components into desired dimensions
as represented in Table 2. Five main factors were identified in the entire process.
Various options were explored in arriving at the factors. First, although the
eigenvalue with its thumb rule of 1 or greater made out seven factors, the scree
plot shown in Figure 1, upon close examination and review pointed out to five
factors. Again, basing on the 5% of variation explained, five factors clearly were
able to make this cut cumulating to about 57%. Moreover, the five factors had
theoretical considerations thus making them interpretable. Two factors less of
these requirements were discarded. Regarding the variance explained, the
respective individual percentages of 29.77%, 9.27%, 6.34%, 5.82% and 5.39%
accordingly were assigned to component 1, component 2, component 3,
component 4 and component 5.
Table 2 Total Variance explained

Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Component
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 10.367 29.767 29.767 5.553 15.944 15.944
2 3.229 9.271 39.039 3.145 9.030 24.974
3 2.209 6.343 45.382 3.490 10.021 34.995
4 2.027 5.819 51.201 2.763 7.934 42.929
5 1.879 5.394 56.595 2.929 8.409 51.337
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis
Figure 1: Scree Plot
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Table 3 Factors affecting the delivery of DACF building construction projects in Ghana. (n = 173)
Component
Causes
1 2 3 4 5
Contractor's Financial Difficulties 0.747
Poor site management 0.731
Inefficient contractor's selection method and procedure 0.699
Poor Communication 0.620
Skill labour Shortage 0.578
Inapplicable Guidance for the Utilization of DACF 0.787
Inadequate DACF Allocation for MMDA's projects 0.629
Delay in disbursement of DACF Fund 0.621
Excessive Bureaucratic Conditions 0.610
Poor project planning 0.537
Equipment and tool Shortage 0.634
Inadequate logistics 0.618
Material Shortage 0.638
Construction Slipups and Defective Works 0.528
Weather and other Environmental Challenges 0.594
Design Changes and Variation 0.430
Inadequate human resource to carry out supervision 0.594
Unrealistic time line for project delivery 0.548
Lack of coordination and cooperation of stakeholders 0.537
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
In arriving at identifying the factors affecting the delivery of DACF building

construction projects in Ghana, Table 3 presents details of the factors loaded under
the various components. Five factors were loaded onto component one and two
with the remaining components each having three. Loading onto component one
was the factors; contractor's financial difficulties (0.747), poor site management
(0.731), inefficient contractor's selection method and procedure (0.699), poor
communication (0.620) and skill labour shortage (0.578). This was labelled
Contractor Related factors and explained 15.944% of the variance. Next was
component two also with five factors of factor loadings consisting; inapplicable
guidance for the utilization of DACF (0.787), inadequate DACF allocation for
MMDA's projects (0.629), delay in disbursement of DACF fund (0.621), excessive
bureaucratic conditions (0.610), poor project planning (0.537). This component was
tagged Project Funding Related factors also explaining 9.030% of the variance.
Component three came following with three factors constituting; equipment and
tool shortage (0.634), inadequate logistics (0.618) and material shortage (0.638).
This was labelled Supply Chain Related factors equally explaining 10.021% of the
variance. Similarly, component four had three factors which included; construction
slipups and defective works (0.528), weather and other environmental challenges
(0.594) and design changes and variation (0.430) as it was named Site Related
factors and explained 7.934% of the variance. Loaded under the fifth component
were the factors; inadequate human resource to carry out supervision (0.594),
unrealistic time line for project delivery (0.548) and lack of coordination and
636
cooperation of stakeholders (0.537) and was subsequently marked as Client

Related factors and explained 8.409% of the variance.
Table 4 KMO and Bartlett's test

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .856
Bartlett's Test of
Df 351
Sphericity
Sig. .000
A Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) and a Bartlett's Test

of Sphericity (Table 4) were carried out on the data to warrant the use of factor
analysis. Recording a KMO value of 0.856, the Bartlett's test in turn gave high
relationships among the variables (Chi-square = 1917.019, df = 351, p < 0.000) thus
signifying the adequacy and suitability of applying this tool.
Component one: contractor related factors

Contractor related factors under this principal component explained 29.767% of
the total variance with five factors. Yaser et al., (2017) posits that poor
communication among construction parties is considered one of the leading
factors to cause an impact on the main project components such as cost, time and
quality of construction projects. Buttressing this assertion, Nii and Danso (2018)
identified excessive cost and time overrun, poor quality standard work, imprecise
assessments due to lack of information, criteria being very complex and difficult to
apply in practice among others as the challenges to the contractor selection criteria
in Ghanaian construction industry. Many now believe that the public sector system
of bid evaluation, which concentrate much on bid price, is one of the major
challenges of project delivery problems (Holt et al., 1994; Ellis & Herbsman 1991;
Bower 1989) as cited in Kissi et al., (2018). Affirming this claim, they explain that
contractors, when faced with shortage of work are more likely to submit low bids
simply to stay in business in the short term and with the hope of somehow raising
additional income through 'claims' or cutting costs to compensate for their low
bids. This is imperious for the managers of the economy to put the DACF high on
the precedence and provide the requisite measures for the effective delivery of
construction projects in the country.
Component two: project funding related factors

The principal component accounted for 9.271 % of the total variance with five
factors loading onto it. According to Amponsah (2018), and Modern Ghana (2018)
delay in disbursement as well as untimely release of funds nested from inapplicable
guidance for the utilization of DACF tend to pose a major challenge to the
operations of the fund at the local level. Khalid and Farah (2019), in consonance
with this submission also argue that poor planning and management of the
construction projects may lead to several negative effects on the duration and
completion of projects. This claim is linked to Igwe et al. (2018), Ahadzie and
Amoah-Mensah (2010) who equally advocate that poor project management
practices have in the recent past contributed to the abandonment of mass house
building project as well as poor project planning and implementation culture which
indicates an anti-thesis to development. In spite of these, Ahadzie and Amoa-
Mensah (2010) proposed that contractors should prepare and adhere to realistic
637
programme schedule. The findings of the study in consistent with the observed
affirmation by Igwe et al. (2018) and Ahadzie and Amoah-Mensah (2010) postulate
that DACF building construction project planning and funding procedures is not
serving the purpose expected at the local level, which in effect hindering the
effective delivery of building construction projects required. This agitation ponders
the need to review those procedures to satisfy the local needs at the MMDA’s in
Ghana.
Component three: supply chain related factors

Principal component three had three factors loading onto it and defined 6.343% of
the total variance. Another crippling effect on the efficacy in delivery of DACF on
building construction projects extent from the availability to the adequacy of
materials for the intended projects. Kissi et al. (2018) established that inadequate
logistics in the construction processes in various MMDAs have brought most
construction projects to a standstill. They reiterated further that when materials
ordered is not supplied to the right quantity, there is a clear case of material
shortage and hence it effects on a successful project delivery. Danso (2014) affirms
this assertion that, plant and equipment shortage as result of its high cost leads to
poor work delivery in the Ghanaian construction industry. In the plight of these, it
has become necessary for the managers of the economy to make it easy to access
materials, equipment and logistics needed for the construction activities since the
findings of the study concords with the reverted assertions.
Component four: site related factors

The principal component described 5.819 % of the total variance with three factors
loading onto it. In this regard, Kissi et al. (2018) indicated that lack of precision in
measurement from plans and specifications lead to mistakes in construction and
extension of the project duration. They advanced their position further by adding
that the weather and its attendant environmental challenges act as a great deal of
a challenge to project delivery. However, in consonant with the study, it is essential
for Works Department of the various MMDA’s to intensify their work supervision as
materials, equipment and logistics becomes available, since notwithstanding the
satisfaction all aspect of building construction project delivery indicators, poor site
management will render it ineffective.
Component five: client related factors

Then principal component clearly explained 5.394 % of the total variance with three
factors loading onto it. Danso (2014) reinforced this assertion indicating that poor
workmanship of construction project in the construction industry is as a result of
poor supervision. In their suggestion, Oseghale et al. (2015) were emphatic that
construction firms pay extra money for labour, so as delay in schedule in their
construction programmes as a result of skilled labour shortage. Consolidating this
idea were Kissi et al. (2018) who accentuated that unrealistic timelines for project
is a huge challenge in project delivery amongst PWDs in Ghana. Moreover, they
argued further that lack of stakeholder’s involvement in a project affect project
delivery. This was consistent with Gavizon (2013) asserting that, it is easier to get
to the objective of the project when all of the participants of the team are rowing
in the same direction. Relatively, Modern Ghana (2018) suggested that projects that
were planned in consultation with assembly members were more successful in
638
contrast with those that were done in consultation with government's medium-
term development plans (MTDPs).
Effects of the factors affecting the delivery of DACF building construction projects
in Ghana
Descriptive statistics was used to rank the effects of the factors affecting the
delivery of DACF building construction projects in Ghana. The outcome is
presented in Table 5. The criteria employed in the ranking process projected mean
values of three or greater (≥ 3.0) as the degree of measure for the main key effects
of the factors affecting the delivery of DACF building construction projects in
Ghana. Therefore, any mean value below 3.0 was not considered a key factor.
Table 5 Effects of factors affecting the delivery of DACF building construction projects in Ghana.
Effects Mean Std. Deviation Rank
Cost and time overrun 3.88 1.109 1
Poor quality Standard work 3.74 1.384 2
Unexploited completed project 3.70 1.202 3
Contractor bankruptcy or liquidation 3.64 1.248 4
Causes accident/disaster 3.52 1.184 5
Loss of workers and profit 3.47 1.301 6
Loss of stakeholders’ trust and confidence 3.40 1.104 7
Wastage of materials and resources 2.88 1.202 8
Dispute among Contractors and clients 2.81 1.178 9
Generate waste/scrap to harm the Environment 2.80 1.141 10
Project team isolation and conflict 2.77 1.084 11
Resource Shortages 2.77 1.090 12
Project overall failure 2.47 1.255 13
The key factors therefore included; cost and time overrun, poor quality standard
work, unexploited completed project, contractor bankruptcy or liquidation, causes
accident/disaster, loss of workers and profit and loss of stakeholder’s trust and
confidence.
Cost and time overrun
Cost and time overrun effect pulled a mean value of 3.88; and was ranked first as
the extreme effect of the factors affecting the delivery of DACF building
construction projects in Ghana by respondents. Cost and time overrun effect act as
a great deal of a challenge to delivery of DACF building construction projects in
Ghana. Nii and Danso (2018) indicated that construction projects are subjected to
excessive cost and time overrun as a result of the challenges to the contractor
selection criteria in Ghanaian construction industry. With the same view point,
Yaser et al., (2017); Porreca (2017) attributed this deficiency to poor communication
which incurs not only cost overruns but also time overruns and consequently
project failure. In-line with these deliberations, respondent indicated that cost and
time overrun has been a dilemma in the MMDA’s DACF construction projects,
where dozens of projects exceeds the time and budget line as result of poor cash
flow syndrome of DACF.
639
Poor quality standard work

This variable had a mean value of 3.74 and was ranked second as one of the major
effects that affects DACF building construction project at MMDA’s. It has been
noted that building construction projects with poor quality standard work waste
resources and create discomfort to end users. Danso (2014) corroborates this claim
emphasizing that poor supervision of work and use of inferior or adulterated
materials were identified as the major causes of poor workmanship in the
construction industry. More so, MMDAs ’inability to supervise construction projects
effectively has resulted in a lot of conflicts, variations and poor site co-ordination
(Kissi et al. 2018). Again, Nii and Danso (2018) argue that selecting a contractor for
construction project is a difficult decision to be taken by a client because it may
lead to construction delivery problems or successful delivery of the project.
Unexploited completed project

Standing imperious and affecting the delivery of DACF building construction
projects in Ghana is unexploited completed projects which had a mean value of
3.70, indicating a major effect to DCAF building construction project. Ansah (2011)
hinted that delay payment leads to abandonment of projects resulting in possible
delay which virtually renders the project not available at the time required. In
harmony to this affirmation, Ankukumah (2016) noted that projects are rejected by
end-users/community as a result of poor inclusion of stakeholders in project
delivery. In spite of these occurrences, stakeholder’s involvement in the MMDA’s
project delivery is a challenge.
Contractor bankruptcy or liquidation

Emanating under this umbrella of factors affecting the delivery of DACF building
construction projects in Ghana is contractor bankruptcy or liquidation with a men
value of 3.64. According to Ansah (2011), financial hardship for the construction
companies and its impacts are sometimes so harsh that some companies have to
close down. In consonance with this perspective, Ramachandra and Rotimi (2011)
adds that delay and loss of payment is a serious problem in the construction
industry of many countries. These affect the cash flow of contractors which is
critical to meeting their financial obligations.
Causes accident/disaster
Another key component with a mean value of 3.52 underlying the factors affecting
the delivery of DACF building construction projects in Ghana, is it cause to
accident/disaster. Ajasa (2012) indicated that, accidents emanate from short
comings of management and site managers due to non-implementation of safety
policies and lack of adequate supervision. Moreover, Kavya and Pradeep (2018)
relates to this call stating that accidents are bound to happen when there are
lacking organization arrangements, risky practices, and weak frames of mind of
development workforce, poor administration responsibility, and deficient
wellbeing information and preparing of laborers. Design errors, poor quality of
materials and workmanship in similar manner equally contribute to building
collapse (Oke, 2011). Putting these instances into perspective to the findings shows
the seriousness of MMDA’s building collapse, evidence form newsghana.com, 2019
where collapse school building at Dzorwulu a suburb of Accra killed 2 and injured
6. Collapse of DACF building construction is happening and it is causing disaster
and waste of resources which can be used for other relevant issue in the economy.
640
Loss of workers and profit

Loss of workers and profit is another canker which claimed a mean value of 3.47,
situates itself as another key threat affecting the delivery of DACF building
construction projects in Ghana. No wonder Abdul Raman and Berani (2006) in
Ansah (2011), lays the claim that delayed payment causes the contractor’s loss of
workers and profit. He continuous by suggesting that contractors may not have
sufficient funds to tide him over until such time as conflict is resolved, consequently
lose workers. In compliance with this affirmation, Oseghale et al (2015) indicated
that construction firms were paying extra money for labour, and Schedule delay in
their construction programmes as a result of skilled labour shortage. This assertion
confirms together with the results demonstrate the seriousness of how DACF
project is abandoned due to lack of financial liquidity.
Loss of stakeholder’s trust and confidence

Involved as one of the significant effects affecting the delivery of DACF building
construction projects in Ghana is loss of stakeholders ’trust and confidence,
attaining a mean value of 3.40. Windsor (2018) explains explicitly that it is
estimated that 1 in 3 projects fail due to poor stakeholder engagement.
Stakeholders are critical to project success; failure to communicate regularly with
stakeholders can undermine internal support for your project. Consequently,
Gamila and Rahman (2017) suggests that low Level of satisfaction among
construction parties affect poor delivery of construction project. In point of view
from the discussion however affirms to the findings of the need for the inclusion
of stakeholders in project delivery processes.
CONCLUSION
The study was set out to identify the factors affecting the delivery of building
construction projects funded by District Assemblies Common Fund (DACF) in
Ghana. Five main principal components came up as the factors affecting the
delivery of DACF building construction projects in Ghana. These were; contractor
related factors, project funding related factors, supply chain related factors, site
related factors and client related factors. In identifying the effects of the factors
affecting the delivery of DACF building construction projects in Ghana, the results
pointed out to seven main effects. These constituted; cost and time overrun, poor
quality standard work, unexploited completed project, contractor bankruptcy or
liquidation, causes accident/disaster, loss of workers and profit and loss of
stakeholders ’trust and confidence.
The study thus concludes that, notwithstanding the factor affecting the delivery of
building construction projects funded by DCAF in the various MMDA’s, its efficiency
can be improved while taking a keen look at the measures to improve on the
factors. In this regards, it is therefore recommended that the guideline for the
utilisation of DACF should be reviewed to meet the local content at the various
MMDA’s by excluding the infrastructure section from the guideline and the
introduction of project charter from the various MMDA’s annually to serve as a
benchmark to determine the type of construction project to be delivered at
particular period for each MMDA. Again, DACF budget earmarked (in the project
Charter) for a particular building construction project for MMDA’s should be
provided before commencement of its delivery process. Also, awareness creation
641
through seminars and training programmes must be intensified by Ministry of Local

Government and rural Development on the factors affecting the delivery of DACF
building construction project delivery at various MMDA’s to enlightening and give
them the opportunity to accept, its effect and participate actively in its
recommended measures.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEIVED VALUE OF RESIDENTIAL

PROPERTIES IN FREE STATE PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA
Kahilu Kajimo-Shakantu1, Barend Groenewald2 and Timothy O. Ayodele3
1,2,3Department
of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management, University of the Free State,
Bloemfontein, South Africa
Various factors influence the value of property and may differ between the different
stakeholders in the residential property market. Limited research focuses on the
concept of perceived value and how it differs between the professional valuers, real
estate agents and homeowners. The aim of this study is to determine the factors
that increase the value of residential properties as perceived by homeowners, real
estate agents and professional valuers. The study adopted quantitative data,
collected through questionnaires distributed among homeowners, real estate
agents and professional valuers. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were
adopted for data analysis. The results of the study indicated that different
stakeholders in the property industry perceive the factors that affect the value of
residential properties differently. Professional valuers are far less likely to allocate
great importance to single factors that may have an influence on residential
property. The results also indicated that certain individual factors that affect
property values are perceived as being more important than others by the different
groups. Based on the results, it is recommended that concepts such as perceived
value are included in training programs for professionals to better understand
factors that homeowners perceive as value adding to their properties. Future
research can investigate the reasons why certain factors are valued differently by
the different groups and how gender influences the perceived value of residential
property.
Keywords: homeowners, professional valuers, property value determinants, real

estate agents, residential property
INTRODUCTION
Value is a multifaceted construct, influenced by numerous factors (Australian
Property Institute [API], 2015). A factor that plays an important role in the
determination of the value of residential property, is the individual conducting the
valuation (API, 2015). There are many different role players in the property market
with diverse knowledge, experience and qualifications and thus different
perceptions of valuations can be expected (API, 2015). Professional valuers base
their valuation on expert conclusions that are based on market evidence and
1 kajimoshakantuk@ufs.ac.za
2 bar3nd@gmail.com
3 ayodele.t.oluwafemi@gmail.com
Kajimo-Shakantu, Groenewald and Ayodele (2021) Factors influencing perceived value of residential
properties in Free State Province, South Africa In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa
Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 645-659
645
Kajimo-Shakantu, Groenewald and Ayodele
proven methods (Blackledge, 2017). Real estate agents equally base their valuation
on market evidence, but are however, limited with regard to different valuation
methods and types of properties (API, 2015). While homeowners are constrained
to make a professional valuation of a property because of their subjectivity and
lack of knowledge, homeowners however, subjectively estimate the value of their
property based on their perceived value of the property (Lundgren, 2013).
According to Sánchez-Fernández and Iniesta-Bonillo (2007), perceived value is a
multi-dimensional construct that exists between the consumer and product,
influenced by personal, situational, preferential, perceptual and cognitive affective
aspects. As value is influenced by personal aspects, it is possible for homeowners
to overestimate the value of their property (Van der Cruijsen, Jansen, & Van Rooij,
2018). Van der Cruijsen et al. (2018) emphasize the importance of homeowners to
be knowledgeable about the “true” value of their home, as opposed to their
perceived value, as it might influence their financial decisions, including household
spending and saving decisions.
Most homeowners also frequently have misconceptions when they are in the
process of selling their home (Forbes Real Estate Council, 2018). Sometimes
homeowners in a bid to increase the sales price of their property, make alterations
and improvements, and these improvements rarely add value to the property
(Forbes Real Estate Council, 2018). Homeowners also perceive their home to be
more valuable due to sentimental ties to the property which might not align with
the market value (Forbes Real Estate Council, 2018). Conversely, home buyers make
property valuations based on the property’s physical conditions and the available
market information (API, 2015). A home buyer can also pay significantly higher for
a property with attributes that they highly value (Adetiloye & Eke, 2014). The
foregoing presupposes that property is valued by potential/existing homeowners
based on subjective estimates and such estimates differ from that of real estate
agents and professional valuers (API, 2015). Property valuation is a complex
process that should only be formally undertaken by professional valuers, real estate
agents on the other hand tend to often make estimations of property’s market
price based on their market experience (API, 2015).
The key problem therefore is that homeowners naturally run the risk of
overestimating the value of their property (Benitez-Silva et al., 2015; Van der
Cruijsen et al., 2018; Windsor, La Cava, & Hansen, 2015). When homeowners
overestimate the value of their property, it can lead to poor economic decisions,
such as household spending and saving decisions in the long term (Van der
Cruijsen et al., 2018). Furthermore, homeowners might invest and modify their
home before selling, believing that these improvements/alterations may increase
the value of their property and therefore the final selling price (Forbes Real Estate
Council, 2018). This can potentially place the homeowner in a weaker financial
position than prior to the improvements. A study investigating the ability of
homeowners to accurately calculate the value of their property found that
homeowners overestimated the value of their homes with a range of 3,4% - 12,7%
(Benitez-Silva et al., 2015). Windsor et al. (2015) similarly found some positive bias
among homeowners when valuing their homes and a positive correlation between
overestimation and financial spending. The perceived value is therefore a construct
that is based on subjective assumptions and can differ among different role players
646
in the property market (Lundgren, 2013). Therefore, this study identified the need
to investigate how homeowners ’perceptions differ regarding key factors which
they perceive as the most important for increasing the value of residential
properties as compared to professional valuers and real estate agents.
Literature search suggests a dearth of studies in the South African property market
examining the factors that contribute to the value of residential properties from
the viewpoint of homeowners, real estate agents and professional valuers. Given
the role of housing on the regional economic growth in South Africa (Simo-
Kengne, Bittencourt, & Gupta, 2012), a need exists to conduct market specific
studies to investigate different factors that influence property value from the
stakeholders perspectives. Towards this end, this study investigates varaitions in
the perceptions of homeowners’, estate agents and profesinal valuers regarding
key factors which they perceive as the most important for increasing the value of
residential properties.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review examined two main discussions. While the first subsection
discussed the perceived value, the second focused on the factors influencing
residential property value
Perceived value
Value is a multifaceted construct, as value is not inherent to the product, but
changes according to various influential factors (API, 2015). The value of a product,
in this case property, can therefore change over time and can be considered a
subjective opinion, and not a fact (Blackledge, 2017). Value is a complex, multi-
dimensional construct that is found within an interaction between the consumer
and a product (Sánchez-Fernández and Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007). It is also influenced
by various factors such as personal, situational, preferential, perceptual and
cognitive affective aspects (Sánchez-Fernández & Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007). There is a
difference between the developer’s perception and the consumer’s preference with
regard to value (Rahadi, et al., 2012). The concept of perceived value is therefore
idiosyncratic, as different individuals have different meanings when referring to
value.
The process of valuation is defined by the API (2015) as “the act or process of
developing an opinion of value”. This process includes using data, analytical
techniques and applying knowledge, experience and professional judgment. The
opinion of the valuer is therefore based on expert conclusions that are based on
market evidence. Professional services are needed with the valuation process as
the determination of the value of residential property is a complex process,
influenced by law, location construction and condition (Mackmin, 2008). Experience
and education are therefore needed to make a qualified estimation of value
(Mackmin, 2008). An estate agent can provide a valuation for the potential seller,
in order to ascertain a buyer but it is not guaranteed that the estate agent will use
a professional qualified valuer (Mackmin, 2008). Real estate salespeople and
agents develop expertise in valuation; however, they might not base their findings
on the factors that professional valuers include (API, 2015).
647
Homeowners will inevitably estimate the value of their property. However, such
estimation of the value is not always correct (Agarwal, 2007). Van der Cruijsen et
al. (2018) found homeowners to have an optimistic estimate of their property. Van
der Cruijsen et al. (2018) postulates that psychological explanations for the
misestimation include theories such as loss aversion or an endowment effect,
where the homeowner will over-value their property. The inaccurate estimation of
value can also be due to the lack of information (Henriques, 2013). Over estimation
of value can also happen even if homeowners are well informed (Van der Cruijsen
et al., 2018). If a homeowner overestimates the value of their home, it can lead to
poorer important economic decisions, including household spending and saving
decisions, leading to negative consequences (Van der Cruijsen et al., 2018). It is
also important for homeowners not to overestimate the value of their home, as it
might lead to high asking prices when selling their home, which can delay the
selling process (Van der Cruijsen et al., 2018).
Wang et al. (2004) state that clients perception of value, when used correctly, can
be applied as an approach to enhance competitiveness, attract and retain
customers. Zauner, Koller, and Hatak (2015) adds that consumer perceived value
can be incorporated and used in business models, including in areas such as
marketing and management. Consumer perceived value can therefore be regarded
as a competitive advantage in practice (Zauner et al., 2015).
Factors influencing residential property value
Various factors that increase a property’s value are discussed in the literature. These
factors may be referred to as property value determinants (Abidoye et al., 2016;
Mackmin, 2008). Various studies investigated the different conditions and external
and internal factors that plays a role in the perceived value of residential property.
Źróbek et al. (2015) presents a summary of the attributes developers consider as
important in the residential property market. These attributes include the physical
conditions, distances to markets, the opportunity for employment, neighborhood
factors, the availability of health care and recreational areas, among others. In the
study of Carnoske et al. (2010) realtors indicated various factors that influenced
potential purchases. These factors included, but not limited to, perception of
affordability, level of neighborhood safety and standard of neighborhood schools.
Location is an important factor that forms part of the value determinants of

property. Various studies, including Abidoye et al. (2016) found location to be the
most highly valued factor when residential decisions are made. Romkaew (2001)
explains that the link of location and the perceived value of the residential property
is determined by how well the neighborhood characteristics fulfill the needs of the
residents. An example is provided where single families requires access to schools,
shopping and employment centers (Romkaew, 2001). Location is emphasized by
Coffee et al. (2013) to be the determinant that adds the most value to residential
property. The study of Teck-Hong (2011a) also found that the value of residential
property increased with location and accessibility, specifically the distance to the
workplace, hospitals and public transport. Ferlan et al. (2017) investigated factors
influencing the appraised value of residential properties as perceived by different
experts. Their findings were that the location in relation to the distance from the
city center was the factor that influenced value the most.
648
Structural attributes of residential properties can play a significant role in the value
of property (Dziauddin & Idris, 2018). Structural factors can include, among others,
the number and size of rooms (bedrooms and bathrooms), the age and size of the
property, fire places, and swimming pools (Oloke et al., 2013). Teck-Hong (2011b)
also includes flooring and tiling as structural attributes. Aliyu (2012) states that the
value of residential property is determined by structural components of the
building, where structural components such as flooring, the type of roof, finishes
and decorative aspects can add value to a property. In comparison, properties
without these attributes may be viewed as less valuable (Aliyu, 2012). Studies found
various factors that increased perceived value, for example functionality and
spaciousness (Kauko, 2006), natural daylight and a well proportional layout
(Lundgren, 2013) the size, number of bathrooms, location, an environmental
attribute (Choudhury, 2017), flooring and finishes (Teck-Hong, 2011b), “green”
amenities, including solar and wind power and sealed windows (Carnoske et al.,
2010). The state of repair of a property can include aspects such as the finishes and
aesthetics of a property. This was found to be an important variable of determining
the value of residential property in the study of Abidoye et al. (2016). Ferlan et al.
(2017), included, amongst other factors, the residential property orientation, noise
level, floor level and the age of the building. The age of the property was found in
the study to have had a negative influence on the property value.
Neighborhood characteristics can play a significant role in the value of property
(Abidoye et al., 2016; Matthews & Turnbull, 2007). Potential home buyers will
develop expectations for their new residential property based on their observations
about their image of the neighborhood, which includes the location, availability of
amenities, transport and various facilities (Lundgren, 2013). As an example, the
quality of the surrounding environment was found in Źróbek et al. (2015) to
significantly influence the value of property. Neighborhood factors can include
estate plans, infrastructure development, and security (Oloke et al., 2013).
Drewnowski, Aggarwal, Rehm, Cohen-Cline, Hurvitz, and Moudon (2014) found
that if the neighborhood were perceived as safe, quiet, clean and attractive, the
property values were higher. Park facilities also may contribute to the property
values, where passive recitation with recreation space, water features and gardens
were found to add to value in the study of Lin, Wu, and Sousa (2013). Respondents
from the study of Źróbek et al. (2015) identified a sense of security as a factor that
were valued by property buyers. A quiet neighborhood, high scenic value was also
highlighted. Being able to relax in the neighborhood and feeling safe had the
highest impact on the customer perceived value in a study conducted by Lundgren
(2013). Other factors such as poor conditions in a neighborhood, including
rundown building exteriors, lawn problems, lack of street and walkway
maintenance was also found to be associated with declining sales prices (Seo,
2018) as was pollutant emissions, noise and externalities that are produced by
heavy infrastructures (Cordera, Chiarazzo, Ottomanelli, dell’Olio, & Ibeas, 2019).
There are numerous reasons why knowledge of these property value determinants
are important. Determining what factors is viewed as increasing the value of
residential property can be used by real estate experts to make adjustments to sale
prices and determine the influence of various factors with more certainty (Ferlan et
al., 2017). Also, if it is known what the preferences is, or the factors that influence
the choice of residential property, this knowledge can be incorporated in the
649
design of residential property. Urban planning could be based on these factors and
can indicate which factors must be prioritized (Źróbek et al., 2015). Furthermore,
Teck-Hong (2011a) agrees that it is important for housing developers to have
detailed knowledge of preferences of potential home buyers. The reason they
provide is that home buyers have different perceptions and opinions of what they
consider to be important. A more holistic view of what factors adds value to
residential property is therefore recommended (Teck-Hong, 2011a), as it will
contribute to residential environments that homebuyer’s value (Źróbek et al., 2015).
METHODOLOGY
An empirical study was undertaken which, epistemologically, followed a non-
experimental, quantitative methodology, grounded in the positivist paradigm. The
study focused on three target population groups: homeowners, real estate agents
and professional valuers. Homeowners was selected through a non-probability
sample selection method namely, convenience sampling. Real estate agents
registered at the EAAB and professional valuers registered at the SACPVP were
requested to participate in the study and were also selected through a convenience
sampling method. Given the need to ensure equal proportion among the three
categories of respondents, and get the best representation of respondents for each
category of respondents in the final sample, the number of respondents for each
category was selected using controlled quota sampling.
A closed ended questionnaire was used to collect data. An informed consent
section formed part of the questionnaire. The researcher provided homeowners,
real estate agents and professional valuers each with a questionnaire by means of
an online survey and/or by hand. The first section of the questionnaire included
the demographic details of the respondents. The second section included a list of
factors that are perceived to increase the value of residential properties as based
on the literature review. Participants were asked what percentage of the time a
change in different factors will affect their view of a house’s value by more than
20%. Their responses were indicated on a 6-point scale and included: < 5%, 5% -
25%, 26% - 50%, 51% - 75%, 76% - 95% and > 95%. The list of factors prepared
and put forward to the respondents included the following: location; size of the
property; state of repair; number of rooms; age of the property; newly painted and
tiled; flat roof/pitched roof; neighborhood characteristics; availability of security;
and accessibility to a highway. In the last section, participants were asked to rank
the ten factors which may have an influence on the value of property in order of
importance. Statistical analysis included both descriptive and inferential statistics.
Chi Square tests were conducted for each question. Differences in averages were
tested with ANOVA tests. The significance level chosen for this study was 0.05.
Approval for this study was requested from the ethics committee of the University
of the Free State.
The following hypotheses was investigated in the study:
Hypothesis 1
1. H0: Homeowners, real estate agents and professional valuers perceive the
factors that affect the value of residential properties the same.
650
2. H1: Homeowners, real estate agents and professional valuers perceive factors
that affect value of residential properties differently.
Hypothesis 2
1. H0: Individual factors that affect property values are perceived to have equal
importance by homeowners, real estate agents and professional valuers.
2. H1: Certain individual factors that affect property values are perceived as
being more important than others by homeowners, real estate agents and
professional valuers.
RESULTS
Respondents Profile
An examination of the respondents ’profile (Table 1) showed that majority of home
owners were females (66.7%), the gender analysis of the estate agents showed that
females (51.6%) were slightly more than the males (48.4%). However, among the
professional valuers, the results revealed that the males accounted for 89.7% while
the females were 10.3% of the respondents.
Table 1: Respondents’ Profile
Home owners Estate Agents Professional Valuers
Profile (n = 30) (n = 31) (n = 29)
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
Male 10 33.3 15 48.4 26 89.7
Gender Female 20 66.7 16 51.6 3 10.3
Total 30 100.0 31 100.0 29 100.0
18-29 years 0 0.0 2 6.5 1 3.4
30-39 years 10 33.3 6 19.4 5 17.2
40-49 years 6 20.0 7 22.6 10 34.5
Age
50-59 years 7 23.3 11 35.5 7 24.1
60+ 7 23.3 5 16.1 6 20.7
Total 30 100.0 31 100.0 29 100.0
0 years 3 10.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
1-5 years 14 46.7 8 25.8 3 10.3
Years of 6-10 years 5 16.7 7 22.6 3 10.3
Experience
11-20 years 2 6.7 13 41.9 12 41.4
in the
Property 20+ years 4 13.3 3 9.7 11 37.9
Market No
2 6.7 0 0.0 0 0.0
Response
Total 30 100.0 31 100.0 29 100.0
Analysis of the respondents age showed that most of the respondents across the
three categories were aged 40 years and above. Regarding the years of experience
of the respondents in the property market, the results showed that while only 10%
of home owners have no experience in the property market, 48.4% of estate agents
have up to 10 years ’experience. A total number of 79.3% of professional valuers
have at least 11 years ’experience in the property market. The results showed that
the respondents have some measure of experience in the property market, and
should be able to provide reliable responses.
651
Factors that increase the value of residential property

The data obtained was split by gender, age, experience and population group. A
p-value of ≤ 0.05 was accepted as a statistically significant difference between data
groups. No statistically significant difference was found when data was split by age
and experience. When the data was split by gender, the females rated the influence
of the factors on property value to be in general more important than males. In the
case of size of property, number of rooms, if property was newly painted and tiled
as well as age of property, these were statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05 (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Factors that affect Property value as reported by different genders
The study further sought to evaluate the respondents ’perception on the

importance of housing features/characteristics on property values. The analysis was
disaggregated based on the population group. When split by population group,
professional valuers rated the influence of the above-mentioned factors on
property value to play in general a lesser role. This perhaps might owe to the
expectation that economic forces have a major role to play in determining property
value, as opposed to individual items assessed in isolation. Property attributes that
were statistically significant at p < 0.05 are size, number of rooms, age of property,
painted and tiled, flat/pitched roof and availability of security (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Factors that affect Property value as reported by the population groups
An examination of the modal scores/weightings attached to the features/factors

(see Table 2) shows that homeowners rated a 5 point for most of the variables.
Only proximity to highway was rated a 3 point. This suggests that home owners
expect that these attributes/features significantly translate into increased values
652
for their property. It thus appears that the homeowners do not give consideration
to other peculiar market idiosyncrasies when subjectively assessing the value of
their property. Concerning the estate agents, while the least rates feature was
proximity to highway (3 points), the highest features were location, repairs and
security (6 points). The features/attributes had lower weightage in comparison to
the ratings of the homeowners. The differences in the rating might owe to the
better understanding of the market peculiarities and factors influencing property
values. The ratings of the professional valuers further attributed lower modal scores
to the features/factors, with proximity to highways having a modal score of 1, and
location, repair and neighbourhood having a modal score of 5. It thus appears that
the ratings of the professional are not driven by personal bias, rather a realistic
appraisal driven by market fundamentals. Apparently, there are other factors such
as cost of development, nature/type of title are some other major issues that attract
considerations when estimating market prices/values from the professional
perspectives of the property valuers.
Table 2. Scores/weightings attached to the property features
(n = 30) (n = 31) (n = 29)
Features
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
5%-25% 1 3.3 2 6.5 2 6.9

26%-50% 1 3.3 3 9.7 6 20.7
51%-75% 5 16.7 2 6.5 5 17.2
Location
76%-95% 12 40.0 9 29.0 10 34.5
>95% 11 36.7 15 48.4 6 20.7
Modal Score 5 6 5
< 5% - - - - 1 3.4
5%-25% - - 2 6.5 3 10.3
26%-50% 4 13.3 4 12.9 9 31.0
Size 51%-75% 10 33.3 8 25.8 9 31.0
76%-95% 9 30.0 12 38.7 4 13.8
>95% 7 23.3 5 16.1 3 10.3
Modal Score 4 5 4
< 5% - - 1 3.2 - -
5%-25% - - - - 5 17.2
26%-50% 4 13.3 5 16.1 11 37.9
Rooms 51%-75% 8 26.7 12 38.7 9 31.0
76%-95% 13 43.3 9 29.0 3 10.3
>95% 5 16.7 4 12.9 1 3.4
Modal Score 5 4 3
< 5% 1 3.3 1 3.2 1 3.4
5%-25% 1 3.3 2 6.5 6 20.7
26%-50% 6 20.0 5 16.1 13 44.8
Property
51%-75% 6 20.0 10 32.3 7 24.1
age
76%-95% 11 36.7 7 22.6 1 3.4
>95% 5 16.7 6 19.4 1 3.4
Modal Score 5 4 3
< 5% - - 1 3.2 - -
5%-25% 2 6.7 1 3.2 2 6.9
Repair 26%-50% 5 16.7 1 3.2 5 17.2
51%-75% 6 20.0 4 12.9 8 27.6
76%-95% 8 26.7 11 35.5 12 41.4
653
Table 2. cont’d Scores/weightings attached to the property features

>95% 9 30.0 13 41.9 2 6.9
Modal Score 6 6 5
< 5% - - - - 2 6.9
5%-25% 2 6.7 2 6.5 7 24.1
26%-50% 4 13.3 6 19.4 7 24.1
Painted 51%-75% 8 26.7 7 22.6 7 24.1
76%-95% 8 26.7 9 29.0 4 13.8
>95% 8 26.7 7 22.6 2 6.9
Modal Score 5 5 3
< 5% 1 3.3 - - 1 3.4
5%-25% 2 6.7 4 12.9 5 17.2
26%-50% 1 3.3 4 12.9 12 41.4
Roof 51%-75% 6 20.0 8 25.8 5 17.2
76%-95% 14 46.7 8 25.8 4 13.8
>95% 6 20.0 7 22.6 2 6.9
Modal Score 5 5 3
< 5% - - - - - -
5%-25% - - 1 3.2 5 17.2
26%-50% 3 10.0 1 3.2 7 24.1
Neighbour 51%-75% 8 26.7 12 38.7 5 17.2
hood 76%-95% 7 23.3 8 25.8 8 27.6
>95% 11 36.7 9 29.0 4 13.8
No response 1 3.3 - - - -
Modal Score 6 4 5
< 5% 1 3.3 - - 1 3.4
5%-25% 1 3.3 2 6.5 4 13.8
26%-50% 1 3.3 3 9.7 6 20.7
Security 51%-75% 2 6.7 6 19.4 12 41.4
76%-95% 13 43.3 8 25.8 4 13.8
>95% 12 40.0 12 38.7 2 6.9
Modal Score 5 6 4
< 5% 3 10.0 2 6.5 8 27.6
5%-25% 7 23.3 4 12.9 6 20.7
26%-50% 7 23.3 12 38.7 7 24.1
Highway 51%-75% 7 23.3 7 22.6 5 17.2
76%-95% 3 10.0 5 16.1 3 10.3
>95% 3 10.0 1 3.2 - -
Modal Score 3 3 1
Order of importance of factors that increase the value of residential property

When data was split by gender, females rated number of rooms to be more
important than males (p = 0.00), while males rated neighborhood significantly
higher than the females (p = 0.00). Analysis based on age, population group and
experience were not significant.
Hypothesis evaluation
When the data was split by occupation, the global hypothesis of no significant
difference was rejected. Professional valuers valued the influence of the different
factors on property as statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) lower than home owners
and real estate agents.
Home owners and estate agents valued the size of property, number of rooms, age
of property, painted and tiled, flat/pitched roof and availability of security to be
654
significantly (p ≤ 0.05) more important than perceived by professional valuers.

Therefore, according to this study, certain individual factors that affect property
values are perceived as being more important than others by homeowners, real
estate agents and professional valuers (H1).
Table 3. Ranking of the level of importance of property features/facilities

(n = 30) (n = 31) (n = 29)
Features
ran
Mean Std. Dev. rank Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev. rank
k
Location 2.27 1.999 10 1.45 1.287 10 2.00 2.360 10
Size 4.00 2.101 8 4.06 1.982 9 4.07 2.618 9
Repair 3.80 2.107 9 5.13 2.141 8 4.21 1.760 8
Rooms 4.67 2.187 7 5.35 2.288 7 5.66 2.126 6
Age 6.07 2.258 5 5.97 1.760 4 5.79 1.677 5
Painted 7.10 1.954 2 6.10 1.989 3 6.24 1.939 3
Roof 6.77 2.459 3 6.16 2.818 2 7.52 2.198 2
Neighbourhood 5.13 2.623 6 5.90 2.891 5 4.86 2.587 7
Security 6.33 2.771 4 5.74 2.863 6 6.24 2.668 4
Highway 8.87 2.030 1 9.10 2.055 1 8.41 2.994 1
An examination of the ranking of the level of importance of the individual

features/facilities to the respondents (table 3) showed that homeowners rated
highway, painting and roof more highly than other housing features. The mean
scores of the estate agents and professional valuers were similar. Both groups rated
highway and roof (Estate Agents mean score – 9.10 and 6.16 respectively;
Professional valuers mean score – 8.41 and 7.52 respectively) more highly than
other features. The least ranked feature across all the categories of respondents
was location, this had a mean rank of 2.27, 1.45 and 2.00 for the homeowners,
estate agents and professional valuers respectively.
DISCUSSIONS
The concept of perceived value is a multifaceted concept with various influential
factors. The results of the study can be interpreted against the literature study. The
API (2015) views value as a multifaceted construct influenced by numerous factors,
where the individual that conducts the valuation plays an important role.
Differences in valuation are explained by the individual conducting the valuation,
as the individuals differ with regards to knowledge, experience and qualifications
(API, 2015). Based on the findings of the study, professional valuers are far less
likely to allocate greater importance to single factors that may have an influence
on the value of residential property. This might indicate the propensity of
professional valuers to base their valuations on a far broader range of factors,
which might include other value determinants, such as economic conditions and
comparative analyses, which were not included in the study. The findings from the
study corroborates the results of Blackledge (2017) who submitted that
professional valuers base their valuation on expert conclusions that are premised
on market evidence and proven methods as oppose to individual property
attributes/features. This might explain why the results indicated that professional
655
valuers did not place too much emphasis on the individual factors listed in the
questionnaire as a professional valuation requires a holistic approach.
Home owners rated the factors influencing property value in general higher. This
finding might possibly indicate that homeowners, due to their subjectivity and lack
of knowledge, overvalue their property if it includes certain factors that do not
necessarily influence the market value of residential property – as determined by
professional valuers and real estate agents. Also, this might lead to a susceptibility
of homeowners to make adjustments to their property, incorrectly believing that
these factors might increase the value of their building. Homeowners are also
prone to subjectivity and do not have knowledge of how to conduct professional
valuations. Therefore, estimations of the value of their property are based largely
on their perceived value of the property (Lundgren, 2013), influenced by personal,
situational, preferential, perceptual, cognitive affective aspects and sentimental ties
(Forbes Real Estate Council, 2018; Sánchez-Fernández & Iniesta-Bonillo, 2007). As
value is also influenced by personal aspects, it is possible for homeowners to
overestimate the value of their property (Benitez-Silva, Eren, Heiland, & Jimenez-
Martin, 2015; Van der Cruijsen et al., 2018; Windsor, La Cava, & Hansen, 2015). This
could possibly explain why the study found that home owners seemed to rate the
factors to influence property value generally higher than compared to real estate
agents and professional valuers.
The results of the study also emphasised the role of gender, where the perception
of the importance of factors did not differ between groups of occupations, but
between males and females, where females rated the number of rooms to be more
important and males rated neighbourhood factors significantly higher than
females.
The results must be interpreted against the limitations of the study. The small
sample size (selected through a non-probability sampling method) might not be
representative of the rest of the population - therefore limiting the results to be
generalized beyond the sample group. Due to the small sample size, gender was
not equally represented in the different occupational groups (only 4 females in the
group of professional valuers). The questionnaire included a limited amount of
factors that influence the perceived value of residential property.
Due to the limitations of the current study, further studies may be necessary to
determine which factors increases the value of residential properties as perceived
by homeowners, real estate agents and professional valuers in order to provide
guidelines to homeowners to make better economic decisions before selling or
buying new property. Reasons why specific factors are perceived as being valuable
and/or more valuable than others can also be elicited. Future research can explore
how the concept of perceived value differs not only between role players in the
industry, but also how it differs between genders.
CONCLUSION
In recent years, the concept of perceived value in the property market is becoming
increasingly important. This is because the perceived value of customers can also
be used by professional property developers when new projects are planned,
656
thereby aligning their plans with the values of the customers (Lundgren, 2013). A
preliminary literature review undertaken found limited studies that specifically
focused on factors that influence the perceived value in the property market. The
study therefore adds to the current body of knowledge in the area of valuation to
better understand how personal perceptions of different groups might influence
the property market. Professional valuers and real estate agents may also use the
outcome of the proposed study in training programs to better understand
consumers and develop more insights into factors that consumers perceive as
value adding to their properties.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
HOUSEHOLDS’ EXPOSURE TO INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

FROM FOSSIL FUEL ELECTRIC GENERATOR USE IN MINNA
NIGERIA
C. B. Ohadugha1, Y. A. Sanusi2, A. O. Sulyman3, B. N. Santali4, M. Mohammed5 and
S. O. Medayese6
1,2,3,4,5,6 Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B. 65
Minna Niger State Nigeria.
Lack of reliable access to modern energy in Minna Niger state results in

households ’use of inefficient alternatives especially fossil fuel generators for
domestic purposes. The study analyses indoor air pollution from households ’use
of generator with a view to determining their exposure to Carbon monoxide. The
concepts of energy access, poverty and generator pollution were reviewed. The
research employed empirical approaches and adopted the multi-stage sampling
technique. The study area has a population of 63,873 households. MSA Altair 5X
Multigas detector was employed in the detection of pollution (CO) levels
emanating from the generator use. It revealed that inefficient use of generator,
generates 60 ppm, above the WHO and NAAQS threshold of 10 ppm. 66.4% of the
generator using households are exposed to dangerous levels of CO pollution from
generator use at ≤4 meters ’distance in Minna, Nigeria. The study concluded that
households ’access to adequate electricity de-emphasizes the need for generator
ownership and use. Households ’liveability is undermined by high level of pollution.
It recommended enlightenment on the dangers of exposure to carbon monoxide
and that generators should be operated at a minimum distance of 4 meters away
from residential buildings.
Keywords: carbon monoxide, domestic energy, energy poverty, generator
INTRODUCTION
Epileptic power supply is being experienced by households in Minna, the capital of
Niger state the acclaimed ‘power state ’of Nigeria. They barely experience 24 hours
of uninterrupted power supply despite being the host state of three hydro power
stations. This lack of steady electricity energy plunges the households into
domestic energy poverty situation as most domestic activities requiring energy
1 chuks@futminna.edu.ng +2348035904147
2 yasanusi@futminna.edu.ng +2347063848372
3 l.sulyman@futminna.edu.ng +2348033900864
4 santali.aliyu@futminna.edu.ng +2348065354304
5 mohammedmaikudi@futminna.edu.ng +2348036342228
6 m.samuel@futminna.edu.ng +2348033033184
Ohadugha, et al. (2021) Households’ exposure to indoor air pollution from fossil fuel electric
generator use in Minna Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
661
Ohadugha, et al.
revolves around electricity energy. Power outage makes them vulnerable security
wise especially at night. Increased households ’energy expenditure and pollution
exposure is experienced when inefficient alternatives are used especially fossil fuel
generators. The generators are majorly resorted to because apart from illumination
that other inefficient alternatives can offer, they offer other services such as
powering appliances. Fumes from generators contributes to climate change and
most importantly increases morbidity and mortality rate through indoor air
pollution. Households are at risk when generators are used inefficiently such as in
the garage, veranda, balcony, unused rooms, etc. Therefore, the study analyses
indoor air pollution associated with generator use in Minna Nigeria with a view to
determining households ’exposure to carbon monoxide indoor pollution that will
champion the need to play safe in the operations and use of fossil fuel generators.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Energy access
In spite of modern energy services being germane to both human and economic
development, still electricity is not accessed by over 1.3 billion people (World
Energy Outlook (2002). Electricity is needed for lighting, heating, boiling, and
cooking and mainly for various domestic appliances operation. However, the
inadequacy in generating electric power likewise poor distribution network has
subjected a large chunk of the citizenry to inefficient alternatives of Portable Power
Electricity Generator (PPEG), kerosene lantern and candle use for their domestic
lighting needs. This, puts them at health risk and invariably increases their
household expenditure (Ohadugha 2018). Globally, fossil fuel dependent economy
and the greenhouse gas emissions increase is drastically changing the climate
system and having a noticeable global impact (UNDP 2016).
Resulting from the epileptic nature of electricity supply, a great percentage of

urban dwellers and also industries rely on electricity generating plants (Ladan
2013). The result is that operating of the generators has become a source of both
indoor and outdoor air pollution in the urban centres. Quantities of smoke and
particulates are generated when generators are inefficiently operated as result of
the age, lack of maintenance and operational factors (Ohadugha 2018). On daily
basis, average level of indoor emitted pollutants often goes beyond current World
Health Organisations guidelines and acceptable levels of 9-10 parts per million
(ppm).
Table 1: Nigerian ambient air quality standard

Air Pollutants Emission Limits
Particulates 250 (µg/m3)
SO2 0.1 (ppm)
Non-methane Hydro carbon 160 (µg/m3)
CO 11-4 (µg/m3) or 10 (ppm)
NOX 0.04-0.06 (ppm)
Photo chemical Oxidant 0.06 (ppm)
Source: Federal Ministry of Environment (FME, 1991)
In Nigeria, the ambient air quality maximum limit as approved by the Federal
Ministry of Environment, Housing and Urban Development (FME & UD) is 10 ppm
- 20 ppm for an average time of 8 hours (Abdulkarim et al. 1990). The WHO
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Ohadugha, et al.
standards in Table 1 were adopted as the national standards for residential

buildings gaseous emissions against which air quality parameters monitored are
compared in order to determine its “cleanliness” (Federal Ministry of Environment
1991).
Electric generator and air quality
Electricity supply is one public service that has witnessed uncomplimentary
remarks from both members of the public and policy analysts over the years and
this has generated a series of adaptations including proliferation of private small
electricity generating plants (Sanusi 2008). This leads to environmental pollution
and increased greenhouse gases due to emissions.
The emissions emanating from Portable Power Electricity Generator (PPEG) has
become a major indoor air pollution problem in the country and areas experiencing
bad electric power situation (Adefeso et al. 2012). Using PPEG to make up for power
shortages, owners most often operate them indoors or very close to their homes
in response to generator theft and serene disturbance to neighbours (Ashmore and
Dimitroulopoulou 2009). Furthermore, indoor levels of air pollutants can be
increased by inadequate ventilation. Supporting the observation above,
inadequate windows aggravate indoor pollutants accumulation (White and
Marchant 2009). United States Consumer Product Safety Commission (US CPSC)
reported that generator positioned near open windows, doors, or vents outdoors
accounted for 4.8% deaths caused by generator carbon monoxide poisoning
(Marcy and Ascon 2004). The carbon monoxide emission factor from PPEG’s
powered with gasoline was determined and was proved that carbon monoxide
concentrations within enclosures dissipates quickly with high rate of air exchange
and further concluded that PPEG should be placed above 10 meters away, if wind
direction is towards the building (Adefeso et al. 2012).
Generator use impacts both negatively and positively (Ohadugha 2018).

Negatively, the use of PPEG impacts on the health of both the users and those
around it through the air pollution and noise. In Nigeria, households operate
generators for six hours on the average daily (Stanley et al. 2010) with average
distance of 5.6m from building contrary to 10m minimum proposed by Adefeso et
al. (2012). Along with poor ventilation, these factors have negatively influenced
households ’indoor air quality implying that the households are exposed to some
concentrations of carbon monoxide (Ladan 2013). The most commonly identified
reasons of CO poisoning from PPEG in the observations of Hampson and Zmaef
(2005) are ignorance of CO poisoning and ventilation requirements likewise
operating generators indoor, especially in the garage. Accordingly, increase in
indoor carbon monoxide level in India is attributable to PPEG use in their urban
areas (Lawrence et al. 2004). In 2008 alone in Nigeria, more than 60 people
suffocated to death resulting from the CO effects due to their exposure to its high
concentrations (Adefeso et al. 2012). An individual's health condition, length of
exposure as well as the CO concentration determines the health effects (Ohadugha
2018). The effects on people differ though dependent on the CO level and the
individual peculiarities (WHO 2000).
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Ohadugha, et al.
MATERIALS AND METHOD

Study area
Minna doubles as the capital of Niger state and the headquarters of Chanchaga
Local Government Area (Niger state statistical year book year 2011). Chanchaga
Local Government Area is encapsulated by Bosso Local Government Area of Niger
state. It lies between Latitude 9o 33 ’and 9o 40 ’North of the Equator and
Longitudes 6o 29 ’and 6o 35 ’East of the Greenwich Meridian on a geological base
of an undifferentiated basement complex of mainly gneiss and magnetite (Max
Lock Nigeria Limited 1979). The state has an area of about 76,363km2. With
Shiroro, Kainji and Jebba Hydro-Electric Dams of Nigeria located in Niger State, the
state is the acclaimed “Power Generating House” of the Nigeria with the slogan
“Power State”.
Methodology
This study analyses households ’exposure to indoor air pollution which entails
detecting and measuring the level of pollutants concentration indoors, specifically
carbon monoxide resulting from domestic use of electric generators. The research
is a household and empirical survey as both primary and secondary data were
sourced using semi structured questionnaire from the eventual randomly selected
households. Also, portable hand-held gas detector/monitor (MSA Altair 5x
Multigas Detector) was used to detect and capture carbon monoxide concentration
in the generator using households while the generator is running irrespective of
the reason for using generator.
The analysis was done with Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) as a
tool. In order to examine households ’exposure to indoor pollution induced by
generator use in Minna, the generators mode of use was examined. Gas
concentrations indoors were discerned using MSA Altair 5X Multigas Detector
which aided determining the level which urban residents are exposed to indoor
pollution in the study area. The MSA Altair 5X Multigas Detector Version: SW
1.27.06.50 S/N: 0056759 manufactured by Mine Safety Appliances Company; 1000
Cranberry Woods Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 USA is a portable hand-
held device used to measure the concentration of gases in the environment. The
device is available with a maximum of four sensors, which can display readings for
five separate gases (one Dual Toxic Sensor provides both CO and H2S sensing
capabilities in a single sensor), Oxygen (O2) and 2 combustible gases including
Pentane.
Population and sampling technique
The 2018 projected population of the study area which is 319,366 and with national
household size average of five (https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR148/02
Chapter02 .pdf) resulted to approximately 63,873 households.
Using online sample size calculator with confidence level of 95% and 5% margin of
error, the sample size is 382. Extra 18 questionnaires were added to make up for
possible unanswered rounding it up to 400. Eventually, they were all correctly filled
and returned. Hence, 400 copies of the research instrument were proportionally
distributed to households in the neighbourhoods making up the study area
according to their population. Multi-stage sampling technique involving clustering
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(neighbourhoods), stratifying (residential houses) and purposive randomising

(households using generators) was adopted for the study in selecting the sampled
units.

This section evaluates households ’exposure to indoor pollution in Minna
metropolis. It involves analysing the generator use, operating position and distance
and their emission (carbon monoxide concentration) to determine the safety or
otherwise of the households.
Alternative lighting energy
With the incessant power outage experienced in the study area, the primary
domestic energy types used for lighting during power outage include solar,
inverter, generator, kerosene lantern, rechargeable lanterns, torchlight and candle.
For the purpose of the study which involves pollution, generator was considered.
Other prevalent pollutant emitting lighting energy types such as candles and
kerosene lanterns with average CO emissions of 2 ppm and 1 ppm respectively
were not considered because their emissions are very minimal to endanger human
health.
Emission from lighting devices
There are varying CO emission levels from the ‘dirty ’alternative lighting fuel
households use in times of power outage. As shown in Plate I, a candle stick
measuring 19cm (length); 1.5cm (base diameter) and 1cm (tip diameter) burned for
3 hours in an enclosure (windows and door closed) with average carbon monoxide
concentration of 2 ppm.
With the same specification of candle but in an opened enclosure (windows and
door opened), the candle burned for 2 hours 45 minutes and yielded zero emission.
The implication is that candles, in terms of carbon monoxide emission are safer
than generators that are used inefficiently though they are rarely used because of
the low illumination and the risk of fire hazard if not administered properly.
Similarly, kerosene lantern used by 1.3% of the households observed for one hour
emits an average carbon monoxide emission of 1 ppm.
Plate I: Measuring CO Emission from Candle Plate II: Observing CO level

Source: Authors ’field work, 2018.
Generators come in various sizes and capacities but the commonest in use is the
TG950 model (I pass my neighbour) because it is more affordable and portable to
most urban residents. Also of interest is its operating principle regarding emission
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because engine oil is added to the petrol which aggravates emission of carbon
monoxide. Equally, its size makes it flexible position-wise as it can be adjusted at
will. For example, bringing it closer or even within the dwelling corridors and
veranda during adverse weather conditions such as rain.
The research adopted two scenarios to represent the generator operating position
within and outside dwellings. Observing CO level in an indoor environment (worst-
case scenario) was done in a 400 m2 hall where a TG950 model (I pass my
neighbour) generator was used alongside measuring tape and a gas detector (Plate
II).
The generator is placed at the centre of the hall and the readings were recorded at
an interval of one meter up to ten meters distance from the generators four sides.
This was done to observe possible variations in the readings. The measurement
range of 1 - 10 meters as depicted in Table 2 was based on the assumption that
generators placed above 10m has minimal adverse impact in terms of air pollution.
Table 2: Varying carbon monoxide concentration from a generator in an enclosure

Distance (m) Side A Side B Side C Side D Avg conc/dist (ppm)
1 125 25.2 62.4 87.2 74.95
2 68.6 20.4 59.4 88 59.1
3 50.6 16 53.2 99 54.7
4 50.4 26.4 58 110.2 61.25
5 51.8 27.6 57.8 108.8 61.5
6 21.4 29.6 58.6 114.2 55.95
7 4 32.4 69.2 118.6 56.05
8 4 37.2 65.2 120.2 56.65
9 6 36.6 72.6 124.2 59.85
10 24.8 39 60.2 123.8 61.95
Avg conc/ side 40.66 29.04 61.66 109.42 60.19
As shown in Table 2, it was discovered that at one meter away from the exhaust
pipe side, the CO concentration was highest at 125 ppm and the side adjacent to
the exhaust pipe has the overall highest CO level. The mean emission is observed
to be approximately 60 ppm.
For the best-case scenario (out-door), the generator is placed with the exhaust pipe
directed away from building openings (windows and doors) at intervals of one
meter up to ten meters and gas detector readings indoors were recorded. The
result of the observation in both best- and worst-case scenarios (out-door and in-
door) at distances of one meter to ten meters from the source point is shown in
Figure 1. In the same way, for in-door environment, the generator was at the centre
of the hall from where measurements were taken from the exhaust pipe direction,
opposite and both adjacent directions. The indoor environment result is the
average of the results from the four directions of the source point.
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Figure 1: Average concentration levels at various distances in both scenarios

Apart from indicating the various concentration levels at various distances in both
scenarios, Figure 3 also shows that from the source point in an enclosed
environment, the concentration fluctuates as the distance increases but rises at the
extreme (wall barrier). It was also observed that wind (speed and direction)
influences emission concentrations levels. The indoor experience implies that
operating generators within the buildings is a health risk because emissions within
the dwelling build up to dangerous levels.
Generator operating positions and distances

Portable Petroleum Electricity Generators (PPEG) are operated from varying
positions and distances during power outages. From the survey, the generator
operating positions were identified and classified in Table 3 as follows: Generator
house – enclosure purportedly built for generators to be operated from; outside
the building (dwelling) – open operating position outside the dwelling from
varying distances dependent on the convenience of that position and; within the
building – operating positions under the same dwelling roof such as corridors,
underutilized rooms, verandas, balconies, in-built garages and in tangent to
dwelling walls.
Table 3: Generator operating position

Generator Position Frequency Percentage
Generator house 59 23.6
Outside the Building 148 59.2
Within the building 43 17.2
Total 250 100
Out of the generator users, 23.6% operate their generators from generator house,
17.2% within the dwellings such as in the corridors, verandas, lobbies and unused
rooms within the building while 59.2% operate PPEGs outside the dwellings from
various distances. It is worthy of note that distance wise, those PPEGs operated
from purposeful generator houses are assumed to be safe in terms of indoor
pollution while those operating within the buildings are assumed to be at zero
distance. Generators operated within and outside the dwellings apart from
generator houses are the bases for the analysis.
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Ohadugha, et al.
Based on the worst-case scenario observations stated earlier, 17.2% of the

households that operate their PPEGs within the dwellings are at risk of greater
exposure to carbon emission from generating plants. From the enclosed
environment, carbon monoxide concentration observed from the study recorded
an average of 60 ppm. For a minimum of 30 minutes exposure with such
concentration, symptoms of headache and dizziness would be experienced by the
occupants and would tend to a hazardous level for 8 hours exposure (Goldstein
2008; Struttmann et al., 1998). This result suggests that 66.4% generator using
households representing 41.5% of the entire households in the study area are
exposed to hazardous level of PPEG induced indoor pollution.
The observations further revealed that generators placed at 4 meters away from
dwellings with other conditions met, zero (0 ppm) carbon monoxide concentration
was recorded. It is imperative to reiterate the conditions to include; air/wind
influence, exhaust pipe directed away from dwelling openings and against the wind
direction. These conditions especially the wind influence in terms of speed and
direction are major constraints to the record taking. This was addressed by taking
measurements at intervals and eventually using their average.
In summary, Figure 2 reveals that 66.4% of the generator using households are at
great risk of exposure to indoor pollution as they operate their PPEGs within the
observed generator operating distance of less than or equal to 4 meters. This
represents 41.5% of the entire households in the study area.
Figure 2: Dangerous Generator Operating Distance

Source: Author’s field work, 2018.
Generator use characteristics as observed by the survey vary as such variations are
indicators of how safe or not households are in terms of emission exposure with
reference to generator operating distances outside the dwellings. The analysis is
based on the observed safe operating distance of 4 meters in Minna metropolis.
The study discovered that 66.4% of the households using generator as their
primary lighting energy type are at risk of emission exposure based on 4 meters
generator safe operating distance from houses.
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Ohadugha, et al.

Promoting access to electric power in particular is a very important dimension to
consider in enhancing households ’access to energy. Poor accessibility to modern
energy is the main rationale for households ’reliance on pollutant emitting
domestic lighting energy types that endangers their health through indoor
pollution. It could be deduced that neighbourhood quality and liveability is
undermined by the extensive and high level of pollution. Abnormal use of PPEGs
such as its proximity to building openings, faulty and subserviced plants,
positioning the exhaust pipe against wind direction also aggravates morbidity rate
of households through indoor pollution.
In order to improve both human and environmental health likewise reducing

dependence on emission generating domestic lighting energy sources in Minna
metropolis, the study recommends operating generators above 4 meters away
from users and dwellings and ensuring compliance to reduce pollutants
concentration. Also, enlightenment on the dangers of exposure to carbon
monoxide is imperative likewise encouraging installation of affordable carbon
monoxide detector(s) in homes. This alerts the households when carbon monoxide
level exceeds safe limit of 9 ppm.
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Abdulkarim, B. I., Chiroma, T. M., & Joseph, T. (1990). Assessment of CO, CO2 and
Suspended Particulate Matter Emissions. http://lejpt.academicdirect.org/A11/
109_116.htm WHO offset Publication, Geneva, 1990. p9.
Adefeso, I., Sonibare, J., Akeredolu, F., & Rabiu, A. (2012). Environmental Impact of Portable
Power Generator on Indoor Air Quality, 33 pp60–5. Int Conf on Env, Energy and
Biotech IPCBEE 33 (2012)
Ashmore, M. R., & Dimitroulopoulou, C. (2009). Personal exposure of children to air
pollution. Atmos Env. 2009, 43: pp128-141.
Federal Ministry of Environment (1991). Guidelines and Standards for environmental
pollution control in Nigeria.
Goldstein, M. (2008). Carbon monoxide poisoning. J of Emergency Nursing: JEN 34 6:
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Hampson, N. B., & Zmaeff, J. L. (2005). Carbon monoxide poisoning from portable electric
generators. AJPM 2005 Jan; 28 1:pp123-5.
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Ladan, S. I. (2013). Examining Air Pollution and Control Measures in Urban Centres of
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Lawrence, A. J., Mashi, A., & Taneja, A. (2004). Indoor/Outdoor relationship of carbon
monoxides and oxides of nitrogen in domestic home with roadside, urban and rural
locations in a central India region. Indoor Air. 2004, 15: pp76-82.
Marcy, N. E., & Ascon, D. S. (2004). Memorandum: Incidents, deaths, and in-depth
investigations associated with carbon monoxide from engine-driven generators
and other engine-driven tools, 1990-2004. Bethesda, MD, US CPSC 18.
Max Lock Nigeria Limited (1979). “Minna Master Plan”. Minna: Max Lock Nigeria Limited
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Niger state statistical year book year (2011). State Bureau of Statistics Niger State Planning
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Ohadugha, C. B. (2018). 'Analysis of Domestic Energy Poverty and Exposure to Indoor
Pollution Among Urban Households in Minna Nigeria'. An unpublished Ph.D Thesis
submitted to the Fed Uni of Tech, Minna Nigeria
Sanusi, Y. A. (2008). Service Security in Gbazango Residential Area of Kubwa, FCT Abuja.
URP Conf Proc 1 1: pp136 -144
Struttmann, T., Scheerer, A., Prince, T. S., Goldstein, L. A. (1998). "Unintentional carbon
monoxide poisoning from an unlikely source". JABFM 11 6: pp481–
4. doi:10.3122/jabfm. 11 6. 481. PMID 9876005.
White, L., & Marchant, P. (2009). An Overview of Residential Indoor Air Problems. Dept of
Health, Washington.
WHO (2000). Carbon Monoxide. Chapter 5 Air Quality Guideline 2nd Edition. WHO
Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, Retrieved on 22/8/15 from
http://www.euro.who.int/data/assets/pdf_file0020/123059/AQG2ndEd_5_5
carbonmonoxide.pdf
World Energy Outlook (2002). Energy and Poverty. Chapter 13; World Energy Outlook
Series. International Energy Agency
UNDP 2016. Goal 7: Affordable and clean energy. Retrieved online from
http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sdgoverview/post-2015-
development-agenda/goal-7.html on 8/3/2016.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
HOUSING AFFORDABILITY IN OSOGBO OSUN STATE

NIGERIA
Akinremi Adenike R.1, Adedayo Adeyanju G.2, Saheed Jelili3, Yussuf Shakirat O.4
and Ojo Omotayo Mubo5
1,3,5Department
of Estate Management Osun State College of Technology, Esa-Oke, Nigeria.
2Department of Estate Management Federal Polytechnic Ede, Osun state, Nigeria.
4Department of Architectural Technology Osun State College of Technology, Esa-Oke, Nigeria.
The aim of this study is to determine housing affordability in Osogbo using

Olorunda local government area as case study. Survey research design was adopted
and data were collected from both primary and secondary data, primary data were
gathered by administering structure questionnaires to 343 owners – occupiers and
rentals. Random sampling technique was adopted in administering the
questionnaires, The Pearson Product Moment Correlation and Regression involving
dummy variables (logit model) was used to test the stated hypothesis. Findings
show that the rate at which rent on houses and the cost of building houses did not
correspond to the rate at which salaries/incomes of household increases. Only 37
(10.8%) earns above #200.000. the cost of construction is above #5m, 39(21.4%).73
(45.1%) of the respondents paid between #5,000 and #15,000 rent every month.
Majority of the people find themselves living in houses that do not reflect their
social economy status, furthermore, 17.8% of the residents are left with 20% to 29%
of their income after paying their rent, this study reveals that more than 30% of
their income is spent on housing indicating that housing are not affordable this
shows that there is a positive relationship between construction cost and capital
value (.384 < 0.05), the simple Regression analysis shows that the overall level of
explanation of expenditure by income is 85% (r2 of 0.85). The income of
respondents is not sufficient to pay the rent for decent houses, thus housing is
unaffordable. Government should adopt policies that will increase the mobilization
of housing finance system for the provision of affordable houses.
Keywords: affordability, housing, income, occupiers, rent
INTRODUCTION
Housing is the basic need of man which is fundamental to the welfare, survival and
health of individuals (Aribigbola, 2011).It has been a major priority to the
government. Since independence, various housing programme and policies was
1 akinremiadenike@gmail.com; +2348034665908
2 graceadedayo@gmail.com; +2348060251434
3 jelilisaheed55@gmail.com; +2348038534067
4 shakiratyussufmohammed@gmail.com; +2347035095280
5 tayolase@gmail.com; +2348033798870
Akinremi, et al. (2021) Housing affordability in Osogbo Osun State Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah,
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enacted by the government to see that adequate and affordable housing units are
provided for the masses. The effort of the government in production of housing
units was not sufficient enough to meet the housing need of the growing
population as a result of urbanization. In order to address this issue, the private
sector also have been key players in meeting the nation’s housing need by
providing housing units but majorly for the medium and high income earners
because of the cost of the housing units This is attributed to high rise of cost of
building materials, inflation rate, high space and quality standard adopted by
designs, fess of professionals involved design and construction, excessive profit of
contractors and developers (Sadou, 2019). Efforts of households especially the low
income earners to meet up with their housing obligations have been jeopardized
due to high cost of housing. Thus majority of their incomes are spent on housing
while other needs are greatly affected. Housing affordability is subject to the
income of the household with respect to the housing price. The complexity in
housing affordability required more consideration beyond mere economic viability
to include life quality and well-being of households. (Anthonia, 2019).This study,
therefore, examines the housing affordability in Olorunda local government area
of Osogbo in Osun Towards this broad goal, the specific objectives are to:
1. Determine access to owner-occupied and rental house;
2. Examine the income level of the residents in relation to housing consumption;
3. Assess the relationship between rental value and level of affordability;
4. Assess the experience of low-income households in acquiring (un)affordable
housing;
5. Identify problems associated with housing affordability.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW

In early times, housing has been recognized as one of man’s basic needs and access
to housing is an important factor in maintaining and improving the quality of life
as well as an essential component of the society. (Ghilenca, 2019). Housing
connotes a physical structure which serves as domicile of man’s activities and it is
widely recognized as a human right. In Nigeria, low income households struggle
when it comes to finding adequate shelter that does not leave them in financial
difficulty (Adegun,2019).The gap between the supply and demand of housing have
led to acute shortages thereby resulting in high property values, unaffordability
and overcrowding. Most people cannot afford to pay rent or own their desired
homes due to income limit.(Anthonia et,2019).Affordability is concerned with the
securing some given standard of housing or different standard at a price or rent
which does not impose an unreasonable burden on household
incomes.(HUD,2005)
Jingchun (2011), gives the characteristics of affordable housing as follows;
I. Government involving as the main provider of affordable housing is not

commercial real estate developer but the government affordable housing
project is planned by the government including the location, housing type,
building standards and the level of house price.
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II. Consumers are fixed. There is limitation for affordable housing consumers,
like low-income crowd. Government has the principles for affordable
housing purchase like family members, income level and background. It
should be noted that affordable housing market is opened to specific
consumers.
III. Complicated applicant selection. That is the number of affordable housing
supply is less than the demand, because if the supply is higher than the
demand, it will make the price to fall thereby affecting the commercial
housing market.
Ankeli, Dabara, Oyeleke, Joshua& Eyitayo (2015) confirmed that most
families in Nigeria cities spends over 50% of their annual income on housing
rents owing to lack of property availability, infrastructural services, location
etc. but. Right to adequate affordable housing is an important component
of standard of living as well as social and economic investment to individual,
family and the community at large (Babatunde,2017). Affordable housing
was also recognized by the United Nations as a fundamental human rights
(Luminita et, 2020) .The housing price in most of the cities in Nigeria are
very high due to the abnormality in the cost per unit of a building, cost of
construction materials and technology. Few people are able to afford it This
resulted into a wide gap between income and shelter.(Adegan,2019). People
are also faced with financial constraint and difficulty to obtain housing loans
to get their own accommodation,(Norhasiliya et,2017).The socio economic
characters of low income civil servants, their housing choice and individual
preferences are some of the factors that significantly influence affordability
level (Adeleye et 2016).This is an indication that housing affordability has to
do with housing cost in relation to income. The Nigerian urban market
primarily target high income earners and thus leaves larger parts of
Nigerians population excluded from formal housing provision. Anthonia,
(2019), stated that the availability of affordable housing in the developed
countries contributes to the achievement of house ownership which directly
relives household from stress but aiding quality of life and sustainable
development plans. But this is not the situation in Nigeria (Balchin et2001),
revealed that in countries like Latin America, there is scanty research in
affordable housing due to minimal affordability and limited investment in
social housing.
Factors accounting for housing unaffordability are unstable employment,

income inequality and living condition (Jing, 2014). In 2011, Meen
introduced long-run Eco metric model to evaluate the impacts of different
levels of housing construction on affordability these includes housing price,
household formation, housing tenure, migration,demograph and labour.
Pualetic (2017), considered that for housing to be affordable, it should not
exceed three times the gross annual household income.
The purpose of housing affordability is to assist the low income households
(McClure, 2019) but reduction of fees and the Developers profit has been a
challenge.
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This study will use both primary and secondary data in order to get relevant
information on housing affordability.
Primary data
Reconnaissance survey was carried out in the study area in order to get familiarized
with the area; residents of the area were interviewed on housing and rate of
affordability. Structured questionnaire was administered to the respondents in
order to get information on their socio-economic status, assessment of the
dwellings, facilities and services provided, rate of housing construction, cost of
construction, and the persisting rent problems of the study area.
Secondary data
The secondary sources of data for this research includes review of literature, from
published materials like textbooks, Journals, Published information in annuals and
other reports are consulted which revealed the existing literature relevant to this
research. Unpublished materials like papers presented at conferences, seminars
and workshops and dissertations from library were used. Moreover, relevant rating
documents of Valuation department of Olorunda LGA was used to know the
numbers of housing units in the area, Osun State Ministry of Lands and Physical
Planning and Town planning department of Olorunda Local Government were also
visited in order to collect the database maps of Osun State and that of Olorunda
Local Government.
Sample frame, sample size and sampling procedure
Olorunda Local Government is one out of the two local Governments in Osogbo.
The local Government comprises of seventeen (17) zones which was demarcated
into three residential densities as shown in the table below.
Table 1. Selected zones in Olorunda Local Government Area

No. of houses
Sample Size
s/n Zone Streets Density (Sample
at 8 %
Frame)
1 A Ajegunle, Agowande Low 158 13
2 B Agowande, Olatunji, Oke Oniti, Igbona Medium 316 25
Olrunsogo, Church St, Owoeye, Dejo
3 C Babalola, Ikirun Rd., Elebolo, Irewole, Oke Medium 312 25
Oniti, Ayedun, Fadesere, New Ikirun Rd.
Salako, Alh. Ajadi Aresa, Power Line,
4 D Low 149 12
Beside Ajewole, Ota efun.
Ota efn, Dejo Kolawole, Odunade
5 E Low 75 6
Adesina, Kobongboge
Camp, Off Gafar, Olabiyi, New Ikirun, Off
6 F New Ikirun, Alabameta, Low 181 15
Otaefun/Kobongboge
New Ikirun Rd., Powerline, Testing
7 G Medium 322 26
ground, Opp Powerline, Old Ikirun Rd.
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Table 1 Cont’d. Selected zones in Olorunda Local Government Area

Ayetoro, Kolabalogun, Oke Ayo, Pepsi
8 H Medium 387 31
Cola, Omo west Area.
Testing Ground, Kolabalogun, Old Ikirun
9 I Medium 382 31
Rd., Sabo, Olorunosebi, Off Irepodun.
Sabo, Atelewo, Kolawole, Arikalamu,
10 J Oluode, Agana, All Saint Church, High 823 66
Elebolo, Abija, Oleyo Olayinka, Akojun.
Awolowo way, Abaku, Tewogade
11 K Medium 229 18
compd. Owo Ope, Ebolobi compd. Sabo
12 L Igbona, Ayetoro, Obadio, Agaana, Sabo Medium 232 19
13 M Owode Low 74 6
Oluode, Owode, Balogun, Station Rd.,
14 N Medium 292 23
Gbemu
Latona, Ajegunle, Bishop, Asipa, Oke
15 O Low 176 14
Oniti
16 P Okefia, Adesina Amo, Ilobu Rd. Low 57 5
17 Q Sabo, Atelewo Low 97 8
Total 4,262 343
Source: Estate and Valuation Department, Olorunda Local Government, 2021.
Sampling procedure
Time and resources limitation made a comprehensive survey of all zone in
Olorunda Local Government unpractical. Therefore, random sampling technique
was adopted for the purpose of administering the questionnaire. At the first stage,
all zones that fall within the local government were identified. These are zones A
to Q. At the second stage, the streets and densities were identified as shown in
Table 1 above. With the view of taking samples from the zones at the third stage,
the researchers selected all the zones, and sampling ratio was used to determine
the sample size. The total number of the residential properties in the zones was
four thousand two hundred sixty two (4,262), the researchers used a sampling ratio
of eight (8) percent. This is based on Neuman’s (1991; 2004) assertion that larger
population permit smaller sampling ratio for equally good samples. Using the
sampling ratio of 8 percent, the sample size obtained stood at three hundred and
forty three (343) while the sample frame was 4,262 the breakdown of respondents
for selected zones is contained in Table 1 above.
Finally, at the fourth stage, the researcher used systematically selected appropriate
number of households from the streets. In other words systematic sampling
technique was used to select buildings from the streets. In all, a total of 343
questionnaires were adequately administered.
Research design and methods

The data was collected from the residents through the questionnaire. Appropriate
statistical techniques including frequency tables and percentages were used to
explain the results of the study. The ANOVA test of independence was used to
ascertain the relationship between monthly income and housing affordability in
the study area.
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THE STUDY AREA

Olorunda Local Government council area is one of the thirty (30) LGAs that
constitute the present Osun State. It is bounded on the East by Irepodun Local
Government/ Surulere Local Government of Oyo state, Osogbo Local Government
on the West, Ifelodun/Boripe and Egbedore on the North and South respectively.
The Local Government Area covers an area of about 600 square kilometers.
Igbona, in Osogbo Township, which is the administrative headquarter of the LGA

lies on Latitude 70471 North of the Equator and Longitude 4033I of the Greenwich
Meridian. It lies within the rainforest area that spreads towards the grassland belt
of Ikirun with an annual rainfall of about 0.6 meters. The rainy season begins in
March and ends in September or early October. The harmattan or dry season
begins in October and ends in March. The climate is less humid although the effects
of the harmattan winds are strongly felt in the dry season.The population of
Olorunda Local Government as revealed by the National Population Commission
provisional result of 1991 was put at 83,347. The distribution of 1991 population
census shows that part of the Osogbo township of Olorunda Local Government
accommodates about 83.5% of the population, Oba-Ile, another town in the Local
Government has about 4.2%, Oba-Oke 4.4%, Ilie 2.7% and the remaining 5.2% is
shared among the remaining villages and hamlets in the Local government.
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULT

This study examined the housing affordability in Olorunda local government
Osogbo,Osun state. The following information were gathered and analyzed from
the respondents as shown in the tables below:
Table 5.1: Rented apartment

Household resident Frequency Percentage
Yes 162 47.2
No 181 52.8
Total 343 100.0
Source: field survey, 2021.
From table 5.1, 47.2% of the respondents lived in rented by saying yes. 52.8% of
the respondents did not live in rented resident, but owner occupied.
Table 5.2: Rent payable (monthly)

Rent (N) Frequency Percentage
<5000 35 21.6
5000-15,000 73 45.1
15,000-30,000 34 21.0
>30,000 20 12.3
No response 181 0.0
Total 343 100.0
Table 5.2 revealed that 35(21.6%) paid below N5000. 73 (45.1%) of the respondents
paid between N5000-N10, 000 as rent. 34(21.0%) of the respondents paid between
10,000 to 20,000. 20 (12.3%) of the respondents paid above N20, 000 as rent.
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Table 5.3: Level of the rent

Level of rent Frequency Percentage
Fairly high 42 25.9
High 56 34.6
Exorbitant 26 16.0
Moderate 38 23.5
No response 181 0.0
Total 343 100.0
Table 5.3 indicated that 42 (25.9%) of the respondents consider the rent paid has
fairly high, 56(34.6%) considered the rent paid to be high, 26(16.0%) of the
respondents considered it to be exorbitant, 38 (23.5%) of the respondents
considered the rent to be moderate.
Table 5.4: Causes of high rent

Causes of high rent Frequency Percentage
Landlord decision 79 23.0
High demand 87 25.4
Increase in the number of
92 26.8
people
Employment opportunities 46 13.4
Location 39 11.4
Total 343 100.0
Table 5.4 indicated the causes for high rent in the study area. 79(23.0%) of the
respondents gave the reason that the landlord increases the rent intentionally,
87(25.4%) of the respondents gave the reason to be the number of people
demanding for housing units in the area. 92(26.8%) of the respondents gave the
reason to be the influx of the people to the study area, 46(13.4%) gave the reason
to be as a result of employment opportunities while the remaining 39(11.4%) of
the respondents gave the reason for rent increase to be location.
Table 5.5: Cost of construction

Cost (N) Frequency Percentage
1m-2m 13 7.2
2m – 3m 25 13.8
3m – 4m 48 26.5
4m – 5m 56 30.9
> 5m 39 21.5
No response 162 0.0
Total 343 100.0
Table 5.5 shows that 13(7.2%) used below 1m to build their houses, it costs
between 1m -2m 25(13.8%) of the respondents to build their houses, 48(26.5%) of
the respondents used between N3m -4m to build their houses. It cost 3(21.5%) of
the respondents above 4m to build their house.
Table5.6 indicated that 20(5.8%) of the respondents has their housing market value
below N500,000, 36(10.5%) of the respondents has their housing market value
between N500,000-N1000000, 68(19.8%) has their housing market value to be
between N1000000-N1500000, 83 (24.2%) has their housing market value to be
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between N200000-N25000000 while the remaining 136(39.7%) of the respondents

have their housing market value to be above N25000000.
Table 5.6: Housing market value

Market value (N) Frequency Percentage
2m – 4m 20 5.8
4m – 6m 36 10.5
6m – 8m 68 19.8
8m – 10m 83 24.2
<10m 136 39.7
Total 343 100.0
Field survey, 2021.
Table 5.7: Development period (years)
Development period (years) Frequency Percentage

<5 66 19.2
5 – 10 34 9.9
> 10 81 23.6
No response 162 47.2
Total 343 100.0
Table 5.7 revealed that 66(19.2%) of the respondents built their houses under 5
years, 34(9.9%) uses above 10 years to build their houses while 162(47.7%) are
not sure of the period because they are tenants as indicated in table 5.7 above.
Table 5.8: Sources of fund for development

Sources Frequency Percentage
Borrowing / loan 45 13.1
Profit from business 35 10.2
Salary 61 17.8
Others 40 11.7
Total 343 100.0
Source: field survey, 2021
Table 5.8 shows that 45(13.1%) of the respondent borrowed or took loan for
development of their houses, 35(10.2%) got their fund from their business profit,
61(17.8%) are those that uses the salary for housing construction while 40(11.7%)
did not indicate how they get money for development and 162(47.2%) of the
respondent are without response to the question because they are tenant which is
in table 5.8 above.
Table 5.9: Effects of housing construction on livelihood

Effects Frequency Percentage
Yes 185 55.1
No 154 44.9
Total 343 100.0
Field survey, 2021.
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Table 5.9: indicated that 185 (55.1%) of the respondents say yes that the housing
construction has effects on their livelihood while the remaining 154 (44.9%) says
no that the housing construction did not have effect on their livelihood.
Table 5.10: Completion of the house

House completion Frequency Percentage
Yes 229 66.8
No 114 33.2
Total 343 100.0
Field survey, 2021
Table 5.10 revealed that 229 (66.8%) of the respondents say yes that they have
completed their buildings while 114(33.2%) say no they have not completed their
buildings.
Table 5.11: Causes for delay

Causes Frequency Percentage
Low income 130 37.9
Family needs 107 31.2
Bad economy 78 22.7
Others 28 8.2
Total 343 100.0
Field survey,2021.
It was discovered during the survey that 37.9% of the respondents had delay in
completing their houses due to low-income, 31.2% were delayed due to pressing
family needs, 22.7% had delay due to bad economy while the remaining 8.2% of
the respondents cannot actually gave any reason for to delay in completion of their
buildings.
Table 5.12: Remedies for the high rent

Remedies Frequency Percentage
Provision of affordable housing 98 28.6
Reduction in price of building materials 76 22.2
Eradication of caretaker 69 20.1
Development or rural areas 72 21.0
Others 28 8.2
Total 343 100.0
In respect to table 5.12, the remedies given by the respondents indicated that
98(28.6%) of the respondents says that provision of affordable housing will solve
the problem of high rent, 76(22.2%) gave the remedy to high rent as reduction in
price of building materials. 69(20.1%) of the respondents say caretakers should be
eradicated. 72(21.0%) of the respondents suggest that the rural areas should be
developed while others 28(8.2%) of the respondents did not give any remedy for
reduction in house rent.
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Table 5.13: Does rent equalize facilities available

Yes 61 17.8
No 101 29.4
No responses 181 52.8
Total 343 100.0
Table 5.13 revealed that 61(17.8%) of the respondent said that rent paid is equal
to facilities provided in their houses while 101(29.4%) said no that rent is above the
facilities provide which affordability problem. And 181(52.8%) are not tenant.
Table 5.14: Percentage of income left after paying house rent

Frequency Percentage
<20% 19 5.5
20-29% 61 17.8
30-39% 55 16.0
≥40% 27 7.9
Total 343 100.0
Source: Field survey, 2021
From the above table, 19 (5.5%) of the respondents said that less than 20% of their
income is left,, 61 (17.8%) said 20-30% while 27 (7.9%) said they are left with greater
than or equal to 40% of their income but the remaining 181 (52.8%) of the
respondents did not give answer to the question because the belief it is personal
to them.
Table 5.15: Profile for housing value

Profile Frequency Percentage
Moderate 92 26.8
High 108 31.5
Very high 69 21.1
Exorbitant 74 21.6
Total 343 100.0
Field Survey, 2021.
From the field survey, 26.8% of the residents considered the profile for housing
value to be moderate, 31.5% considered it to be high 20.1% considered it to be
very high while the remaining 21.6% of the resident consider it to be exorbitant.
DATA ANALYSIS
Inferential statistics
Regression statistics
Multiple R 0.206487
R square 0.042637
Adjusted R square 0.03687
Standard error 0.356009
Observation 169
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Akinremi, et al.
The correlation coefficient (R) value of 0.2065 implies a weak relationship between
housing affordability and income of the respondents in Olorunda local government
area. The R2 value of 0.0426 also indicates that less than 5% (4.2637) of the
variation in housing affordability can be attributed to the variation in income while
about 95% of the remaining variations is accounted for by other factors.
Hypothesis 1
H0: There is no significant relationship between income and housing affordability
in Olorunda local government
H1: There is significant relationship between income and housing affordability in
Olorunda local government
Level of significance: 5%
ANOVA
Significance
df SS MS F
F
Regression 1 0.937 0.937 7.392964 0.007244
Residual 166 21.03919 0.126742
Total 167 21.97619
Decision: From the ANOVA table above, since the value of significant F = 0.007244
is less than the level of significance = 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis H0.
Conclusion: there is significant relationship between income and housing
affordability in Olorunda Local Government.
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
The findings from the analysis of questionnaire obtained from respondents
coupled with personal interview, observation and reconnaissance survey of
housing affordability in Olorunda Local Government revealed the following.
Findings shows that the rate at which rent on houses or the cost of building houses
did not correspond to the rate at which their salary/income increases or their social
economic status increases, these are revealed in table 5.1average income per
month, only 37(10.8%) earns above N30,000, the cost of construction is above
N4m, 39(11.4%) as shown in table 5.2 while 73(21.3%) of the respondents paid
above N5000-N10,000 as rent every month as shown in table 5.3Majority of people
find themselves living in houses that do not reflect their socio-economic status.
CONCLUSION
Natural growth increase within the urban area demand additional dwelling units
for the growing population since the supply of housing units has not meet up with
the housing demand. There is need for the government to making the housing
production a continuous priority especially for the low and very low-income
earners. Housing is a human right therefore there is need to make it affordable to
majority of Nigerians.
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Akinremi, et al.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In order to increase the level of affordable housing units in Olorunda Local
Government area of Osun State and Nigeria in general, the following suggestions
are hereby made:
1. The income level of the people determines where they live, there is need for
the government both at the local, state and federal to cater for general welfare
of their staff through increment in salary, prompt payment of salary arrears and
provision of building loans to boost the staff capacity to build community-
based and non-governmental organization should be encouraged in facilitating
the production of self-built housing.
2. There should be review and effective implementation of existing national
housing policy in such a way that it will recognizes the need to encourage a
multiplicity of other actors (corporate private sectors, civil society organizations
and individuals in housing delivery and improvement process.
3. There should be favourable investment climate for the private sector through
reforming the housing finance structure, tax incentives and financial grants
redefinition of institutional roles.
4. Site and services scheme should be encouraged the more. Since housing is not
just a shelter built includes basic infrastructures and facilities around and within
the house.
5. Provision of affordable building materials should be put in place by the

government. This will ensure that construction materials are affordable to an
average Nigerian.
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Adegun, O., Joseph, A., & Adebusuyi, A. (2019). 1ST I international Conference on
Sustainable International Development
Adeleke, F., & Olaleye, A. (2016).Determinants of Housing Affordability. LiteratureReview.
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Ankeli, I., Dabara, I., Oyeleke, O., Josua & Eyitayo, J. (2015). Housing Condition and
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conception and implementation, in Nigeria in I.A Okewole, A.Ajayi, A Daramola, K
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Anthonia, O., Adeniran, Hishamuddin, Mohd, A. (2019).Unleashing the Potentials Housing
Affordability among the Nigeria Low-middle Income groups. International Journal
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Balchin & Strewant (2001).Social Housing in Latin America. Opportunities for affordability
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Gbilenla, L., Roman, L. (2019). Housing Fund year 2019.Bucherrestb (RO):National Institute
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Housing and Urban Development (2005).Affordability Housing.CPD-
HUD.https;//portal.hud.gov//affordable housing.
Jingchun, L. (2011): “The development of Affordable housing. A case study in Guangzhou
city, china MSC thesis submitted to the department of real estate and construction
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Jing, L. (2014). Recent Trends in Housing Affordabilty.Research studies. What are we up to?
Urban Research Group. Working Paper series. No 5/2014.
Luminta, M., Daniella, L., Vasilica, H. (2020)Housing Affordability in the context of Co-
Pandemic- New challenges for Romania. Lumenproceedings. Series ISSN.2601-
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Meen, (2011). A long run Model of Housing Affordability. Housing Studies 26(718)1081-
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McClure, K. (2019): The allocation of rental assistance resources. The paradox of high
housing costs and high housing costs and high vacancy rates, international journal
policy19,69-94.dol 10.108011949124.2017.1362756.(Taylor and Francis online).
Pauletich & Cox, W. (2017).Housing affordability survey 2017 Bellevil:13th annual
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Sadou, A. (2019). 2018 Housing finance yearbook: Nigeria country profile Centre for
affordable Housing Finance Afrrica.Johnnerbug.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
IMPACT OF RISK FACTORS ON CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS ’

QUALITY IN NIGERIA
Ziyadul Hassan Ishaq1, Mu’awiya Abubakar2, Shehu Muhammad3, Yarima Sallau
Lawal4 and Ibrahim Isah5
1,2,3,4,5Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
One of the primary objectives of every construction project is meeting or exceeding

the quality requirements of clients. The nature and complexity of construction
projects encompass a lot of risks, which could hinder the attainment of the desired
project quality. Evaluating the impact of risk is essential for determining the extent
to which it could derail the attainment of project objectives. This study assessed
the impact of risk factors on construction projects ’quality in Nigeria. Quantitative
research method comprising questionnaire survey was used for the study. Data was
obtained using close ended structured questionnaires distributed to 192
construction practitioners. The impact of 65 risk factors on construction project
quality was evaluated. Descriptive statistics was used to analyse the data. The study
found eighteen (18) risk factors as having high impact on projects quality; the
topmost being ‘shortage of skilled labour ’(MS = 4.30), ‘poor design ’(4.19),
‘inadequate experience by project team ’(4.18), ‘deviating from specifications due
to misunderstanding of drawings and specifications ’(4.05) and ‘inadequate project
monitoring ’(3.96). The study concludes that the impact of some risk factors could
adversely lead to unacceptable quality reduction. The study recommends paying
more attention to managing the risk factors having high impact so as to achieve
the desired projects quality.
Keywords: assessment, construction projects, impact, quality, risk factors
INTRODUCTION
The Construction sector is crucial to social and economic development of nations
because of several reasons. Adeagbo (2014) posited that the sector possesses huge
potential with respect to employment generation. The various activities undertaken
in the sector are very useful to developing effective linkages among various sectors
of the economy as well as sustaining economic development. Efforts at ensuring
sound and sustainable national and economic development cannot ignore the
importance of infrastructural development (transportation-road, rail, air, sea
modes), industrial development (construction of industrial parks and factories),
1 ziyadishaq2@gmail.com
2 muawiyaabubakar@gmail.com
3 shehudal@yahoo.com
4 yerimasallau@gmail.com
5 isahmk125@gmail.com
Ishaq, et al. (2021) Impact of risk factors on construction projects’ quality in Nigeria In: Laryea, S.
and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August
2021, Accra, Ghana, 685-699
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Ishaq, et al.
construction of institutional buildings, and provision of accommodation with

respect to construction of various types of buildings, among others. These are areas
where the construction sector is indispensable.
The Nigerian construction sector makes modest contribution to the national

economy. According to National Bureau of Statistics ’(NBS, 2011; 2012 and 2014)
the sector accounted for 1.84 % of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in
2008. Furthermore, in year 2016 and 2017, the sector’s contribution improved to
3.55% and 3.77% respectively (NBS, 2018). Moreover, 2020, the sector accounted
for 3.50% of real GDP (NBS, 2021). The sector’s average contribution over these
years stood at 3.17%. Despite its contribution to the GDP, the sector and its
stakeholders are afflicted with so much risks because of the nature of construction
environment, organizations, business activities and processes (Ibironke, Famakin &
Akingunola, 2011). According to Chieng, Wu and Huang (2014), the size and
complexity of construction projects (CPs) are increasing, thus increasing risks.
ISO 31000 (ISO, 2009) simply defines risk as any event that has the potential of
hindering the achievement of objectives. Odeyinka (2006) described risk in
construction as a variable in the construction process whose variation results in
uncertainty as to the final cost, duration, and quality of the project. In the
construction industry, risk is a combination of activities that affect the project
objectives (POs) of time, cost, quality and scope (Ehsan, et al, 2010). Therefore to
successfully deliver a construction project, it is necessary to have risk management
(RM) as an integral part of construction project management practice (Zou, Chen,
& Chan 2010).
In the construction projects context, RM is a systematic way of identifying,
analysing, and dealing with risks associated with a project with the aim of achieving
the project objectives. Risks cannot be ignored in construction projects because
the success or failure of a construction project may solely be dependent on
the RM competences of the key stakeholders of such projects. Construction
stakeholders are constrained by this reality and therefore continuously seek
measures that will guarantee economic balance between risks and attainment of
the primary project objectives (time, cost and quality).
Quality is described as the totality of features required by a product or service to
satisfy a given need; fitness for purpose (Parfitt & Sanvido 1993). In a simpler term,
quality means meeting or exceeding the clients ’requirement. Requirements will be
predefined by client in contract agreement and the requirements consist of the
established characteristics of products, processes, and services. All the parties
involved in the project must fully understand those requirements and expectation
in order to achieve a complete project that meets clients ’quality expectation
(Ganaway, 2006). Quality performance can be determined by taking clients ’
satisfaction into consideration.
Risk in construction, if not properly managed, could have a negative impact on the
projects ’quality and could in turn causes client’s dissatisfaction. Satisfaction has
been explained as a function to make comparison between a perception of an
outcome by an individual and the expectation of the outcome. Client’s satisfaction
has become challenging issue for the past few decades in construction industry.
Usually, clients of construction sector experienced dissatisfaction in many aspects
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including poor quality (Tiong et al., 2014) and could partly be attributed to
improper identification and management of the risks.
Risk has also been broadly categorized as either subjective or objective and so, risk
can either be subjectively or objectively analysed. Subjective risks are the ones
which are analysed based on the experience and knowledge of the analyst, whereas
objective risks are analysed by calculation of their actual impact and likelihood
recorded in project risk registers. Adams (2008) believes that most of the
construction project’s risks are subjective because there are not sufficient historical
data for their quantitative analysis and should be analysed according to analyst’s
judgment. This study therefore adopted the subjective risk assessment method.
Researchers (Laryea et al., 2012; Enshassi & Mosa, 2008; Aliyu, 2013; Baba, 2014;
Hedaya & Saad, 2017) have identified the risk factors that affect construction
projects success. These include changes in scope of work on site, incomplete
design at the time of tender, contractual claims, financial difficulty of owner, delay
in progress payments by clients, poor of cost planning and monitoring of funds,
variations and additional works among others. Many research efforts (Ishaq et al
2020; Ishaq et al 2021a; Ishaq et al 2021b; Abd El-Karim et al 2015; Yusuf 2016;
Ghulam & Noel 2017,) have been made to study the influence of risk on time and
cost objectives of construction projects. However, there is dearth of literature on
the influence of risk on construction project’s quality especially at the design and
construction phases. Much has not been documented in this regard and therefore
construction stakeholders have less information on the risk factors that could have
high impact on projects ’quality. More so, quality is considered as one of the three
primary objectives of construction projects that cannot be ignored. Therefore, this
study sought to fill this knowledge gap.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Risk and construction projects
Risk is an uncertain event or set of circumstances that its occurrence will have an
effect on achievement of one or more project objectives (PMI, 2004). Risk in relation
to construction is an event in the process of a construction project in which its
occurrence will lead to uncertainty in the final cost, duration or quality of the
project (Akintoye & Macleod, 1997). According to Smith et al (2006), construction
project irrespective of its size is subject to more risks because of distinctive
characteristics of construction such as financial intensity, complex procedures,
lengthy duration, aggressive environment and dynamic arrangements of
organizations. Many other factors affect the level of risk including situation of
market, level of competition, size of the project, political and economic variations,
expertise of parties (PMI, 2004).
Because of the complexity and uniqueness of construction projects, the risk present
in each construction project vary (Panthi et al., 2009). Construction projects consist
of various stages or phases as described by different authors with all leading to the
similar project life cycles. Liu and Zhu (2007) divide construction stages into
conceptual, design, tender, preconstruction, and construction. Zou et al (2006) also
divided the stages of a construction project into feasibility, design, construction,
and operation. PMI (2004) defined phases of construction project as Concept,
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Planning, Detailed Design, Construction, and post Construction. The number of

phases may also increase depending on the managers ’viewpoint.
Risks in construction projects are distributed through the entire project life cycle.
It is very likely that some of the risks may occur at more than one phase of the
project life cycle. There are arguments regarding the degree of risk in different
phases of a construction project. Godfrey (1996) believe that the greatest degree
of risk exist in the earliest phase of the project when available information about
the project is the least. This is in agreement with other researchers such as
Hassanein and Afify (2007) who have stated that risk is at its peak in the conceptual
phase. However, Zou et al. (2006) consider the construction phase to be more risky
phase than the feasibility (conceptual) phase. In addition, there are other theorists
believing that risks of construction projects increase as the project progresses
which means that each phase of the construction project includes more risks than
the previous ones. However, Wang et al (2004) considers that risk in construction
projects greatly depends on the type of the project as well as the contract type.
Oyewobi et al. (2012) further asserted that, the common consequences of project
risks amongst others are cost overruns, time overruns, poor quality, and disputes
among the parties to a construction contracts. Oyewobi et al., (2012) also added
that risk is an important issue to contractors as well as clients and consultants of
the industry and that, the problems of risk assessment are complex and poorly
understood in practice.
Various institutes and authors have classified construction risks into different types
and hierarchies. Smith and Bohn (1999) have classified construction risk as either
internal or external. Risk has also been broadly categorized as either subjective or
objective. Risks can be further subcategorized into smaller groups according to
their type and impact. Wiguna and Scott (2006) classified risks into four categories:
economic and financial risks, external and site condition risks, technical and
contractual risks, and managerial risks. PMI (2004) also categorise risk into another
four categories: Technical risks, organizational risks, project risks and external risks
(TOPE risks). Hedaya and Saad (2017) classified risk into 8 groups to include
contractor’s site management related factors, design and documentation related
factors, financial management related factors, information and communication
related factors, human resource related factors, non-human resource related
factors, project management and contract administration related factors, and
environmental related factors. Enshassi and Mosa (2008) also classified risk as
physical, environmental, design, logistics, financial, legal and construction. The risk
factors from various studies were harmonized and adopted to develop the
questionnaire for the study.
METHODOLOGY
The study adopted quantitative research approach because of the nature of the
problem that seek to address ‘how much of an impact ’using questionnaire survey.
A structured closed ended questionnaire containing 65 project risk factors
(grouped into 10) was designed to enable data collection. Questionnaire is the
most widely used and useful instrument for collecting survey information because
it provide structured, often numerical data and it can be administered with or
without the presence of the researcher (Wilson & McLean 1994; Cohen, Manion &
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Morrison 2007). The questionnaire was validated by experts in academia and

industry prior to commencement of data collection. Respondents were asked to
rate the impact of the risk factors on project quality (PQ) on a 5-point scale (1=
Negligible to 5= Very high). A risk impact assessment guide by PMI (2004) as
shown in Table 1 was adopted to guide the respondents and discussion of the
results.
The study population consists of construction practitioners (Architects, Builders,
Engineers, Quantity Surveyors and Project Managers). The justification for the
selection of practitioners is that, practitioners have the knowledge and skills with
regard to technical and managerial aspect of construction works. Hence, they are
aware or more informed about the various risks associated with construction
projects as well as the effects the risks may have on the quality of construction
projects. A minimum sample size of 96 was determined using by Cochran (1977)
formula, at 95% confidence level, 10% confidence interval and 50% degree of
variability. In accordance with Glenn (1992) the sample size was increased to
account for non-responses and incomplete responses. Considering the large
number of variables contained in the data collection instrument, a valid response
rate of at least 50% was assumed. Therefore 100% of the estimated sample size
was added making a total of 192 distributed questionnaires. Convenience sampling
technique was used to administer the questionnaires to target respondents. A total
of 138 questionnaires were duly completed and returned while only 114 were
useful for analysis, representing 59.38% valid responses.
Descriptive statistics was used to analyse the data. This has also been used in
similar studies by Ishaq et al (2021a); Ishaq et al (2021b); Salawu (2016);
Abdulrahman (2018). Mean scores and standard deviation were computed and
used to rank the impact of the risk factors on PQ. A risk factor having mean score
≤ 1.49 is considered to have negligible (very low) impact; risk factor with mean
score 1.5 to 2.49 is considered to have low impact; risk factor with mean score 2.5
to 3.49 is considered to have moderate impact; risk factor with mean score 3.5 to
4.49 is considered to have high impact; and risk factor with mean score ≥ 4.5 is
considered as having very high impact. The standard deviation was used to rank
the factors where there is a tie in the mean scores.
Table 1: Risk impact assessment guide
Identified Project Negligible Low Moderate High Very high
risk factor objectives 1 2 3 4 5
Quality
Quality Only very Quality Project
reduction
degradation demanding reduction end item is
Risk factor QUALITY requires
barely applications unacceptable effectively
sponsor
noticeable are affected to sponsor useless
approval
Source: PMI (2004)

Assessment of impact of the risk factors on Project Quality (PQ)
Respondents were presented with 65 risk factors affecting construction projects
and were asked to rate the impact of the risk factors on quality of construction
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projects on a 5 point scale (1= negligible and 5= very high). The risk factors are
categorised into 10 groups and the result is presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Impact of the risk factors on project quality (group wise)
Group
S/N Risk Factors Mean SD
Rank
A Contract Administration and Project Management Related Factors
1 Bribery and Corruption 3.91 .916 1
2 Poor project management 3.69 1.131 2
3 Inaccurate quantity take-off 3.12 .599 3
4 Undefined scope of work 3.10 .852 4
5 Change in the scope of the work 3.02 .794 5
6 High Competition in Bids 2.94 1.885 6
7 Delay in decision making 2.17 1.180 7
Group Mean 3.14
Group
B Design Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Poor design 4.19 .833 1
2 Mistakes/ errors in design 3.77 .866 2
3 Frequent design changes 3.63 .827 3
4 Incomplete design at the time of tender 3.09 .978 4
5 Delay in approval of design 2.59 1.331 5
6 Delay in design 2.38 .849 6
Group Mean 3.28
Group
C Construction and Contractor’s Site management Related Factors. Mean SD
Rank
1 Inadequate experience by project team 4.18 .928 1
Deviating from specifications due to misunderstanding of
2
drawings and specifications 4.05 .727 2
3 Inadequate project monitoring 3.96 .775 3
4 Poor site supervision 3.89 .615 4
5 Mistakes during construction 3.82 .793 5
6 Inadequate cost estimate 3.74 .821 6
7 Poor site management 3.74 .753 7
8 Inadequate project control 3.73 .856 8
9 Incompetent subcontractors 3.56 1.013 9
10 Inadequate time estimate 3.22 1.029 10
11 Schedule delay 3.14 .889 11
12 Equipment failure 2.93 .761 12
13 Equipment unavailability 2.81 .694 13
14 Undocumented change orders 2.69 .597 14
15 Materials theft 2.64 1.001 15
16 Shortage of materials 2.61 .771 16
17 Late delivery of materials 2.58 1.261 17
18 Materials wastage 2.54 .804 18
19 Late delivery of equipment 2.50 1.262 19
20 Labour accident 2.27 1.016 20
Group Mean 3.23
Group
D Financial Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Poor cash flow management 3.39 .699 1
2 Financial difficulties of owner 3.39 .771 2
3 Financial failure of contractor 3.38 1.020 3
4 Delay in progress payment by owner/client 3.32 .896 4
5 Poor financial control on site 3.13 .759 5
6 Delay in payment to supplier/subcontractor 2.66 .865 6
7 Contractual claims 2.42 1.318 7
Group Mean 3.10
Group
E Information and Communication Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Lack of coordination between stakeholders 3.03 .864 1
2 Poor communication between stakeholders 2.91 .868 2
3 Slow information flow between stakeholders 2.84 .974 3
Group Mean 2.93
690
Ishaq, et al.
Table 2 cont’d: Impact of the risk factors on project quality (group wise)
Group
F Legal Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Legal disputes during construction phase among contract parties

2.81 .830 1
2 Lack of specialised arbitrators to help settle dispute fast 2.27 1.182 2
3 Difficulty of obtaining permits from regulatory authorities 2.26 1.311 3
4 Ambiguity of work legislations 2.10 1.381 4

Group Mean 2.36
Group
G Human Resource (Workforce) Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Shortage of skilled labour 4.30 .499 1
2 Shortage of technical personnel 3.80 .658 2
3 Difficulty in training new labour 3.70 .889 3
4 Shortage of unskilled labour 3.43 .975 4
5 Poor labour productivity 3.12 .898 5
6 Labour absenteeism 2.95 .850 6
7 High cost of labour 2.74 1.064 7
Group Mean 3.43
Group
H Economic Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Increase in interest rates 2.89 .866 1
2 Increase in exchange rates 2.78 .870 2
3 Increase in prices of materials 2.77 .729 3
4 Increase in cost of labour 2.56 .799 4
5 Increase in fuel/oil Prices 2.12 .922 5
Group Mean 2.63
Group
J Political Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Political crises/Civil unrest 3.23 1.004 1
2 Changes in governmental Laws 2.40 1.086 2
3 Unfavourable Governmental policies 2.36 1.012 3
Group Mean 2.66
Group
K Environmental Related Factors Mean SD
Rank
1 Force majeure (earthquake, flood etc.) 3.86 1.231 1
2 Unfavourable project location 3.11 .910 2
3 Effects of weather 2.98 1.052 3
Group Mean 3.32
Table 2 presents the impact of the risk factors on projects quality (PQ). As seen in
the Table, a total of 65 risk factors were presented and grouped into 10. The first
group of factors (Group A) is the Contract administration and project management
related factors containing 7 sub factors. Risk incurred due to bribery and corruption
has the highest mean value (3.91) and is therefore considered as the risk factor with
the highest impact on PQ within this group thus ranked 1st. while Poor project
management (3.69) and inaccurate quantity take-off (3.12) are the 2nd and 3rd risk
factors with highest mean value. On the other hand, the risk factor having the
lowest mean value under this category is Delay in decision making (2.17) thus
ranked 7th. Also as it can be seen in the same group (A), first two risk factors (those
ranked 1st and 2nd) have a mean value within the range of (3.51 to 4.49) thus
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Ishaq, et al.
considered as having high impact on PQ while all the remaining risk factors under
this group with the exception of the risk factor ranked 7th have mean value ranging
from (2.51 to 3.49) and are considered as having moderate impact on project
completion cost. However, the risk factor ranked 7th (delay in decision making)
have a mean score of (2.17) thus considered as having low impact on PQ.
Furthermore, this group has an overall mean value of (3.14)
The second group of factors (Group B) is the design related risk factors. Under this
category, it can be seen that, the risk factor with highest impact on PQ is poor
design having a mean score of (4.19) and is therefore ranked 1st followed by
mistakes and error in design (3.77) ranked 2nd and Frequent design changes (3.63)
ranked 3rd. on the other and, the risk factor with the least impact on PQ is delay in
design having a mean value of (2.38) and therefore ranked 6th. Risk factors ranked
1st to 3rd under this group have a mean value ranging from (3.50 to 4.49) and are
therefore categorised as having high impact on project completion cost while the
risk factors ranked 4th and 5th have a mean value ranging from (2.50 to 3.49) hence
considered as having moderate impact on PQ. The risk factor ranked 6th have a
mean value of (2.38) and is therefore considered as having low impact on PQ. This
group also has an overall mean value of (3.28)
Construction and contractors site management related factors (Group C) contain
20 sub factors. Under this group, the first three risk factors with the highest mean
score are inadequate experience by project team (4.18), deviating from
specifications due to misunderstanding of drawings and specifications (4.05) and
inadequate project monitoring (3.96). These risk factors are ranked 1st, 2nd and
3rd respectively. On the other hand, materials wastage (2.50), late delivery of
equipment (2.47) and late delivery of materials (2.39) are the risk factors with the
lowest mean value in this group in this group thus ranked 18th 19th and 20th.
Furthermore, out of the twenty risk factors under this category, nine of them
(factors ranked 1st to 9th) have a mean score ranging from (3.5 to 4.49) and are
therefore considered as having high impact on PQ while all the remaining risk
factors under this group with the exception of the risk factor ranked 20th have
mean score ranging from (2.5 to 3.49) and are therefore considered as having
moderate impact on PQ. The risk factor ranked 20th (labour accident) have a mean
value of (2.27) and is therefore considered as having low impact on PQ.
Furthermore, this group has an overall group mean of (3.23).
Financial related factors (Group D) has 7 sub factors. Under this category, the first
three risk factors with the highest mean score are Poor cash flow management with
mean score of (3.39), financial difficulties of owner (3.39) and financial failure of
contractor (3.38). These factors based on their mean scores are ranked 1st, 2nd and
3rd respectively. On the other hand, the risk factors with lowest mean scores are
delay in payment to supplier/subcontractor (2.66) and contractual claims (2.42)
thus ranked 6th and 7th respectively. Furthermore, it can also be seen from the
Table that risk factors ranked 1st to 6th under this category have mean score
ranging from (2.5 to 3.49) and therefore can be considered as having moderate
impact on PQ while the risk factors ranked 7th have a mean score of (2.42) thus,
considered as having moderate impact on PQ. This group also have an overall
group mean of (3.10).
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Ishaq, et al.
Information and communication related factors (Group E) has 3 sub factors. All the
risk factors have a mean score ranging from (2.5 to 3.49) and are considered as
having moderate impact on PQ. The risk factor with highest mean score under this
category is lack of coordination between stakeholders (3.03) followed by poor
communication between stakeholders (2.91) and slow information flow between
stakeholders (2.85). These risk factors are ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. The
group also has and overall mean score of (2.93).
Legal related factors (Group F) have 4 sub factors. The risk factor with highest
impact on project completion cost is Legal disputes during construction phase
among contract parties (2.81) followed by lack of specialised arbitrators to help
settle dispute fast (2.27). These risk factors are ranked 1st and 2nd respectively. On
the other hand, Ambiguity of work legislations have the least mean score (2.10)
thus ranked 4th. Furthermore, the risk factor ranked 1st under this category has a
mean score of (2.81) thus considered as having moderate impact on PQ while the
remaining risk factors (those ranked 2nd, 3rd and 4th ) have a mean score ranging
from (1.5 to 2.49) thus considered as having low impact on PQ. The group also has
and overall mean score of (2.36)
Human resources (workforce) related factors (Group G) has 7 sub factors. Under
this group, the first three risk factors with the highest mean values are shortage of
skilled labour with mean score of (4.30), Shortage of technical personnel (3.80) and
difficulty in training new labour (3.70) and are therefore ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd
respectively. On the other hand, the risk factors with lowest mean values are poor
labour productivity (3.12), labour absenteeism (2.95), and high cost of labour (2.74)
and are ranked 5th, 6th and 7th respectively. Furthermore, the Table also shows
that under this category, the risk factors ranked (1st to 3rd) have mean score
ranging from (3.5 to 4.49) therefore can be considered as having high impact on
PQ while risk factors ranked (4th to 7th) have a mean score ranging from (2.5 to
3.49) and are considered as having moderate impact on PCC. The group have
overall mean score of (3.43)
Economic related factors (Group H) has 5 sub factors. The risk factor with highest
mean score under this category is increase in interest rates with a mean score of
(2.89) followed by increase in exchange rates (2.78). On the other hand, the risk
factor with the lowest mean score is increase in fuel/oil prices with a mean score
of (2.12). Furthermore all the risk factors under this category, with the exception of
the factor ranked 5th obtained a mean score ranging from (2.5 to 3.49) and are
thus considered as having high impact on PQ. The risk factor ranked 5th have a
mean score of (2.12) thus have moderate impact on PQ. The group has an overall
mean value of (3.63)
Political related factors (Group J) has 3 sub factors. The risk factor with highest
mean score under this category is political crises/civil unrest (3.23) followed by
changes in governmental Laws (2.40) and unfavourable Governmental policies
(2.36). These risk factors are ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd respectively. The risk factor
ranked 1st have a mean score ranging from (2.5 to 3.49) thus considered as having
moderate impact on PQ while the remaining two risk factors under this category
have a mean value ranging from (1.5 to 2.49) and are therefore considered as
having low impact on PQ. The group has and overall mean score of (2.63).
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Ishaq, et al.
The last group of the risk factors Group (K) is the environmental related factors
having 3 sub factors. The risk factor with the highest mean score under this
category is force majeure (earthquake, flood etc.) (3.86) and therefore ranked 1st
followed by unfavourable project location (3.11) ranked second and effects of
weather (2.98) ranked 3rd. The risk factor ranked 1st has a mean value of (3.86)
thus considered as having high impact on PQ while the risk factors ranked 2nd and
3rd have mean values ranging from (2.50 to 3.49) thus considered as having
moderate impact on PQ. This group has an overall mean score of (3.32).
Comparing the group mean scores of the risk factors, human resources (workforce)
related factors has the highest group mean (3.43) therefore ranked 1st followed by
design related factors (3.28) and environmental related factors (3.32) thus ranked
2nd and 3rd respectively. On the other hand, the groups with the lowest mean
score are economic related factors having a mean score of (2.77) and legal related
factors (2.36) thus ranked 9th and 10th respectively. The results are presented in
Table 3
Table 3: Comparison of Mean scores for the impact of the risk factors on project quality across
the Categories of Factors
Group
Codes Risk factors group Group Rank
Mean
G Human resources (workforce) related factors 3.43 1

K Environmental related factors 3.32 2
B Design related factors 3.28 3
C Construction and contractors’ site management related factors 3.23 4
Contract administration and project management related

A 3.14 5
factors
D Financial related factors 3.10 6
E Information and communication related factors 2.93 7
J Political related factors 2.66 8
H Economic related factors 2.63 9
F Legal related factors 2.36 10
As seen in Table 3, all the groups of factors with the exception of legal related
factors (group F) have a group mean scores ranging from (2.5 to 3.49) thus
considered as having moderate impact on PQ while the exception have a mean
value ranging from (1.5 to 2.49) thus considered as having low impact on PQ.
Human resources (workforce) related factors (3.43) was identified as the group with
highest impact on PQ though the overall impact was moderate, followed by
environmental related factors (3.32) and design related factors (3.28).
Furthermore, Table 4 presents the overall impact of the risk factors on PQ in

descending order of their mean values.
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Ishaq, et al.
Table 4: Overall impact of the risk factors on construction project quality.

S/N Risk Factors Mean SD Rank
1 Shortage of skilled labour 4.30 .499 1
2 Poor design 4.19 .833 2
3 Inadequate experience by project team 4.18 .928 3
Deviating from specifications due to misunderstanding of
4
drawings and specifications 4.05 .727 4
5 Inadequate project monitoring 3.96 .775 5
6 Bribery and Corruption 3.91 .916 6
7 Poor site supervision 3.89 .615 7
8 Force majeure (earthquake, flood etc.) 3.86 1.231 8
9 Mistakes during construction 3.82 .793 9
10 Shortage of technical personnel 3.80 .658 10
11 Mistakes/ errors in design 3.77 .866 11
12 Poor site management 3.74 .753 12
13 Inadequate cost estimate 3.74 .821 13
14 Inadequate project control 3.73 .856 14
15 Difficulty in training new labour 3.70 .889 15
16 Poor project management 3.69 1.131 16
17 Frequent design changes 3.63 .827 17
18 Incompetent subcontractors 3.56 1.013 18
19 Shortage of unskilled labour 3.43 .975 19
20 Poor cash flow management 3.39 .699 20
21 Financial difficulties of owner 3.39 .771 21
22 Financial failure of contractor 3.38 1.020 22
23 Delay in progress payment by owner/client 3.32 .896 23
24 Political crises/Civil unrest 3.23 1.004 24
25 Inadequate time estimate 3.22 1.029 25
26 Schedule delay 3.14 .889 26
27 Poor financial control on site 3.13 .759 27
28 Inaccurate quantity take-off 3.12 .599 28
29 Poor labour productivity 3.12 .898 29
30 Unfavourable project location 3.11 .910 30
31 Undefined scope of work 3.10 .852 31
32 Incomplete design at the time of tender 3.09 .978 32
33 Lack of coordination between stakeholders 3.03 .864 33
34 Change in the scope of the work 3.02 .794 34
35 Effects of weather 2.98 1.052 35
36 Labour absenteeism 2.95 .850 36
37 High Competition in Bids 2.94 1.885 37
38 Equipment failure 2.93 .761 38
39 Poor communication between stakeholders 2.91 .868 39
40 Increase in interest rates 2.89 .866 40
41 Slow information flow between stakeholders 2.84 .974 41
42 Equipment unavailability 2.81 .694 42
Legal disputes during construction phase among contract
43
parties 2.81 .830 43
44 Increase in exchange rates 2.78 .870 44
45 Increase in prices of materials 2.77 .729 45
46 High cost of labour 2.74 1.064 46
47 Undocumented change orders 2.69 .597 47
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Ishaq, et al.
Table 4 cont’d: Overall impact of the risk factors on construction project quality.
48 Delay in payment to supplier/subcontractor 2.66 .865 48
49 Materials theft 2.64 1.001 49
50 Shortage of materials 2.61 .771 50
51 Delay in approval of design 2.59 1.331 51
52 Late delivery of materials 2.58 1.261 52
53 Increase in cost of labour 2.56 .799 53
54 Materials wastage 2.54 .804 54
55 Late delivery of equipment 2.50 1.262 55
56 Contractual claims 2.42 1.318 56
57 Changes in governmental Laws 2.40 1.086 57
58 Delay in design 2.38 .849 58
59 Unfavourable Governmental policies 2.36 1.012 59
60 Labour accident 2.27 1.016 60
61 Lack of specialised arbitrators to help settle dispute fast 2.27 1.182 61
62 Difficulty of obtaining permits from regulatory authorities 2.26 1.311 62
63 Delay in decision making 2.17 1.180 63
64 Increase in fuel/oil Prices 2.12 .922 64
65 Ambiguity of work legislations 2.10 1.381 65
Table 4 presents the impact of all the 65 risk factors on PCC irrespective of their
groupings. As seen in the Table, the first five risk factors with the highest mean
scores are shortage of skilled labour (4.30), poor design (4.19), inadequate
experience by project team (4.18), deviating from specifications due to
misunderstanding of drawings and specifications (4.05) and inadequate project
monitoring (3.96). These risk factors are ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th,
respectively. On the other hand the last five risk factors having the lowest mean
score are lack of specialised arbitrators to help settle dispute fast having a mean
value of (2.27), difficulty of obtaining permits from regulatory authorities (2.26),
delay in decision making (2.17), increase in fuel/oil Prices (2.39) and ambiguity of
work legislations (2.10) and are therefore ranked 61st, 62nd, 63rd, 64th and 65th
respectively.
Furthermore, out of the 65 risk factors considered in the study, eighteen risk factor
(those ranked 1st to 18th ) have a mean value ranging from (3.5 to 4.49) and are
therefore considered to have high impact on PQ. This implies that, these risk factors
could lead to project quality reduction that will not be acceptable by the client.
Therefore, the risk factors identified to have high impact on PQ should be given
more attention and appropriately managing them to minimise their adverse effects
on the quality of the construction works.
Similarly, thirty seven risk factors (those ranked 19th to 55th) have a mean score
ranging from (2.5 to 3.49) hence, can be considered as having moderate impact on
PQ. Meanwhile the remaining ten risk factors (those ranked 56th to 65th) have a
mean score ranging from (1.5 to 2.49) hence considered as having low impact on
PQ.
696
Ishaq, et al.
CONCLUSIONS
The paper assessed the impact of project risk factors on construction projects ’
quality. The study concludes that, shortage of skilled labour, poor design,
inadequate experience by project team, deviating from specifications due to
misunderstanding of drawings and specifications and inadequate project
monitoring to be the six (6) topmost risk factors that negatively impacts the quality
of construction projects. Moreover, it was also concluded that, of the sixty five (65)
risk factors assessed, eighteen (18) risk factors have a high impact on PQ while
thirty seven (37) risk factors are having a moderate impact on PQ, ten (10) of the
risk factors have a low impact. In addition, it was also concluded that the impact of
some risk factors (those with high impact) could adversely lead to unacceptable
quality reduction. The study recommends paying more attention to managing the
risk factors having high impact so as to achieve the desired projects ’quality.
The limitation of this research is that, the paper did not consider the frequency of
occurrence of the risk factors, however, in order to determine the significance/
severity of the effects of the risk factors on project ’quality, there is the need to
assess the frequency of occurrence of the risk factors and make further evaluation.
This is because the severity of a risk factor is best determined as a product of the
frequency of occurrence of the risk and its magnitude of impact. As such, further
research is being carried out in this regard.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF COVID-19 DRIVEN

INFLATION ON COMMERCIAL PROPERTY HEDGING
CAPACITY IN LAGOS, NIGERIA
Muktar Babatunde Wahab1, Wasiu Ayobami Durosinmi2, Matthew Mamman3,
Yetunde Christianah Charles-Afolabi4 and Dodo Usman Zakari5
1Estate Management Department, Kaduna State University Kafanchan Campus, Nigeria
2Estate Management Department, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria
3Estate Management Department, Federal Polytechnics Kaduna, Nigeria
4Estate Management Department, Redeemer’s College of Technology and Management, Ogun
State, Nigeria
5Estate Management & Valuation Department, Niger State Polytechnics, Zungeru, Nigeria
The study investigated the current effect of covid-19 driven inflation on commercial
property investment in Lagos with a view to establishing the hedging capacities of
the commercial property market. The study thereby focused on examining
complete, partial, perverse and zero hedging characteristics of inflation driven by
covid-19 in the market. The study used monthly data (March, 2020 and March 2021)
on covid-19 rates, inflation rates (actual, expected and unexpected) and returns on
commercial properties. The study therefore investigated the co-movement
between covid-19 rates and inflation rates in order to establish the causal linkage
between covid-19 rates and inflation rates using pair-wise correlation, and it was
discovered that covid-19 rate caused changes in general price level. The study
further established the inflationary characteristics of covid-19 on commercial
properties returns. The study therefore utilized Ordinary Least Squares, Augmented
Dicker Fuller (ADF), Engle Granger cointegration and cointegrating regression
analysis. The result of FMOLS revealed that commercial properties in Lagos are
completely hedged against actual and expected inflation rates while other were
perversely and partially hedged against covid-19 driven inflation. The study
therefore found that effect of disruption caused by covid-19 pandemic in the
economy has not fully manifested in the real estate market, but there is possible
future far-reaching effect if measures are not put in place. Property market is
thereby susceptible to loss of value by continue locking down the economy over a
long period.
Keywords: commercial properties, hedging capacity, inflation, rental price
1 babatunde.wahab@kasu.edu.ng; Tel. +2347032907744

2 duwas11@gmail.com; Tel. +2348055837352
3 mamman16@gmail.com; Tel. +2348065350020
4 sikemicharles@gmail.com; Tel. +2348038206872
5 zakaridodo@gmail.com; Tel. +2348059126053
Wahab, et al. (2021) Investigating the effect of Covid-19 driven inflation on commercial property
hedging capacity in Lagos, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
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INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization (WHO) in March 11, 2020 had therefore
characterized COVID-19 as a pandemic, pointing to over 3 million cases and
207,973 deaths in 213 countries and territories. The infection has not only become
a public health crisis but has also affected the global economy. Significant
economic impact has already occurred across the globe due to reduced
productivity, loss of life, business closures and trade disruption (Pak et al, 2020).
Commercial properties as investment good and critical assets to real estate
investors, apart from been an income generating assets, it is regarded as wealth
generating asset of a nation (Belo & Agbatekwe, 2002). Apart from been a critical
asset nation’s development, commercial properties have been viewed as an
integral part of national economy that provide alternative investment options in
growing economy, and due it significant contribution to economic nation’s
development, it has become influential asset to national income through the real
estate sector (Fraser 1993; Belo & Agbatekwe, 2002). Also, over the years,
commercial properties have been professed to have power to protect investment’s
fund over eroding power of inflation therefore investors want to be sure that
investing in commercial investment would cover a range of risks associated with
real estate investment (Amidu & Aluko, 2006), every rational investors would prefer
more returns on their real invement over and above systematic and unsystematics
risks associated real estate market (Olaleye, 2008). Government at every level has
recognized economic importance of investing in commercial properties as major
source revenue to local government through rating (Aluko, 2005)
However, real estate has been seen as an hedge against dearth of inflation but
fears have recently been expressed about the development in the economic due
global pandemic (covid-19) that whether the effect of this economic disruption
would have a far reaching effect on real estate investment. During the lockdown
phase, the covid-19 pandemic and related lockdown measures affect the supply
and demand of certain products through their prices. the supply of consumer
product was therefore disrupted which triggered the general increase in price level
or inflation rate (Pak et al, 2020). Ehsan, et al., (2020) noted that potential drivers
of inflation amid covid-19 pandemic during the lockdown and reopening phases
are characterized by restrictions in mobility and disruptions in potential supply.
Ehsan et al., (2020) further proved that there was no evidence of upward movement
in actual inflation but there existed a rise in variance of expected inflation thereby
indicating uncertainity and potential risk of unexpected inflation. According to
Alagidede and Panagiotides (2007) observed that 1% rise in price of good in
Nigeria causes 0.12% rise in general stock returns thereby providing partial hedge
against inflation. Currently in Nigeria, inflation has been trending on double digit
rate and bank lending rate has also be trending on double digit (CBN, 2019),
therefore real property investors need to ascertain the level of security of the
investment. Most of the real property investors in Nigeria are risk-averse, in other
word, would like to have more returns on the investment at less risk (Olaleye, 2008),
this is therefore attributed to the fact that Nigeria real property market is
characterized as immature market because of naïve decision-making by property
stakeholders.
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It is really against the background of economic disruption caused by covid-19,

volatility and recession that has recently characterized the economy that left the
investors in a state of fear about the security of the real estate investment.
Therefore the extent of disruption in commercial property market is therefore
required a careful investigation. Over the years, commercial properties investment
has been characterized as a hedge the dearth of inflation by providing a protective
device for investors ’capital against eroding power exhibited by general increase in
consumer price index (CPI) (Amidu & Aluko, 2006). Recently, the phobia of many
investors has been construed that whether real property is actually a hedge against
the recent economic instability, recession and the presence of covid-19 pandemic
that characterized the economy. The dynamic effect of covid-19 is more felt in
emerging economy of Nigeria where supply disruption combined with weak
currency therefore triggered the general increase in price level (inflation) during
and after containment period. It is against this background that this study seeks to
answer this question ‘to what extent has the impact of covid-19 driven inflation
arising from an increase in consumer price index been hedged from eroding the
value of commercial properties in Lagos? ’with a with a view to restoring the
confidence of investors in real estate investment.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Covid-19 and inflation in the economy
Ehsan et al., (2020) examined the dynamic effect of inflation during the COVID-19
pandemic between phases (lockdown and reopening phases) in advanced and
developing economy in Europe and America. The study found that early evidence
of increase in actual inflation from advanced and emerging market economies but
was not in broader perspective, thereby the measure of inflation showed no
evidence of increase in actual inflation but there was rise in variance of unexpected
inflation indicating significant of uncertainty. Brunnermeier, Merkel, Payne and
Sannikov (2020) studied inflationary and deflationary pressure amid covid-19. The
study found that initially deflationary forces played significant role due
idiosyncratic risk and recovery brought through government lending and other
measures lead to excessive inflation.
The lockdown phase entails the combination of substantial shocks in both demand
and supply, and the pandemic therefore leads to deflation, disinflation, or higher
inflation. As falling in aggregate demand to heightened uncertainty and reductions
in incomes and liquid wealth in advanced and emerging economies has lead to
deflationary pressures (Pak et al., 2020). Conversely, inflationary pressures may
arise from increases in production costs, due to interrupted supply chains and to
the impact of social distancing restrictions on labour supply especially in emerging
economy. By shutting down sectors of the economy, the Great Lockdown has led
to changing patterns of demand that translate into shifts in the degree of market
power firms exercise, which will affect equilibrium inflation. These pressures in
inflation are differed across sectors and nations. Sectoral inflation heterogeneity in
turn is likely to feed through to heterogeneous inflation experiences across
households. Conclusively, The dynamics could, however, be quite different in
emerging markets (EMs). Supply disruptions combined with currency depreciations
might lead to an increase in inflation even during the containment period.
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Inflation and real estate investment: the empirical studies

Several studies have linked inflationary pressure to real estate market both in
Nigeria and abroad, such studies together with their findings are summarized as
follows:
In the study carried out by Voigtlander and Demary (2009) while analysing the real
estate hedging capacities across selected states in Europe and America, it was
discovered that real estate’s equities failed to provide a protective power against
inflation. Xiarong and Sherwood (2010) examined inflation hedging in real estate
market in china between 2000 and 2008 using autoregressive technique. It was
found that long run equilibrium between changes in real estate prices and inflation
showed no evidence of relationship and concluded Chinese real estate market had
no good protective power against inflation. In a similar study conducted by Leung
(2010) on commercial (office and shop) and industrial properties hedging abilities
in Australia between 1984 and 2008, it was discovered that property assets
(commercial and industrial) provided a complete hedge against inflation. Hartzell
and Webb (2010) while anaysing the relationship between commercial real estate
and inflation during the period of low and high occupancy in United States, it was
therefore found that real estate maintained a balanced hedge against expected
inflation and partially relationship with unexpected inflation. Odu (2011) while
studying commercial real estate hedging capacity in Lagos using Ordinary Least
Square (OLS), it was discovered that commercial real estate returns was perversely
hedged actual inflation in some selected areas and completely hedged against
actual inflation in some selected areas. In the same vain, Anyakora, et al., (2012)
also carried out a similar study in Lagos Metropolis (Ikoyi, Victoria Island, Lagos
Island, Apapa and Surulere), it was found that inflationary hedging capacities of
commercial real estate varied across geographical neighborhoods. . Osagie, et al.,
(2012) studies the evidence of commercial properties as a good hedge against
inflation in Lagos and discovered that while office properties provided a good
hedge, shop properties failed to provide a good hedge.
Umeh and Oluwasore (2012) ascertained uncertain inflation hedging capacities of
residential investment returns between 2002 and 2014. Ordinary least squares
indicated that hedging capacities vary across the geographical sub-markets, such
that residential investment returns failed to hedge actual inflation across the
geographical areas; other geographical sub-market provided a complete and
partial hedges against inflation. Amonhaemanon, et al., (2013) examined inflation
hedging capacity in commercial real estate in thailand between 1987 and 2011. It
was found that commercial real estate returns had positive relationship with
unexpected inflation over the period. The structural changes in the economy as
control measure showed that the relationship between inflation and commercial
real estate returns change under certain economic environment. Ogunba et al.,
(2013) analysed the characteristics of inflationary hedging of commercial real
estate in Ibadan. Using consumer price index and 91-day Treasury bill as a proxy
for actual inflation and expected inflation respectively, it was discovered through
ordinary least squares that commercial real estate had poor hedge against actual
inflation, partially hedged against unexpected and completely hedged against
expected.
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Amonhaemanon et al., (2014) examined ex post and ex ante inflationary hedging

abilities of real estate in Thailand, the further discovered that real estate returns
had positive relationship with ex post and unexpected inflation and real estate
provided a super hedge against inflation. It was therefore concluded that
relationship between real estate and inflation depends on the state of economy
especially in the period of financial crisis. This finding updated the finding of
Amonhaemanon et al., (2013). Dabara (2014) while investigating the inflation-
hedging characteristics in Gombe residential market of Nigeria between 2003 and
2012. It was found that residential investment market in Gombe was completely
hedged expected inflation, partially hedged against actual inflation while
perversely hedged against unexpected inflation. Umeh and Oluwasore (2015) in
another similar study of hedging capacity of residential market in Ibadan using
OLS, the result found that residential market failed to provide a complete hedge
against actual inflation while providing complete hedge against expected inflation
and partially hedge against unexpected inflation. Wahab et al., (2018) conducted
full study of residential hedging capacities in Abuja residential market by
examining both short and long runs inflationary characteristics. It was discovered
that the use of OLS could not explicitly provide a complete the hedge across the
markets, and further analysis long run hedging capacities provided a complete
hedge across all the markets.
Conclusively, the variance in results of the above studies suggests the need to
constantly investigate the inflation hedging capacities of real estate investments
from time to time and across different regions or areas, and recent disruptions in
supply combined with currency depreciations associated with covid-19 pandemic
might lead to an increase in inflation even during the containment period which
required careful investigation. In an emerging economy like Nigeria where market
equilibrium is difficult to attain, the advent of covid-19 had posed a threat to
wealth asset (commercial property) of the Nation as the condition of financial
market in is worsened by weak currency and covid-19 driven inflation which
resulted in loss value of assets. This has therefore posed threat to real estate
market. Finally, since the effect of covid-19 pandemic has a link to inflation in the
economy in many studies (Ehsan et al., 2020; Pak, et al., 2020; Brunnermeier, et al.,
2020. Therefore, the need to investigate the extent of hedging capacity of
commercial property investment against covid-19 driven inflation during lockdown
and reopening phases has become sacrosanct to real estate investors.
METHODOLOGY
The primary data adopted for this study comprised of computed monthly returns
on office commercial office properties in Lagos (March 2020 to March 2021) from
registered estate firms. Secondary data comprised of monthly consumer price
index which is used as a proxy for actual inflation and 90-day Treasury bill which is
also used as a proxy for expected inflation rate according to Ogunba et al., (2013),
there information were sourced from National Bureau of Statistics (NBS), while
unexpected inflation is the different between actual inflation and expected
inflation. Secondary data on the rate of monthly covid-19 infections in Lagos was
used for the study. The study adopted correlation to test the strength of
relationship between the rate of monthly covid-19 infections and inflation rates,
conintegrating regression using Fully Modified Least Squares (FMOLS) to establish
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Wahab et al.
both short and long run inflationary characteristics of house prices respectively.
FMOLS used to estimates relationships in cointegration analysis by modifying
ordinary least squares (OLS) to account for both serial correlation and endogeneity
in the regressors. It is therefore asymptotically related to methods like Johansen
(1988). FMOLS identifies long-term relationship just like Johansen method and
used to test for cointegration by examining stationarity test through Augmented
Dicker Fuller (ADF). The study applied Augmented Dicker Fuller (ADF) unit root test
to determine the extent of stationarity of the data. The test of stationarity of the
series was carried out for the study in order to detect the presence of unit root
(non-stationary) or not, and to determining the order of integration of the variables
in the model presented in equation 1.
𝑘
∆𝑌𝑡 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝑌𝑡−1 + ∑ πi ∆Yt−1 + Ut eq1.

𝑖=1
Where Yt represents vector of time series, t represent ti++me, Ut represents the

error terms and π represents the coefficient matrix of the variables, Δ represents
differences in variables.
The study adopted a sampled size model developed by Frankfort-Nachmias (1996)

to determine appropriate sample size from large number of commercial office
properties across the selected areas and this model is purposely adopted when the
population is large. This model is therefore presented and described in equation 2.
𝑧 2 𝑝𝑞𝑁
𝑛= 𝑒𝑞. 2
𝑒 2 (𝑁 − 1) + 𝑍 2 𝑝𝑞
Where N is population size, n is sample size, p at 95% confidence level of the target
population
q = 1-p, e = Acceptable error Z = 1.96
The model for commercial real estate returns (R) is described as in the equation 3.
𝑝𝑡 − 𝑝𝑡−1
𝑅= 𝑒𝑞. 3
𝑝𝑡−1
R is commercial office returns indices, Pt is commercial office returns at end of
period t, Pt-1 is the commercial office returns beginning of period t. The decision
rule for hedging capacities of real estate is described in table 1.
Table 1 Decision rule

Hedges in Real Estate Decision rule
A complete hedge against
If β is not significantly less than 1 (i.e. between 1 and 0.5)
inflation
A partial hedge against inflation If β is significantly less than 1 (i.e. between 0.4 and 0.1)
Zero hedge against inflation If β is not significantly different from zero. 0.001-0.000
A perverse hedge against
If β is negative
inflation
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PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Figure 3.1 shows the rising cases of COVID-19 pandemic in the study area. the
trend revealed that from February 28th 2020 to April 28th 2020, there was slow
raising cases covid-19, and after April 28th, there was high rising in number of
cases recorded . This was attributed to poor response of government to the
pandemic; in term of safety guide and measures against the spread. The sharp
raising recorded after April 28th was associated to the fact that the lack
preparedness in the case of pandemic. The rising continues till September 19th
2020 and after which there was slow rising in number of cases. This is therefore
attributed high of compliance to lock down measures. The gradual reopening from
lockdown had suddenly led to sharp rising in number of cases from November 30th
till date. The implication is that the global and local economy and financial markets
have been severely affected due to the significant reductions in income, a rise in
unemployment, and disruptions in the transportation, service, and manufacturing
industries caused by the covid-19 pandemic. Consequently, the correction of the
damage in the economy required a slow adjustment over a period.
Figure 1: Cumulative Number of Confirmed Coronavirus Cases (COVID-19) in Nigeria from

February 28, 2020 to February 10, 2021
Source: Computed From NCDC Monthly Report
Figure 2 revealed the monthly trend in inflation rates between February 2020 and
February 2021. The figure presented the high trend in inflation during lockdown
phase (February 2020 to October, 2020) where the general price level experienced
downward trend due to various lockdown measures made by the government,
while the period reopening (November, 2020 to February, 2021) suddenly
experienced rise due to government removal of various measures of palliative
made during the lockdown. The study utilized consumer price index as a proxy for
actual inflation, 90-day Treasury bill as a proxy for expected inflation. The
difference between expected and unexpected inflation is unexpected inflation rate.
At the beginning of the lockdown, there was sharp rise in actual and unexpected
inflation rates from February, 2020 to April, 2020 due to lockdown. But the partial
reopening from May, 2020 to October 2020 made the prices to come down due to
increase in production of good and partial movement, but sudden rise in number
of recorded covid-19 cases in November 2020 and December 2020 restricted the
production goods and give rise to general increase in both expected inflation and
after which actual inflation followed suit. Actual and expected inflation rates have
started rising since December 2020 up till February 2021. The implication is that
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there is instability in the prices due to covid-19 and which has caused disruption
in the market.
Figure 2: Monthly expected, unexpected and actual inflation rates amid Covid-19 (From Feb; 2020
to Feb; 2021)
Source: Field survey, 2021.
The result in Table 2 showed the correlation between inflation rates and covid-19
rate of infections. The result revealed that there is positive insignificant correlation
between actual inflation and covid-19 rates at 0.204 which indicates direct
relationship. Expected and unexpected inflation rates maintained positive
significant correlation with covid-19 rates at 0.557 and 0.590 respectively. This
thereby suggests a direct relationship with covid-19 rate. By implication, covid-19
rate is related to general inflation rate in the economy, as a result, linking covid-19
to property market through inflation with real estate market become the premise
of this study.
Table 2: Pairwise matrix correlation between inflation rates and Covid-19 rate
Actual Expected Unexpected Covid-19
Inflation Inflation Inflation rate
Pearson
1
Correlation
Actual Inflation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N 13
Pearson
.220 1
Expected Correlation
Inflation Sig. (2-tailed) .469
N 13 13
Pearson
.870** -.288 1
Unexpected Correlation
Inflation Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .340
N 13 13 13
Pearson
.204 .557* .590* 1
Correlation
Covid-19 rate
Sig. (2-tailed) .504 .048 .039
N 13 13 13 13
Figure 3 showed the movement in commercial property returns between February

2020 and February 2021. There was upward and fluctuated movement in returns
during the lockdown phase ( February, 2020 to October, 2020). The period of
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reopening (November, 2020 to February, 2021) showed downward movement in

returns. The study suggested that there was distortion in the market that gives rise
to volatility in the trend in returns on commercial real estate. From February 2020
to May 2020 there was sharp fall in returns due to general lockdown in the country.
A partial reopening phase from May 2020 leads to sharp rise in returns from May
2020. After which there was fluctuated decrease in returns up till December when
there deep fall in returns across the markets and after there was sharp rise in returns
from January 2021 to February 2021. This instability in returns is attributed to
disruption caused by covid-19 pandemic in economy.
Figure 3: Monthly returns on commercialized office properties in Lagos amid Covid-19 (From Feb;
2020 to Feb; 2021)
Table 3 reveals the result of stationerity test (unit root test) conducted through
Augmented Dicker Fuller (ADF) for all the variables employed for the study. One of
the properties of time series data is that it must stationary over a period, in other
word; it must have no unit root before it can be used or considered suitable in any
econometric analysis. Therefore, the result of ADF unit root test revealed that
actual, expected and unexpected inflation were stationary at first-order difference,
only return indices commercial office properties across the markets were stationery
at level. The implication of this test is that the time series data employed for this
study is suitable and appropriate for further analysis. Technically, it implies that the
time series variables free from unit root.
Table 3: Stationarity or unit root test

Critical ADF Computed ADF t- Order of
Variables Prob.*
@0.05 Statistics Integration
Δ Actual inflation -3.042012 -4.301672 0.0131 I(1)
Δ Expected Inflation -3.023441 -4.488337 0.0038 I(1)
Δ Unexpect inflation -3.014522 -3.510113 0.0156 I(1)
Lagos Mainland(R) -3.031345 -4.889604 0.0014 I(0)
Lagos Island (R) -3.030221 -4.179963 0.0082 I(0)
Ikeja (R) -3.042901 -3.987214 0.0215 I(0)
Apapa (R) -3.030271 -4.779778 0.0029 I(0)
Surulere (R) -3.030271 -3.158997 0.0389 I(0)
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Table 4 reveals the outcome of Engle granger cointegration test used to determine
the long run relationship between commercial office returns and inflationary
characteristics of covid-19. The result in Table 3 shows tau- statistic and z-statistics
as well as respective p-values. The result of the statistics shows the evidence of two
or more cointegrating equations at 0.05(5%) level of significance therefore the
study rejects null hypothesis of no cointegration among the variables at 5%
through z-statistics across the selected markets in Lagos. In other word, with a
given sample size probabilities and critical values, therefore there is a long run
convergence among the variables across the market locations. In other word, there
is long run relationship between commercial office property returns and
inflationary characteristics of covid-19 pandemic. This finding is consistent with
that Wahab et al., (2018) It can therefore be said that inflationary characterized by
covid-19 pandemic has long run relationship with commercial office property
market in selected commercial office centers (Lagos mainland, Lagos Island, Ikeja,
Apapa and Surulere) in Lagos.
Table 4: Engle Granger Cointegration Test

tau-
Market Dependent Prob.* z-statistic Prob.*
statistic
Lagos
Lagos mainland log -3.879911 0.1469 -29.78126 0.0048
mainland
Actual_Inflation_Index -2.666152 0.1377 -23.85091 0.0122
Expected_Inflation_Index -3.567676 0.1451 -25.02675 0.0105
Unexpected_Inflation_Index -3.755981 0.1470 -23.11275 0.0129
Lagos Island Lagos Island log -5.021218 0.0338 -21.67113 0.0255
Unexpected_Inflation_Ind -3.415022 0.3226 -13.13251 0.3448
Ikeja Ikeja log -2.088602 0.4550 -11.82028 0.4415
Apapa Apapa log -2.114722 0.8610 -6.558291 0.8174
Surulere Surulere log -7.335491 0.0053 -24.44900 0.0035
Actual_Inflation_Index -3.664162 0.3501 128.5624 1.0000
Table 5 shows the outcome of analysis of cointegrating regression carried out. The
result of cointegrating regression showed the hedging capacity of commercial
office property amid covid-19 in Lagos. It has been proved that the use of ordinary
least square could not reveal the long run hedging capacity of commercial real
estate (Wahab et al, 2018). Therefore the use of fully Modified Ordinary Least
Square (FMOLS) revealed the true characteristics of long run hedging capacity of
commercial office properties. In all the selected markets, commercial official
returns is completely hedged against actual and expected inflation, this finding is
consistent with Ogunba et al., (2013) and Wahab et al., (2018). This finding further
indicates that the market independent of negative effect of inflation caused by
covid-19 disruptions in the economy, and therefore the real estate investor’s
returns is thereby secured from eroding. Commercial office properties in Lagos
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Mainland and Lagos Island are partially hedged against unexpected inflation arose
amid covid-19 pandemic, this finding is found consistent with Hartzell and Webb
(2010).
Table 5: Cointegrating Regression Analysis (FMOLS Estimates)

Unstandardize Std.
Market Variable Beta R-Square Prob. Hedging Status
d Coefficient Error
Lagos
(Constant) 38.05 9.549 .801 .000
mainland
Actual inflation t- Complete
.520 .132 .889 .000
1 Hedged
Unexpected
.310 .136 .225 .005 Partial hedged
inflationt-2
Expected Complete
.601 .122 .894 .000
inflationt-1 Hedged
Lagos Island (Constant) 44.37 7.994 .874 .008

.675 .140 .661 .000
1 Hedged
Unexpected
.818 .345 .131 .006 Partial Hedged
inflationt-2
Expected Complete
.677 .022 .981 .000
inflationt-1 Hedged
Ikeja (Constant) -58.84 10.246 .025

.482 .063 .977 .891 .000
1 Hedged
Unexpected
.465 .103 .686 .003 Complete Hedge
inflationt-2
Expected Complete
.677 .083 .966 .000
inflationt-1 Hedged
Apapa (Constant) 36.43 8.039 .799 .005

.633 .072 .908 .000
1 Hedged
Unexpected
-.473 .296 -.329 .027 Perverse hedged
inflationt-2
Expected Complete
.470 .063 .861 .000
inflationt-1 Hedged
(Constant) 55.07 11.071 .750 .010

Surulere .761 .040 .967 .000
1 Hedged
Unexpected
-.076 .767 -.232 .161 Perverse hedged
inflationt-2
Expected Complete
.706 .048 .894 .000
inflationt-1 Hedged
Fully Modified Least Squares (FMOLS)
This further indicates that, the investors in Lagos Mainland and Lagos Island
markets can break-even in advent of sudden rise in general price level caused by
lockdown in the economy due to covid-19 pandemic, in other word, the value of
investment cannot be eroded below the market value. Only commercial office
market in Ikeja provided a complete hedge against unexpected inflation that arose
amid covid-19 pandemic. Commercial office properties ’in Apapa and Surulere are
perversely hedged against unexpected inflation that arose due to disruption in the
economy caused by covid-19 pandemic. In other word, investors ’in these two
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markets (Apapa and Surulere) have high possibility of losing their investment
because in the case of sudden rise in inflation in the economy due to covid-19
pandemic would erode the value of investment, in that, the markets are not
matured enough to provide an hedge. Finally, The overall influence of inflation
rates in the economy caused by covid-19 pandemic on commercial office returns
across the markets ranges between 89.1%-75.0%.
IMPLICATION OF FINDINGS
From the findings, the rate of covid-19 infection has positive relationship with
inflation rates, in other word, over the period of study it can be deduced that covid-
19 pandemic granger causes changes in inflation rates due to disruption in the
economy. This is because, the study has demonstrated upward and downward
movement in the rate of inflation caused by economic disruption associated with
covid-19. By implication, all the stakeholders in the real estate sectors must be
cautioned when investing into the market. The fact that real estate is hedged
against inflation as it was construed theoretically still required empirical evidence
because certain conditions could affect the efficacy of the theory such as general
instability in the economy, economic recession and other unforeseen
circumstances such as war and pandemic like covid-19. The result expressly showed
the market maturity in term of its hedging characteristics in some the selected
markets. Generally, all the selected markets provided a complete hedge against the
eroding power of actual and expected inflation which by implication making the
market to be independent of dearth of covid-19 driven inflation, in other word, the
value of real estate investment market could not be eroded and investors is
therefore protected against the loss of investment. Conversely, while some the
selected market (Lagos Mainland and Lagos Island) were found to be partially
hedged against unexpected inflation, other selected market (Apapa and Surulere)
were perversely hedged against unexpected inflation. By implication, being
partially hedged the market is still protected but to certain degree immunity. This
therefore means that real estate market is still developing in term hedging
characteristics, and in this market, investors must be economically guided. Also
being perverse, the market value of real estate investment is threatened and there
is possibility of unexpected inflation eroding the value of investment, and investors
must carry out careful analysis of the investment. One the selected market (Ikeja)
said to have provided a complete hedged against actual, expected and unexpected
covid-19 driven inflation.
CONCLUSION
It is therefore construed from this study that disruption caused by covid-19 driven
inflation has not fully affected the commercial property market, this is because
while markets provided high degree of immunity against the eroding power of
covid-19 driven inflation, some other market provided little and others are been
threatened. Therefore, the effect is not far-reaching, but there is possible future
far-reaching effect if palliative measures are not put in place to subvert the effect.
the adjustment and re-structuring as well as various measures taken by the
government to prevent adverse effect of covid-19 pandemic on the economy, there
712
Wahab et al.
is need to continuously investigates the market to unravel the situation and provide
empirical guide to the real estate investors from time to time.
REFERENCES
Alagidede, P., Panagiotidis, T. (2007). Can common stocks provide a hedge against
inflation? Evidence from African countries, Review of Financial Economics 19 (2)
91-100.
Aluko, B. T. (2005). Building Urban Local Governance Fiscal Autonomy Through Property
Taxation Financing Option. International journal of strategic management.
Amidu, A. R., & Aluko, B. T. (2006). Performance Analysis of Listed Construction and Real
Estate Companies in Nigeria. Journal of real estate portfolio management , 177-
185.
Amonhaemanon, D., De Ceuster, J. K., Annaert, J., & Long, l. H. (2013)The Inflation-Hedging
Ability of Real estate Evidence in Thailand: 1987-2011. International Conference on
Applied Economics (ICOAE) 2013. Procedia Economics and Finance 5 ( 2013 ) 40 –
49.
Amonhaemanon1, D., Annaert, J., & De Ceuster, J. K. (2014) The Inflation-Hedging Ability
of Real Estate Thai Evidence: 1987-2011 Advances in Management & Applied
Economics, vol. 4, no.1, 2014, 1-15.
Anyakora, M., Idowu, O., Osagie, J., & Omirin, M. (2012) Inflation Hedging Capacity of
Commercial Real Estate Investment (Case Study of Lagos- Nigeria Property Market).
Journal of Contemporary Issues in Real Estate, 2(1), 1-12.
Brunnermeier, M., Merkel, S, Payne, J., & Sannikov, Y. (2020) COVID-19: Inflation and
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September, 2020
Dabara, D. I. (2014). The Inflation-Hedging Performance and Return Characteristic of
Residential Property Investment in Gombe, Nigeria. AIR 3(1), 71-83.
Ehsan, E., Deniz, I., & Soledad, M, (2020). The Impact of COVID-19 on Inflation: Potential
Drivers and Dynamics. IMF Research, 2020.
Hartzell, D. J., & Webb, R. B. (2010). Commercial real estate and inflation during periods of
high and low vacancy rates. Available from
http;//www.reri.org/research/abstract_pdf/wp14.pdf
Leung, A. (2010). Commercial property as an inflation hedge; An Australian perspective.
Journal of pacific rim research 16(1), 97-115.
Odu, T. (2011). An analysis of relative inflation hedging capacities of prime commercial
properties in Lagos. Global Journal of human social science, 11(10), 42-51.
Ogunba, O., Obiyomi, O. & Dugeri, T. (2013). The Inflation Hedging Potential Of
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Research (WABER) Conference Accra, Ghana, 1101-1111.
Olaleye, A. (2008). Property Market Nature And The Choice Of Property Portfolio
Diversification Strategies: The Nigeria Experience. International Journal of Strategic
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Osagie, J., Gambo, Y., Anyakora, M., & Idowu, O. (2012). Are Commercial Properties A Good
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
INVESTIGATING THE EFFECT OF CURING METHODS ON THE

STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
Francis Kwesi Nsakwa Gabriel-Wettey1 and Humphrey Danso2
1BasicDesign and Technology, Islamic Research School, P. O. Box OH 387, Kasoa, Central Region,
Ghana.
2Construction and Wood Technology Education, Akenten Appiah-Menka University of Skills
Training and Entrepreneurial Development, P. O. Box 1277, Kumasi, Ghana.
In the hot humid climate, the method of curing used is critical in achieving the
needed strength of concrete for construction application. This study sought to
investigate how the different curing methods can influence the compressive and
flexural strengths of concrete in the hot humid climate. The targeted compressive
strength of the concrete at 28-day of curing was 20 N/mm2. Plain concrete cubes
and beams were prepared with a mix ratio 1:1.5:3 by weight and 0.6 water-cement
ratio. A total of 120 concrete specimens were prepared, comprising 60 each for
cubes and beams. Four different curing methods (immersion, wet jute sack
covering, plastic sheet covering and water sprinkling) were adopted. The concrete
specimens were tested on 7, 14, 21, 28 and 56 days of curing. It emerged that the
immersion curing method recorded the highest compressive values of 23.43 and
25.83 N/mm2, respectively for the 28 and 56 days curing at a significant difference
of 16% increase strength over the sprinkling method. It was also found that the
immersion curing method obtained the highest flexural strength of 2.81 and 3.49
N/mm2, respectively for the 28 and 56 days curing at 14% increase strength over
the sprinkling method. The study, therefore, concludes that the use of appropriate
method of curing can have an effect on the flexural and compressive strengths of
the concrete, and therefore recommend the adoption of immersion curing method,
especially in the hot humid climate for precast and laboratory-based concrete
units ’production.
Keywords: compressive strength, concrete, curing method, flexural strength,

slump tests
INTRODUCTION
Cement and concrete products require curing for development of strength,
durability, and other properties. This is because cement and concrete products
require hydration process in initially damp condition to allow for optimum
development of their properties. Olanitori (2006) described concrete as a product
which constitutes the mixture of binding agent, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
and an appreciable amount of water. In some instances, admixtures are added to
1 geewett4@gmail.com
2 hdanso@uew.edu.gh
Gabriel-Wettey and Danso (2021) Investigating the effect of curing methods on the strength
properties of concrete In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
715
Gabriel-Wettey and Danso
the mixture to improve the concrete’s properties such as colour, setting rate and
workability (Surahyo, 2019). Among all the major characteristics of cement and
concrete products namely, durability, workability, permeability and strength, the
latter is considered the most valuable and desirable. This suggests that careful
attention must be given to these factors that influence the concrete’s strength. The
curing of concrete in the right environment and condition, after the placement of
concrete contributes to obtaining quality concrete, especially in the early stages of
hardening.
The durability and quality of concrete depends on several factors. It is not limited
to the characteristics or quality of the constituents of the concrete but also depends
on factors such as the methods of preparation, placing, curing and environmental
conditions to which it is exposed over its service life. Proper curing of concrete is
requisite in developing its optimum properties. Sufficient supply of moisture
during curing is essential in ensuring good hydration. This reduces the porosity of
the concrete and helps attain the desired durability and strength (Federowicz et al.,
2020; Rahman et al., 2012). According to a study of Mamlouk and Zaniewski (2006),
concrete allowed to only dry in the air without proper curing can only gain up to
50% of its desired strength when adequately cured. The authors further stated that
the concrete will attain 60% of the desired strength if cured for only three days and
will gain 80% of its desired strength if cured for only seven days. Improper curing
leads to insufficient moisture in the concrete, which results in the development of
cracks, reduced strength as well as the long-term durability (Zain et al., 2000;
Wojcik & Fitzgarrald, 2001; Rao et al., 2010).
According to Nurruddin et al. (2018) and Usman and Nura Isa (2015), curing has
significant influence on the durability and properties of concrete and geopolymer
since it contributes to the hydration of cement in the mix. Without moisture, the
hydration of cement virtually ceases when the relative humidity of reduces below
80%. Nahata et al. (2014) also posited that, hardened concrete’s properties are
greatly affected by the method used in curing it. The sensitivity of concrete to
curing is influenced by methods used in curing. There are several methods of
curing concrete such as ponding (immersion), dry-air-curing, fogging (sprinkling),
saturated wet covering, curing compound, plastic sheet, self-curing concrete and
jute sack (wet covering), wrapped curing, wet gunny bags curing, etc. The different
curing methods are employed based on the construction method and the nature
of the project as well as the site conditions (Boakye et al., 2014). According to Liu
et al. (2020) the effect of curing methods of on the properties of concrete have
been relatively less studied. Despite these numerous methods used in curing to
improve concrete properties, concrete structural failure and collapse is on the
increase. Moreover, in spite of the extensive publications on the concrete curing
methods and their effect on concrete strength properties in other countries, the
topic has not been researched into detail in hot humid climate. This study therefore
investigates the influence of the different curing methods on the strength
properties of concrete in the hot humid climate, particularly in controlled
environment for precast and laboratory-based concrete units.
716

Materials
Crushed granite rock aggregate procured from a commercial quarry company at
Ntensere in the Ashanti Region, Ghana was used for the study which had 20mm
maximum size of aggregate. The coarse aggregates used was clean, free from
waste and impurities. Natural sand is usually used as a fine aggregate in a concrete
mix, however, in this study quarry sand was used as a replacement of natural sand.
The quarry sand was air-dried to remove the moisture, in order not to change the
chosen water cement ratio. The drying of the quarry sand was done at room
temperature condition. The quarry sand was sieved using BS 3.75mm sieve to
obtain the required sizes and to also remove any foreign materials that can
influence the quality of the concrete.
Super Rapid Ordinary Portland Cement (class 32.5 R) produced by Ghana Cement
Company Limited (GHACEM) that conformed to BS EN 197-1 (2011) was used in
the study. It was procured from a retailing outlet prior to the experimental work
and was kept in the laboratory, in a dry place to prevent premature hydration that
could lead to caking of the cement. Tap water from Ghana Water Company
supplied to the College of Technology Education, Kumasi, laboratory of the
Construction Technology was used for the study. The use of tap water was
premised on the fact that, water meant for concrete and construction works must
be free from harmful chemicals (salts and oil) and impurities (suspended particles).
The plastic sheet used for the curing purposes was purchased from suppliers in the
commercial market in Kumasi. The specimens were covered with plastic
(polyethylene) sheets in two layers to retain moisture in the concrete specimens.
Jute sack materials were obtained from the commercial market in Kumasi, Ghana.
The jute sacks were used to cover the concrete specimens and kept wet during the
curing period.
Preparation of concrete specimens
The concrete was prepared in the controlled laboratory setting. A laboratory pan
mixer was used for the mixing of the concrete. A concrete grade of M20 with the
targeted compressive strength of 20 N/mm2 was used for the study. The mix
proportion adopted for the experiment was a ratio of 1:1.5:3 with 0.6 water-cement
ratio. The concrete beams and cubes were produced following BS EN 12390-1
(2012) and BS EN 12390-2 (2019) respectively. Steel mould of size 100 × 100 × 100
mm was used for casting concrete cubes and 100 × 100 × 500 mm for casting
beams. A total of 180 specimens (120 cubes & 60 beams) were prepared for
experiment. The curing was following BS EN 12390-2 (2019). After an overnight
setting of the, the concrete specimens (cubes and beams) were de-moulded and
were labelled for easy identification. The specimens were subjected to 7, 14, 21, 28
and 56 days of curing before testing. Four different curing methods were adopted
for the curing of the specimens. The methods were immersion (ponding), plastic
(polyethylene) sheet covering, Jute (hessian) sack covering, and sprinkling.
Immersion curing
The specimens were put in water in a curing tank in the laboratory (see Figure 1a).
The water for curing was tested every 7 days and the temperature of water was on
717
the average at 27 ±2°C. The same tap water used in the production of the concrete
was used for the immersion curing.
Plastic sheets curing

Specimens were covered with the plastic sheets. They were covered in two layers
to ensure that moisture was retained in the concrete specimens (see Figure 1b).
The surface area of the cubes and beams were completely covered by the sheets.
Wet jute sack curing

Wet jute sacks were to cover the specimens in a form of a mulch. The wetness of
the sacks ensured that the surface of the specimens was kept moist (see Figure 1c).
The whole surface area of the specimens was covered with the wet jute sacks. The
sacks were kept saturated with water throughout the curing period.
Sprinkling
Specimens were arranged on the floor of the laboratory and sprinkled with water
periodically (see Figure 1d). The specimens were kept wet all the time.
Figure 1: Curing methods of concrete specimens
Testing of concrete specimens

The test was carried out following BS EN 12390-3 (2019) specifications. Cubes were
tested on the 7, 14, 21, 28 and 56 days of curing for compressive strength. The
compressive test was carried out using ELE Universal Testing Machine (ADR
1500/200) with a maximum capacity of 2000 kN (see Figure 2a). The cubes were
first weighed to ascertain their weights and then place on the test machine. Three
replicates were tested for each test point. A constant load was applied until failure
occurred. The maximum load at failure was recorded. The compressive strength
was computed using Equation 1:
f𝑐u = F/𝐴𝑐……………………………………………… (Eqn. 1)

Where:
fcu = compressive strength (N/mm2)
718
F = peak load at failure (N)

Ac = cross-sectional area (mm2)
Figure 2: Test setup of specimens
Flexural strength
The test was carried out following BS EN 12390-5 (2019) with centre-point loading
method. The test was carried out with the beam specimens at the end of 7, 14, 21,
28 and 56 days of curing using the flexural testing machine. Each beam was loaded
with a central-point loading at mid-span of the beam (see Figure 2b). Three
replicates were tested at each test point. The beams were placed in the test
machine and constant load applied gradually until the specimen failed. The peak
load which split the specimen was recorded. The flexural strength of the beam (fcf)
was computed using Equation 2:
fcf = 3𝐹𝑙/2𝑏𝑑2……………………………………………. (Eqn. 2)

Where:
F = peak load at failure (N)
l = distance between supporting rollers (mm)
b = width of the beam (mm)
d = depth of the beam (mm).

The result obtained from the compressive strength test is shown in Figure 3. It can
be observed that the compressive strength of all the specimens from the four
curing methods increased in from 7 to 56 days curing periods. This was expected
as concrete develop strength by age. The trend of results is similar to those
obtained by Raheem and Abimbola (2006), Raheem et al. (2013) and Usman and
Nura Isa (2015) which also recorded increase compressive strength development
by increase age of curing. It emerged from the result that immersion method of
curing yielded the highest compressive strength for all the curing days and
recorded strength values of 24.43 and 25.43 N/mm2, respectively for 28 and 56
days of curing. This can be ascribed to improved pore structure and lower porosity
of the immersion curing method which propels increased cement hydration and
pozzolanic reaction in the concrete (James et al., 2011). Conversely, the specimens
cured with the sprinkling method recorded the lowest compressive strength for all
the curing days and obtained strength values of 18.00 and 22.33 N/mm2,
719
respectively for 28 and 56 days of curing. The low strength obtained for the
sprinkling method of curing can be attributed to high moisture movement and
evaporation in the concrete specimens as the specimens are uncovered and
unprotected against early drying out of the concrete (Rahman et al., 2012).
The finding corroborates the assertion that concrete curing age has an influence
on strength (James et al., 2011). The result therefore confirms the claim that
appropriate curing method is critical and necessary for all concrete structures. For
the targeted concrete grade of M20, it was expected that on the 28-day of curing
the compressive strength should attain strength value of 20 N/mm2. It can be
observed from Table 1 that all curing methods attained more than the of 20
N/mm2, except the sprinkling method (19.80 N/mm2) which was even closed to
the targeted strength. The immersion method recorded an average compressive
strength of 23.43 N/mm2 as compared to the sprinkling method of 19.80 N/mm2
which translates to about 16% increase of the immersion method over the
sprinkling method. This therefore implies that the appropriate curing method use
for curing concrete can have a significant effect on the compressive strength of the
concrete, especially in the controlled environment for precast and laboratory-
based concrete units.
Figure 3: Compressive strength of concrete cube specimens
Table 1: Average test results

Compressive strength (N/mm2) Flexural strength (N/mm2)
Curing
day Sprink- Plastic Jute Immer- Sprink- Plastic Jute Immer-
ling sheet sack sion ling sheet sack sion
7 15.63 17.53 19.10 19.80 1.82 2.02 2.15 2.44
14 16.63 18.80 20.68 21.60 2.01 2.12 2.22 2.54
21 18.33 19.97 21.57 22.70 2.24 2.31 2.43 2.65
28 19.80 20.74 22.10 23.43 2.40 2.50 2.61 2.81
56 22.33 23.90 24.43 25.83 3.01 3.16 3.39 3.49
Flexural strength of concrete beams

The result of the flexural strength test of the concrete specimens are shown in
Figure 4. The flexural strength result followed the pattern of the compressive
strength result. As was also expected, the flexural strength of the concrete
720
specimens increased with increase age of curing. This result is consistent with
Elinwa and Kabir (2019) findings that flexural strength of concrete increased as the
curing age increased. It can be observed that the specimens cured by immersion
method recorded the highest flexural strength for all the curing days with strength
values of 2.81 and 3.49 N/mm2, respectively on 28 and 56 days of curing. Nahata
et al. (2014) attributes the high strength to low water loss from the concrete
specimens during curing. Wet jute sack covering method followed with average
values of 2.61 and 3.39 N/mm2, respectively on 28 and 56 days of curing. The
specimens cured by sprinkling method recorded the lowest flexural strength values
of 2.4 and 3.01 N/mm2 on the 28th and 56th days of curing respectively. In general,
it was observed that there was increase in flexural strength with respect to curing
age. This is similar to what Neville (1996) reported that flexural test results may be
influenced by the specimen’s preparation and size; moisture conditions, curing; and
the type and volume of coarse aggregates used for specimen preparation.
Figure 4: Average flexural strength of concrete beam specimens
CONCLUSION
The study investigated the effect of curing methods on the strength properties of
concrete in the hot humid climate, particularly in the hot humid climate for precast
and laboratory-based concrete units. The study found that the immersion method
of curing obtained the highest compressive and flexural strength of the concrete
specimens with about 16 strength improvement. The study, therefore, concludes
that the use of appropriate method of curing can have an effect on the compressive
and flexural strengths of the concrete, and therefore recommend the adoption of
immersion curing method to concrete producers, especially in the hot humid
climate for precast and laboratory-based concrete units ’production. This study
only focused on the strength properties of concrete cured under different methods,
and therefore recommend further studies to investigate the effect of curing
methods on the physical and durability properties of concrete produced in the hot
humid climate.
721
REFERENCES
Boakye, D. M, Uzoegbo, H. C, Mojagotlhe, N., & Malemona, M. (2014). Effect of different
curing methods on the compressive strength development of pulverized copper
slag concrete. Journal Materials and Engineering Structures, 1(1), 11–21,
http://oaji.net/articles/2014/980-1403726549.pdf
BS EN 197-1 (2011). Cement Composition, Specifications and Conformity Criteria for
Common Cements. British Standard Institution. London.
BS EN 12390-2 (2019). Testing Hardened Concrete. Making and Curing Specimens for
Strength Tests. British Standard Institution. London.
BS EN 12390-1 (2012) British Standard for Testing Hardened Concrete-Part 1 Shape,
Dimensions and Other Requirements for Specimens and Moulds. British Standard
Institution. London.
BS EN 12390-3 (2019). Testing hardened concrete – Part 3: Compressive strength of test
specimens. British Standard Institution. London.
BS EN 12390-5 (2019). Testing hardened concrete – Part 5: Flexural strength of test
specimens. British Standard Institution. London.
Danso, H., & Boadi, J. K. (2019). Replacement of Sand with Bauxite Mining Waste in
Concrete Production. Journal of materials and Engineering Structures, 6(4), 525–
534, http://revue.ummto.dz/index.php/JMES/article/view/2052/pdf
Elinwa, A., & Kabir, N. (2019). Flexural Strength and Compressive Strength Relations of
Hospital Waste Ash Concrete. SSRN Electronic Journal. DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3309506.
Federowicz, K., Kaszyńska, M., Zieliński, A., & Hoffmann, M. (2020). Effect of Curing Methods
on Shrinkage Development in 3D-Printed Concrete. Materials, 13, 2590.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13112590.
James, T. A., Malachi, A., Gadzama, E. W., & Anametemfioka, V. (2011). Effect of Curing
Methods on the Compressive Strength of Concrete. Nigerian Journal of
Technology, 30(3), 14-20.
Liu, B., Jiang, J., Shen, S., Zhou, F., Shi, J., & He, Z. (2020). Effects of curing methods of
concrete after steam curing on mechanical strength and permeability. Construction
and Building Materials, 256, 1-10,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119441.
Mamlouk, M. S., & Zaniewski, J. P. (2006). Materials for civil and construction engineers,
(2nd ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Prentice.
Nahata, Y., Kholiab, N., & Tank, T. G. (2014). Effect of Curing Methods on Efficiency of
Curing of Cement Mortar. APCBEE Procedia, 9 (2014) 222 – 229.
Neville, A. M (2002). Concrete technology. England: Pearson Education Limited. p.438.
Neville, A. M. (1996). Properties of concrete (4th Ed.). Edinburg Gate, Harlow, England:
Addison Wesley Longman Limited, Pearson Education Ltd.
Nurruddin M. F., Haruna S., Mohammed B. S., & Sha΄aban, I. G. (2018). Methods of curing
geopolymer concrete: A review. International Journal of Advanced and Applied
Sciences, 5(1), 31-36.
Olanitori, L. M. (2006). Mitigating the effect of clay content of sand on concrete strength.
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PTE LTD. Retrieved from: http://www.cipremier.com/100031035.
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Raheem, A. A., & Abimbola, S. A. A. (2006). Effect of Specimen Size on the Compressive
Strength of Concrete. USEP. Journal of Research Information in Civil Engineering
(RICE), 3(1), 55-64.
Raheem, A. R., Soyingbe, A. A., & Emenike, A. J. (2013). Effect of Curing Methods on Density
and Compressive Strength of Concrete. International Journal of Applied Science
and Technology, 3(4), 55-63.
Rahman, M. S., Islam, S. M., & Abedin, M. Z. (2012). Effect of Curing Methods on
Compressive Strength of Concrete. Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Research
23(1&2):71-76.
Rao, M. V., Krishna, P., Rathish Kumar, K., & Azhar, M. (2010). A study on the influence of
curing on the strength of a standard grade concrete mix. Facta Universitatis Series:
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Surahyo, A. (2019). Concrete Construction: Practical Problems and Solutions (1st Ed.).
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Usman, N., & Nura Isa, M. (2015). Curing Methods and Their Effects on The Strength of
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Wojcik, G. S., & Fitzgarrald, D. R. (2001). Energy Balances of Curing Concrete Bridge Decks.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
KEY FACTORS FOR ELECTRONIC PROCUREMENT SYSTEMS IN

THE PROMOTION OF SUSTAINABLE PROCUREMENT IN
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Sitsofe Kwame Yevu1, Ann Tit Wan Yu2, Amos Darko3 and Mershack Opoku
Tetteh4
1,2,3,4Departmentof Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon,
Hong Kong SAR
The current drive for digitalization in the construction industry has increased the
attention on various construction processes including construction procurement.
To improve efficiency in construction procurement, electronic procurement
systems (EPS) were introduced to automate the process. However, there are global
concerns for construction industry’s contribution to sustainability. Hence, the
interest for digital transformations to focus on sustainability underscores the use
of sustainable procurement initiatives in construction procurement. Although, EPS
have gained some attention in literature, their relationship with the dimensions of
sustainability are limited in extant literature. Therefore, the aim of this study is to
identify EPS relationships with the initiatives of sustainable procurement in the
construction industry. Specifically, the key issues needed to enhance EPS
contribution to sustainable procurement are highlighted. A systematic literature
review was conducted using a three-stage process to examine previous studies. The
findings revealed that EPS mostly contributes to economic cost sustainability.
Environmental and social sustainability issues need to be improved with the use of
EPS. Especially, the contribution of EPS towards to green criteria and local
inclusiveness have to be strengthened. Future research directions were provided to
address the knowledge gaps identified in literature. This study provides researchers
and practitioners with knowledge on EPS areas that needs to be strengthened to
enhance the promotion of sustainable procurement initiatives in construction
procurement.
Keywords: construction industry, construction procurement, electronic

procurement, sustainable procurement
INTRODUCTION
The construction industry has long been criticized for decreased levels of efficiency
and effectiveness in its activities (Adriaanse et al., 2010; Lines et al., 2017). More
importantly, the impact of construction processes on the environment, society and
1 sitsofe-k.yevu@connect.polyu.hk
2 bsannyu@polyu.edu.hk
3 amos.darko@connect.polyu.hk
4 mershack-opoku.tetteh@connect.polyu.hk
Yevu, et al. (2021) Key factors for electronic procurement systems in the promotion of sustainable
procurement in construction projects In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
725
Yevu, et al.
economic activities calls for the construction industry to improve sustainability

urgently (Roman, 2017; Ikram et al., 2020). This need motivated the construction
industry to adopt innovative technologies such as electronic procurement systems
(EPS) in construction procurement processes as internet technology emerged (Grilo
and Jardim-Goncalves, 2011). Considering that construction procurement has been
the crucial avenue for obtaining construction-related products and services, it has
also been challenged to contribute to sustainability via initiatives concentrating on
environmental, social, and economic aspects (Brammer and Walker, 2011). In effect,
sustainable procurement (SP), which focuses on infusing initiatives, specifications
and criteria into construction procurement to make it more compatible with
sustainability goals, were introduced (Ramkumar and Jenamani, 2015).
With digitization advancing a global revolution in the construction industry, EPS
present a promising future for digitalizing construction procurement to increase
efficiency and to facilitate sustainability (Yevu and Yu, 2019). However, research on
EPS has had less focus on how EPS relate to sustainability initiatives. This is
important because as EPS matures to become the normal practice for construction
procurement, project organizations would still be faced with the reality that
sustainability is longer a matter of choice – but reality (Roman, 2017). This raises
questions concerning the contributions of EPS toward sustainable development
through the initiatives of SP. Though limited attempts have been made in literature
to address this issue by few studies (Walker and Brammer, 2012, Ramkumar and
Jenamani, 2015), till date, there is no comprehensive review of extant literature to
examine the scope of EPS connections to SP initiatives. Hence, this study aims to
explore the contributions of EPS to SP initiatives via a systematic review of existing
literature. This would promote scholarly debate on holistic evaluation of EPS usage
in construction procurement. For researchers and practitioners, this study
highlights the areas of sustainability that could be improved with the use of EPS in
construction projects.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The literature review section provides the research developments regarding EPS
and SP in the construction industry. Further, procurement from the perspective of
the building lifecycle is discussed in this section.
Electronic procurement systems
Since the turn of the twentieth first century, EPS have gained attention due to the
benefits it brings to construction procurement (Yevu et al., 2021). Benefits
associated with the improvements of efficiency and effectiveness were the main
motivators of EPS adoption. EPS refer to the use of web-based systems or online
platforms to digitize and automate the manual paper-based procurement process
for construction projects (Mehrbod and Grilo, 2018). Since construction
procurement has many processes, EPS comprise of several tools that conduct
various functions of the procurement processes at any stage in the project (Ibem
and Laryea, 2015). For instance, the e-tendering/e-bidding tool conducts the
tendering/bidding functions at the pre-contract stage of projects. Hence, based on
the functions desired by the project or client, several EPS tools can be combined
on a project. Other EPS tools, such as project payment monitoring tools, could be
combined with the e-tendering tool based on the procurement functions required.
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Integration of other technologies with EPS have been explored in literature. While
Grilo and Jardim-Goncalves (2011) challenged the reluctant effort of integrating
EPS and building information modelling (BIM) in construction research, it
highlights the potential for holistic digitization of design and procurement
activities. Also, infusing cloud computing into EPS operations by Costa and Tavares
(2013) offers ameliorating avenues to improve EPS operations in a digitized built
environment. In advocating the use of EPS in construction procurement, the need
for sustainability has not attracted much interest in construction research.
Sustainable procurement (SP)

Generally, SP refers to procurement and supply chain practices that emphasize on
sustainability to achieve sustainable outcomes (Ruparathna and Hewage, 2015).
More specifically, SP is described as infusing technologies, specifications and
criteria into procurement for environmental protection, societal progress and
economic development through initiatives such as resource efficiency, improved
quality of products and services and cost optimisation on whole life basis
(McMurray et al., 2014; Grandia, 2016). Therefore, SP allows organizations to obtain
materials, products and construction works with value addition not only to the
project organization, but also to the environment and society. Accordingly, Yu et
al. (2020) indicated that various governments had made efforts to promote SP
initiatives through construction procurement in order to enhance sustainable
developments. Considering the social dimension of SP, EPSs provide transparency
and collaboration opportunities which are needed to facilitate social sustainability
initiatives such as networking, social capital leverage and local supplier
inclusiveness. Also, transparency enhances new supplier identification in
procurement networks. While the environmental dimension of SP focuses on
conservation or efficient use of resources throughout the lifecycle of projects, the
economic dimension of SP places emphasis on improving the time and cost
involved in projects. However, in promoting SP, the use of EPS which would
become the main avenue for procurement in the future of construction, has not
garnered research attention. This creates a limitation for advancing sustainability
in construction procurement processes.
Lifecycle assessment with SP
A core element of SP is to focus on the lifecycle perspective. Through this, resources
selected for projects are assessed considering their implications on the
environment from project the planning stage to the end-of-life of the project
(Walker and Brammer, 2012). Lifecycle assessment is the systematic evaluation of
the environmental impacts of resources/products through all stages of building
lifecycle including material production, on-site construction, operation,
maintenance and final demolition and disposal (Luo et al., 2019). Hence, SP
recommends processes/products that have less impact on the environment to be
used in construction of projects. The promotion of a paperless environment with
the use of EPS provides a suitable platform to catalogue construction materials for
specifications regarding lifecycle assessments in projects. Undoubtedly, EPS offer
future construction the ability to execute sustainable buildings.
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This study adopts the systematic literature review method to examine research
articles in a three-stage process, as adopted in similar review studies such as Hong
et al. (2012) and Yu et al. (2020). Systematic literature reviews facilitate the
identification and evaluation of existing literature for value addition in the
development of knowledge (Seuring and Müller, 2008; Yevu et al., 2020). Broadly,
the activities of the three-stage process involve database selection, screening and
selection of articles and examination of articles. Fig. 1 presents the review process
in this study.
Fig. 1 Review process for the study
Selection of search database for articles

For the selection of publications on EPS and SP in the construction industry, an
effective search engine – Scopus, was adopted. Scopus provides a wider scope of
coverage for construction publications and has a greater level of precision in
capturing current publications as compared to other databases such as PubMed
and Web of Science (Falagas, 2008). In conducting the search, keywords were used
the title/abstract/keywords section of Scopus. These keywords focused on phrases
or terms commonly used to represent EPS and sustainability in procurement. The
string of keywords employed for the search are – "Electronic procurement" OR "E-
procurement" OR "Digital procurement" OR "E-tendering" OR "E-bidding" AND
"Sustainable procurement" OR "Green procurement" OR "sustainability" OR
"Environment" OR "Economic" OR "Social" AND "Construction" OR "Built
environment". The search filter was set with limitations to English and journal
articles. However, there was no limitation on the year range. The initial search
resulted in 28 articles. In addition, a snowballing technique was adopted by
searching through the references of these selected articles to identify other
relevant articles for this study using a selection criteria (Yu et al., 2020; Govindan
and Bouzon, 2018).
Screening and selection of articles
In selecting the most relevant publications, a careful screening of the abstracts of
these publications was conducted. During the screening process, the selection
criteria was publications that focused on EPS connections with sustainability.
Publications that did not focus on EPS connections to sustainability or SP were
excluded. Consequently, 17 articles were selected after the initial screening. As
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previously stated, the snowballing technique that was used to screen the references
of selected articles led to the identification of five additional articles. In total, 22
relevant articles were selected for through and detailed examination. Details of the
journal sources and the number of publications for each journal is presented in
Table 1. Since this research area is in its infantile stages, the number of articles
retrieved were considered suitable as it compares favourably with literature reviews
in established research areas (e.g. Osei-Kyei and Chan, 2015).
Table 1. Journals with relevant articles

Number of
No. Journals
articles
1 Journal of Cleaner Production 2
2 Journal of Information Technology in Construction 4
3 Quality Innovation Prosperity 1
4 Built Environment Project and Asset Management 1
5 Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management 1
6 International Journal of Procurement Management 1
7 International Journal of Managing Projects in Business 1
8 KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering 1
9 Automation in Construction 1
10 Computers in Industry 1
11 Journal of Financial Management of Property and Construction 1
12 International Journal of Economics and Management Engineering 1
13 Government Information Quarterly 1
14 Journal of Construction Research 1
15 IEEE Systems Journal 1
16 International Journal of Production Economics 1
17 International Journal of Construction Management 1
18 International Journal of Operations and Production Management 1
Examination of article contents

A careful reading of the full contents of article was conducted by the authors
independently at this stage. The research articles were carefully examined by
structuring the contents of the articles into a standardized codebook. This allowed
the authors to identify and categorize the relevant topics discussed regarding EPS
connections to sustainability and SP. The use of multiple authors and a
standardized codebook facilitated consistency checks with the categorization of
EPS contributions to SP initiatives (i.e. environmental, social and economic).
Furthermore, the standardized codebook contained the descriptive analysis of the
articles selected (publication year, authors, countries and the respective journals).
Aside the descriptive analysis, the structural categories for analysis were based on
the dimensions of sustainability derived from EPS contributions. Since this search
is exploratory in nature, the inductive approach was adopted for the identification
of sub-categories regarding the dimensions of sustainability in the standardized
codebook. In doing this, the authors were able to compare the sub-categories
derived from the full content readings, which allowed the sub-categories to reflect
core initiatives of sustainability in construction (Yu et al., 2020). Consequently, the
authors consolidated their findings, respectively. From the consolidation exercise,
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Yevu, et al.
the connections between EPS and sustainability were mapped and visualized. The
analysis and results are discussed in the subsequent sections.

To provide insights into the research developments for aspects of EPS in terms of
SP and sustainability initiatives, the findings from the analysis are presented as
follows; publication trend, descriptive and structural categories results and future
research directions.
Annual publication trend
Fig. 2 shows that research interest in EPS in relation to sustainability began in 2003
and has been fairly stable a decade afterwards. Possible explanation for this
occurrence could be the emergence of internet technology in construction
processes which led to the introduction of EPS. Hence, highlighting EPS in relation
sustainability initiatives was not the main focus. However, the spike in 2015 and
ascension in publication from 2019 provides an indication of research interest in
exploring the sustainability aspects of EPS in recent years. Partly, this phenomenon
could be attributed to active renewal of including sustainability in procurement
(Lupova-Henry and Dotti, 2019).
Fig. 2. Annual publication trend
Descriptive and structural categories

Since, SP endeavors to promote the three main dimensions of sustainability by
focusing on environmental protection, social progress and economic development
with procurement, it has been associated with initiatives and specifications such as
resource efficiency, optimization of cost, quality of products, job creation (Roman,
2017; Walker and Brammer, 2012). Therefore, in this study, the
functionalities/benefits of EPS in relation to sustainability were assessed in three
main structural categories, i.e. economic, environmental and social contributions.
Sub-categories were deduced for the main structural categories – cost
optimization, time reduction, productivity, resource efficiency, green criteria,
transparency and trust and local inclusiveness. Table 2 presents the connections
EPS with the initiatives of sustainability in research.
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Yevu, et al.
Table 2. EPS connection to SP initiatives in literature

Ref.1 Sustainable procurement initiatives
Economic Environmental Social
Cost Transpare- Local
Time Productiv- Resource Green
optimizat- ncy and inclusiven- Country2
reduction ity efficiency criteria
ion Trust ess
Hong
R1 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kong
R2 ✓ ✓ ✓ Nigeria
R3 ✓ ✓ Slovakia
Saudia
R4 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Arabia
Hong
R5 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Kong
R6 ✓ ✓ ✓ Australia
R7 ✓ UK
R8 ✓ Korea
R9 ✓ ✓ Portugal
Columbia
R10 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
and Spain
R11 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ UK
R12 ✓ ✓ Iran
R13 ✓ ✓ UK
Italy, UK,
R14 ✓ ✓
Australia
R15 ✓ ✓ Australia
R16 ✓ ✓ UK
R17 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ USA
R18 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ India
R19 ✓ ✓ ✓ UK
R20 ✓ Canada
South
R21 ✓ ✓ ✓
Africa
R22 ✓ UK
Note: 1R1= Yu et al. (2020); R2= Ibem et al. (2020); R3= Delina et al. (2020); R4= Sayed et al.
(2019); R5= Yevu and Yu (2019); R6= Al-Yahya et al. (2018); R7= Naoum and Egbu (2016); R8=
Eom et al. (2015); R9= Costa and Tavares (2014); R10= Tarazona-Bermudez et al. (2014); R11=
Eadie et al. (2011); R12= Farzin and Nezhad (2010); R13= Lou and Alshawi (2009); R14= Hardy and
Williams (2008); R15= Betts et al. (2006); R16= Wong and Sloan (2006); R17= Issa et al. (2003);
R18= Ramkumar and Jenamani (2015); R19= Walker and Brammer (2012); R20= Ruparathna and
Hewage (2015); R21= Ibem and Laryea (2017); R22= Meehan and Bryde (2015).
2Referring to Country of study.
EPS economic connections to SP initiatives

Considering that construction industries around world contribute more than 10%
to national economies and play a vital role in national economic developments,
cost associated with procurement is essential (Santoso and Bourpanus, 2019). To
that end, EPS have been applied to target economic elements such as cost and
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time value for money. It is worth mentioning that majority of the studies identified
economic contributions of EPS to sustainability.
In terms of cost optimization, which is the most identified sub-category (Table 2),
past studies highlighted the influence of EPS in promoting a cost-effective
procurement process, which in turn, impacts the cost of projects. For instance,
Eadie et al. (2011) and Ibem et al. (2020) indicated low transaction cost in the
procurement process with EPS adoption on projects. Further, cost savings in the
management of procurement processes were noted by several studies (Lou and
Alshawi, 2009; Al-Yahya et al., 2018; Farzin and Nezhad, 2010). Other contributions
of EPS to economic sustainability lies in cost-effectiveness by facilitating
negotiations with suppliers (Delina et al., 2020). For economic cost sustainability,
EPS have potentials of enhancing online payments and reducing the cost accrued
in the procurement processes (Meehan and Bryde, 2015). Generally, issues
surrounding project cost attracts much attention in the construction industry.
Therefore, it is not surprising that cost optimization has been the focus of EPS.
Although, these studies identified the cost benefits of EPS, they did not explicitly
associate such benefits to the economic sustainability paradigm in literature.
For time reduction, Ibem and Laryea, 2017 and Sayed et al. (2019) showed the
increased transaction speed effect of EPS adoption in procurement processes for
projects. Such speed is needed to avoid unnecessary delays that usually beset the
manual paper-based process. Consequently, many studies focused their attention
on the ability of EPS to reduce the cycle times of procurement processes as shown
in Table 2 (Issa et al., 2003; Yevu and Yu, 2019). Typically, construction procurement
has many stakeholders exchanging procurement related information, hence, the
faster flow of information and data among such stakeholders improves decision-
making in the procurement cycle duration for project activities. While existing
literature acknowledges the reduction of time towards efficient use of project
resources, more quantifiable evidence are needed to guide their contributions
towards sustainability.
The productivity improvements EPS bring lie with competitiveness, quality
improvement, error reduction and document management (Hardy and Williams,
2008; Ibem and Laryea, 2017). In addition, EPS enhance better coordination and
management of procurement activities and suppliers while ensuring accuracy in
procurement activities (Issa et al., 2003; Tarazona-Bermudez et al., (2014). Through
these productivity improvements while using EPS, construction procurement is
equipped to foster economic sustainability in the construction industry. However,
existing literature on productivity improvements, specifically construction
procurement, do not actively recognize the incremental benefit that productivity
improvement bring to economic sustainability. Hence, there is a lack of research
on how productivity improvement translates to sustainability.
EPS environmental connections to SP initiatives

As environmental concerns increase regarding construction activities, improving
practices that are environmentally friendly have gained the spotlight in
construction procurement, since it is a vital artery in the selection of material,
practices and services for project delivery. Although EPS have been touted as an
environmentally sustainable way in construction procurement, previous studies
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mostly focused on aspects of resource efficiency while the use of EPS in promoting
green criteria has been under-studied in extant literature (see Table 2).
The promotion of paperless environment by reducing the volume of paper

documentations used in procurement activities has been frequently identified as
enhancing resource efficiency in literature. For example, by reducing paper
documents for tendering, EPS promote environmentally friendly practices in efforts
to enhance procurement practices (Ruparathna and Hewage, 2015; Ramkumar and
Jenamani, 2015). In addition, EPS reduces excess transportation energies expended
in conducting procurement activities (Yevu and Yu, 2019). Other studies identified
the potential of EPS in resource efficiency via promoting waste reduction and
recycling (Walker and Brammer, 2012; Yu et al., 2020). Though EPS facilitate a
paperless environment, their use for assessment of specifications for recycle is
limited in literature. This provides fertile avenues to enhance the use EPS in
construction product specifications.
On the contrary, the use of EPS in facilitating green criteria has not gained much
attention in existing literature. However, this identification provides an avenue for
using EPS to apply green criteria and specifications. In support of this, Walker and
Brammer (2012) indicated that EPS help with specifying suppliers ’environmental
practices, labour, health and safety requirements. In fact, EPS could help facilitate
green procurement specifications and requirements checks for products and
materials from relevant authorities. Further, EPS aids in improving environmental
practices as suggested by Ruparathna and Hewage (2015). While the infantile
literature shows the potential of EPS in applying green criteria, more research is
needed to consolidate the ways in which EPS can be used effectively in evaluating
green specifications in procurement.
EPS social connections to SP initiatives

Social requirements for construction procurement affect procurement processes
and have implications on project organizations (Montalbán-Domingo et al., 2019).
Hence, the provision of social initiatives in procurement must be situated in a
relational approach to sustain communities and improve livelihoods (Roman,
2017). While the sub-category – transparency and trust, has gained considerable
interest from existing EPS literature, elements associated with local inclusiveness
has been neglected (see Table 2).
Building transparency and trust in procurement processes is key for achieving the
confidence of many stakeholders in a project for sustainable developments. In
effect, EPS ability to improve transparency in procurement processes and activities
culminates in attaining public trust and equity from multiple stakeholders at the
project and community levels. For instance, since EPS provides online monitoring
applications, other external stakeholders can track the progress of projects,
thereby, making the procurement process, visible, transparent and accountable
(Hardy and Williams, 2008; Naoum and Egbu, 2016; Eadie et al., 2011).
Transparency and trust have been highlighted as contentious issues in existing
studies, hence this study highlights EPS features that ensure transparency in
procurement which is a critical element of facilitating sustainability.
For local inclusiveness, Walker and Brammer (2012) indicated that more efforts are
needed to improve EPS contributions to SP initiative. Perhaps, this could be the
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Yevu, et al.
explanation for the limited attention to this sub-category. Notwithstanding, Costa

and Tavares (2014) and Yu et al. (2020) pointed out the potential of EPS for local
supplier involvement and collaboration. This is exemplified in the study of Costa
and Tavares (2014) by growing EPS social networks for suppliers to encourage
collaboration and local job creation. Fig. 3 presents a summary of relationships
regarding EPS and sustainability initiatives. This finding presents new ways to
engage EPS in promoting social sustainability which has not been much addressed
in existing studies.
Fig. 3 Summary of relationships regarding EPS and sustainability initiatives.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Although EPS economic cost sustainability has gained prominence in literature, the
evidence is sparsely coupled with SP initiatives in the construction industry. Future
research should target comprehensive evaluations of the benefits/functions of EPS
towards SP initiatives on cost efficiency.
For environmental initiatives, future research could focus on: (1) quantitative
models that assess the gains of less paperwork with the use of EPS. This is essential
in the provision of evidence for EPS contribution to environmental protection
initiatives, which is lacking in EPS literature; and (2) developing technology or
management systems/frameworks that accelerate the application and checking of
green criteria and specification of contractors and suppliers. In doing this,
integrated platforms for checking green certification of construction products and
materials would be enhanced. Also, through EPS integration with databases such
as cloud computing, contractors/suppliers environmental performance could be
verified before projects are awarded. This ensures compliance with green
specification and requirements, e.g. low carbon initiatives.
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Yevu, et al.
Concerning social initiative, futures studies should pay more attention to how local
inclusiveness could be incorporated into EPS functions, as EPS needs more
strengthening in this aspect of sustainability. Measures such as developing a
platform that promotes small and medium sized organizations at local
communities via supportive supplier frameworks could be used in EPS enhance
inclusiveness.
CONCLUSIONS
Recent developments to make the construction industry more sustainable with
digitization, brings the spotlight on EPS in construction procurement. Although,
EPS have been identified with many gains to construction procurement, there is
scarce literature indicating their sustainability potential. Specifically, there is a lack
of literature that underscores the contributions of EPS to SP initiatives. This study
aimed to review the contributions of EPS to the economic, environmental and
social dimensions of SP. In a three-stage search process, adopting Scopus search
dataset, relevant research articles were carefully selected and critically examined.
The results show an embryonic stage of development with EPS contribution to SP
research in the publication trend. The findings show that while the economic cost
sustainability contributions of EPS have gained traction in literature, the
environmental and social contributions are considerably evolving with social
contributions being the least researched aspect of EPS. Based on these findings,
future research avenues are provided to aid in the development of theory and
practice by improving EPS functions in terms of environmental practices and social
inclusiveness. This study provides valuable insights for researchers and
practitioners to shift attention to other environmental and social aspects that has
the potential to aid EPS contribute to goals of sustainability. Nonetheless,
compared to the relatively small sample of studies in this study, researchers could
increase the number of studies in future research as the knowledge domain
matures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study forms part of a PhD research project on adoption of electronic
procurement systems in the construction industry, which shares similar
background and methodology with other papers but with different objectives and
scopes. The authors thank the Department of Building and Real Estate of The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University for funding this research.
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841-849.
Walker, H., & Brammer, S. (2012). The relationship between sustainable procurement and
e-procurement in the public sector. International Journal of Production Economics,
140(1), 256-268.
Wong, C. H., & Sloan, B. (2006). An Empirical Survey of the UK Construction SMEs' E-
Procurement Readiness from the E-Legal Aspects. Journal of Construction
Research, 7(01n02), 81-97.
Yevu, S. K. & Yu, A. T. W. (2019). The ecosystem of drivers for electronic procurement
adoption for construction project procurement: A systematic review and future
research directions. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management,
27(2), 411-440.
Yevu, S. K., Yu, A. T., Tetteh, M. O., & Antwi-Afari, M. F. (2020). Analytical methods for
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MICRO-CLIMATIC BENEFITS OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE

(TREES) IN A HOUSING ESTATE IN ABUJA, NIGERIA
Tobi Eniolu Morakinyo1, Olumuyiwa Bayode Adegun2, Morisade O Adegbie3 and
Olawale Oreoluwa Olusoga4
1School of Geography, University College Dublin, Ireland
2,3,4Department of Architecture, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
Urban overheating and the consequent outdoor thermal discomfort is plaguing

many cities. Notably, housing development to cater for urban population explosion
has increased grey infrastructure at the expense of urban vegetation which serves
as green infrastructure. The integration of green infrastructure such as trees, green-
roof and vertical greening is now being advocated and re-implemented in many
cities around the world. This study presents an evaluation of the thermal benefits
of greening a housing estate – King’s Park Estate in Abuja, Nigeria. Three different
greening scenarios namely “current greening”, “one tree, one house” and “one
street, one house plus street trees” were evaluated for their outdoor thermal
comfort outcomes using the ENVI-met simulation tool. The ENVI-met software
helps to simulate the micro-climatic impacts of the interactions within urban
systems by assessing the effects of vegetation, materials etc. Result shows that
planting one tree per house combined with street trees can offer up to 10⁰C
reduction in Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET). To have sustainable built
environment, it is important to consider the addition of trees per house and on
streets in current and future housing estate development.
Keywords: ENVI-met, green infrastructure, thermal comfort, urban design
INTRODUCTION
Planning and designing climate -sensitive built environment through the adoption
of green infrastructure helps to ameliorate the effect of rising urban temperatures
and hence mitigate climate change. The loss of natural vegetation to urban
housing development leads to a phenomenon of urban heat island effect (UHI).
This is a situation of higher temperature in urban than the surrounding sub-urban
and rural areas because of the aggregation of heat storing construction material
during the daytime which are emitted at nighttime leading to significant warmer
urban areas. This usually result from decrease in evaporative cooling and shading
provided by trees.
1 tobi.morakinyo@ucd.ie
2 obadegun@futa.edu.ng
3 moadegbie@futa.edu.ng
4 ooolusoga@futa.edu.ng
Morakinyo, et al. (2021) Micro-climatic benefits of Green infrastructure (trees) in a Housing Estate
in Abuja, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
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Morakinyo, et al.
The estimation that three billion people (about 40% of the world population) would
need access to adequate housing by the year 2030 (UN-Habitat, 2012) predisposes
urban areas to higher temperatures, where housing development is without
adequate consideration to green infrastructure. Urban heat island is a notable
emerging problem in Abuja, with the increase in development of housing estates.
The city has been experiencing increase in both surface and atmospheric
temperatures in recent years. Housing and infrastructural development has led to
increase in impermeable surfaces and reduction in permeable surfaces (vegetal
cover, naked ground) thus modifying the local climates such that built up areas
experience higher day-time temperature. Isioye et al.’s (2020) mapping and
analysis on Urban Heat Island (UHI) indicates that the peripheries parts of the city
are more thermally comfortable than the inner-city segments, an area where the
Housing Estate being studied is located. They found that 40% of the entire city
coverage experiences bad or worse UHI effects. This situation highlights the need
for increasing greening in the built-up areas. According to Adeyeri et al.’s (2007:66)
analysis of relationship between land surface temperature and vegetation indices
over Abuja, ‘increasing vegetation cover led to a decreasing temperature gradient’.
The present study aims at evaluating the thermal benefit of the embracing green
infrastructure implementation, in particular, tree-planting in the housing sector,
using the ENVI-met model. The thermal environment of a housing estate – King’s
Park Estate in Abuja, Nigeria was evaluated in three different greening scenarios
using the ENVI-met model. It involved simulating the built environment of the
Housing Estate as an illustrative example while evaluating and comparing the
micro-climate and thermal comfort improvement of three green coverage ratios
within/around the estate.
GREENING URBAN HOUSING THROUGH GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE

The integration of green infrastructure (trees, green-roof, and vertical greening) in
housing estate development is an aspect of sustainable development in the
building sector that promotes eco-friendly and sustainable environment. It seeks
to minimize negative impacts on the environment while focusing on efficient use
of resources including energy. Green infrastructure in housing development is
crucial, currently, because of the significant contributions of the building sector to
the global environmental and climate crisis. Building construction and operations
accounts for 36% of global final energy use and 39% of energy-related carbon
emissions (UNEP, 2018). The building sector is one of the sectors offering
significant possibilities in tackling global crisis.
Green infrastructure in housing development and practices usually involve

different approaches to reduce the environmental impacts of new and existing
residential buildings. Landscaping is a notable aspect of greening within the built
environment. This is akin to green infrastructure or nature-based based solutions
for climate adaptation and mitigation which involves the integration of vegetation
on ground and building surfaces. While its possibilities and advantages are
increasingly been recognized in urban settings globally, intentional inclusion of
green infrastructure has not become a regular practice/feature in many housing
estates within major cities in Nigeria. In their investigation of property developers ’
willingness to invest in green features in Abuja, Oyewole et al. (2019) found that
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landscaping/ecological features did not rank high among possible investment

options for green housing development. Planting outdoor shady plants was also
not top-ranking among investments made by residents who occupied a mass-
developed housing estate in Akure (Adegun and Ayoola, 2019).
The benefits of green infrastructure in housing development abound. Scant
number of of studies conducted in Nigeria are showing these benefits in terms of
thermal conditions, energy demand, and environmental quality. A field
measurement study in Akure shows that tree-shading around a building can result
in cooling up to 3 degrees in summer, resulting in 1500Kwh energy saving in a 6-
month period (Morakinyo et al., 2013; 2014; 2016). Up to 79% reduction in solar
heating through tree-shading is also possible, as an Owerri study shows (Ogueke
et al., 2017). In Enugu, up to 70% reduction in solar radiation was observed,
depending on the tree canopy, height, and specie (Obi, 2014). Similar result was
obtained in Lokoja (Alabi and Christian, 2013). Air pollution mitigation and carbon
sequestration were reported in a quasi-experimental study within residential
estates in the Ibadan (Adesoye et al., 2019). Temperature and CO2 were higher
around buildings and precincts with fewer or no trees.
THE ROLE OF SIMULATION AND MODELLING IN UNDERSTANDING

GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE BENEFITS
To understand and quantify the thermal and environmental benefits green
infrastructure, conventional field measurement approach is useful. It provides the
actual magnitude of the chosen indicator with limited error. However, it is an
expensive approach as the quantity of instruments needed increases with
increasing spatial resolution of measurement points. Besides, the approach does
not offer the opportunity for pre-development evaluation of the environmental
impact of green infrastructure implementation. On the other hand, modelling
involves abstraction of reality using mathematical equation and simplification
assumptions, it is however offering the opportunity to evaluate “what-if” scenarios
thereby informing decision making.
To model the vegetation impact on urban microclimate, several simulation
tools/models have been developed and have been categorized into two broad
groups (Yang et.al 2018): the Energy Balance Models (EBM) such as RayMan,
SOLWEIG (Solar LongWave Environmental Irrandiance Geometry), green-CTTC
(Cluster Thermal Time Constant), TEB-Veg (Town Energy Balance); and the
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) models such as OpenFOAM, FLUENT and
STAR-CCM+, PHOENICS with the plant canopy module FOLIAGE and the CFD-
based ENVI-met model. A review of vegetation evaluation models by Yang et.al
(2018) reveals that the CFD-based models are more used than the EBM and about
50% of reviewed literature used ENVI-met. This is mainly due to its geometric
domain structure, and the ability to the embedded plant model to mimic the
radiation and aerodynamic effects of vegetation coupled with the atmospheric
(Heat, humidity and wind) model, a combination not found in other counterparts.
As an example of the ENVI-met model’s application is a study by Morakinyo et. al

(2016) where ENVI-met was integrated with the Building Energy Simulation (BES)
program, EnergyPlus to assess the impact of tree-shading on indoor and outdoor
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summer thermal conditions of two similar buildings, where one is shaded by trees,
and the other unshaded (see Figure 1). Other studies (Tsoka et.al, 2018, and
Lobaccaro and Acero, 2015 and Shi et.al, 2020) have applied the tool in evaluating
urban heat mitigation strategies such cool roof and pavements, façade greening,
water bodies and urban morphology modification, among others.
Figure 1 – Hourly thermal comfort profile of outdoor and indoor area of a tree-shaded and
unshaded buildings (Morakinyo et.al, 2016).
STUDY AREA AND PREVAILING CLIMATE

The King’s Park Housing Estate, Abuja
Abuja, where the study site is located is part of the Federal Capital Territory which
covers approximately 400sqm. Its undulating terrain is located roughly 840m above
sea level and receives between 1100 and 1600mm of precipitation annually (Itiowe
et al., 2019). The climate is tropical – the koppen classification. It is yearlong warm
or hot, with an average daily high temperature of only 32 degrees. The temperature
can reach 40 degrees during the day in the dry season, although dry winds could
at times lower it up to 12 degrees at night (Abubakar 2014).
The Federal Government of Nigeria has historically been involved in housing

provision, infrastructure, and services in Abuja under the Federal Capital Territory
Administration (FCTA) and Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA). Many
housing estates were developed through these agencies. With increasing
population and demand for housing, Mass Housing through Public–Private
Partnership (PPP) was flagged off around the year 2000. Government sought active
participation of the private sector towards housing delivery through granting land
to real estate developers (Ukoje and Kanu, 2014). The study site, the Kings Park
housing estate is one of the privately developed housing schemes in Abuja. It is on
Latitude 9° 0' 55.1" N, Longitude 7° 25' 44.4"E, located at the Kukwaba district,
along the Umaru Musa Yardua Expressway, near Abuja Games Village (See Figure
2). Seating on a 36,254m2 of land, the housing estate contains over 60 buildings
with dwelling units on multiple floors distributed into 3-bedroom, 4-bedroom, 5-
bedroom apartments.
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Figure 2. Satellite Image of Kings Park Estate, Abuja, Nigeria
METHODOLOGY
Description of ENVI-met
As earlier mentioned, this study was carried using the urban micro-climate
simulation tool, ENVI-met (Bruse and Fleer, 1998; Huttner, 2012) which has ability
to simulate at high spatial (0.5 to 5 m) and temporal (1 to 5 sec) resolution the
surface-plant-air interactions resulting in near-accurate modelling of microclimatic
parameters in a complex environment with buildings and surfaces of unique or
diverse materials and greenery. ENVI-met treats plants as porous, living and
dynamical bodies with adjustable morphological characteristics and can interact
through evapotranspiration and energy absorption with the neighboring
environment. These capabilities are crucial for this study given the aim to apply the
understanding thermal benefit of green infrastructures (i.e. trees) reasonable
accuracy. The model is widely adopted by practitioners and researchers interested
in evaluating the effectiveness of certain urban heat mitigation and adaptation
strategies such as urban greenery and water bodies (Morakinyo et.al, 2020). Further
information on the model, including all embedded equations, documentation and
downloads can be found at http://www.envi-met.info.
Scenario development, model setting, initialization
Figure 3: Greenery and building coverage extent under various scenarios (a) Reference case, (b)
current case , (c) “1T1H” case, and (d) “1T1H+ST” case.
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In ENVI-met’s SPACES, we developed the built environment of Kings Park Estate in

a horizontal computational domain sized 616 X 510 m2 with a grid resolution 2m
X 2m and a vertical height of 30m at 3m vertical resolution. To ensure enough
distance before the upstream building and after the downstream building and to
minimize edge-effect, ten (10) nested grids were added to the computational
domain.
To model the buildings, we made use of the building footprint from google map
and uniform height of 10m was applied to all buildings. To achieve the goal of the
study, four scenarios of grey-green were developed (see Figure 3):
1) Reference case – a scenario with “no trees” within the estate.
2) Current case – a scenario with observable limited existing tree coverage from
google map
3) 1T1H case – this scenario assumes a proposal and adoption of “one tree(1T),
one house(1H)”.
4) IT1H+ST case - this scenario assumes the adoption of “one tree(1T), one
house(1H)”, with added street trees (ST) on all roads with the estate.
For the last two cases, we assumed a dense foliage medium height tree (Figure
4a) on the Eastern/North-Eastern side of the all the building within the domain
while small palm trees (Figure 4b) were added at intervals on all streets and roads
in the modelled estate.
To initialize the simulation, a simple forcing mode was employed representing a
typical hot-dry day in Abuja with minimum and maximum hourly air temperature
set to 21-33°C, minimum and maximum relative humidity at 27 - 53%, prevailing
wind speed at 2.00m/s and direction 40º.
Figure 4: Model of tree added in the simulation
To assess the outdoor thermal comfort and the impact of tree-shades, a thermal
comfort index, Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) was adopted. PET is
defined as equivalent to the air temperature that is required in a standardized
indoor setting (without wind and solar radiation), to balance heat budget of the
human body with the same core and skin temperature as under the complex
outdoor conditions to be assessed (Hoppe, 1999). Following the calculation done,
obtained values can be categorized to different thermal sensation and stress
classes (Table 1) for a standardized person characterized by a work metabolism of
80W of light activity, 0.9 clo of heat resistance from clothing in a tropical climate.
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Morakinyo, et al.
Table 1: PET range and corresponding human thermal perception and physiological stress in
stub-tropical climate
PET (°C) Thermal Perception Physiological stress
<13 Very cold Extreme cold stress
13 – 17 Cold Strong cold stress
17 – 21 Cool Moderate cold stress
21 – 25 Slightly cool Slight cold stress
25 – 29 Neutral No thermal stress
29 – 33 Slightly Warm Slight heat stress
33 – 37 Warm Moderate heat stress
37 – 41 Hot Strong heat stress
>41 Very Hot Extreme heat stress

Effect of neighborhood trees on the micro-climate and thermal comfort
We present here the simulation results of Physiologically Equivalent Temperature
(PET), an outdoor thermal comfort that is a function of air temperature, humidity,
wind speed and mean radiant temperature. Figure 5 shows the distribution of the
simulated PET within and around King Park’s Estate at 3PM (the hottest period of
the day) for the four scenarios. Irrespective of the case, the range of 35.7 – 55.6⁰C
observed indicated a thermal sensation of between “Warm” and “Very Hot”
(according to Table 1) mostly experienced around the buildings shadow and open-
sky area, respectively. However, with the addition of trees near the buildings and
streets/roads, the coverage of lowered PET increased significantly as the tree
coverage increased as shown in the figure 5 where the red/pink zones in the
reference and current cases, changed to lowered PET values. This observation is
mainly due to the reduction of direct solar radiation by the tree canopies leading
to lower radiant temperature under and around the tree canopies.
Figure 5: Spatial distribution of simulated PET within and around King Park’s Estate at 3PM for (a)
Reference case (b) current case , (c) “1T1H” case, and (d) “1T1H+ST” case.
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Morakinyo, et al.
To quantify the thermal effect of the implemented neighborhood greening, Figure

6 shows the difference in PET of the reference situation – no tree and (a) current
situation (b) when an assumed “one tree, one house” (1T1H case) and (c) “one tree
house and street trees”(“1T1H+ST” case) at 3PM, the period of maximum
temperature (i.e. peak thermal discomfort).
Figure 6: Spatial distribution of simulated change in PET within and around King Park’s Estate at
3PM between the Reference case and (a) current case , (b) “1T1H” case, and (c) “1T1H+ST” case.
A similar range of absolute difference: -9⁰C – (+2.2⁰C), -10⁰C – (+2.0⁰C), and -

10.9⁰C – (+1.9⁰C) was observed in the “current”, “1T1H” and “IT1H+ST” case,
respectively. Spatially, variable magnitude of PET reduction can be observed in the
other cases relative to the reference. Highest reduction of up to 10⁰C were found
under individual tree canopy and streets or areas with overlapping tree crowns. The
areal magnitude of the PET reduction is obviously dependent of tree coverage
ratio. With the current case, the most grids experience not more than 2⁰C ΔPET
while the coverage of intensified reduction are observed in the “1T1H” and
“1T1H+ST” cases, the latter giving the most area coverage of the increased PET
reduction especially at the inner core of the estate.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

This study has shown the urban overheating mitigation and thermal comfort
improvement of tree-planting in an existing tropical housing estate using the ENVI-
mt simulation tool. The ground areas and building walls around trees were shown
to have reduced radiant temperature and improvement in thermal comfort. Similar
findings were observed in earlier studies from outside Nigeria (See for example,
Wang et. al, 2019; Lee and Mayer, 2018, and Morakinyo et.al, 2020) where greening
mitigation strategies have been proven to improve the thermal environment of
residential neighborhood. Other greening strategies such green-roof, façade
greening, cool materials and water bodies can be simultaneously added in certain
areas where improved cooling is desired.
Several aspects are not considered in this study but could be the focus of future
research using the same simulation tools and/or field measurement approach. For
instance, it is possible to study the effect of different ground surface, and walling
materials, whereas concrete material was assumed is the present study. Also,
similar tree species are assumed and implemented while it is possible to model,
implement and evaluate the effect of different tree species (Morakinyo et.al., 2017).
To make more objective decision, representative prevailing climate condition can
also be tested. Here we evaluated with the typical dry season condition occurring
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Morakinyo, et al.
between December and January in Abuja. Simulation for the wet season can also
be conducted. Based on the overall outcome of this study, policy makers, architects,
urban designers and developers are encouraged to strongly consider the addition
of trees per house and on streets in current and future housing estate
development.
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Alabi, M. O., & Christian, E. I. (2013). Street Tree Canopy Cover Variation Effects on
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Balogun, A. A., Morakinyo, T. E., & Adegun, O. B. (2014). Effect of tree-shading on energy
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Biometeorology, 43(2): 71-75.
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ENVI-met. Doctoral dissertation, Universitätsbibliothek Mainz.
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Itiowe, T., Hassan, S. M., & Agidi, V. A. (2019). Analysis of Rainfall Trends and Patterns in
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Lee, H. & Mayer, H. (2018). Maximum extent of human heat stress reduction on building
areas due to urban greening. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 32: 154-167.
Lobaccaro, G., & Acero, J. A. (2015). Comparative analysis of green actions to improve
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Morakinyo, T. E., Ouyang, W., Lau, K. K. L., Ren, C., & Ng, E. (2020). Right tree, right place
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mitigation-development and evaluation. Science of The Total Environment, 719:
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Morakinyo, T. E., Balogun, A. A., & Adegun, O. B. (2013). Comparing the effect of trees on
thermal conditions of two typical urban buildings. Urban Climate, 3: 76-93.
Morakinyo, T. E., Dahanayake, K. K. C., Adegun, O. B., & Balogun, A. A. (2016). Modelling
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Ogueke, N. V., Nwakanma, A. F., Ngharamike, T., Nduka, C. F., Onyejizu, E. F., & Anyanwu,
E. E., (2017). Energy-saving potentials of some local trees. Energy Efficiency, 10(1):
171-181.
Oyewole, M. O., Ojutalayo, A. A., & Araloyin, F. M. (2019). Developers ’willingness to invest
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Tsoka, S., Tsikaloudaki, A., & Theodosiou, T. (2018). Analyzing the ENVI-met microclimate
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MODELLING OF FUTURE LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGE

DYNAMICS IN LAGOS, NIGERIA USING CELLULAR
AUTOMATA AND MARKOV CHAIN (CA-MARKOV) MODEL
Auwalu Faisal Koko1, Wu Yue2, Muhammed Bello3 and Ghali Abdullahi Abubakar4
1,2Collegeof Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University, China
3Department of Architecture, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna State, Nigeria
4College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, China
Many cities in developing countries have witnessed rapid urbanization, resulting in

various land use/land cover (LULC) changes. However, few studies focus on the
growth and development of African cities. As a result, this study aims to predict the
future land use/land cover of Lagos, Nigeria, from 2020-2050 using a combination
of cellular automata and the Markov Chain model (CA-Markov). The CA-Markov
model utilises historical land cover data and transition probabilities to simulate
future LULC patterns through Geographic Information System (GIS) techniques. In
this study, the land use/land cover pattern of Lagos was modelled and validated
using the city’s historical maps. The maps were derived from satellite images using
the maximum likelihood classification. The historical LULC indicates that Lagos had
witnessed an increase and decrease in the city’s different land-uses, comprising
built-up areas, vegetation, barren land, and water bodies. Over the last 20 years,
the city’s built-up areas and barren land have increased by approximately 19.81
km2 and 3.13 km2 per annum, while vegetation and water bodies have decreased
annually by 15.89 km2 and 7.06 km2, respectively. The Land Change Modeler (LCM)
of TerrSet software was utilised in simulating the CA-Markov model to forecast the
city’s future land cover based on the historical LULC trends. The predicted result
reveals that in 29 years, Lagos will experience a notable increase in built-up areas
from 1255.91 km2 in 2020 to 1544.95 km2 in 2050, while barren land will expand
by 257.62 km2. This change is expected to occur at the expense of vegetation, and
water bodies, which will decline by approximately 314.76 km2, and 231.90 km2.
Therefore, this study provides critical data useful to urban planners, policy, and
decision-makers in formulating strategies and initiatives for a sustainable built
environment in Africa’s most populous city.
Keywords: CA Markov, Geographic Information Systems(GIS), land use/land cover

change, LULC prediction, remotely sensed data
1 11812112@zju.edu.cn
2 ywu100@zju.edu.cn
3 mbello02@kadunapolytechnic.edu.ng
4 ghaliaa@zju.edu.cn
Auwalu, et al. (2021) Modelling of future land use/land cover change dynamics in Lagos, Nigeria
using Cellular Automata and Markov Chain (CA-MARKOV) Model In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds)
Ghana, 749-762
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INTRODUCTION
The recent changes in land use/land cover have become an issue of utmost
environmental concern globally due to their unprecedented impact on the
ecosystem (Alawamy, Balasundram, Hanif, & Teh, 2020; Halmy, Gessler, Hicke, &
Salem, 2015). The continuous trend of socio-economic development and
increasing population in most regions of the world have contributed to the wide-
ranging modification of the earth surfaces, particularly land use/land cover (Gong,
Yuan, Fan, & Stott, 2015). Several studies have indicated significant changes among
different land-uses due to human-induced activities (Shi et al., 2019; Song & Deng,
2017; Yang, Yang, Li, & Huang, 2021). The consequences of these alterations have
impacted directly and indirectly to the environment and climate. Some of the
adverse effects of these changes include loss of fertile land, water resources, and
biodiversity, forest degradation, deforestation, depletion of the ozone layer,
emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), and urban heat island development (Al-sharif
& Pradhan, 2014; Gogoi et al., 2019; Xu, Xie, Qi, Luo, & Wang, 2018; Zhong et al.,
2017). Therefore, examining spatiotemporal temporal changes in LULC plays a
crucial role in formatting policies on managing the built environment and natural
resources. It is appropriate to analyse LULC changes and forecast the possible
future changes for effective and long-term planning (Du et al., 2019; Haque &
Basak, 2017). Such studies envisaging environmental alterations are of utmost
importance in cities of developing countries such as Nigeria, having rapid
urbanization with associated change in land-uses.
The use of remote sensing techniques has provided numerous ways of producing
land use/land cover maps of a given area and generating statistical data for
analyzing LULC change dynamics (Ayele et al., 2018; Koko, Yue, Abubakar, Hamed,
& Alabsi, 2020). Butt, Shabbir, Ahmad, and Aziz (2015) opine that the availability of
remotely sensed data and their advantages of high-resolution spatiotemporal
images, when incorporated with GIS techniques, has provided a potential means
of detecting land cover change scenarios on the earth’s surface. The increase in
satellite platforms has contributed to faster, continuous, and regular images, which
help manage and forecast changes in various environmental studies (Abubakar et
al., 2020). Such data assist in planning and remedying the negative effects
associated with the alteration of land-uses. Previous studies have identified several
models for detecting and predicting changes in LULC. Such models include
empirical models (Cromley & Hanink, 1999; Veldkamp & Fresco, 1996), agent-
based models (Rouchier, Bousquet, Requier-Desjardins, & Antona, 2001),
evolutionary models (Sahebgharani, 2016), Cellular automata (CA), and Markov
chain model (Abdulrahman & Ameen, 2020; Liping, Yujun, & Saeed, 2018).
However, the integration of Cellular automata and Markov chain models are the
most widely used methods for the LULC change prediction due to its
spatiotemporal consideration of land use/land cover (Aneesha Satya, Shashi, &
Deva, 2020).
Several studies have analysed spatiotemporal land use/land cover changes using
various satellite data and GIS techniques while employing the CA-Markov model
to predict the future LULC. A comprehensive review of the Cellular Automata and
Markov chain modelling techniques for geospatial environment simulation can be
found in Ghosh et al. (2017). In a recent study carried out by Koko et al. (2020), the
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future land use/land cover pattern of Zaria city, Nigeria, was predicted using an
integrated CA-Markov chain model. Similarly, Aneesha Satya et al. (2020) used
open-source GIS methods to simulated the future land cover scenario in Warangal
city, India. Wang and Maduako (2018) studied the spatio-temporal urban growth
dynamics of the Lagos Metropolitan Region in Nigeria using a Hybrid approach for
land cover modelling and prediction. Liping et al. (2018) analysed and predicted
the LULC changes in the hilly region of Jiangle county, China, using remote sensing
and GIS techniques. Gidey, Dikinya, Sebego, Segosebe, and Zenebe (2017), used
the Cellular Automata and Markov Chain in predicting the future LULC scenarios in
Raya, Northern Ethiopia. The integrated CA-Markov model has also been utilised
in projecting the land cover changes in the urban renewal areas of Hong Kong
(Zheng, Shen, Wang, & Hong, 2015). The result of these studies have demonstrated
the efficiency of the integrated modelling approach for LULC prediction and
provided credible data for informed decision-making on the management of land
uses and natural resources.
Although numerous land use/land cover studies have been carried out on cities in
different geographical regions, very few studies monitored and predicted the land
use/land cover dynamics of rapidly growing cities in Africa, particularly Lagos,
which is Nigeria’s most populous city. The focus of such studies has always been
the metropolitan area of the city, without any studies covering the entire city of
Lagos. Therefore, to fill this existing research gap, the present study detected and
modelled the future land use/land cover of Lagos, Nigeria, using an integrated
modelling method, i.e., CA-Markov. To achieve this, the study; (i) derived and
analysed the historical LULC data of Lagos city using remotely sensed images and
GIS techniques, (ii) modelled and validated the simulated LULC pattern of Lagos in
2020, (iii) utilised the transition area matrix and transition probability matrix
generated for the period between 2010 and 2020 to predict Lagos city’s future
LULC pattern in 2050. The findings of this paper provided the essential land
use/land cover information that could be used as scientific data with a view of
comprehensively understanding and planning the entire city of Lagos through
environmental and developmental programs that are crucial to achieving
sustainable development of the city.

Study area
Lagos is located in a low-lying area in Nigeria’s south-western zone, stretching over
a landmass of approximately 3,577 square kilometers (Lagos State Government,
2020). The city has a latitudinal extent between 6° 15′ and 6° 45′ N, and a
longitudinal coverage between 2°45´ and 4°15´ E as shown in Figure 1. It borders
the Atlantic Ocean to the south, the Benin Republic to the west, and Ogun state to
the north and east. Lagos has tropical rainforest climatic conditions, similar to other
southern regions of Nigeria, with high temperatures and humidity throughout the
year. It has an average annual precipitation of 1600mm and an average yearly
temperature of 25°C (Jimoh et al., 2018). Lagos has two main seasons: a wet season,
which occurs from April to October, and a dry season witnessed from November
to March. These distinct seasons are often accompanied by dry Harmattan winds
between December and February.
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Figure 1: Geographical location of Lagos, Nigeria
Like many other rapidly growly urban centers, Lagos has witnessed increased urban
development and expansion due to rapid urbanization. This development has
altered the city’s land-use/land cover and transformed Lagos from a port city to
Nigeria’s most vibrant socio-economic hub, contributing over 30% of its Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). The city of Lagos is a crucial contributor to Nigeria’s non-
oil sector, with over 60% of Nigeria’s commercial and industrial activities (Lagos
State Government, 2020). The availability of urban infrastructures has contributed
immensely to the migration of the people to the city. Lagos having nearly 80% of
Nigeria’s international fight traffic and over 70% of Nigeria’s cargo freight, has
helped connect the city to different parts of the world. Lagos city’s population had
rapidly increased from about 4.8 million in 1990 to approximately 14.4 million in
2020. The city is projected to have approximately 24.4 million inhabitants by 2035,
which is expected to increase twice by 2050, making the city one of the world’s top
three largest cities (Population Stat, 2020). Hence, the motivation for selecting
Lagos as the study area mainly emanated from the city’s rapid urbanization and
increased population, which contributes to the numerous environmental
challenges that affect the city.
METHODS
To achieve the study’s aim. The procedures were divided into two main steps: i) the
generation of spatiotemporal land-use/land cover data from remotely sensed
satellite images and ii) using the acquired LULC data to forecast the future changes
in LULC patterns. For the generation of spatiotemporal LULC data, Landsat (level 1)
satellite images of the study area were acquired without any cost from the United
States Geological Survey (USGS) website (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/) for 2000,
2010, and 2020. The images were obtained during the dry season between October
and February to acquire cloud-free images and avoid atmospheric distortions. The
satellite data comprises Landsat ETM+ for 2000 and 2010 and Landsat OLI for 2020.
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Google earth images of the study area were also obtained to ascertain the actual
ground conditions during the study’s different time nodes.
The methodological flowchart of the study is illustrated in Figure 2. It consists of

two (2) main sections. Section (a) demonstrates the various steps involved in the
classification of LULC and its accuracy assessment, while section (b) illustrates the
procedure utilised for modelling the future LULC pattern of the study area. The
various processes utilised are further discussed below.
Figure 2: Methodological flowchart of the study comprising (a) LULC classification procedure and
(b) LULC modelling steps.
Image pre-processing and classification

The study utilised Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and Landsat 8
Operational Land Imager (OLI) to derive the LULC data and model the study area’s
future change dynamics. It acquired full scenes of datasets for three different
periods (i.e., 2000, 2010, and 2020). The images were downloaded at a spatial
resolution of 30m having the visible, near-infrared (NIR), and mid-infrared (MIR).
However, processing these satellite images or remotely sensed data could be
challenging due to few distortions in acquiring systems or sensors (Koko et al.,
2020). Therefore, prior to image classification, satellite images ’pre-processing is
vital in minimizing errors and building a more reliable connection between the
actual ground condition and satellite data (Coppin, Jonckheere, Nackaerts, Muys,
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& Lambin, 2010). The study utilised pre-processing operations that included gap
filling, sub-setting, radiometric, atmospheric, and geometric corrections. These
operations were performed in ArcGIS 10.7.1 and ENVI 5.3 image processing
software. All the images were mapped using WGS84 ellipsoid and georeferenced
to the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 31N. The classification of images
aided in cataloguing the entire pixels of the individual satellite images into land
use/land cover classes using thematic maps. It assigns spectral signatures to land-
use categories based on the diverse LULC classes ’reflectance attributes (Cheruto,
Kauti, Kisangau, & Kariuki, 2016). The Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)
algorithm was used for the classification of images. The images were classified into
four broad classes comprising the built-up/urban area, vegetation, bare soil/barren
land, and water bodies. The description of each LULC class is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Description of various LULC classes adopted in this study.

Broad LULC
S/No. Description
Classification
Areas covered by buildings and other human-made structures
Urban/Built-Up
1. having residential, commercial, mixed-use, and industrial
Area
facilities/services
It includes areas covering various shrubland, mixed forests,
2. Vegetation
agricultural land, farmlands, crop fields, and other plantations.
Comprises areas having no vegetation cover. Such lands include
3. Bare Soil bare ground, exposed soil and rock surfaces, quarries,
construction, and excavation site.
Includes areas such as swamps, lakes, streams, rivers, reservoirs,
4. Water Bodies
and ponds
Accuracy assessment of classified images

Accuracy assessment is a vital process in land use/land cover classification. It
evaluates the reliability of classified LULC maps derived from satellite images.
Satellite images are usually compared with ground truth data using land-use maps,
field observations, and other high-resolution satellite images such as google earth
imagery. In this study, the accuracy assessment was conducted using high-
resolution satellite imagery retrieved from Google Earth Pro (Version 7.3.3.). The
satellite images of 28th January 2010 and 7th January 2020 were used to validate
the classified LULC maps. The study employed a random sampling method to
generate validation points for each LULC category. A total of 200 reference points
were randomly created, having approximately 50 sample points per LULC class as
suggested by Congalton (1991). The reference points were compared with the
classified land use/land cover map of 2010 and 2020 to produce an error matrix.
The LULC classification accuracy was evaluated using various measures obtained
from the error matrix, which mainly includes the overall accuracy and kappa
coefficient (k). An overall accuracy above 80% is often considered an acceptable
land use/land cover classification (Rwanga & Ndambuki, 2017). A kappa coefficient
above 0.8 signifies an excellent agreement. ‘k ’values between 0.4 and 0.6 represent
a good agreement, whereas values less than 0.4 signifying a poor agreement
(Foody, 2004).
Modelling of future LULC pattern
The spatiotemporal modelling of the future LULC distribution was carried out using
Lagos ’historical land use/land cover data between 2010 and 2020. During this
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period, Lagos had witnessed significant LULC alterations due to rapid urbanization.
Therefore, to predict the city’s future land use/land cover of 2050, this period’s
LULC transition was considered. The study employed the Land Change Modeller
(LCM) of TerrSet (Version 18.31) geospatial monitoring and modelling software to
predict the city’s future LULC. The modelling system is suitable for simulating land
use/land cover changes, mainly when physical mapping is time-consuming and
difficult. It utilises the combination of Markov chain and cellular automata models.
The Markov chain model has been widely used in modelling changes in land
use/land cover conditions due to its advantages for predicting land cover
conditions through transition probabilities. However, the model lacks the ability to
simulate the various alterations in spatial trends of land use/land cover classes.
Therefore, the integrated CA-Markov model is considered in urban planning as an
effective and robust simulation model that helps improve the efficiency of
spatiotemporal land-use/land cover prediction. It computes transition matrixes
based on the number of temporal changes among the different LULC classes. The
CA-Markov helps simulate spatial variation by utilizing remotely sensed datasets
and GIS techniques (Cunha, Santos, Silva, Bacani, & Pott, 2021). It is also a model
that considers the suitability of changes in land use/land cover categories and the
effect of natural, societal, and economic factors on LULC change dynamics (Sang,
Zhang, Yang, Zhu, & Yun, 2011). In our present study, the modelling of the LULC
changes was therefore conducted using the CA-Markov model due to the
numerous advantages of the model for forecasting land use/land cover conditions.
The CA-Markov model was trained in the land change modeler by combining the
Markov chain processes and cellular automata filter functions. The simulation
model utilised the transition probability matrix, transition areas matrix, and
transition probability map of the simulated and validated period, i.e. the year 2020
to predict the changes in land use/land cover of Lagos in the forecasted period i.e.
year 2050. The procedures involved for the land use/land cover simulation include;
(i) analyzing the historical LULC data, (ii) modelling and validation of simulated
LULC of 2020, and (iii) modelling the city’s 2050 LULC pattern.

Historical LULC distribution and its changes
The mapping of Lagos ’historical LULC pattern for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020
are illustrated in Figure 3, with the area statistics and its changes presented in Table
2. The result revealed significant growth in built-up areas from 23.43% in 2000 to
34.23% in 2020, increasing 10.8% over the last 20 years. The result shows that
vegetation areas declined from 49.74% in 2000 to 45.29% in 2020. Water bodies
declined from 22.90% in 2000 to 19.05% in 2020, while the bare soil increased from
3.93% in 2000 to 5.64% in 2020. The outcome signifies an increase and decrease in
the different LULC patterns of Lagos, which can be attributed to the city’s increased
socio-economic activities that continuously alter land-use/land cover distribution
(Auwalu, Wu, Ghali, Roknisadeh, & Akram Ahmed, 2021). Therefore, analyzing the
historical LULC changes and forecasting future land-uses could help manage the
city’s built environment and drive policy interventions in areas needed.
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Figure 3: Land use/Land Cover Classification Mapping of Lagos in 2000, 2010, and 2020.
Table 2: LULC class distribution and its periodic changes.
The study demonstrated the historical changes of the different LULC classes
categorised into three different study periods, i.e., period one (2000-2010), period
two (2010-2020), and period three (2000-2020). The analysis of the change
detection result of the first period, i.e., 2000-2010, revealed an increase of 29.46%
in Lagos city’s built-up areas while the area of vegetation, water bodies, and bare
soil declined by 8.95%, 2.55%, and 47.46%, respectively. During these ten years, the
built-up area expanded rapidly by 253.22 km2 while a significant decrease of
163.31 km2, 21.46 km2, and 68.45 km2 was observed in vegetation, water bodies,
and bare soil, respectively. These changes can be attributed to the city’s socio-
economic development that attracted a massive influx of people. In the second
period between 2010 and 2020, the increase in the built-up areas was observed in
Lagos city’s central axis, precisely in urban areas around Ikeja, Mushin, Oshodi-
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Isholo, and other adjourning areas. This period witnessed a lower growth
magnitude in built-up areas having a decline of 16.6% compared with the earlier
period between 2000 and 2010. Vegetation and water bodies also experienced a
decreasing trend between 2010 and 2020, declining by 154.41 km2 and 119.77km2,
respectively. However, bare soil observed a significant increase of 173.01%,
approximately 131.11 km2, during this second period. During the third period
between 2000 and 2020, the built-up area expanded by 396.29 km2, i.e., 46.10%,
while vegetation and water bodies decreased by 317.72 km2 and 141.23 km2,
respectively, signifying a decline in area of about 17.41% and 16.81%.
Accuracy assessment of classification
The study employed google earth images to evaluate the accuracy of classified
land use/land cover maps. For this, the study compared the generated LULC maps
of Lagos and the actual ground condition. It is an effective and reliable method of
validating the accuracy of each LULC category. The result revealed an overall
accuracy of 89.86% in 2000, 91.03% in 2010, and 95.12% in 2020. Also, it indicated
a Kappa coefficient of approximately 0.85, 0.86, and 0.93 in 2000, 2010, and 2020.
Anderson, Hardy, Roach, and Witmer (1976) specified 85% as the minimum level
of accuracy for LULC class classification. In this study, the overall accuracies for all
the periods under study were above 85%, indicating a reliable LULC classification
(Congalton, 1991). Besides, a Kappa coefficient above 0.75 signifies good
agreement between ground truth data and classified LULC categories.
Simulation and validation of 2020 LULC

The study compared the simulated land use/land cover map of 2020 with the
satellite-derived LULC map of the study area in 2020, which served as the reference
map representing the city’s actual ground condition. The automated 2020 LULC
map comparison validated the simulation model for the CA-Markov.
Table 3: Markov Transition probabilities for LULC change from 2010 to 2020.
2020
LULC Classes
Built-up Vegetation Bare Soil Water Bodies
Built-up 0.9110 0.0186 0.0704 0.0000
Vegetation 0.1744 0.7624 0.0609 0.0022
2010
Bare Soil 0.5396 0.0045 0.4559 0.0000
Water Bodies 0.0841 0.0042 0.2638 0.6479
The validation information of the specified period (i.e., the year 2020) was used in
the study to evaluate the certainty of the CA-Markov model for future LULC
prediction. The result revealed four Kappa coefficients comprising a Kno value of
0.86, Klocation value of 0.81, KlocationStrata value of 0.82, and Kstandard value of
0.79. The analysis of the result shows that the individual kappa coefficients ’values
are all above 0.75, demonstrating a good and reliable simulation process (Landis
& Koch, 1977). The validation result signifies that the simulation model along its
composition is satisfactory for modelling future LULC changes. Thereafter, the
model was employed to project the future land use/land cover of Lagos in 2050.
The transitions in the various LULC classes during this period (i.e., (2010-2020) are
presented in Table 3. The transitions indicate bare soil as the land cover class with
the most significant probability of changing into built-up with a transition
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probability of 0.5396, followed by vegetation with 0.1744 and then water bodies
with 0.0841. Therefore, the study utilised the transition probability matrix between
2010 and 2020 to model the future land use/land cover of Lagos in 2050
Predicted LULC pattern of 2050

The spatial distribution of LULC was mapped from 2020 to 2050. It relied on the
result of the good validation process of the CA-Markov and utilised the simulation
model for the prediction. The derived LULC maps of 2010 and 2020 were used to
map Lagos ’future LULC distribution in 2050. The LULC map of 2020 was used as
the base map for the CA Markov while incorporating the transition probability
matrix for the period between 2010 and 2020 into the model. The modelling result
of the LULC pattern of Lagos in 2050 is presented in Figure 4. Also, the comparison
of the 2020 and 2050 LULC distribution obtained from the two LULC maps is
presented in Table 4. It indicates both positive and negative changes in the
different LULC classes. An analysis of the results revealed that in the next 29 years,
Lagos built-up areas would increase from 1255.91 km2 in 2020 to 1544.95 km2 in
2050, indicating an increase of 289.04 km2. This increase will be likely attributed to
the excessive use of natural land and the development of urban areas. The area
comprising the city’s bare soil is also expected to increase from 206.89 km2 in 2020
to 464.51 km2 in 2050. This indicates an increase of 257.62 km2. However,
vegetation and water bodies showed a decreasing trend in the forecasted result. It
indicated that the vegetation in Lagos would decline from 1507.21 km2 in 2020 to
1192.45 km2 in 2050, indicating a vegetation loss of 314.76 km2. The area covering
the water bodies will also decline from 698.93 km2 in 2020 to 467.03 km2 in 2050,
signifying a decline of 231.90 km2.
Figure 4: Predicted LULC Map of 2050
Table 4: Area of predicted LULC and its changes from 2020 to 2050.
Area in 2020 Area in 2050 Total Change in Total Change
LULC Classes
(km2) (km2) Area (km2) (%)
Built-up 1255.91 1544.95 289.04 23.01
Vegetation 1507.21 1192.45 -314.76 -20.88
Bare Soil 206.89 464.51 257.62 124.52
Water Bodies 698.93 467.03 -231.90 -33.18
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In summary, the prediction of the 2050 LULC pattern of Lagos indicates that the
city’s built-up area and bare soil will expand by approximately 23.01% and
124.52%, respectively, while vegetation and water bodies will decline by
approximately 20.88% and 33.18% over the next 29 years. The anticipated
alterations in the land use/land cover pattern of the study area, i.e., Lagos, can
mainly be attributed to the socio-economic development in various sectors of the
city that comprise manufacturing, construction, transportation, and many others.
The forecasted LULC will significantly help manage the environmental
consequences of rapid urbanization in Lagos.
CONCLUSIONS
The present study analysed the historical changes in land use/land cover of Lagos
while aiming to model the city’s future LULC over the next 29 years. Remotely
sensed satellite images of the years 2010 and 2020 were employed to simulate the
city’s future LULC using an integrated CA-Markov model. The study validated the
simulation model, and the outcome showed satisfactory kappa coefficients. The
model was then used to project the future LULC pattern of Lagos in 2050. The
results revealed that from 2020 to 2050, Lagos would witness a considerable
increase in built-areas and bare soil while a significant decline is expected in the
city’s vegetated land and water bodies. The integration of the CA-Markov model,
coupled with geospatial technology, has demonstrated its capabilities for
predicting future land-uses. The study result depicts the usefulness of the
modelling technique as a tool for providing reliable LULC data on the magnitude
of future LULC changes. However, this study was limited to assuming uniform
historical transition probabilities in the LULC simulation model. It is, therefore,
necessary for future studies to consider the unprecedented influences of various
factors that include socio-economic data, climate, government policies, and many
others. Incorporating these variables to model future LULC changes will
undoubtedly lead to a more accurate and reliable LULC prediction.
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762
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
MODELLING OPTIMAL UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE

STRENGTH OF GEOTEXTILE REINFORCED SOIL FOR FLEXIBLE
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION
Daniel E. Aju1 and Kennedy C. Onyelowe2
1Department of Work, Cross River Institute of Technology and Management, Ugep, Cross River
State, Nigeria
2Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Engineering Technology, Michael
Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Nigeria
Extreme vertex design (EVD) provides an efficient approach to mixture experiment

design whereby the factor level possess multiple dependencies are expressed
through component constraints formulation. EVD was deployed for the modeling
UCS of a geogrid reinforced problematic soil aimed at checking the validity in
subgrade construction. Geogrids are geosynthetic materials, which possess an
open mesh-like structure and are mostly used for soil stabilization. Geogrids
present permeable layer to support the soil and foundation by improving the
stiffness characteristics. It is cheap compared to other construction materials and
possesses unique light weight properties with greater strength improvement on
the soil layer when used. Minitab 18 and Design Expert statistical software were
utilized for the mixture design experiment computation. To fully explore the
constrained region of the simplex, I-optimal designs with a special cubic design
model were utilized to formulate the mixture component ratios at ten experimental
runs. I-optimality and D-optimality of 0.39093 and 1747.474, respectively, were
obtained with G-efficiency of 64.8%. The laboratory responses were taken together
with the mixture ingredients as the system database for the model development.
Statistical influence and diagnostics tests carried out on the generated EVD model
indicated a good correlation with the experimental results. Graphical and numerical
optimizations were incorporated using desirability functions that ranged from 0 to
1, which helped to arrive at the optimal combination of the mixture components.
0.2% of geogrid, 9.8% of water, and 90 % of soil yielded the optimal solution with
a response of 41.270kN/m2 and a desirability score of 1.0. Model simulation was
further carried out to test the model’s applicability in subgrade construction with
the results compared with the actual results using student’s t-test and analysis of
variance. The statistical results showed p-value>0.05 which indicates good
correlation.
Keywords: constrained simplex method, design expert, extreme vertices, geogrid,

soil, unconfined compressive strength
1 ajudaniel85@gmail.com; daniel_aju@critm.edu.ng
2 konyelowe@mouau.edu.ng; kennedychibuzor@kiu.ac.ug
Aju and Onyelowe (2021) Modelling optimal unconfined compressive strength of geotextile
reinforced soil for flexible foundation construction In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West
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Aju and Onyelowe
INTRODUCTION
Geosynthetics are non-natural materials often used to improve soil’s mechanical
properties. They are obtained from petro-chemical polymer-based plastics
(polymeric materials) which are inert biologically and would not decompose due
to the actions of fungal, bacteria, and microorganisms (B. Indraratna et al. 2011).
However, their chemical properties vary as most are totally inert while some are
affected by sunlight and petrochemicals. They are incorporated with soil to achieve
confinement, separation, and distribution of loads such as reinforcement for water
pressure control and prevent soil movement while allowing water pass through the
material. It can also be effectively utilized to prevent or reduce base coarse
aggregates horizontal deformation and to resist asphalt reflective cracking (H. A.
Alawaji, 2001). Construction of flexible road pavement with expansive subgrade
soil most times requires higher thickness for constituting cross-section materials
to safely carry the intending traffic loads without excessive and differential
settlement of the subgrade (Salahudeen et al. 2014). Moreover, the flexible
pavement could also deteriorate rapidly due to aggregated cross-section layers
sinking into the expansive subgrade under traffic loads with increased moisture
content. However, the introduction of geosynthetic layer between the problematic
clayey subgrade materials and the aggregate layer (base and sub-base) can prevent
the dreadful intermixing of the soft subgrade with the sub-base and base layer
which results in road failure (I. Al.Qadi et al. 2018). The incorporation of
geosynthetic materials can also provide significant gains in terms of thickness
reduction of the pavement cross-section layers due to improved strength
performance. Geogrid is a special type of geosynthetic material produced by
stretching and extrusion of a high polymeric molecule (polyester, propylene or
high density polyethylene (HDPE)). It possesses a number of apertures which are
uniformly distributed between the transverse and longitudinal sections. Through
the apertures, there is direct contact and bonding between the sheets of the
geosynthetic materials and the soil particle (Bounsanti et al. 2012; A. Demir et al.
2012). With the use of weak soil in pavement construction, there is need to improve
the unconfined compressive strength of the soil in order be able to withstand the
axial traffic load. One of those methods includes the use of geogrids to reinforce
the soil. However, the optimization of the utilization of these stabilization or soil
reinforcement materials and the strength properties has become very important.
Hence, the primary focus of this work was to apply the technique of extreme vertex
design of experimental mixtures to optimize the UCS of the geogrid reinforced soil
used as subgrade material. Extreme vertex design (EVD) method is a mixture design
technique, which occupies a sub-portion or smaller space within the simplex. The
technique is essential when the design factor space selected is not L-simplex
design. This limitation is imposed by both lower and upper bound constraints in
the factor levels when there is a high level of interdependencies between the
mixture components (R. A. McLean and V. L. Anderson, 2012). The major objective
of EVD method is to choose design points that appropriately cover the design
space; this occurs as a result of additional constraints imposition of upper and
lower boundary conditions on the mixture components which causes the design
points occupying some portion of the simplex known as the constrained region.
Extreme vertex design technique permits the imposition of additional boundary
limits on the mixture component values by specifying upper bounds on
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components and defining linear constraints for blends. The goal of using an
extreme vertex design is to choose design points that adequately cover the design
space (Damiri et al. 2016).
For q-component mixtures where the ith component proportion present in the
mixture by xi, the factor space takes the shape of a regular (q-1) dimensional
simplex due to the sum of one constraint presented in Eqn. 1. EVD method is
flexible enough to deal with the imposition of additional constraints on the mixture
components due to multiple dependencies between them. The lower and upper
limit is denoted by Li and Ui respectively.as shown in Eqn. 2 and the sum of the
mixture component ratios must be unity (J. A. Cornell, 2011).
, i = 1, 2, 3… q
(1)
(2)
The mixture experiments objective is to develop mathematical model adequate
where the factor levels relates the desired response parameters.

Commonly used Scheffe’s method for data fitting which is expressed in Eqn. 3 for
quadratic polynomial function (J. A. Cornell, 2011).
(3)
And this is represented in matrix form as shown in Eqn. 4.
(4)
Where is matrix and is the number of model terms; is vector

for the response parameter observations; is vector for the error function;
and is a vector for the predicted parameters (H. Scheffe, 1958; D. Jiang-
Tong et al. 1999).
The error properties were assumed to possess the property expressed in Eqn. 5
; (5)
Where = the variance of the error function; is an identity matrix.
The least square estimator for the predicted variables is presented in Eqn. 6.
(6)
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Aju and Onyelowe
The variance covariance matrix of the least squares estimator solution (b) is further
expressed in Eqn. 7.
(7)
MATERIAL AND METHODS

Materials preparation
Expansive soil was collected at Edem Ekpenyong Street Anantigha, Calabar South
Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. The geogrid (as presented in
Fig. 1) was also obtained from Sermatech Construction Company in Calabar, Cross
River State, Nigeria. Geogrids are spaced grid or open mesh-like synthetic materials
of constituting polymers cemented integrally as shown in Fig. 1. They have
mechanical strength characteristics than common geosynthetic materials and can
only stretch to limit about 2% - 5% under loading condition (Guimaraes et al. 2017;
Wang et al. 2010). The properties of the geogrid material used are shown in Table
1.
Fig. 1: Geogrid material
Table 1: Test geogrid properties

Aperture Size of Mesh (mm) 10 x 10
Shape of Aperture (mm) Square
Tensile Strength (kN/m) 12.5
Color Black
Structure Bi-directional
Elongation at maximum load (%) 20.5
Unit Weight (N/m2) 7.35
Thickness of Sheet (mm) 4
Raw Material Polypropylene
Experimental Methods
The experimental programs for the investigative study were carried out upon the
guiding requirements stipulated in BS 1924 (1990) and BS 1377 (1990) for the
problematic clayey soil mechanical properties improvement using geosynthetic
materials. Classification and general engineering properties derivation of the test
soil were first achieved through specific gravity test, consistency limit, compaction
test, sieve analysis, and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) test. This mixture
experiment problem, which involves three component materials, namely; geogrid,
water, and clayey soil, and because of the component constraint imposition at the
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lower and upper boundary limits, the simplex is consequently constrained whereby
the experimental points are situated at the vertices, interior and edges of the
constrained region instead of the whole of the simplex (Aslam et al. 2020). Using I-
optimal design computation with quadratic model design, the constrained
experimental portion was adequately explored to generate the mixture
components ratios and the number of experimental runs required. UCS tests were
carried out in respect to the formulated ingredients proportions and the
corresponding responses derived were utilized for the mechanical behavior
modelling of the soil-geogrid blend. Statistical influences and diagnostic tests were
carried out to validate the developed EVD model. Furthermore, graphical and
numerical optimization is conducted using desirability function computation to
maximize the output variable criteria with respect to the factor levels. The optimal
combinations of the soil-geogrid blend for maximum mechanical response were
determined in this process followed by simulation of the EVD model (W.
Wangkamanon et al. 2018). The research program flowchart is presented in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Program flowchart
Unconfined Compressive Strength

The unconfined compressive strength (UCS) is the maximum axial compressive
stress that a right-cylindrical sample of material can withstand
under unconfined conditions. The purpose of this laboratory is to determine
the unconfined compressive strength of a cohesive soil sample. In this test, a
cylinder of soil without lateral support is tested to failure in simple compression at
a constant rate of stream. The compressive load per unit area required to fail the
specimen is called unconfirmed compressive strength of the soil in accordance with
BS1377 (1990) with a setup presented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Unconfined compressive strength experimental setup
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Formulation of geotextile soil specimen mix proportions

The determination of the actual proportion of the mixture ingredients to be mixed
for each particular experimental run and the total number of experimental runs
were carried out here. The effective ratios obtained here form the fundamental
base for the EVD model development to derive the optimal combination ratio for
the soil-geogrid blend and achieve improvement in the problematic clayey soil
engineering properties for flexible pavement construction. The mixture
formulation computation was carried out with Design Expert 11 and Minitab 18
statistical software (Design Expert 11, 2018; Minitab 18, 2018).
Formulation of constraints
The mixture components are imposed with lower and upper bounds established
through the properties of the ingredient materials which constitute the
experimental soil-geogrid blend. In most cases, practical and environmental,
economic, or physical considerations impose most of these boundary conditions.
For the three-component mixture investigated in this research study, constituting
of geogrid, water and problematic clayey soil to enhance its mechanical properties.
From the relevant literatures (Zhou et al. 2012), the component constraints were
formulated using single component constraints (SCC) are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Design constraints

Mixture Coding: Actual
Low Constraint High
0.001 A:geogrid 0.002
0.098 B:water 0.150
0.848 C:soil 0.900
A+B+C 1.000
Design of simplex and factor space

The developed constraints, which defined the upper and lower limits of the single
component constraints imposed on the factor levels, cause the factor space to take
a hyper-polyhedron simplex shape. The feasible experimental region within the
simplex, termed the constrained space, is then obtained through the component
constraints evaluation (Zhou et al. 2012). The degree of freedom evaluation is also
conducted through design matrix computation for the design mixture using a
quadratic model with U_pseudo mixture component coding as presented in Table
3. A minimum of 3 lacks of fit degrees of freedom (df) is required. This ensures a
valid lack of fit test. Less df will result in a test that will not detect a lack of fit
(Design Expert 11, 2018; Minitab 18, 2018).
Table 3: Design matrix evaluation for mixture quadratic model 3 factors: A, B, C with U_Pseudo
Mixture
Degrees of Freedom for Evaluation
Model 5
Residuals 4
Lack of Fit 3
Pure Error 1
Corr Total 9
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The software further developed the contour plot of the 3- component simplex
shown in Fig. 4, which diagrammatically displays the actual experimental points
positioned within the constrained region. The information matrix measures
showing the space type, leverages, and build types. Ten (10) runs were generated
to improve on the optimality or efficiency of the model operation. Lack of fit was
recorded on axialCB while the replicate point is situated at the center space of the
feasible design space. The model build type was thus situated at the vertex and
center-edge space type. Average leverage of 0.6 was calculated; this in effect raises
concern for more design points to be located on these spaces of the simplex to
reduce the lack of fit effect on the entire experimental space (Lawson and Erjavec,
2001).
Fig. 4: Factor space simplex of a 3- component mixture experiment of water, soil, and geogrids.
The relevant data statistics for the design of experiments, multicollinearity design,
scaled D-optimality, and I-optimal design computations were carried out using
design expert software. D-optimality produces a design that best estimates the
effects of the factors, which is particularly suited for screening studies. The
algorithm picks points that minimize the volume of the confidence ellipsoid for the
coefficients. I.e., it minimizes the determinant of the inverse matrix X’X, while I-
optimal designs, also known as IV (integrated variance), provides a minimum
average estimation of the variance across the experimental regions (U. Syafitri et
al. 2015).
Design of experimental mix proportions

The number of experimental runs and the ingredients proportions were derived
from the information matrix. Ten runs of experiments were derived in the process
based on the imposed component constraints. The mixes and runs for the 3-
component multi-constraints experimental design guide the preparation of
specimens to be tested in the laboratory to achieve the responses (Xue et al. 2014;
Alaneme et al. 2020).
RESULT DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

Test materials characterization
The general classification and engineering behavior of the soil is presented in Table
4. The results indicate that it possesses high plasticity and swelling potential; it is
also poorly graded and exhibits expansive properties of soft materials. The
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classification by AASHTO (1993) and USCS (ASTM, 1992) produced A-7 and CH,
respectively, which indicates an unsuitable soil for engineering work with low CBR
of 5 %, MDD of 1.28 Mg/m3 and OMC of 17 %. The studied soil has a specific gravity
of 2.38 and from the grain size distribution of the unaltered soil, 38.24 % were
passed through BS No. 200 sieve (75 μm aperture) (see Fig. 5). Plastic limit, liquid
limit and plasticity index results of 20.53%, 54.23%, and 33.7. According to Federal
Ministry of Works and Housing specification (FMWH, 1997), the soils not suitable
for subgrade materials possess liquid limit and plasticity index values =< 30% and
=< 13% respectively which implies that samples fall outside the required
specification. However, a stabilization process is required to improve its properties
to make it suitable for civil works (Bello et al. 2007).
Table 4: Basic properties of the test soil
Percentage Passing BS No. 200 Sieve (75 μm aperture) 38.24

Natural Moisture Content (%) 36.45
Dry Unit Weight (kN/m3) 17.69

Specific Gravity 2.38
Liquid Limit (%) 54.23
Plastic Limit (%) 20.53
Plasticity Index (%) 33.7
OMC (%) 17
MDD (g/cm3) 1.28
AASHTO A-7
USCS CH
CBR (%) 5
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) ( kN/m2) 12.287
Fig. 5: Particle Size Distribution Graph
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Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) test results

The experimental parameters utilized for the Unconfined Compressive Strength
(UCS) test of the soil-geogrid blend with a proven ring factor of 0.0009kN are
according to required standard (BS1377, 1990). The strain reading, corrected area,
and stress values were then derived for each experimental run. The soils were
further blended with geogrid at varying ratios according to the mixture ratio
formulated and the results computations carried out with the derived dimension
and cross-sectional area of the mold are presented below (K. C. Onyelowe et al.
2019a. 2019b);
From the computed values, the maximum result of 37.97 kN/m2 was obtained for
test (run 4) while the minimum of 13.312 kN/m2 was obtained for test (run 1), which
indicates a significant improvement on the soil’s compressive strength properties
in line with the federal Ministry of Works specification for subgrade materials. The
result summary using percentage frequency statistics computation shows that 0.2%
of geogrid, 9.8% of water and 90% of soil by weight produced the maximum
response of 37.97kN/m2 for UCS target variable while 0.2% of geogrid, 15% of
water and 84.8% of soil by weight produced the minimum response 13.312 kN/m2
for UCS (Zhou et al. 2012). The stress strain plot is presented in Fig. 6
Fig. 6: UCS Stress vs. strain Plot
Model development and validation

For the analysis after experimental reports were obtained, the appropriate
transformation which is quadratic (square root) and the response ranges from
5.13527 to 18.9128 with a ratio of max to min of 3.683 for CBR response (McLean
and Anderson, 1966; Pinho-Lopes et al. 2018). Scheffe’s models with intercepts
built into the model coefficients are utilized for this mixture design. The
transformation is required when the residual (error) is a function of the response
magnitude (predicted results) and the transformation would be impactful unless
the maximum to minimum ratio of the response parameter is very large (K. C.
Onyelowe et al. 2019a; K. C. Onyelowe et al. 2019b, Alaneme et al. 2020). The fits
summary, diagnostic tests, graphical and numerical optimization were carried out
to determine the optimal combination proportion of the soil-geogrid blend to
maximize the mechanical strength response. Post analysis, confirmation coefficient
tables, and EVD model simulation were then executed to validate the model results
using Design Expert 11 (2018) and Minitab 18 (2018) software.
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Fit summary for UCS Response

The model fit summary statistics results indicated preference for quadratic model
for CBR response with R-squared, predicted, adjusted and R-squared of 0.8367,
0.6417 and 0.79 respectively. The lack of fit test results presented a sum of squares
of 1.09, a mean square of 0.18, and lack of fit p-value (Prob > F) of 0.8010.
Coefficient estimates and model equations for UCS
The estimates of components ’coefficient, standard error, degrees of freedom,
variance inflation factor (VIF), and final equation in terms of L_pseudo component
computation results are presented in Tables 5&6. VIF measures the extent to which
the variance of the coefficient estimate (predictor) is inflated by a lack of
orthogonality in the design points. If the factor is orthogonal with respect to all
other factors in the model, then VIF = 1 (Pinho-Lopes et al. 2018; Bello et al. 2007).
Table 5: Final Equation in Terms of U_Pseudo Components

*A *B *C *AB *AC *BC
Sqrt(UCS) = 621.935 64.085 11.82484 -663.296 6315.46 3.10192
The equation in terms of coded factors can be used to make predictions about the
response for given levels of each factor. By default, the high levels of the factors
are coded as +1 and the low levels of the factors are coded as -1. The coded
equation is useful for identifying the relative impact of the factors by comparing
the factor coefficients (Design Expert 11, 2018; Minitab 18, 2018).
Table 6: Final equation in terms of U_Pseudo components

*Geogrid *Water *Soils Geogrid*Water Geogrid*Soil Water*Soil
Sqrt(UCS) = 2.36E+05 -615.29836 -3.1977 -2.45E+05 -2.35E+05 777.336
The equation in terms of actual factors can be used to make predictions about the
response for given levels of each factor. Here, the levels should be specified in the
original units for each factor. This equation should not be used to determine the
relative impact of each factor because the coefficients are scaled to accommodate
the units of each factor and the intercept is not at the center of the design space
(J. A. Cornell, 2011).
Predicted vs. actual

This diagnostic plot shows the predicted EVD model response values on the y-axis
against the actual values on the x-axis. This plot could also help to determine the
value, or a group of values that are not estimated easily by the EVD model in terms
of accuracy as presented in Fig. 7. The result deduced from the plotted results
indicates a strong correlation between the experimental and the model predicted
values with the plotted datasets ranging from about 3.5-6.5 (Pinho-Lopes et al.
2018; Bello et al. 2007).
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Fig. 7: Predicted vs. Actual UCS response
Optimization overview
Numerical optimization uses the model to search the factor space for the best
trade-offs to achieve multiple goals. The optimization module searches for a
combination of factor levels that simultaneously satisfy the criteria placed on each
of the responses and factors. The goals that apply to both responses and factors
were set to be in the range for the factors and maximize for the response where
the lower limit is the lowest acceptable outcome and the upper limit is the desired
best result.
In the desirability function computation, the solution with the highest score is
preferentially taken as the optimal solution. A desirability criterion score of 1.0 and
optimal ratio 0.002:0.098:0.9 for the fraction of geogrid, water and soil, respectively
(J. Schwartz et al. 1981; Design Expert 11, 2018; Minitab 18, 2018).
Optimization ramps and bar graph

The numerical optimization ramps show the optimal solution graphical view with
the optimal predictor parameter factor settings in red and the optimal response
parameter factor in blue. This tool helps to make the required selection of the
optimal solution in a graphical view presentation as shown in Fig. 11. Desirability
value of 1.0 was calculated for the mixture component variables and the response
variables, which indicate a robust model prediction of the mechanical behavior of
soil-geogrid blend (Lawson and Erjavec, 2001; U. Syafitri et al. 2015; Ding et al.
1999).
Fig. 8: Optimization Ramps
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Optimization contour plot

The contour plot is an important tool for the visualization of the feasible
experimental region’s functional points in the iteration solution of mixture
optimization (Design Expert 11, 2018; K. C. Onyelowe et al. 2019a). The contour
plot for the optimal solution for the design points for UCS are ranging from 13.3119
to 37.9672 and the desirability points from 0 to 1. It is a graphical tool for the
representation of 3-D surfaces by contour plotting in terms of constant slices in 2-
D form as shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12: Contour Plots for the Optimal Solution
CONCLUSION
In this research study, geogrids were utilized for engineering properties and
modification of soil properties for civil engineering construction purposes. The
research process involved the general engineering characterization of the test soil
through experimental and laboratory processes to obtain the test soil’s general
engineering behavior and classification. The results obtained indicated high
swelling potential and plasticity behavior with AASHTO classification of A-7 and
unsuitable for engineering work. From the EVD optimization;
1. I-optimal design was utilized to explore the constrained factor space for the
derivation of the run of experiments and mixture proportions formulation at
the edges, center, interior, and vertex of the simplex. The mixture of experiment
component is constrained by imposed restrictions on the sign of inequalities at
the upper and lower region of the factor space to a sub-region of the equilateral
triangle formed as a result of three component mixture simplex through the q-
vertices with regular sides of (q-1) dimension where q is the total number of
mixture ingredients. I-optimality and D-optimality of 0.39093 and 1747.474,
respectively, was obtained with G-efficiency of 64.8%.
2. The responses were derived from the experimental runs utilized for statistical
fit test, and diagnostic test computation using Design expert and Minitab 18
statistical software. This provides an analytical toolbox for the simulation and
analysis of mixture experiments for test soil stabilization using geogrids.
Incorporated in the toolbox are statistical tools and techniques like fit summary,
model equations formulation with coefficients estimation, diagnostic plots
774
Aju and Onyelowe
utilizing externally studentized residuals for regression model assumptions

validation, and contour plots.
3. The numerical and graphical optimization process which locates the factor
levels combinations which satisfy the criteria placed on the mixture
components and the corresponding response parameters based on the model
fitness evaluation through statistical analysis and equation simulation using
desirability function was further conducted. A desirability score of 1 was
calculated as the optimal solution with the optimal combination ratio of
0.002:0.0.98:0.9 for geogrid, water, and soil, respectively; and an optimal
response of 41.270kN/m2 for UCS.
4. The results obtained from this research study on geotextile application for
expansive soil UCS improvement indicated an improvement in the soil property
at 0.2% by volume of geogrid, the generated strength value was greater than
the minimum value specified by the American Association of State Highway and
Transport officials (AASHTO) for the mechanical properties of soil.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
PERFORMANCE–BASED EPC CONTRACTING: A PRELIMINARY

STUDY OF THE CHALLENGES OF ENGINEERING
PROCUREMENT AND CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS IN NIGERIA
Aluko-Olokun Bukola Adenike1, Baba Adama Kolo2, Mustapha Abdulrazaq3 and
Peter C. Gangas4
1,2,3,4Department of Quantity Surveying, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) project harnesses contractors ’

ingenuity towards delivering value by affording them flexibility in procurement.
However, while EPC projects in developed economies are generally characterized
as delivering value in procurement, those in Nigeria are not. The challenges
responsible for these under-performances within the Nigerian construction
industry remains largely unknown, this is in spite of the 2014 Federal Government
Procurement Guidelines which advocated for the implementation of EPC projects
using performance-based contract (PBC). Therefore, this paper aims to identify
potential challenges facing EPC projects with the view to providing a structure to
investigate PBC related challenges for an ongoing PhD research. The report in this
paper is the outcome of a preliminary investigation involving an EPC contracting
organization and a client organization in the energy sector. The interview technique
was used to collect data from two respondents (one from each organization) with
experience of 15 and 30 years respectively. The data collected were analysed using
qualitative content analysis. The preliminary findings revealed two distinct sets of
challenges, client- and contractor-specific. For instance, client-specific challenges
include: “loss of control”, “non-assurance of quality”, and “lack of performance
evaluation criteria”. Contractor-specific challenges include: “client’s inexperience in
EPC projects”, “inaccuracies contained in BOQs” and “pricing issues”. Those
challenges clearly have their root causes to the non-implementation of EPC projects
based on PBC. This finding points to the fact that EPC projects in Nigeria are mainly
based on non-PBC. With the emergence of these challenges, going further thereof,
the main investigation will infuse them in a structured interview survey toward
discovering the root causes of these challenges. It is hoped that such discoveries
will lead to getting the ingredients necessary for developing strategies for the
implementation of EPC project using PBC in the Nigerian Construction industry.
Keywords: energy sector, engineering procurement and construction (EPC),

Nigeria, performance-based contracting (PBC), implementation
1 bukolaalukoolokun@gmail.com
3 musteephd@gmail.com
4 pcgangas@yahoo.com
Aluko-Olokun, et al. (2021) Performance–based EPC contracting: a preliminary study of the

challenges of engineering procurement and construction projects in Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah,
779
Aluko-Olokun, et al.
INTRODUCTION
Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) approach is a rapid project
delivery method that is increasingly being used for mega projects in developing
economies (Singh & Tiwari, 2015). The EPC approach integrates the design,
procurement and construction processes simultaneously to achieve high efficiency
(Hale, Shrestha, Gibson, & Migliaccio, 2009; Guo, Xu, Zhang, & Tu, 2010), while
contractors in this form of contract are not only solely responsible for these diverse
aspects of the projects, but are also in charge of the quality, time and cost (Yeo &
Ning 2002). EPC projects in developed economies are generally characterized as
delivering value in procurement (Natalya, Navaid & Cesar, 2005; Kavanagh, 2016);
however, those in Nigeria are not (Giwa, 2010; Ekweozor, 2013; Eberhard &
Gratwick 2012; Eberhard, Gratwick, Morella & Antmann, 2016). The challenges
responsible for these under-performances within the Nigerian construction
industry remains largely unknown, this is in spite of the 2014 Federal Government
Procurement Guidelines which advocated for the implementation of EPC projects
using performance-based contract (PBC).
Performance Based Contract (PBC) is a contractual approach that delegates service
delivery to private providers by the use of appropriate methodologies under legally
binding agreements that tie at least a portion of a contractor’s payment, contract
extensions, or contract renewals to the achievement of specific, measurable
performance standards and requirements (An & Shuai, 2011; DLA PIPER, 2011;
Principles & Practice of Public Procurement, 2012; Selviaridis & Wynstra, 2015). The
underlying logic of PBC is an emphasis on the specification and evaluation of
outputs or outcomes rather than inputs, activities or processes required to achieve
performance (Martin, 2007). The use of PBC in projects has led to cost reduction
and value for money solutions (Natalya, et.al., 2005; Kavanagh, 2016), while the
acquisitions of highly innovative technologies are increased because it gives the
contractor the flexibility in proposing new and creative solutions with an increased
profit margin (Hypko, Tilebein & Gleich, 2010). With the rapid change experienced
within the construction sector, government agencies and private clients in
developed and developing countries are increasingly using PBC because it is
considered to lead to efficiency and effectiveness in the achievement of
procurement goals, enhances accountability and minimizes corruption ( Ang,
Groosman & Scholten, 2005; Greiling, 2006; Bergman & Lundberg, 2013). It is also
considered as a useful tool to minimise the opportunistic behavior of contractors
(Ambaw & Telgen, 2017).
In spite of the move by the Nigerian government towards the use of PBC in EPC
projects, the EPC industry is observed to have suffered considerable setbacks in
term of completion of projects within time and budget including excessive contract
termination payments (Giwa, 2010; Mohammed & Isah, 2012; KPMG International,
2015) with service delivery generally regarded as being poor and substandard
(Idris, Kura & Bashir, 2013). The World Bank sample Performance-based
Management and Maintenance of Road Networks (PMMR) which was pilot tested
in Kaduna State in 2011 with four road projects executed under the Rural Access
and Mobility Project (RAMP 1) also suffered the absence and lack of establishment
of a fully functional road management unit especially in terms of management and
monitoring of compliance (Giwa, 2020). While examining the challenges of
780
execution and the nature of EPC, researchers observed that Clients are exposed to
contractor’s manipulations which could lead to cost escalation and
underperformances (Yeo & Ning, 2002). This situation is said to be worse for most
EPC clients in Nigeria given their relative inexperience in EPC contracts and its non-
implementation as a PBC system (Giwa, 2020; Ogbu & Ehigiator–Irughe, 2020).
These problems and challenges could perhaps be as a result of lack of strategy to
implement PBC in EPC contracts in the Nigerian Construction Industry.
In an effort to resolve some of the issues generating from the implementation of

EPC contracts, Kumar & Kumar (2004) developed a conceptual framework for
service delivery strategy and implementation in an oil & gas industry that considers
product characteristics and customer operational/ organisational features,
however; the framework is suitable for use only at the managerial level to bridge
the gap between the maintenance task and task execution level. In (2007), Kumar
& Markeset also identified current practices in the Norwegian Oil & Gas industry’s
service strategy influencing factors namely geographical location, maintenance
needs, operating environment and operational requirements and developed a
framework which takes into account these influencing factors. The research
focused on external and internal services needed to support (or perform) Oil & Gas
operation and maintenance activities and may likely not be suitable for adaptation
in other industries and countries given the peculiarity of projects and political
settings. In Israel, Shohet & Nobili (2015) developed and implemented a PBC
framework based on six key performance indicators that could assist an
organization in developing a contract, but the framework fail to consider user
satisfaction and risk assessment required to determine the risk of potential failures
of the performance indicators. In Malaysia, Anwar, Shariff, Chia, Jie, Riazi, & Nawi,
(2016) adopted seven sequential steps as proposed by the Office of Federal
Procurement Policy, Pennsylvania to the practice of PBC; however the study did not
propose any guidelines for the practice of PBC in developing countries. The
available PBC frameworks emphasises result rather than processes and they are not
structured along the developmental phases of an EPC project. Most were designed
to suit the problems encountered in a particular country while others are sector
specific which may not be ideal for use in the EPC sector in Nigeria. There is a
knowledge gap in the implementation of PBC system within the developmental
phases of EPC projects. As revealed in the study of Ambaw & Telgen, (2017), PBC
can minimise some of the most common problems of public procurement in
developing countries, and this presupposes that the problems of EPC projects in
Nigeria may not abate without the appropriate PBC frameworks in place for its
implementation.
This paper looks into the potential challenges facing EPC projects within the
Nigerian Construction Industry with the view to providing a structure to investigate
PBC related issues for an ongoing PhD research. The main investigation will infuse
the findings in a structured interview survey with a goal of developing a framework
for the implementation of PBC in EPC projects in the Nigerian construction
industry. It is hoped that such discoveries will provide a way to positively address
the underperformances of EPC project within the Nigerian Construction Industry.
781
Concept of Engineering Procurement and Construction (EPC) contracts

The construction industry is currently making efficient use of an innovative
procurement approach in the name of Engineering Procurement and Construction
(EPC) contracts (Singh & Tiwari, 2015). EPC is a fixed phrase which originated from
U.S.A. project circle and is categorised under Integrated Engineering Contracts
which deal with construction issues with greater sophistication than other types of
construction contracts (An & Shuai, 2011, DLA PIPER, 2011). Some countries also
use EPC as a variant of design and build (DB) (Ang et al. 2005; Murdoch & Hughes,
2008) or in the form of Turnkey projects (Ellsworth, 2003) and EPC is now being
used as part of the DB market for large and complex industrial projects most of
which are in the oil and gas, power, processing and mining industries (Xia & Chan,
2008; Kevin, 2013). Under the EPC approach, the Contractor is, just as under the DB
arrangement, still the one-stop shop for all implementation activities beyond the
basic design to include the detail design and, sometimes, also undertake the
preceding Front-End Engineering design [FEED] work (Salmon, 2020). This form of
contract, as described by FIDIC, are contracts where one entity takes total
responsibility for the design and execution of an engineering project to provide a
fully equipped facility, ready for operation whilst the owner is only responsible for
proposing the anticipated target, functional requirement and design standard of
the project. According to Salmon, (2020), the client’s team will also be more deeply
involved in approving the Contractor’s work during the implementation process.
Such deeper involvement is primarily needed to ensure that suitable ‘checks and
balances ’are employed to confirm, as far as possible, that the completed facility
can be operated safely. Similarly, the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE, 2004) while
analysing the need to monitor EPC projects, proposed a condition of contract
which also held the contractors responsible for all aspects of design and
construction. Thus, EPC contracts have enormous construction scale and involve
substantial capital investments, growing construction complexities, vulnerabilities
and uncertainties (Wei et al., 2012).
Concepts of Performance based contract (PBC)

The concept of performance based contracting is not new and has been in use for
a long time especially in design and build (DB) projects under the private finance
initiative (PFI) where payment is based on the performance of a facility, rather than
based on work in progress. This PFI approach to construction in other parts of the
world has been referred to design, build, finance and operates (DBFO), and
sometimes build, own, operate, transfer (BOOT) (Murdoch & Hughes, 2008). A
major feature underlying the successes of PBCs is the payments for performance
or service levels obligations defined in the contract and not on the amount of works
and services executed; however, how to achieve the stipulated output is left to the
contractors to decide (Hypko, et al., 2010). Thus, a contractor under this strategy
is not obligated to follow the detailed technical specifications of the client; instead,
the contractor accepts full responsibility for how to achieve the desired outcome
(Sols, Nowick & Verma, 2007; Glas & Essig, 2008). This approach implies a transfer
of risks to the contractor (Doerr et al., 2005) who would need assets that are worth
more than the potential losses that might occur in the event that the facility failed
to perform (Murdoch & Hughes, 2008) but, conversely, encourages the contractor
to improve performance during the contract period according to the implemented
incentives and sanctions (Randall, Nowick, Deshpande & Lusch, 2014). Hence the
782
choice and application of innovative technology / materials, work selection, design

and delivery, processes and management are all up to the contractor as long as
there is compliance with the relevant laws and regulations (Doerr Lewis & Eaton,
2005; Guide to PBRMC, 2018).
METHODOLOGY
Research Method
Qualitative research method was adopted for this work because it is ideal in
identifying and examining the characteristic and structure of a phenomena/ events
in their natural context (Jonker & Pennink, 2010). In this study, the barriers to the
implementation of performance based contracting system were examined from the
point of view of the participants in their various organisations. The ‘open ’attitude
required in the qualitative approach will enable the researcher to understand how
the participants experience their situation within a specific context which in this
case is within the EPC industry.
Sample selection
According to Kumar (2011), sample sizes do not occupy a significant place in
qualitative research; so in order to obtain a broad picture of the challenges facing
the EPC projects, a preliminary investigation was conducted on a selected EPC
contracting organization and a client organization that is active and have
undertaken minimum of ten (10) EPC projects in the energy sector of the Nigerian
Construction Industry. These two organisations were selected from the target
population with aim of having access to relevant data in the area of study and also
to be able to compare and contrast their respective opinions based on the
perceived challenges experienced within the sector. Purposive sampling was used
to select the participants that were drawn from each of the sector. The inclusive
criteria is their active involvement in the implementation of EPC projects from the
pre-contract and up to the execution and handing over stages of the project and
must have worked on more than five (5) projects with a minimum of (10) years
working experience. A Consultant Architect who has been handling the contractual
aspect of the EPC contracting within the client organisation and a Chief Engineer
within the contracting organisation with 15 and 30 years working experience
respectively fell into these categories. They were both willing and available to
participate in the preliminary investigation.
Data collection Instruments
Qualitative interview technique was adopted with the use of open ended questions
to elicit information from the participants while a theoretical review was carried
out to construct questions that fit the purposive research and to add rigor (Sekaran,
1984).The structured interviews lasted for 60minutes and 75minutes respectively.
A table was prepared to compare the result of the findings from each participant
using qualitative content analysis and the data was analysed manually based on
the structured themes developed for the interview.
783
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Table 1: Respondents reasons for the non-use of PBC
What are the key issues surrounding the non-use of PBC in EPC projects in Nigeria?
Interviewee 2 (Contracting
Interviewee 1 (Client Organisation)
Organisation)
Importation and clearing at the port is a
challenge in terms of meeting the
Most EPC contracts are usually for heavy timelines
engineering projects and most rely on
imported materials and equipment. The client rely more on the consultants
Importation and clearing is a challenge in and usually follows the consultant’s
terms of timeline where EPC contractor must dictates and recommendations on the use
have given an estimated timeline to and nature of the procurement system to
complete the project..... be used.
There is need to define upfront the There are challenges in deploying such
measurement criteria and because it is not models because the contract price is not
finite, there is that flexibility which makes it prepared and calculated based on the new
become challenging design but based on certain
understanding of how a model which is
Because EPC is a multi –disciplinary similar to the design at hand should work.
conceptual project, a lot of collaboration is
required and there are instances where you The price is set by the client and not by
cannot work according to the BOQ because the contractor and most cost estimates do
what is on the drawings may not fit 100% not reflect the correct price needed to
into the work on site. execute the works. Variation will therefore
set in.
Table 2: Respondents awareness of PBC

Are you perhaps aware of the 2014 procurement guidelines within the energy sector? If so why is
it not being implemented?
Interviewee 1 (Client Organisation) Interviewee 2 (Contracting Organisation)
Yes. Consultants do not usually recommend
this contracting system because they believe
that they will loss control over the Yes. The client relies mostly on the
contractor’s deliverables. consultants to implement this guidelines, but
the consultants would rather go with the
PBC is not easily adopted especially with the traditional procurement system because do
understanding that if the client pays on not see it as a viable option meant to
performance, the client gets the performance accelerate the project.
but may not get value for his money and
time is of essence.
Table 3: Respondents ways of expressing their objectives to the contractors

How do you express the purpose and needs of your project to the contractors?
The regular consultants are used to the
prescriptive specifications rather than the There is no universal means of
functional but majority employs a communication but majority uses a hybrid
combination of the two usually called a specification.
hybrid.
784
Table 4: Respondents structure of payment

What is the structure of the payment, and is payment performance linked?
Depends on the contractor. Sometimes 15%

down payment, letter of credit for another
Some clients pay pre-mobilisation, the
25 or 30% which is used to secure 50% of
contractor get to site, set up their
the payment. Balance is paid at the end of
equipment and upon that they now mobilise
the project. We also use milestone payment
based on milestone and at the end of the
and deferred payment whereby the balance
project, they demobilize and pay retention
is spread out based on the agreement with
and final fees.
the contractor.
No. payment is not performance linked.

Yes. Milestone payment is performance
When going with milestone payment,
linked.
procurement system is not generic, you can
tweak it.
Table 5: Challenges involved in the implementation of EPC projects as enumerated by the

respondents.
What are the challenges involved in the implementation of EPC projects?
Table 6: Respondents use of incentives.

Do you use incentives to encourage the contractors to ensure a better performance?
No. if a client chooses a contractor to
perform a certain service; it means the
contractor has presented himself to have None, except for a promise that you will
the capability to deliver the project. The be considered favourably in other projects.
client will therefore not give an incentive
to deliver.
Table 7: Respondents opinion on ways to achieve improved performance

What in your opinion can be done to improve upon the existing performance of EPC projects in
Nigeria?
Attitude of the parties should change
especially the project and procurement
To define output performance leads.
To build in monitoring processes at different Fulfillment of obligations from the client that
stages such as testing and inspection and obstruct the progress of the work of the
documentation contractor
Clients should engage consultants that are Sincerity of contract not to over labour the
versed in the concept and processes of EPC other party for most contracts are skewed to
contracts. favour the client and contractor would have
to be smart to improvise or otherwise cheat
the client.
785
The following analyses are the outcome of the interviews
1. Key Issues involved in the non-use of PBC- as shown in table 1, the issues
common to the parties is the importation challenge which is a risk factor in PBC.
As noted in previous research, the contractor may not be able to exercise any
influence on external conditions (Buse, Freiling & Weissenfels, 2001; Hypko et
al., 2010); however, researchers also opined that contractors may be averse to
increased risk especially when they perceive that they possess limited capacity
to manage them (Abedi & Haghifam 2013; Gruneberg et al., 2007). The data
also indicated the lack of institutional capacity on the part of the client to make
them rely solely on the consultants and undefined measurement criteria by the
contractors to enable the clients link it to measurable goals. This is importantly
consistent with literature (Doerr et al., 2005; Schoenmaker & Bruijn, 2016) as
one of the key factors militating against the use of PBC in other countries.
Pricing issue seems to be unique to the EPC industry in Nigeria; however,
literature recognizes that if the contract is properly designed considering
performance end results, PBC can help to improve the procurement by
plugging the leaks found in the traditional procurement system (Ambaw &
Telgen, 2017).
2. Awareness of PBC guidelines- in table 2, the data indicates that the respondents
are aware of the PBC guidelines but the clients prefer the traditional methods
so as not to loss control over the contractors ’deliverables and may not be fully
assured of the quality. This is in alignment with the findings of Doerr et al.,
(2005) of the difficulty in promoting performance based oriented approach that
is different from the traditional mindset. Burguet & Che (2004) also observe
that when procurement entities procure new technologies in PBC, non-standard
goods and services are usually difficult to evaluate objectively and as such the
Contractor may fail to meet the required expectations in terms of quality
(Hughes & Kabiri, 2013). As compared to the traditional approach, PBC holds
contractors accountable for providing a specific service, which can be measured
in terms of “quality, outputs and outcomes” (Martin, 2000).
3. Ways of expressing the objectives of the project- tables 3 indicates that the
clients uses a hybrid of both the prescriptive and functional means of
expressing the project objectives to the contractors; however, Sultana, Rahman,
& Chowdhury, (2012) are of the opinion that even though there is nothing
wrong with the use of detailed specifications for procurement of some goods
and services, PBC uses qualitative criteria which helps to achieve the intended
result. Using PBC is considered to be a solution for these problems in the
procurement system since procuring entities does not have to describe the
detailed technical specification but just simply specify the expected results to
be achieved (Ambaw & Telgen, 2017).
4. Structure of payment- the response in table 4 indicates that milestone payment

seems to be the preferred means of payment but the client is of the opinion
that payment is not performance linked while the contractor believes that
milestone payment is performance linked. McLellan, Kemp, Brooks & Carise,
(2008) observed that milestone payment is common because service output
/outcome may be non-verifiable and contractors are too often reluctant to
786
agree to contracts where payment is totally linked to performance due to the

resultant financial risks. Other forms of payment are also dependent on the
parties as opined by Donna, Jennifer & Carrie (2004) for it is difficult to develop
the payment structure that is directly linked to performance.
5. Implementation challenges- table 5 highlights the implementation challenges
experienced by the respondents in their respective organisations. The
challenges identified here are consistent with what is obtainable in other
developing economies, such as: incapability of the contractor and
competitiveness (Dennis & William, 2003); difficulty in measuring performance
(Datta & Roy, 2011; Anwar et al., 2016); enhancement of corruption in public
procurement (Burguet & Che, 2004, Schoenmaker & Bruijn, 2016; Ambaw &
Telgen, 2017); lack of training and experience (Donna et al., 2004)) and
unfamiliarity with the contracting system (Anwar et al., 2016) including
unanticipated environmental problems (Hughes & Kabiri, 2013) have been
identified in other researches. Because of the inherent implementation
challenges in PBC, Loulakis, (2013) advised that it is important for the procuring
entities to have a clear understanding of these problems as well as a strategy
for dealing with them in the procurement and contracting of projects.
6. Use of incentives- table 6 shows that the respondents both agree that
incentives are not used to motivate the contractors into achieving a better
performance. This is contrary to one of the basic features of PBC. Datta & Roy,
(2011) observed that PBC uses key performance indicators (KPIs) and incentives
to improve upon the outcome of projects during the contract period; however,
within the context of EPC contracts, literature noted that the willingness of the
employer to discuss any incentives for earlier completion or better performance
is not discussed within the framework of the EPC negotiations nor is it included
in the tender (EPC Guide, 2013). However, if the employer desires to reduce
project costs, this can be achieved by setting up incentives for the contractor
by allowing them to participate to a certain percentage in any savings yielded
by the contractor.
7. Ways of achieving improved performance- the respondents in table 7 are of the

opinion that output performance should be well defined as a way of improving
the performance of the projects. Monitoring strategies as well as the
employment of experienced consultants are necessary towards achieving a
proper implementation of the projects. Parties to the contract should also try
to adapt and be more receptive towards the use of PBC while fulfilling their
various obligations on a fair contract that puts into consideration the interest
of the contracting parties. A full implementation of PBC in the EPC contracts in
Nigeria will assist in overcoming the disadvantages of the traditional method
of contracting (Guide to PBRMC, 2018).
CONCLUSION
EPC projects in developed economies have been characterized as delivering value
in procurement while those in Nigeria is surrounded by a number of problems that
is hindering it from achieving value for money. To this end, the objective of this
preliminary study is to identify the challenges responsible for the under-
787
performances experienced within the EPC sector of the Nigerian Construction

industry. The data analysis revealed that the implementation of EPC projects in
Nigeria are not performance based and there is a need for a framework to be
developed to ensure a full implementation of PBC in EPC projects to overcome the
reported challenges. With the emergence of these findings, going further thereof,
the main investigation will infuse them in a structured interview survey toward
discovering other issues relating to the EPC sector of Nigerian economy. It is
hoped that such discoveries will lead to getting the ingredients necessary for
developing a framework for the implementation of EPC project as a PBC system in
the Nigerian Construction industry. This study major contribution to knowledge is
that it suggests the need for the full implementation of EPC as a PBC project so as
to gain control of the full benefits of PBC in Nigeria. The framework will put into
consideration the peculiar challenges encountered in practice and propose a
solution that will enhance the knowledge base of clients in building institutional
capacities and improve the capability of contractors towards the achievement of
project goals.
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791
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
PREDICTORS OF ACADEMIC ATTAINMENT IN A NIGERIAN

POLYTECHNIC: PERCEPTIONS OF ESTATE MANAGEMENT
STUDENTS
Augustina Chiwuzie1
Department of Estate Management, The Federal Polytechnic Ede, Nigeria
Determinants of students' academic performance have continued to receive

substantial consideration in the extant literature, and it remains a contested subject.
Students' performance is influenced by different individual factors grouped under
several themes, including school factors, teaching methods, assessment methods,
lecturers, students' factors, and parental background. The influences of these
factors are thought to vary from one academic environment to another. This study
investigates estate management students' perceptions of predictors of academic
attainment in Federal Polytechnic Ede, Nigeria, intending to identify critical areas
that could inform reform. This study employs a quantitative research design to
examine 35 individual factors under the six thematic categories earlier mentioned.
All graduating students were examined, and a sample of 86 students was selected
through purposive sampling. Descriptive statistics (mean score and standard
deviation) were applied. The results revealed 23 out of the 35 individual factors as
significant predictors of Estate Management students' academic attainment. A
further analysis based on the thematic categories showed that assessment
methods, lecturers and family background with mean values of 5.20, 4.74 and 4.67,
respectively, are the top three thematic categories that predict Estate Management
students' academic attainment. The paper concludes that there is a need to review
the approach employed in imparting knowledge and assessment of Estate
Management students. Improved lecturers' attitudes and assessment strategies are
necessary to heighten the students' morale, which would, in turn, translate to better
academic attainment.
Keywords: academic performance, Ede, graduating students, real estate
INTRODUCTION
Education provides the necessary knowledge and skills for future career success.
Higher education plays a critical role in a country's economic development and
serves as an interface between students and industries (Dahie et al., 2017). Real
estate graduates' education has always been a primary concern for the profession's
various stakeholders, including academic institutions, professional bodies such as
the Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers (NIESV) and industry
employers. Academic institutions are expected to produce graduates capable of
1 okaugusta@yahoo.com
Chiwuzie, A. (2021) Predictors of academic attainment in a Nigerian polytechnic: perceptions of

estate management students In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
793
Chiwuzie
analysing and interpreting location and markets and finance, taxation, and law to
acquire the skills necessary for local, regional, and international labour markets.
Students' academic performance is the most appropriate criterion for determining
the quality and efficacy of teaching and a crucial determinant in the quality of
graduates created for industry employers (Peter et al., 2016). Low academic
attainment and failure result in students dropping out of school or semi-qualified
graduates, all of which undermine students' chances of getting hired and also,
affect the standard of service provided to the employer.
Students' academic performance in tertiary educational institutions is declining

(Hijazi and Noqvi, 2006). Many studies have looked into the influencing factors of
students' academic accomplishment with various focuses. It is widely
acknowledged that numerous individual factors influence students' academic
performance. Individual factors have been broadly classified as academic or non-
academic and grouped into several themes, including school environmental
factors, teaching methods, lecturers, assessment methods, student personal
characteristics and parental/family background. These factors are directly or
indirectly associated with a student's academic achievement (Gajghat et al., 2017).
There are many perspectives on the effect of these variables. Previous research
shows that the opinions presented by numerous studies are contradictory. Some
researchers argue that personal characteristics and socioeconomic background are
more significant, while others argue that lecturers, school/environmental variables
have a more significant impact on students' academic performance. Findings from
earlier studies suggest that students ’academic success is likely to be affected by
several factors. These factors are thought to vary from person to person and from
one academic setting to the next. This study investigates perceptions of estate
management students on the critical factors (both on individual and thematic
categories) affecting academic attainment in Federal Polytechnic Ede, Nigeria
intending to identify critical areas that could inform reform. This study adds to
existing literature on academic performance in higher education from the
perspective of Polytechnics in developing countries. The next section presents a
review of literature on factors influencing students' academic achievements,
followed by the methodology section. The subsequent section contains the
findings and discussion, which is followed by a concluding remark.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Many studies have been conducted around the world to determine the factors that
influence student academic performance. Various individual factors are broadly
classified as intellectual and non-intellectual factors (Allen and Carter, 2007),
academic factors and non-academic factors (Laurel et al., 2008), or internal and
external classroom factors (Mushtaq and Khan, 2012). Lecturer competence,
lecturing techniques and the quality of instruction materials are academic variables
that have a significant positive effect on students' academic achievements (Yam
and Rossini, 2012; Ganyaupfu, 2013; Enu and Akum, 2015). According to Ganyaupfu
(2013) and Adediwura and Tayo (2007), a lecturer's ability to comprehend and
transform knowledge, subject mastery, teaching skills, lecturer attitude and lecturer
attendance are essential for effective teaching and students' academic
performance. Kang'ahi et al. (2012) earlier attributed poor students' academic
achievement to poor teaching styles. Also, Rasul and Bukhsh (2011) found that
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Chiwuzie
changes in the pattern of question papers near examinations, unfair means in

examinations, and a lack of proper guidance all have a significant impact on
student performance. Muzenda (2013) reported that high teacher absenteeism
hurts students' overall academic performance. Furthermore, Hayat et al. (2013)
submitted that academic success was affected by the extent of students'
participation in their studies, their studies' quality, their relationships with their
peers, and their environmental indulgence. Bennett and Yalams (2013) found a
positive and significant relationship between student's attendance, participation in
the class and academic performance. Meanwhile, Zakaria et al. (2011) suggested
that students who were given college accommodations had better academic
performance than students who lived in private accommodations. In Dengra et al.
(2013), extra-curricular actions, instruction strategies and class contact hours were
all established as critical factors impacting students' academic attainments.
On the other hand, non-academic or external classroom factors include personal

factors, financial factors, family background, parents' level of education and
involvement (Laurel et al., 2008; Fan and Williams, 2010). In analysing the impact
of factors such as peer pressure, school and family on students' academic success,
Barry (2005) found that socioeconomic status is one of the main predictors of
academic success. Okioga (2013) also indicated that socioeconomic background
significantly impacted students ’academic success. In Bahar (2010), gender, family
support and sociometric status were identified as crucial predictors of students'
academic achievement. Kamau (2013) reported that the parent's education level,
family size, family financial status, and type of family, whether cohesive or
conflictive, had a significant relationship with students' academic performance
while their marital status did not. The results of Kamau also showed that the
parents' education level explained only 7 per cent of students' academic
achievement. Moreover, Lee and Mallik (2015) claimed that entry qualification and
age influenced students' academic performance. Ayodele et al. (2016) affirmed that
the main factors impacting students' academic success are their passion an
academic discipline, age and maturity. Olatunji et al. (2016) cited concentration,
lack of reading habit and reading plan, fear, class size and peer group as the five
most important factors impacting on students ’academic success in the discipline.
It is worthy to mention that research concerning students ’academic performance

is extensive and ongoing. Within this body of research, limited studies have
examined variables influencing academic attainment of real estate students in a
number of institutions. In the international context, the studies of Allen and Carter
(2007) and Huffman (2011) in the United States; Yam and Rossini (2012), Lee and
Mallik (2015) provided valuable evidence from Australia. The efforts of Peter et al.
(2016), Olatunji et al. (2016), Ayodele et al., (2016, 2017), Akinbogun (2018) and
Ojetunde et al. (2020) are noteworthy in the Nigerian context. Findings from these
representative studies suggest that academic success is affected by a variety of
variables that differ from one academic environment to the next, from one group
of students to the next, and also from one cultural setting to the next. Meanwhile,
the preceding evidence indicates the presence of many studies and subject
consistency over time, but with conflicting results about the factors affecting
academic attainment. More so, the majority of research on factors influencing
students' academic performance has primarily concentrated on universities and
colleges (see also, Ganyaupfu (2013) in South Africa, Kanagi et al. (2015) in
795
Chiwuzie
Malaysia, Gajghat et al. (2017) in India, Ayodele et al., (2016, 2017), Ojetunde et al.
(2020) in Nigeria. As a result, there is a scarcity of research on academic activities
and student performance in the Polytechnics. This study adds to the existing
literature on academic performance in higher education from the perspective of
Polytechnics in developing countries. Ayodele et al. (2017) identified and
categorised the various individual influencing factors into six themes: school
factors, teaching methods, lecturers, assessment methods, student factors and
family background as shown in Table 1. This current study employs the variables in
Table 1 to assess the academic attainment of estate management students at a
Nigerian polytechnic.
Table 1: Grouping of factors influencing students’ academic achievements

Themes Individual factor Authors
The school’s academic calendar
Yeshmerbat et
Accommodation type and quality
al. (2013),
School factors Conducive lecture halls,
Adedapo et al.
Sufficient lecture halls,
(2015)
The school's overall environment
Integration of ICT into the classroom
Student’s participation in class Dengra et al.
Tutorials and seminars (2013),
Teaching methods
Excursions Oladokun and
Contact hours Ayodele (2015)
Use of more practical than theories
Scope and depth of the lecturers' knowledge Newell and
Lecturers’ accessibility Archeampong
Lecturers’ commitment (2003),
Lecturers
Lecturers’ ability to clarify complex concepts Ganyaupfu
Sufficiency/adequacy of lecturers (2013), Dengra
Method/style of teaching et al. (2013)
Fairness in-class assessments
Grades reflecting the effort expended in studying
Adequate instruction materials Crews (2004),
Assessment Sufficient time to learn and assimilate before being Oloyede
methods tested and Adegoke
The lecturers appear to be more concerned in (2007)
testing what is
memorised than what is genuinely understood
Inability to enrol in a desired course of study
Victor (2011),
Age/ Maturity
Gambo et al.
It is difficult to understand the courses that are
(2012), Hayat et
being taught
Students' factors al. (2013),
Study hours
Dengra et al.
A thorough understanding of the field of study
(2013), Kanagi
Passion for the course of study
et al. (2015)
Participation in extra-curricular activities
Parent’s involvement in my studies
Noble et al.
Parents' occupations and educational backgrounds
(2006),
My position and the size of my family
Family Kyoshaba
Availability of financial resources
background (2009), Okoiga
Family pressure to succeed in one's chosen course
(2013), Kanagi
of study
et al. (2015)
Family set-up/ background
Source: Adapted from Ayodele et al. (2017).
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Chiwuzie
METHODOLOGY
This study's target population consists of graduating real estate students of Federal
Polytechnic Ede, South-western Nigeria. Graduating students were chosen as it is
anticipated that they would have greater knowledge than students in lower grades.
Their perception level would represent current realities, allowing them to provide
more accurate answers to the research questions. The sample frame for the study
consisted of all HND II real estate students in the institution referred to above. The
study used a self-administered close-ended questionnaire to elicit the
respondents' perceptions of the factors that affect their academic success. Extant
literature was used to identify the variables influencing estate management
students' academic achievement (see Table I). The variables are divided into six
thematic categories: school factors, teaching methods, lecturers, assessment
methods, students ’factors, and parental/family background. The respondents were
requested to rate a set of established variables on each theme regarding how they
affect their academic performance using a 7-point Likert scale (1-strongly disagree
to 7-strongly agree). A 7-point Likert scale was employed to provide deeper
insights on the question raised in line with earlier studies such as Ayodele et al.
(2017). A total of 98 copies of questionnaires were administered to the respondents
through purposive sampling, out of which 86 copies of questionnaires representing
87.76% response rate were retrieved and analysed using the mean score. The mean
score for each item was determined and ranked. Furthermore, the significant levels
of the items were determined using a 4.0 yardstick in line with earlier studies
(Ikediashi and Okwuashi (2015); Ayodele (2017). Items with mean scores higher
than four were considered significant (SS), while those that have lower were
deemed non-significant (NS). The variables were further analysed by thematic
areas and ranked according to the themes ’group mean. For the purpose of this
study, weighted mean score is determined as follow:
1n1 + 2n2 + 3n3 + 4n4 + 5n5 + 6n6 + 7n7 (i)

N
Where:
n1 = number of respondents who answered strongly disagreed.
n2 = number of respondents who answered disagreed
n3 = number of respondents who answered somewhat disagreed
n4 = number of respondents who answered undecided
n5 = number of respondents who answered somewhat agreed
n6 = number of respondents who answered agreed
n7 = number of respondents who answered strongly agreed
N = total number of questionnaires retrieved.

The results and discussions of the study are presented in this section and are
twofold. The first part focuses on individual factors influencing estate management
students' academic attainment (Table 2). As shown in Table 3, the factors
influencing the academic attainment of estate management students based on
thematic areas were examined in the second part.
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Table 2. Factors influencing the academic attainment of estate management students

s/n Factors Mean SD Rank Remark
School factors/environment
1 School’s academic calendar 4.47 4.38 16 SS
2 Accommodation type/quality 4.34 5.30 19 SS
3 Conducive lecture halls 2.86 4.07 34 NS
4 Sufficient lecture halls 2.58 3.97 35 NS
5 School's overall environment 3.91 4.32 24 NS
6 Family set-up/ background 5.31 4.38 7 SS
Teaching methods
7 Integration of ICT into the classroom 2.93 3.10 33 NS
8 Student’s participation in class 4.96 4.86 11 SS
9 Tutorials and seminars 3.66 3.76 27 NS
10 Excursions 3.37 3.47 32 NS
11 Contact hours 5.03 4.89 10 SS
12 Use of more practical than theories 3.74 3.85 26 NS
Lecturers
13 Scope and depth of the lecturers' knowledge 4.52 4.36 14 SS
14 Lecturers’ accessibility 4.21 4.18 21 SS
15 Lecturers’ commitment 5.26 5.07 8 SS
16 Lecturers' ability to clarify complex concepts 4.32 4.26 20 SS
17 Sufficiency/adequacy of lecturers 4.86 4.70 13 SS
18 Method/style of teaching 5.40 5.06 6 SS
19 Fairness in-class assessments 5.68 5.33 4 SS
20 Grades reflecting the effort expended in studying 5.73 5.33 3 SS
21 Adequate instruction materials 4.50 4.41 15 SS
Sufficient time to learn and assimilate before being
22 4.46 4.32 17 SS
tested
The lecturers appear to be more concerned in testing
23 5.65 5.30 5 SS
what is memorised than what is genuinely understood
Students' Factors
24 Inability to enrol in a desired course of study 3.82 3.92 25 NS
24 Age/ Maturity 4.94 4.76 12 SS
It is difficult to understand the courses that are being
25 4.17 4.12 22 SS
taught
26 Study hours 3.62 3.70 28 NS
27 A thorough understanding of the field of study 4.12 4.12 23 SS
28 Passion for the course of study 5.80 5.41 2 SS
29 Participation in extra-curricular activities 3.56 3.61 30 NS
30 Parent’s involvement in my studies 3.60 3.71 29 NS
31 Parents' occupations and educational backgrounds 4.44 4.31 18 SS
32 My position and the size of my family 6.02 5.59 1 SS
33 Availability of financial resources 5.09 4.91 9 SS
Family pressure to succeed in one's chosen course of
34 3.55 3.65 31 NS
study
35 Family set-up/background 5.31 5.01 7 SS
Source: Analysis of survey data, 2020.
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Table 2 reveals that 23 of the 35 individual factors were significant predictors of

Estate Management students' academic attainment at a 4.0 benchmark. The five
most critical factors influencing students' academic attainment are the
respondents' position/size of the family and passion for the course of study. Others
are grades being a reflection of the effort expended in studying, fairness in class
assessments, and the lecturers appear to be more concerned in testing what is
memorised than genuinely understood (mean values of 6.02, 5.80, 5.73, 5.68 and
5.65, respectively). The first two critical factors are related to parental/family
background and students' factor. This finding is congruent to the position of Barry
(2005), Bahar (2010) and Okioga (2013) that personal characteristics and
socioeconomic background have a more significant effect on students' academic
attainment. This result is not surprising given that it is widely assumed that most
families' cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds put pressure on their children
to succeed in their chosen field because it is perceived as a source of honour
among family members and friends. As a result, students are under much pressure
to satisfy this societal and cultural need. Furthermore, given the current state of
affairs in Nigeria's higher educational institutions, the reason for the responses
regarding students' interest in the course of study as a critical influencing factor
may not be far-fetched. Many undergraduate students in Nigerian tertiary
institutions find themselves studying courses they never intended to study or have
a passion for. However, they find themselves in those courses/fields for a variety of
reasons. Moreover, the other three factors indicated by the respondents are related
to the assessment methods. Thus, students consider the method of assessment as
a critical factor that impacts academic performance. This finding is consistent with
the assertion of Rasul and Bukhsh (2011). While this may not be surprising, most
students believe that their academic grades should reflect their efforts in
preparation for the examination. However, according to Ayodele et al. (2017),
students often overestimate their capabilities because they misjudge their
examination performance. As a result, the actual results often differ from the
students' expectations. This could be attributed to the implicit nature of the
grading criteria adopted by lecturers for assessment. Students' opinions about
assessment have a significant effect on how and what they understand. Hence,
more comprehensive assessment methods that enable students to have prior
knowledge of the grading process and the lecturer's expectations for each question
will enhance students' academic success.
Table 3. Influencing factors of estate management students’ academic attainment (by thematic
grouping)
s/n Thematic Groups Group mean Group rank
1 Parental/family background 4.67 3
2 Students' factors 4.29 4
3 School factor/environment 3.63 6
4 Teaching methods 3.95 5
5 Lecturers 4.74 2
6 Assessment methods 5.20 1
Source: Analysis of survey data, 2020.
According to Table 3, the results of influencing factors based on thematic

categories showed that assessment methods, lecturers, and parental/family
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background are the three most critical thematic categories that predict estate
management students' academic attainment, with mean values of 5.20, 4.74, and
4.67, respectively. According to the respondents, this result also reveals that the
most significant academic-based variables affecting students' academic success
are the assessment methods and lecturers. Ayodele et al. (2017) discovered that
assessment methods and lecturers were two of the top three themes that
significantly affected Nigerian university students' academic success. This finding
emphasises the importance of paying close attention to the lecturer's behaviour
and expectations. Lecturers' attitudes are vital for successful teaching, and
assessment is invariably a crucial factor in motivating students to learn.
Consequently, the need for improved lecturers' attitudes and assessment strategies
in higher education institutions cannot be over-emphasised. Lecturers are
responsible for creating an environment that promotes learning activities relevant
to achieving the desired outcomes. One crucial strategy is to use assessment to
engage students. Making classroom experiences more engaging can also serve to
pique students' interest in academic excellence, assisting them in improving their
overall performance.
CONCLUSION
This study was conducted to explore the significant factors that predict estate
management students ’academic attainment in a Nigerian polytechnic. The study
examined 35 individual factors under the six thematic categories, including school
factors, teaching methods, lecturers, assessment methods, students' factors, and
parental/family background. The results revealed 23 out of the 35 individual factors
as significant predictors of estate management students' academic attainment.
Further analysis of these factors based on the thematic categories revealed that
assessment methods, lecturers and parental background are the three most critical
thematic categories that predict estate management students' academic
attainment. The findings have some important implications for real estate
education. There is a need for higher institutions to adopt a variety of lecturing and
assessment policies to improve students ’learning outputs. Grading standards
should be made transparent and publicly accessible to promote the learning
process and enhance academic outcomes. Students' anxiety will be reduced if they
perceive the assessment as explicit and non-threatening. It is also critical to provide
timely and accurate feedback that is related to the assessment indicators to
promote students' engagement. Nonetheless, if students are not required to
engage with the feedback, it will have little impact. As a result, activities that
encourage students to reflect on their mistakes and better understand the
lecturer's expectations must be developed. Lecturers' positive attitude combined
with suitable teaching styles and regular and informative assessment feedback
should significantly improve students ’academic achievements.
LIMITATIONS AND PATHWAY FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

This study only considered real estate students at one Polytechnic. Compared to
existing related research, this study's sample size was relatively small (n= 86),
making it difficult to generalise the findings to a larger student population and
different programmes. Consequently, expanding the research to include a larger
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sample size and participants from several academic institutions will strengthen the
findings. Furthermore, future research could integrate more factors from academic
institutions, individual students and socioeconomic dimensions to provide more
detailed policy implementation outcomes.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
RESPONSIBLE MATERIAL SOURCING: AN ASSESSMENT OF

FACTORS INFLUENCING CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
SUSTAINABILITY
Nana Benyi Ansah1, Emmanuel Adinyira2, Kofi Agyekum3 and Isaac Aidoo4
1,2,3,4Department
of Construction Technology and Management, College of Art and Built
Environment, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi,
Ghana
The term “responsible materials” refers to products that have been certified as
meeting sustainability standards. Thus, the ethical management of sustainability
challenges in the construction product supply chain is referred to as responsible
sourcing. It encourages the appropriate availability of measurements that increase
sustainability by assessing the environmental impact of materials in the
construction supply chain. Due to its health implications, environmental pollution
caused by material sourcing and usage has been a hot topic of investigation.
Construction specialists responsible for selecting materials with low environmental
footprints have a tough time doing so. In addition to the obstacles faced by
essential specialists in material selection, numerous aspects must be considered in
the sourcing and selection processes, such as comparing policies, to result in better
material usage beginning with the design phase. This research is aimed at assessing
the factors that influence material sourcing in the construction industry in which
sustainability is promoted. A survey of Ghanaian construction professionals
involved in the selection and procuring of construction materials was conducted.
The variables were evaluated based on the mean of their ratings. All of the variables
deemed to influence responsible sourcing of construction materials were subjected
to a principal component analysis (PCA). PCA found four components with
eigenvalues greater than one, accounting for 34.2 per cent of environmental
criteria, 12.10 per cent of resource consumption criteria, 8.4% of technological
criteria, and 6.9% of socio-economic criteria. As a result, all of the variables were
significant, confirming the conclusions of the literature. Despite being considered
an essential factor, eutrophication earned the lowest rating in the environmental
factor category; this is a cause for concern in ecosystem management. The study
contributes to the management of material sustainability in the Global South to
promote the required material sourcing and selection response from decision-
making professionals.
Keywords: global south, material sustainability, responsible material, responsible

sourcing
1 nbenyi@yahoo.co.uk
2 rasadii@yahoo.com
3 agyekum.kofi1@gmail.com
4 iaidoo@gmail.com
Ansah, et al. (2021) Responsible material sourcing: an assessment of factors influencing construction
material sustainability In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
805
Ansah, et al.
INTRODUCTION
The term “responsible materials” refers to products that have been certified as
meeting sustainability standards. Thus, the ethical management of sustainability
challenges in the construction product supply chain is referred to as responsible
sourcing. It encourages the appropriate availability of measurements that increase
sustainability by assessing the environmental impact of materials in the
construction supply chain. Due to its health implications, environmental pollution
caused by material sourcing and usage has been a hot topic of investigation. Van
den Brink et al. (2019) emphasise that one of the most significant concerns linked
with urbanisation has been environmental sustainability, mainly where raw
materials or products are obtained from sources with regulatory limitations. Raw
material resources are used to meet the rising demand for construction materials
all around the world. However, construction specialists responsible for selecting
materials with low environmental footprints have a tough time doing so (Mesa et
al. 2020; Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali 2011). This has resulted in the adoption of
several materials that have been certified but have a high environmental impact,
necessitating more research. The general challenge is that poor material sourcing
results in heavy environmental burdens.
Environmental implications are largely fixed once the materials for each
component are established because material selection occurs during the product
design phase. Since material selection impacts product performance, higher
selection standards are required to maintain quality and value. There is little doubt
that when materials are appropriately procured following established regulations
and norms, environmental loads from construction materials will be decreased,
making the environment safer and enhancing sustainability. In addition to the
obstacles faced by essential specialists in material selection, numerous aspects
must be considered in the sourcing and selection processes, such as comparing
policies, to result in better material usage beginning with the design phase (Lee et
al., 2020; Xu et al., 2020; Akadiri et al. 2013).
When exploring the relationship between material sourcing and sustainability, the
modest positive influence will add to the total amount of sustainability gain
necessary. According to (Lassio et al., 2016), the high demand for construction
materials depends on raw materials. However, Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali (2011)
explain that construction professionals have difficulty determining materials with
environmental hot spots, which has led to the use of several materials with heavy
environmental burdens worthy of attention. Therefore, this research aims to assess
the factors that influence material sourcing in the construction industry in which
sustainability is promoted.
According to Paquette (2006), the environmental impacts of specific materials,

products and activities in the construction supply chain need to be closely
monitored. Furthermore, their influence on the environment has to be proactively
handled. The study of material sourcing based on provenance is a significant factor
that gravitates the professional to using a particular material. According to Wilson
(2007), the gravity model for selecting and procuring material based on
provenance enables one to decide where to acquire their needs based on the
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Ansah, et al.
likelihood of attraction to the source; this has been a significant economic module
for material selection.
In his study on selecting sustainable materials for building projects, Akadiri (2011)
argued that, historically, the object of evaluating the building construction material
was to use the one with the least cost to the client. However, there were no
consideration for origin, environmental protection and performance
characteristics. When procuring materials and goods in most industrialised
countries, the government needs contractors to think carefully about a range of
environmental, economic, and social challenges. Again, the Global South’s
immature markets imply a lack of understanding of the industry’s responsible
sourcing (Glass, 2011). In the context of sustainability, Glass (2011) proposed that
responsible sourcing (R.S.) provides the pathway to resolve the challenges
associated with the supply chain of construction materials.
CONTEXT
Contextually, the study will help understand whether the factors on which decision-
making construction professionals use in the Global South to procure materials are
relevant to theory. Upstill-Goddard et al. (2015) report that the literature on
responsible sourcing remains scarce. The traceability of material content and the
ethical transparency needed for material sourcing have not been sufficiently
evaluated. In order to direct the sustainability agenda on material origin, Glass et
al. (2012) documented the lack of research awareness within industry and academia
to promote the responsible sourcing drive to enhance material sustainability. “It is
obvious that while qualification schemes abound, there is no indication of the
current level of expertise and awareness”, Glass et al. (2012) declared. The study,
therefore, included information on factors and the criteria that enable the available
materials to be responsibly sourced based on provenance.
RESPONSIBLE SOURCING DEFINED

According to Ramchandani et al. (2020), stakeholders have become more aware of
the social and environmental consequences of a company’s operations in recent
years; even if a single product (material) is successfully certified, the certifying
brand may benefit from favourable knowledge-based spillovers that encourage
responsible sourcing across its entire product line. According to van den Brink et
al. (2019), there are three definitions for responsible sourcing that have been used
in recent years. The first from the British Standard Institute defines responsible
sourcing as “the management of sustainable development in the provision or
procurement of a product” (BRE Global, 2016). Second, Upstill-Goddard et al.
(2015) define responsible sourcing as the “management of sustainability issues
associated with materials in the construction supply-chain, often from an ethical
perspective” Young and Osmani (2013) argue that the scope of responsible
sourcing is within materials supply. The fourth definition van den Brink et al. (2019)
failed to recognise is the argument made by Glass (2011), in which responsible
sourcing was defined as the “procurement of products certified against
sustainability criteria”.
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Ansah, et al.
The practices of responsible sourcing and responsible procurement have a

common ground. Van den Brink et al. (2019) argues that responsible procurement
focuses more on monitoring relations with suppliers while responsible sourcing
insists on production data. Table1 shows the basic delineations.
Table 1 “Responsible sourcing” versus “Responsible procurement”

Type Objective Approach
Managing the sustainability (social,
Via
Responsible sourcing environmental and/or economic) of the supply
production
chain
Managing the sustainability (social,
Responsible procurement data
environmental and/or economic) of suppliers
Source: (Van den Brink et al., 2019)
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MATERIAL SOURCING

According to the International Trade Organisation (2020), Ghana’s construction
industry was worth 18 billion dollars in 2018 and accounted for 18.8 per cent of the
country’s GDP in that year. This value implies that the construction sector’s material
economy cannot be underestimated since it plays a substantial role in constructing
construction projects. Wilson (2007) categorised the factors for selecting material
from the source as being geographic or geologic. However, in their consideration,
the environmental sustainability of the source was not a significant criterion.
Adjarko et al. (2015) carried out a study on incorporating environmental
sustainability into construction procurement, in which several factors were
suggested. The top four among these factors were leadership skills, environmental
culture, public influence and personal skills. However, it is worth noting that the
material source was not considered an environmental factor during the material
procurement. Therefore, to achieve a holistic, sustainable material procurement,
the source and the knowledge of those in a position to influence the choice of
material selection need to be considered.
Environmental consideration
A study carried out by Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali (2011) and Levin (2016) indicated
that the difficulty of determining the pattern of toxins emitted from building
construction materials by the built environment professional has led to the use of
several toxic materials which are worthy of attention. Some of these materials are
legally accepted, yet they contain some form of toxicity. The material itself may not
be toxic, but the processes of obtaining the materials may contain certain
environmental negativities, and this may be attributed to the material in question.
Thus, environmental assessment of building materials is needed to substitute those
prone to sustainability ramifications with more environmentally friendly ones to
deliver sustainable building construction projects (Farahzadi et al., 2016). Ruuska
and Häkkinen (2014) suggest that since natural resources support the quality of
life, there is the need to procure materials responsibly to create products and
services with lesser resources and environmental impacts. In their study on the
assessment of CO2 in selecting construction materials (using three live
construction projects), González and Navarro (2006) found and concluded that the
careful selection of building materials with environmental considerations reduces
carbon emissions.
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Ansah, et al.
Technological consideration
Material selection and/or sourcing technology considerations include durability
(design, production, and reprocessing). Lifset and Eckelman (2013) and Levin (2016)
all supported the principle of material longevity. In his plenary Architecture lecture,
Levin (2016, p.15) demonstrated that “selecting natural building materials that are
robust has sufficient environmental benefits than the one that must be substituted
more than once in the life of the building.” For example, increasing the concrete
cover from 10mm to 20mm doubles the service life of reinforcement (defined as
the time it takes carbonation to enter the reinforcement, Levin (2016, p.63) by 400%
but increases concrete consumption only 5-10%. Therefore, in responsible sourcing
of construction materials, the source model that provides a better and more
durable material should be considered since it will contribute to the material
sustainability agenda.
The design for durability has been the strategy in the circular economy. In their
study on developing an indicator for material selection Mesa, et al. (2020) posited,
durability reduces the frequency of construction material maintainability.
The Concept of Durability after Mesa et al. (2020)
Resource consumption
There is no doubt that the building construction industry requires much energy
regularly. Liedtke et al. (2014) asserted that in the development and consumption
of various systems, such as lifecycle stages, processes, production, transportation,
and energy usage, these are all indicators that contribute to resource management
through the economic management framework. Furthermore, according to Xu et
al. (2020), natural resource extraction and processing are responsible for more than
90% of biodiversity loss and systemic ecosystem depletion. As a result, resource
consumption is just as crucial as the contributing factors in the responsible
sourcing of construction materials to promote material sustainability.
Social considerations
Social considerations in responsible material sourcing are understood as the
impacts on human well-being, human capital, cultural heritage and social
behaviour (Chhipi-Shrestha et al., 2015). Sourcing material responsibly relates to
human well being as it relates to material consumption. A study conducted by
Hosseinijou et al. (2014) found that it is essential for society to benefit from using
construction materials. It is essential to improve the eco-efficiency of material
production and develop mechanisms that would promote materials recovery with
low environmental considerations during deconstruction. A study between steel
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and concrete concluded that steel has a better social impact than concrete. To
support product and material policies, (JRC Technical Report by the European
Commission, 2014) suggests a need to incorporate life cycle assessment to
examine the environmental implications from raw material extraction to product
end-of-life. The Life cycle assessment coupled with socio-economic analysis may
support a more comprehensive study. Hence it is essential to integrate the social
life cycle into the supply chain of construction materials.
This research aimed at assessing the factors that influence material sourcing in the
construction industry in which sustainability is promoted. For the aim to be
achieved, the following objectives were set:
1. to estimate the perceived level of consideration of factors for material

responsible sourcing;
2. to determine whether the factors considered in responsible sourcing of

construction materials in Ghana fit standard factors provided in the literature.
A quantitative research approach was used. This approach is widely associated with
the positivism research stance (Saunders et al., 2019). It also allows using a
structured research questionnaire to enable the study to generalise the findings
from the sampling methods applied.
Figure 1: Research Framework and Methodology
Population and sample size

The unit of analysis (the focus of study) from which the data was collected was the
construction industry. The unit of observation from which data was measured to
understand the construction industry’s material selection practices was the
decision-making of construction professionals in selecting and procuring
construction materials in Ghana. Accra, the capital and the construction hub of
Ghana, was selected for the study since most of the identified decision-making
professionals work in this city. The emphasis was that; these practitioners have a
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reasonably high degree of experience in construction material selection.

Accordingly, this identification made the study homogenous (Saunders et al. 2019).
A survey of Ghanaian Construction professionals in selecting building materials
was conducted through the Google form platform to obtain the relevant factors
required in the study.
According to Rowley (2014, p. 319), purposive sampling should be used when some
cases are identified and likely yield the most valuable results. The non-probability
sampling used was purposive and snowball. Purposive because some of the
decision-making professionals were known. Therefore, the questionnaire was
circulated through the Google form platform (snowball) to their colleagues in the
same category (homogeneity) who volunteered to participate in the research.
However, there was no clear way of constructing a sampling frame from which a
generalisation could be deduced. The rule for employing the non-probability
sampling technique, according to Saunders et al. (2019 p.315), is unclear and hence
becomes judgemental. It is thus dependent on what is required and the resources
available. Using this premise from Saunders et al. (2019), 58 construction
professionals were interviewed from 52 organisations using the non-probability
sampling method. Pesämaa et al. (2021 p.219) argue that a study’s realism is
enhanced when the respondents are taken from knowledgeable informants and
the sample size is representative and compatible with the study. This argument was
consistent with the study.
Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Altogether 58 responses were received through the purposive and snowball
sampling methods used. Six of the 58 respondents were discovered to work for
the same organisation. In addition, those who work in the same organisation but
provided the first responders were included using the dates (Timestamp) for the
responses (and those who gave their responses later were excluded). This criterion
ensured that a single expert delivered the required response from a single
organisation.
Table 2: Exclusion and inclusion criteria
Questionnaire Distribution
Response Response From same
Population Valid Response
Received organisation
Undefined 58 6 52
Data collection
Data collection improves theoretical comprehension in a research sample. A
questionnaire adapted from Akadiri’s (2011) research was used to collect data. An
ethical response form was provided to ask respondents to freely agree or disagree
to participate in the study, allowing them to opt-out during the survey. The
questionnaire was divided into two parts. Section A tried to learn about the
respondents ’backgrounds. The bulk of the questions in section B were on a Likert-
Scale scale of 1 to 5. Section B’s questions focused on the factors perceived to
influence responsible construction material sourcing based on provenance,
obtained from literature thus; environmental criteria, technical criteria, resource
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use and socio-economic criteria, all concerning the provenance (source) of

construction material procurement and use.
Summary
A longitudinal study might trigger an experimental design to obtain the underlying
factors from primary analysis instead of literature. Thus, the longitudinal study
would shed further light on the data. In addition, it would be fascinating to conduct
a study that compared primary and secondary data analysis findings. Finally, even
though the number of respondents is adequate, a larger sample size would allow
better generalisation. From Table 2, The exclusion and the inclusion criteria were
used to prevent repeated measurements from the same company to ensure the
relevance of the results.

In this section, the analysis and results are presented on the two specific objectives
of the study, the first of which is to estimate the perceived level of consideration
of factors for responsible material sourcing concerning provenance. The second
objective is to determine whether factors considered in responsible sourcing of
materials in Ghana are consistent with factors provided in the literature. Table 3
shows the descriptive statistics on the professional characteristics of respondents.
The specific attributes considered are company age, position, and work experience.
Table 3: Participant characteristics
Variable Group Frequency/Mean Per cent/SD

< 5 yrs 6 12%
6-10 yrs 7 13%
11-20 yrs 21 40%
Company age 21-30 yrs 9 17%
31-40 yrs 7 13%
> 40 yrs 2 4%
Total 52 100%
Engineer 12 23%
Project Manager 13 25%
Quantity Surveyor 5 10%
Contractor 6 12%
Position
Procurement Officer 3 6%
Project Coordinator 4 8%
Others 9 17%
Total 52 100%
Work experience --- 12.17 6.59
Note: Mean and standard deviation apply to only work experience
It can be seen that 12% (n = 6) of participants ’organizations were less than 5 years,
13% (n = 7) had between 6- and 10-years ’experience as well as 31 to 40 years, 40%
(n = 19) had between 11and 20 years, 17% (n = 9) had between 21 and 30 years,
and 4% (n = 2) had more than 40 years ’work experience. About 23% (n = 12) of
the participants were engineers, 25% (n = 13) were project managers, 10% (n = 5)
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were quantity surveyors, 12% (n = 12) were contractors, 6% (n = 3) were

procurement offices, 8% (n = 4) were project coordinators, and 17% (n = 9)
belonged to other categories. Finally, the average years of work experience of
respondents was 12 years (Mean = 12.17; SD = 6.59). Thus, participants were
adequately experienced in the subject matter concerned.
Table 4: Descriptive statistics showing the extent of consideration of criteria and factors
Min Max % of
Criterion/factor N Mean SD
. . mean
Material quality due to source 52 3 5 4.79 0.50 96%
Material harvest or extraction 52 2 5 3.88 1.00 78%
Zero or low toxicity 52 1 5 4.25 0.86 85%
Ozone Depletion Potential 52 1 5 3.77 1.10 75%
Impact of material on air quality 52 2 5 4.10 0.93 82%
Potential for recycling and re-use 52 1 5 4.04 1.10 81%
Global warming potential 52 2 5 3.90 1.07 78%
Acidification Potential 52 1 5 3.48 1.16 70%
Eutrophication Potential 52 1 5 3.46 1.07 69%
Environmental statutory compliance 52 2 5 4.33 0.81 87%
ENVIRONMENTAL 52 28 50 40.00 6.51 80%
Maintainability 52 3 5 4.46 0.75 89%
Sound insulation 52 1 5 3.94 1.04 79%
Resistance to decay 52 1 5 4.38 0.97 88%
Fire resistance 52 3 5 4.67 0.58 93%
Life expectancy of material (e.g. strength, durability 52 3 5 4.40 0.66 88%
TECHNOLOGICAL 52 15 25 21.87 2.87 87%
Embodied energy 52 2 5 4.12 0.81 82%
Availability 52 3 5 4.50 0.67 90%
Methods of extraction of raw material 52 1 5 3.90 1.11 78%
Likely waste in the use of material 52 1 5 3.92 1.17 78%
Transportation required 52 2 5 4.08 0.86 82%
RESOURCE CONSUMPTION 52 14 25 20.52 2.92 82%
Life cycle cost (initial, maintenance, and repair cost) 52 2 5 4.17 0.76 83%
Health and safety 52 3 5 4.63 0.53 93%
Ease of construction/ buildability 52 3 5 4.56 0.64 91%
Aesthetics 52 2 5 4.33 0.79 87%
SOCIO-ECONOMIC 52 13 20 17.69 1.85 88%
Note: factors are in block letters; S.D. – standard deviation; Min. – minimum; Max– maximum
Since the Likert scale used to measure the criteria and factors was associated with
a five-point descriptive anchor representing a continuum (i.e. least crucial to
extremely important), the mean scores in Table 4 represent the levels of
consideration of the criteria and factors. In this regard, more significant mean
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scores indicate higher consideration of the criteria or factors and vice versa. In
Table 4, the minimum and maximum scores of the criteria are 1 and 5, respectively.
The four factors in the table (i.e. environmental, technological, resource use, and
socio-economic) were developed by summing up the relevant items used to
measure the factor. The resulting data is, thus, an index of the factors.
The minimum and maximum scores of the factors or indices are the sums of all
minimum and maximum values of the relevant criteria. Thus, the higher the mean
score of a criterion or factor, the higher the perceived level of consideration in
responsible material sourcing. If so, it can be seen that all criteria in the table have
a large mean score.
Among the environmental criteria, “Material quality due to source” has the largest
mean score (Mean = 4.79; SD = 0.5), representing 96% of the maximum score of 5.
That is, this criterion is the most important among the environmental criteria and
other factors. In Table 3, the least important factor is "Eutrophication Potential"
(Mean = 3.46; SD = 1.07), which is under the environmental factor. It accounts for
69% of the maximum score of 5, which means it is above average and can be
considered a sufficiently important criterion. Environmental as a factor accounts
for a mean score of about 40 (Mean = 40.00; SD = 6.51), representing about 80%
of the maximum scale score of 50. Technological factors account for a mean score
of about 22 (Mean = 21.87; SD = 2.87), representing about 87% of the maximum
scale score. It can be seen those Technological accounts for the second-largest
percentage among the factors, which means it is the second most important
among the factors. The most important and applied factor is socio-economic,
which accounts for a percentage score of 88%. It can be seen that the factor with
the smallest percentage is environmental, which connotes that this factor is the
least applied or considered, though one of its items is the most considered
criterion.
With the above result, all criteria and factors were considered in Ghana in
responsible sourcing of materials. Table 5 shows the results of a one-sample t-test,
which assesses whether the mean scores of the factors are more significant than
the median score of the factors. If the mean score is significantly greater than the
median score, then it can be said that the extent of consideration of the factor is
above average and appreciable.
Table 5: The one-sample t-test

Factor Test value t df p Mean Difference 95% CI
Environmental 30 11.075 51 0.000 10.00 ±3.63
Technological 15 17.25 51 0.000 6.87 ±1.60
Resource
15 13.628 51 0.000 5.52 ±1.63
Consumption
Socio-economic 12 22.154 51 0.000 5.69 ±1.03
Note: Test values are the median of the variable; CI – confidence interval
In Table 5, the test value is the median score corresponding to the factor. The test
focuses on finding out if the mean scores of Table 5 are greater than these
corresponding medians or test values. In Table 5, it can be seen that all the factors
account for a positive mean difference, with environmental accounting for the
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largest mean difference of 10. This result indicates that deducting the test value
from the mean gives a positive result, which connotes that the mean scores are
greater than their corresponding medians. For each factor, the t-test is significant
at p < 0.001. For example, the t-test of environmental is significant at p < 0.001 (t
= 11.08; p = .000). Thus, the mean scores of the four factors are greater than their
corresponding medians. Therefore, the level of consideration of the factors
responsible for sourcing materials is above average — table 6 and 7 present
findings on the second objective.
The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was carried out on all the variables, as
shown in Table 6. As a result, the total variance accounts for by the four-factor
variables was 61.60% which meets the analysis requirements. Furthermore, the
extraction values in table 5 show that the communality values were ≥ 0.5 (Kelava,
2016) and thus met the requirements in the literature.
Table 6: Extraction values from principal component analysis after Varimax

Criteria Initial Extraction
Material quality due to source 1 0.733
Material harvest or extraction 1 0.717
Zero or low toxicity 1 0.803
Ozone Depletion Potential 1 0.637
Impact of material on air quality 1 0.763
Potential for recycling and reuse 1 0.700
Global warming potential 1 0.872
Acidification Potential 1 0.758
Eutrophication Potential 1 0.793
Environmental statutory compliance 1 0.581
Maintainability 1 0.726
Sound insulation 1 0.517
Resistance to decay 1 0.871
Fire resistance 1 0.802
The life expectancy of material (e.g. strength, durability 1 0.695
Embodied energy 1 0.675
Availability 1 0.801
Methods of extraction of raw material 1 0.692
Likely waste in the use of material 1 0.735
Transportation required 1 0.624
Life cycle cost (initial, maintenance, and repair cost) 1 0.739
Health and safety 1 0.633
Ease of construction/ buildability 1 0.640
Aesthetics 1 0.675
Note: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure = 0.658; df = 300; Ch-square; 936.24; p = 0.000
Extraction values in Table 6 are communality values that must each meet the
condition: communality ≥ 0.5 (Kelava, 2016). Any criterion that meets this condition
is considered part of the standard variables in responsible material sourcing from
the literature. It can be seen that all the criteria met this condition. This means that
all the standard criteria considered at the international level underpin the Ghanaian
context. Beneath Table 6, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value of the factor analysis
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is about 0.658, whereas the Chi-square test is significant at p < 0.001. These results
are satisfactory and suggest that the model is random (Kelava, 2016).
Table 7: Factor loadings, variance, and eigenvalues

Component 1 2 3 4
Variance (Total = 61.58%) 34.19 12.07 8.43 6.89
Eigenvalue 8.55 3.02 2.11 1.72
Material quality due to source 0.84
Material harvest or extraction 0.65
Zero or low toxicity 0.48
Ozone Depletion Potential 0.70
Impact of material on air quality 0.63
Potential for recycling and reuse 0.47
Global warming potential 0.77
Acidification Potential 0.59
Eutrophication Potential 0.83
Environmental statutory compliance 0.60
Concrete 0.91
Maintainability 0.66
Sound insulation 0.46
Resistance to decay 0.89
Fire resistance 0.64
The life expectancy of material (e.g. strength,
0.61
durability
Embodied energy 0.58
Availability 0.73
Methods of extraction of raw material 0.43
Likely waste in the use of material 0.41
Transportation required 0.53
Life cycle cost (initial, maintenance, and repair cost) 0.57
Health and safety 0.62
Ease of construction/ buildability 0.76
Aesthetics 0.64
Note: factor 1 – Environmental; factor 2 = Resource Consumption; factor 3 – Technological; factor
4 – socioeconomic
Figure 2: A scree plot (source: Field Survey 2021) showing factors extracted
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Table 7 shows the factor loadings of four factors extracted. The total variance
extracted and eigenvalues are also reported. The total variance accounted for by
the four factors is 61.6%, which is satisfactory. The factor loadings of each factor
meet the condition: factor loading ≥ 0.5, which affirms results on the
communalities. Every criterion recognised by literature at the international level is
considered as part of the factors analysed. The first factor is ‘environmental’, which
accounts for a variance of about 34.2%. The second factor is ‘resource
consumption’, which accounts for 12.1% of the total variance. The third and fourth
factors are ‘technological ’(variance = 8.4%) and ‘socio-economic ’(variance = 6.9%)
respectively. Figure 2 is a scree plot showing factors extracted from the factor
analysis.
Twenty-four (24) factors were identified from the literature. After performing
exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with varimax rotation and principal components
extraction, eigenvalues ≥ 1 were retained; thus, 4 factors (i.e. Environmental,
Technological, Resource Consumption and Socio-economic) were extracted. The
scree plot confirms this. The four factors accounted for 61.60 per cent of the total
variance, which met the analysis requirements. Table 6 shows that the communality
values were less than 0.5, which matched the conditions in the literature. The
varimax approach was used in the principal component extraction since it makes
factor interpretation easier (Kelava 2016).
Tables 8–11 show a comparison of criteria derived from fieldwork and literature
with the study’s findings.
Table 8: Environmental criteria

Rank
Rank Level of
Environmental Mean SD (Field
(Literature) Importance
Study)
Material quality due to source
4.79 0.5 1 3 H
(Durability)
Environmental statutory compliance 4.33 0.81 2 1 M-H
Zero or low toxicity 4.25 0.86 3 3 M-H
Impact of material on air quality 4.10 0.93 4 9 M-H
Potential for recycling and re-use 4.04 1.1 5 5 M-H
Global warming potential 3.9 1.07 6 6 M-H
Material harvest or extraction 3.88 1 7 11 M-H
Ozone Depletion Potential 3.77 1.10 8 4 M-H
Acidification Potential 3.48 1.16 9 N/A N/A
Eutrophication Potential 3.46 1.07 10 N/A N/A
Table 9: Technological criteria

Rank (Field Rank Level of
Technological Mean SD
Study) (Literature) Importance
Fire resistance 4.67 0.58 1 4 H
Maintainability 4.46 0.75 2 1 H
Life expectancy of material
4.4 0.66 3 2 H
(e.g. strength)
Resistance to decay 4.38 0.97 4 6 M-H
Sound insulation 3.94 1.04 5 2 M
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Table 10: Resource consumption criteria

Rank (Field Rank Level of
Resource Consumption Mean SD
Study) (Literature) Importance
Availability 4.50 0.67 1 7 M-H
Embodied energy 4.12 0.81 2 7 M-H
Transportation required 4.08 0.86 3
Likely waste in the use of
3.92 1.11 4 6 M-H
material
Methods of extraction of
3.90 1.17 5 11 M-H
raw material
Table 11: Socio-economic criteria

Rank (Field Level of
Socio-Economic Mean SD Rank (Literature)
Study) Importance
Health and safety 4.63 0.53 1 3 H
Ease of construction/
4.56 0.64 2 5 H
buildability
Aesthetics 4.33 0.79 3 1 H
Life cycle cost (initial,
maintenance, and 4.17 0.76 4 2 H
repair cost)
H=high, M= medium, N/A = Not Applicable
Source: Field study (2021); Lee et al., (2020); Baglou et al. (2017) Akadiri et al. (2013); Akadiri and
Olomolaiye (2012) Akadiri (2011)
Tables 8-11 confirm and validate the study’s result with the factors obtained from
the literature. Thus, even though the methodology used in the study was different
from that found in literature, with the above result, all criteria and factors
considered in Ghana in responsible sourcing of materials sourcing were relevant to
literature.
DISCUSSION
No matter how small the benefits would be, responsible sourcing will add to the
aggregation of the sustainability positives in the construction sector. It is thus one
path of ensuring that the three fronts of sustainability are achieved in the
construction industry. The subject of responsible sourcing is relatively new and
lacks adequate literature resource. However, about a third of the available literature
in the recent past years has come from the construction industry(Van den Brink et
al., 2019). Though the focus has been on construction, there is a gradual
development from other sectors as well. The emerging development of
sustainability schemes and growing concern of responsible sourcing indicate it is
gradually receiving the needed theoretical and practical attention.
However, a lack of transparency makes responsible sourcing challenging. It

requires visibility, transparency and sound functioning legislation through the
supply chain. In addition, firms need to develop high ethical standards from
production through supply to realise the required material sourcing responsibility.
A few research studies in the Global South (if any) have examined the subject of
responsible sourcing. This study fills the gap by looking at the factors considered
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in responsible sourcing and the likely environmental impact at the material origin.
It, therefore, provides a basis for future research, especially in the Global South.
CONCLUSION
This study has estimated the perceived level of consideration of standard factors
for responsible material sourcing and procurement based on provenance and
determined whether the perceived factors were consistent with factors found in
the literature. A total of 4 group factors altogether having 24 criteria were identified
from the literature. In addition, a questionnaire was sent to the relevant
construction material selection professionals to obtain the criteria considered in
responsible materials sourcing in the building construction industry in the Global
South. The group factors considered for responsible material sourcing using
provenance as a datum in the study were environmental, technological, resource
use and socio-economic. All of the variables deemed to influence responsible
sourcing of construction materials were subjected to a principal component
analysis (PCA). PCA found four components with eigenvalues greater than one,
accounting for 34.2 per cent of environmental criteria, 12.10 per cent of resource
consumption criteria, 8.4% of technological criteria, and 6.9% of socio-economic
criteria. As a result, all of the variables were significant, confirming the conclusions
of the literature data were consistent with the responsible sourcing of construction
materials in Ghana as a country in the Global South; this corroborates the research
carried out by Lee et al. (2020); Baglou et al. (2017); Akadiri et al. (2013); Akadiri
and Olomolaiye (2012); Akadiri (2011) and thus confirms and validates the findings
from theory are relevant to the Global South context.
Material quality due to source obtained the highest mean of 4.79, supporting
Wilson’s (2007) study. The gravity model enables one to determine where to obtain
their needs based on the probability of attraction to the source. However,
eutrophication as a factor had the lowest environmental consideration, a mean of
3.46. It is a critical requirement that necessitates additional research because it
contributes significantly to the general degradation of water quality, increases
algae, and may cause morphological changes in the environment. This study
provides an excellent start when looking at responsible material sourcing in the
construction industry to promote materials sustainability.
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Ramchandani, P., Bastani, H., & Moon, K., (2020). Responsible Sourcing: The First Step Is
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Ruuska, A., & Häkkinen, T., (2014). Material efficiency of building construction. Buildings,
4(3), pp.266–294.
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REVIEW OF RISK MANAGEMENT STUDIES: TOWARDS A

FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR LARGE PROJECTS
Rilwan Shuaib Abdulrahman1, Ahmed Doko Ibrahim2, Baba Adama Kolo3 and
Hassan Adaviriku Ahmadu4
1,2,3,4Departmentof Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria, Nigeria
Construction is a high risk industry that operates a very complex and dynamic
environment, which significantly contributes to the existence of high uncertainty
and risk in construction projects. Journal articles on review of literature surrounding
risk abounds in construction management studies. However, such considerations
have assumed a silo approach to risk management, for instance, focus on
processes, thereby neglecting the holistic perspective to risk management. The
absence of this holistic perspective results in sub-optimality in knowledge within
this domain. Therefore, this study aims to undergo a systematic literature review,
with the purpose of bringing forth a holistic perspective of researches in this field.
Findings shows that studies in this domain have largely focused on three main
themes of risk management, namely: practices, maturity and processes, with
particular emphasis on processes. While the overwhelming majority of these
studies are replicative, they fail to advance the frontiers of risk management
knowledge for large projects. Such advancement is recognised within risk
systemicity. However, studies focused within risk systemicity have continued to
follow the trend in generic risk management considerations i.e. the silo approach.
Although, risk systemicity consideration is relatively new, the lack of research on
interactions and interdependencies within and between sub-systems opens newer
directions for risk management studies, particularly large projects. For instance,
bringing out the components of a risk management system and studying the
interactions within each component and those across them. Hence, the outcome of
this paper, amongst others, contributed immensely as part of an on-going PhD
research on modelling the dynamic interaction of risk in large construction projects.
Keywords: large projects, risk interdependences, risk management, risk systemicity
INTRODUCTION
Construction is a high risk industry that operates a very complex and dynamic
environment, which significantly contributes to the existence of high uncertainty
and risk in construction projects (Siraj, & Fayek, 2019). Because of these
1 ridwanshuayb1@gmail.com; Tel. +2347039704488

4 ahmaduhassan@rocketmail.com
Abdulrahman, et al. (2021) Review of risk management studies: towards a frame of reference for
large projects In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
823
Abdulrahman, et al.
complexities, the success of construction projects is usually highly dependent on

the quality of preparation and planning prior to execution (Firmenich, 2017).
However, despite the preparation and planning prior to execution, many complex
projects have been adjudged unsuccessful (Williams, 2017). This largely results
from poor understanding of the risk management, which is a major success factor
in all types of projects especially in large projects, as it can help project managers
to anticipate delays that cause projects not to be delivered on time among other
benefits. Although, risks are not fully predictable but with effective risk
management practice, potential damage can be mitigated.
Researches in this domain have largely attributed construction project failure to a
number of problems such as: lack of systematic & formal approach to risk
management, ineffective & inapplicable risk management models, lack of capacity
to manage risk, among others (Nawaz, Waqar, Adnan, Shah, & Sajid, 2019;
Abdulrahman, Ibrahim & Chindo, 2019; Khallaf, Naderpajouh, & Hastak, 2018;
Salawu & Abdullah, 2015; Serpell, Ferrada, Rubio, & Arauzo, 2015). As a result,
studies have proffered many replicative and fragmented solutions to these
problems (Chileshe, & Kikwasi, 2014; Yirenkyi-fianko, et al., 2015; Gajewska &
Ropel, 2011) through various forms of assessment, development of models and
approaches that will enhance the effectiveness of risk management.
Literature on construction risk management is abound, therefore, it becomes very
important to review and understand the development of studies in this domain, to
enable the uncovering of new areas and closing of saturated ones. Attempts have
been made to review risk management studies (Siraj & Fayek, 2019; Bahamid &
Doh, 2017; Renault & Agumba, 2016; Tesfaye, Berhan & Kitaw, 2016), however,
those attempts have yielded similar silo approach of focusing on specific aspect of
risk management, rather than a holistic approach. The absence of this holistic
perspective results in sub-optimality in knowledge within this domain. Therefore,
this study aims to undergo a systematic literature review, with the purpose of
bringing forth a holistic perspective of researches in this field.
This study is broken down into sections of which the first has just been discussed
as the introduction. The rest of the paper is articulated as follows; in the second
section, an overview of the research themes is provided. Also a summary of the
previous literature reviews on risk management is provided. The third section is the
methodology which talks about how the research was conducted. The fourth
section is the reporting of result from the extensive reviews and lastly, conclusions
and recommendations for future works.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Risk management process
Risk management is the process of conducting risk management planning,
identification, analysis, response planning, response implementation and
monitoring risk on a project (PMI, 2017). The whole essence of risk management is
to decrease the probability and / or impact of negative risks and increase the
probability and / or impact of positive risks, to increase the chances of project
success. Risk Management (RM) is greatly influenced by the uniqueness of the
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construction industry in a specific country; it is influenced by different project

typologies as well as organisations ’risk management maturity.
Several researches have been conducted focusing on risk assessment and risk
response stages of the risk management process. For instance; Ojo (2010) assessed
the construction site related risk factors. His argument is that studies have
concentrated on other aspects of project risks and have not looked at site risks; on
the one hand this is highly questionable because, studies dealing with project risks
would have included site risks as part of the overall project risks. On the other hand,
he assumed that risk factors and risk are the same. According to PMI (2017) only
risk can be assessed using the risk management process and not the risk factors
that cause risks. Several studies are guilty of using risk factors and risks
interchangeably, when in fact they are different.
Other studies (Ibronke, Famakin, Akingunola, 2011; Abd El-Karim, Naway & Abdel-
Alim, 2017; Sanda, Anigbogu, Rugu & Babas, 2020) have also assessed either risk
or risk factors using almost identical methods that include the use of
questionnaires surveys and qualitative risk assessment techniques. According to
Dziadosz & Rejment (2015) the most common risk assessment method is the
product of the likelihood of occurrence and the magnitude of impact which results
to risk criticality. Almost all studies on risk assessment either used this technique
alone or in collaboration with other techniques. Bahamid & Doh (2018) identified
brainstorming, expert judgment; cause and effect diagram; checklists; Delphi; Event
Tree Analysis (ETA; Risk Breakdown Matrix (RBM); risk data quality assessment as
the main qualitative risk analysis techniques while decision tree analysis; expected
monetary value; Fault Tree Analysis (FTA); fuzzy logic; probability distributions;
sensitivity analysis/tornado diagram as the main quantitative analysis techniques.
Generally, studies on risk management are largely replicative; in that the same or
very similar tools and techniques are used for instance; questionnaire survey in
collecting data, most studies used qualitative risk assessment approach,
overwhelming majority of studies used risk factors and risks interchangeably and
there doesn’t seem to be a standard form of classifying risks. Bahamid & Doh
(2018) reported in their study that various approaches have been used to classify
risks in literature. Cakmak & Tezel (2019) reported the similar finding, a clear
indication of the need to have a standard approach for risk classification.
Risk management practices

Owing to the importance of risk management in project management, its efficiency
is expected to significantly influence project performance but because of reasons
such as; lack of systematic & formal approach to risk management, its influence
has been questionable, leading to investigation on the impact of risk management
on project performance. Strutt (1993) in his study found that risk management
strategies lead to project success. However, reports from literature shows that
construction practitioners rarely utilize the formal risk management process in their
projects and that “direct judgment, personal skills and comparing analysis of similar
projects with similar conditions” are the most frequently used risk analysis
techniques (Yirenkyi-fianko, et al., 2015; Jin, Zhang, Liu, Feng, & Zuo, 2017). In
Nigeria, studies have reported that not only is the adoption of risk management
process low, they also lack the understanding of risk management process (Ojo,
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2010; Augustine et al., 2013). Consequently, these practices by construction

organisations have been reported to be ineffective particularly amongst the small
and medium size organisations as they have been underperforming due to their
inability to manage risk (Algahtany, Alhammadi, & Kashiwagi, 2016; Oduoza,
Odimabo, & Tamparapoulos, 2017).
Furthermore, Oyewobi, Ibrahim & Ganiyu (2012) reported that identified risk are
not rigorously examined and even when they have been assessed and remedial
measures agreed upon, they are not generally communicated effectively. Thus,
project participants do not have a shared understanding of the risks that threaten
a project and, consequently, they are unable to implement effective early warning
measures and mitigating strategies to adequately deal with problems resulting
from decisions that were taken elsewhere in the chain. Hence, the industry
continues to suffer poor performance with many projects failing to meet time and
cost targets.
This facet of risk management studies has a direct relationship with organisations
RMM level, since the maturity level of organisations is assessed based on certain
parameters or attributes associated with organisations that have made some
efforts towards implementing risk management. Majority of studies on risk
management practices have reported the lack of implementation of the risk
management process as the ultimate problem to studies in this area.
Risk management maturity

The risk management maturity (RMM) reflects the sophistication of an
organization's understanding of its risk portfolio and how to manage those risks
(Zou, Chen & Chan, 2010). According to Mafakheri, Breton & Chauha (2012), if an
organisation is highly matured in the management of identified risk events on
projects, the consequence of the risk events on project performance objectives will
be reduced. Several researchers have stressed the importance of assessing the
RMM of construction organisations, as it is the commencing point in
comprehending their risk management capabilities (Zou et al., 2010; Mu, et al.,
2013; Salawu and Abdullah, 2015). Loosemore, Raftery, Reilly & Higgon (2006)
indicated that many organizations operate at different levels of maturity for
different types of risks. For example, an organization's risk management culture
may be as low as level 1 but achieved level 3 in risk management processes. This
means that while organizations may have developed sophisticated risk
managmenet systems, they have not fully imbedded it within their organizational
behaviour and practices. In addition, Hopkinson (2011) indicated that assessing
RMM can help to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the organization and
can also identify areas needing improvement.
Studies across different regions of the world have demonstrated different maturity
levels for different project types. However, studies conducted in the developed
countries have reported higher maturity levels relative to those in the developing
countries (Abdulrahman et al., 2019; Salawu & Abdullah, 2015; Mu et al., 2013; Zou
et al., 2010). The point here is that organisations must understand their RMM levels
in other to stand the chance delivering projects successfully. Although, knowing
and understanding their maturity may not be enough, as they may be lacking in
one aspect or the other. Therefore, there is need for organisations to continuously
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improve on the aspects that requires improvement through development of

strategies that will promote progression.
Previous state of the art reviews in construction risk management

Risk management is one of the most researched areas in the construction industry,
however, only few studies have attempted to review existing literature to show
development trends (Siraj & Fayek, 2019). Studies by Taroun (2013) reviewed
articles on risk modelling and assessment over a twenty-nine (29) years (1983-
2012). Studies (Bahamid & Doh, 2017; Renault & Agumba, 2016) have reviewed
and brought forth the frequently used risk management techniques in construction
industry. Islam, Nepal, Skitmore & Attarzadeh (2017) reviewed research trends and
application areas of fuzzy and hybrid methods to the risk assessment of
construction projects. Content analysis of eighty-two (82) research articles
published between 2005-2017 was used in the study. Yu, Chan, Chen & Darko
(2018) conducted a systematic review of the critical risk factors of transnational
public-private partnership projects. In their study, a total of thirty-seven (37)
articles published between 1991-2015 were used to study the trends as well as
identifying the critical risk factors of transnational public private partnership (TPPP)
projects. Similarly, Tesfaye, Kitaw & Berhan (2016) undertook systematic review and
meta-analysis on risk assessment of construction project literature over the past
twenty (20) years. They reported statistical analysis and fuzzy expert system as the
dominant risk assessment tools used. Several attempts have been made to capture
the development of studies in risk management, the most recent being that of Siraj
& Fayek (2019) where risk identification tools and techniques, risk classification
methods and the most common risks in construction projects were reported. In
their study, a systematic review and content analysis of one hundred and thirty
(130) research articles was selected over the previous thirty (30) years. Their
findings revealed that majority of the articles identified risks mainly for
infrastructure projects and either categorised the risks based on their nature or
simply listed them out. Although, the above reported studies have reviewed almost
all aspects of risk management, they have all being in silo approach, rather than a
holistic approach which provides better insight to the risk management as a
system. Looking at the risk management as a system, it is made up of three
essential components of causation, risks and consequences. This can be Fitted into
the input, process and output structure of a system. In this case, the causation (risk
factors or sources of risk) is the input, the risks (risk management process) being
the process and lastly, the consequences (effects) being the output. Of course
equally important are the existing reviews which have adopted the silo approach
and can be viewed as sub-systems or components within the larger system (risk
management system). However, it is also very important to have a holistic view of
the entire system.
A three (3) stage process adopted by Siraj & Fayek (2019) was modified into a two
(2) stage process for this study. The modifications were on the initial stage of the
process which involves journal selection. Figure 1 below shows details of the review
process.
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Figure 1: Research Methodology for Articles selection
Article selection
At the first stage, articles were first identified using the keywords to search from
these online databases; Science Direct, Emeraldinsight, Google Scholar and ASCE
library. The keywords were selected from review articles (Nabawy & Khodeir, 2020;
Siraj & Fayek, 2019; Tesfaye, Berhan & Kitaw, 2016) on risk related topics, based on
the common keywords used by researchers. For the purpose of this study the
search words include; “Construction risk management”, “risk identification and
assessment”, “Risk modelling in construction”, “risk interactions in construction
projects” etc. A number of different variations of the search words were used to
collate articles within this domain over a ten (10) year period (2010-2020).
Consequently, a total of 135 articles were found and more importantly, reduced to
94 articles as a result of systematic refinement to collate articles that are more
relevant to the study. Furthermore, these articles were then reviewed to capture
details of existing information regarding risk management as well as project
information used in the selected articles. The following were the inclusion criteria
in the selection of articles:
1. Only accessible articles within the following databases; Science Direct,
Emeraldinsight, Google Scholar and ASCE library were used
2. Articles selected must focus on risk management in construction industry
3. Articles must have been published between the year 2010 and 2020
4. Articles must be within risk management process, risk management practices,

risk management maturity and/or risk interactions
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Content analysis
Content analysis can be used to determine the categories of a group of data, by
counting the number of times an activity occurs (Fellow & Liu, 2015). It has also
been defined as a powerful technique for gathering information and evaluating the
trends and patterns in a document or documents (Siraj & Fayek, 2019). The first
step in undertaking a content analysis is to identify the materials to be analysed,
then determine the form of content analysis to be used. The type of content
analysis could be qualitative, quantitative or structural depending on the nature of
the research issues to be addressed.
However, for qualitative content analysis, the focus is on determining the meaning
of data, while for quantitative content analysis the focus is on producing numerical
data ratings, frequencies, rankings and so on and lastly, structural content analysis
is focused on examining the relationships between groups of data.
This research will use qualitative content analysis in understanding the nature of
researches in the field of construction risk management. Hence, the last stage of
this methodology requires detailed content analysis to synthesize information
regarding characteristics of the projects and the geographical regions used in the
articles, analysis of articles that focused on risk management process, risk
management maturity and risk interactions.

Profile of the projects in the selected articles
The construction projects considered in the articles used for this review were
profiled on the basis of their geographical region and project types. The selected
articles encompassed the entire risk management process; risk management
practices, risk management maturity, risk management process, and risk
interactions in various project types. The projects were widely grouped into three
(3) categories based on the nature of construction works and they are listed as
follows; building construction works (residential, office, commercial, etc.),
Infrastructural works (Highway, Tunnel, Railway and pile works) and large projects
(mega projects and complex projects).
Having reviewed 94 risk management articles over a ten (10) year period, result
shows that the most common project type used in literature is building
construction works with 66%, Infrastructural works 15% and large projects 19% as
shown in Table 1 below.
Building construction works has the highest percentage (65.96%) in terms of the
number of published articles in that category, probably because it has a wider
range of projects subsumed in that category and also the fact that there is more
number of projects under construction in this category particularly in the African
region. Another reason could be the willingness of key stakeholders to participate
in researches focusing on this type of projects. Infrastructural works and large
projects have 14.89% and 19.15% in terms of the number of published articles in
these categories respectively. Although, infrastructural development plays a vital
role in the economic and social development of both developed and developing
countries (Siraj & Fayek, 2019), reasons such as; lack of participation of key
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stakeholders in researches focusing on infrastructural projects could deter

researchers from conducting studies in this facet. Also, these projects are complex
and as a result the uncertainties are likely to be more interdependent,
interconnected, subject to change or there will be socio-political risks whose effects
are unknown (Williams, 2017).
Table 1: Categories of projects in published articles

NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE OF
FEATURE CATEGORY
ARTICLES ARTICLES
Building Construction Projects 62 65.96

Project Type Infrastructural Projects 14 14.89
Large Projects 18 19.15
TOTAL 94 100.00
Africa 26 27.66
Geographical Region of America 6 6.38

Projects Asia 33 35.11
Europe 29 30.85
TOTAL 94 100.00
Furthermore, risk management is a wide area of research with varieties of research

categories, this study has therefore, categorised studies in this domain based on
the nature of researches published. The categories are as follows; review papers,
risk management practices, risk management maturity, risk management process
and risk interactions. It was observed that review articles focused on individual
component within the risk management process, for instance; review article (Siraj
and Fayek 2019) on risk identification tools and techniques, others are on risk
assessment and response techniques (Islam, Nepal, Skitmore & Attarzadeh, 2017;
Renault & Agumba, 2016). Table 2 shows categories and number of articles within
risk management studies over the period considered.
Table 2: Categories of published articles on risk management

NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE OF
FEATURE CATEGORY
ARTICLES ARTICLES
Review Papers 11 11.70

Risk management practices 5 5.32
RISK MANAGEMENT Risk management maturity 8 8.51
Risk management process 46 48.94
Risk interactions 24 25.53
TOTAL 94 100.00
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Result shows that 11.7% of the total articles reviewed are on review papers, 5.32%,
8.51%, 48.94% and 25.53% are on risk management practices, risk management
maturity, risk management process and risk interactions respectively.
11.70% for the review papers denotes the efforts that has been made by
researchers (Siraj and Fayek 2019; Islam, et al., 2017; Renault & Agumba, 2016;
Taroun, 2013) towards reviewing studies to report what has been done and also to
capture future directions. Articles on review of literature surrounding risk abounds
in construction management studies. However, such considerations have assumed
a silo approach to risk management, for instance, focus on processes, thereby
neglecting the holistic perspective to risk management.
Similarly, articles focusing on risk management practices and maturity have 5.32%
and 8.51% respectively of the total number of articles reviewed. This could be an
indication that these areas are saturated, due to the relatively low amount of
publications in the area and also being that the most recent publication on risk
management practices was in 2017 and that of risk management maturity (RMM)
was in 2019. Cakmak & Tezel (2019) also opined that risk management literature
may have reached saturation. However, there are renewed efforts on RMM towards
developing strategies on how to move from a lower maturity level to a higher level.
This is very important because, reports show that organisations in developed
countries apply systematic risk management and have superior maturity levels
relative to organisations in the developing countries. Furthermore, the risk
management practices of organizations in developing countries have been found
generally to be inadequate due to it not being structured.
Most importantly, majority of the articles reviewed focused on risk management
process largely because it encompasses more subdivisions (risk identification,
assessment, response, monitoring and controlling). Although, even within the risk
management process, studies have paid more attention to the risk assessment
stage. Perhaps researchers believe it is the most important stage within the entire
process. This is highly questionable, in fact the plan risk management and risk
identification that have seemingly been relegated are the two (2) most important
stages of risk management, because they are inputs in all other stages of the
process. This means other stages cannot be carried out without these two stages.
It is important to note that the overwhelming majority of articles in this facet are
replicative and therefore, will not advance the frontiers of knowledge in this
domain.
Lastly, articles on risk interactions could form part of the risk assessment within the
risk management process category, but it was extracted to enable a more indebt
review and discussion. For this category, there were 24 articles amounting to
25.53% of the total articles reviewed for this research. About 70.83% of the articles
in this category were published between 2017 and 2021, except for review papers
with 81.82%, other categories were 16.67%, 25% and 52.17%. This is a clear
indication that researchers are beginning to focus more on this area. This could be
the resulting effect of previous approaches ’inability to capture complex, multiple
feedback and highly dynamic interactions among several risks (Korytarova &
Hromadka, 2021; Guan, et al., 2020; Boateng, 2017).
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Journal articles on review of literature surrounding risk abounds in construction
management studies. However, such considerations have assumed a silo approach
to risk management, for instance, focus on processes, thereby neglecting the
holistic perspective to risk management. This research has therefore, brought forth
a holistic perspective to risk management through a systematic review of articles
in this domain over the last decade (2010-2020).
The study found that there are very few articles focusing on risk management
practice, probably because the area is saturated or because the problems of risk
management has more to do with the development of systematic methodologies
rather than the practices.
Similarly, very few studies have focused on RMM over the last ten (10) years,
although, renewed efforts on RMM are geared towards developing strategies on
how to move from a lower maturity level to a higher level.
Findings shows that risk management studies have largely focused on risk
management process (risk identification, assessment, response, monitoring and
controlling) with particular emphasis on risk assessment, other categories such as
risks management practices, maturity and interactions have been paid little
attention. This finding is in tandem with that of Cakmak & Tezel (2020) whose
research was on the present knowledge and future directions of researches in risk
management. Also it was observed that, there is no clear distinction between risk
factors and risks in literature, as several studies (Abdulrahman, et al., 2019; Maina,
& Mbabazize, 2016; Boateng & Chen, 2012) have used both terminologies
interchangeably, which in fact are different. Studies by Siraj & Fayek (2019) also
reported similar findings on risk management literature lacking a standardized risk
classification approach. Consequently, studies in this facet are overwhelmingly
replicative and so have failed to advance the frontiers of risk management
knowledge.
Lastly, studies on risk interactions have also begun the trend of replicating studies
by focusing solely on risk interactions at the assessment and response stages of
the risk management process. The point made does not invalidate existing studies;
it only means that there is need to look at other components within the risk
management system.
This research will benefit researchers in showing research trends in this domain as
well as future directions in each category within risk management studies, as
highlighted below:
With regards to articles on review and risk management practices, there are no
clear future directions, as they seemed saturated.
For articles on RMM, future research should focus on developing strategies on how
to move and sustain a higher maturity level across different categories of
organisations
Future research on risk management process should focus on;
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 Establishing a clear difference between risk factors and risks
 Determining a standard methodology for risk classification.
 Using artificial intelligence techniques in risk management
Finally, studies should research into risk interactions by focusing on other stages
such as; the interactions between the causes of risks and risks and the interactions
within the entire risk management system. That is the interactions between risk
factors, risks, risk assessment, risk response, risk monitoring and controlling should
be researched.
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APPENDIX A
Table 1: List of articles reviewed
S/N Year Authors Article Classification Project Type
1 2011 Taroun, et al. Review paper Building Construction Projects
2 2013 Taroun Review paper Infrastructure Projects
3 2016 Tesfaye, et al. Review paper Building Construction Projects
4 2017 Islam, et al. Review paper Building Construction Projects
5 2017 Bahamid & Doh Review paper Building Construction Projects
6 2017 Yu, et al. Review paper Infrastructure Projects
7 2019 Siraj & Fayek Review paper Building Construction Projects
8 2019 Afzal, et al. Review paper Building Construction Projects
9 2019 Muthuveeran, et al. Review paper Infrastructure Projects
10 2020 Tetteh, et al. Review paper Building Construction Projects
11 2020 Nabawy & Khodeir Review paper Large Projects
Yirenkyi-Fianko &
12 2013 Risk Management Practices Building Construction Projects
Chileshe
13 2014 Chileshe & Kikwasi Risk Management Practices Building Construction Projects
14 2015 Serpell, et al. Risk Management Practices Building Construction Projects
15 2016 Renault, et al. Risk Management Practices Building Construction Projects
16 2017 jin, et al. Risk Management Practices Building Construction Projects
17 2010 Zuo, et al. Risk Management Maturity Building Construction Projects

18 2012 Mafakheri, et al. Risk Management Maturity Building Construction Projects
19 2013 Mu, et al. Risk Management Maturity Infrastructure Project
20 2013 Coetzee & lubbe Risk Management Maturity Building Construction Projects
21 2014 Motaleb & Kishk Risk Management Maturity Building Construction Projects
22 2015 Salawu & Abdullah Risk Management Maturity Infrastructure Project
23 2017 Wibowo & Taufik Risk Management Maturity Building Construction Projects
24 2019 Abdulrahman, et al Risk Management Maturity Building Construction Projects

25 2010 Kutsch & Hall Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
26 2010 Kululanga & Kuotcha Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
27 2010 Ojo Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
28 2011 Rezakhani Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
29 2011 Ibironke, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
30 2012 Oyewobi, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
31 2013 Junior & Carvalho Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
32 2014 Rostami, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
33 2014 Serpella, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
34 2014 Qing, et al. Risk Management Process Infrastructure Project
35 2014 Irimia-Dieguez, et al. Risk Management Process Large Projects
36 2015 Toth & Sebestyen Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
37 2015 Baghdadi & Kishk Risk Management Process Aviation Project
38 2015 Boateng, et al. Risk Management Process Large Projects
39 2015 Dziadosz & Rejment Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
40 2016 Grabovy & Orlov Risk Management Process Large Projects
41 2016 Rostami & Oduoza Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
42 2016 Park, et al. Risk Management Process Large Projects
43 2016 Maina & Mbabazize Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
44 2016 Sy, et al. Risk Management Process Infrastructure Project
45 2016 Algathany, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
840
Abdulrahman, et al.
46 2017 Szymanski Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
47 2017 Timofeeva, et al. Risk Management Process Large Projects
48 2017 Khallaf, et al. Risk Management Process Large Projects
49 2017 Maseko Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
50 2017 Oduoza, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
51 2017 Firmenich Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
52 2017 Abd El-Karim, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
53 2018 Honsy, et al. Risk Management Process Infrastructure Project
54 2018 Odimabo & Oduoza Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
55 2018 Basaif, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
56 2018 Gupta & Thakkar Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
57 2018 Deng Risk Management Process Infrastructure Project
58 2018 Adeleke, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
59 2018 Keshk, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
60 2019 Khattak, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
61 2019 Nawaz, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
62 2019 Issa, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
63 2019 Cakmak & Tezel Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
64 2020 Yaseen, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
65 2020 Chou & Lin. Risk Management Process Infrastructure Project
66 2020 Pereira, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
67 2020 Wang, et al. Risk Management Process Infrastructure Project
68 2020 Osman, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
69 2020 Ferede, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
70 2020 Sanda, et al. Risk Management Process Building Construction Projects
71 2010 Armstrong & McCulloh Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects

72 2012 Fang, et al. Risk Interactions Large Proects
73 2012 Boateng, et al. Risk Interactions Large Projects
74 2014 Wan & Liu Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
75 2015 Marle Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
76 2015 Mhatre, et al. Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
77 2015 Boateng, et al. Risk Interactions Large Projects
78 2016 Siraj, Fayek Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
79 2016 Wang & Yuan Risk Interactions Infrastructure Project
80 2016 Zhang & Zhang Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
81 2017 Williams Risk Interactions Large Projects
82 2017 Dandaje, et al. Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
841
Abdulrahman, et al.
83 2017 Boateng, et al. Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
84 2017 Xu, et al. Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
85 2017 Ongkowijoyo & Doloi Risk Interactions Infrastructure Project
86 2018 Kimiagari & Keivanpour Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
87 2018 Chatterjee Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
88 2019 Xie, et al. Risk Interactions Large Projects
89 2020 Qazi, et al. Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
90 2020 Taofeek, et al. Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
91 2020 Su, et al. Risk Interactions Large Proects
92 2020 Guan, et al. Risk Interactions Building Construction Projects
93 2020 Erol, et al. Risk Interactions Large Projects
94 2021 Korytarova & Hromadka Risk Interactions Infrastructure Project
842
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
SOCIAL PROCUREMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY IN THE

NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Francis O. Okeke1 and Rosemary C. Nnaemeka-Okeke2
1,2Department of Architecture, University of Nigeria, Nigeria
Social sustainability transition in the construction sector seeks to improve safety

and health of workers, gainful employment and total inclusiveness. However, one
less debated domain within this framework is how employment requirements
provide opportunities for the socially disadvantaged such as the poorly educated,
youths, immigrants, and disabled individuals to be employed in the construction
industry. In Nigeria, there are over 86.9 million people living in extreme poverty.
Hence, social procurement as a strategic tool should be used to create employment
for these disadvantaged people in the construction sector. Drawing on a systematic
review of relevant literature using Prisma to improve the reporting of reviews and
analyses, this research examines social procurement practices in other countries
with the aim to fill the gap in literature for the Nigerian construction industry
highlighting the barriers and strategies for diffusing the approach into the
construction industry. The outcome of the result initiates a research domain and
promote sound academic debate towards improving total inclusiveness in the
Nigerian and African built environment. It was discovered from the results of the
study that barriers to social procurement and sustainability in other climes are
replica of the Africa’s and Nigerian built industry with women having been the most
socially disadvantaged groups. It concludes and advocates for a complete overhaul
of procurement policies in Nigeria to accommodate the socially disadvantaged
groups providing an alternative solution to the increasing shortage of skilled labour
force in the construction industry in Nigeria.
Keywords: construction industry, social procurement, social sustainability, socially

disadvantaged groups, total inclusiveness
INTRODUCTION
Social sustainability seeks to improve safety and health of workers, gainful
employment, and total inclusiveness. The society and clients in the construction
industry are increasingly expecting that the industry should contribute more
positively to the communities in which it builds. This have set more challenges for
the industry not to concentrate only on productivity and energy efficiency, but also
impact significantly to the social wellbeing of the people living in the communities
where they are situated in. The UN 2030 agenda for sustainable development which
seeks to eradicate poverty and achieve sustainable development for all by 2030
1 ogochukwu.okeke@unn.edu.ng
2 rosemary.nnaemeka-okeke@unn.edu.ng
Okeke and Nnaemeka-Okeke (2021) Social procurement and sustainability in the Nigerian
construction industry In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
843
Okeke and Nnaemeka-Okeke
(Nnaemeka-okeke et al., 2020), encapsulate the social dimension of sustainability

which aims to improve the safety and health of workers; reduce employment
discrimination and promote total inclusiveness. But this has always been
overshadowed by the environmental and economic dimensions (Hutchins and
Sutherland, 2008).
Social procurement being a social policy tool, is used by government, businesses,
and the society to create social value. Social value not being a new concept, has
of recent, increased interest in the construction industry because of new social
procurement legislation around the world with an increased acceptance of the
need to ensure construction projects provide social value, rather than simply
economic value. (Raiden et al., 2018). Government and socially responsible private
clients seek to place new requirements on construction firms to demonstrate how
their projects will leave a positive legacy in the communities in which they are built
(Burke and King 2015, Petersen and Kadefors 2016, Barraket and Loosemore 2017).
In South Africa, The Preferential Procurement Policy Framework Act 5 of 2000 and
the Preferential Procurement Regulations of 2001 establishes the obligation of
government to award preferential procurement points to enterprises owned by
historically disadvantaged persons, including females (ppp.worldbank.org). This
policy, therefore, accommodates certain categories of people in the country who
have been formerly disadvantaged in the procurement process such as the poorly
educated, youths, immigrants, females and the disabled. However, studies in
Nigeria have shown that the policy mechanisms for sustainability in Social
procurements in Nigeria is inadequate (Olanrewaju et al. 2014; Ogunsanya et al.
2016; Oyewobi et al 2017; Faremi et al. 2017). The Nigerian situation presents a
peculiar case with galloping population issues and has been described as been
fragile (Okeke et al. 2020). The public procurement Act PPA 2007 which is a tool
for industrial policy or used to pursue sustainable development goals (OECD, 2015;
UNIDO, 2017), does not accommodate these disadvantaged groups. Hence, not
achieving social value. The Public Procurement Act (Amendment) Bill, of 2019 (SBs
106,109, and 158) only reviewed the mobilization fee for contractors, created an e-
procurement model and provided a time frame for procurement processes (Policy
and Legal Advocacy Centre 2019).
Therefore, the paper identifies how employment requirements provide

opportunities for the socially disadvantaged such as the poorly educated, youths,
immigrants, and disabled individuals to be employed in the Nigerian construction
industry through social procurement practices. The objectives perused in this study
are (a) highlight the barriers militating social procurement and sustainability
practice (b) to identify strategies for integrating these practices into the
construction industries in Nigeria. The outcome of the result will initiate a research
domain and promote sound academic debate towards improving total
inclusiveness in the Nigerian and African built environment and provide an
alternative solution to the increasing shortage of skilled labour force in the
construction industry. It will also be a focus for government in future social
procurement policies.
844
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section starts with a conceptualization of the theory on social procurement
and Social sustainability followed by the evolving of a conceptual model and an
in-depth discussion of the barriers and strategies for integrating these practices
into these construction industries that have been identified from the literature.
Theory on social procurement

Every procurement process needs to have economic, environmental, and social
Impact. Social procurement refers to the activities and processes related to the
purchase of goods, services and works in public, private or nonprofit sector
organizations to generate positive social impacts (Ingrid Burkett, 2010). This
process has often focused on ensuring that supply chains generate positive social
impacts such as local employment and training, diversity and equality outcomes,
and social inclusion. According to Ingrid Burkett (2010), the three ways in which
term social procurement is used in organizations are as follows:
 To screen their supply chains to ensure that they do no harm with regards to
labour conditions and human rights of workers;
 To add value to the purchase by linking the generation of social impact with
the purchase of goods, services and works.
 To refer to the procurement of social services
Therefore, social procurement in this context refers to the inclusion of social value
into the procurement of goods, services and construction works.
According to McCrudden (2004), public contracts were linked to labour and

employment standards in some countries like the United States or in United
Kingdom in the 19th century. Afterwards, government used public contracting to
reduce discrimination against women, racial minorities and the disabled. In the
construction industry, government can create social value by mandating
contractors to employ or purchase from these disadvantaged groups. Studies on
social procurement related to employment have for example focused on
benefitting local, small, or minority-owned businesses (Walker and Preuss, 2008;
Loader, 2016, Loosemore and Denny-Smith, 2016). With few studies on social
procurement in specific industries, the construction industry has more potentials
to address social challenges through employment and training despite the
challenges faced in implementing such policies. Recent research by Petersen (2018)
and Troje and Gluch (2019) looked at the institutional changes and the new
employment requirements imposed by emerging social procurement policies but
less is known about the specific barriers to employment faced by the
disadvantaged groups being targeted.
In Sweden, there is a successful use of social procurement in the construction
industry to integrate immigrant populations into the labour market (Peterson &
Kadefors 2016). Similarly, social procurement has also been used in the United
Kingdom to simultaneously provide employment opportunities for women and
address gender imbalances in the male-dominated construction industry through
projects such as Women in Construction. According to Clarke and Gribling (2008),
845
there was no evidence of any positive discrimination for women or other target
groups or any distinct measures designed to ensure that people from different
groups were not discriminated against. Australia is not left out of this success as
the Victorian Social Procurement Framework requires all Victorian Government
departments and agencies to consider employment and job readiness targets for
these socially disadvantaged groups. (Victoria State Government 2018). The refusal
of construction industries to comply with government policies for employment of
these targeted groups in countries such as Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, and
South Africa attracts a penalty of being struck off tender lists with government
agencies. (Australian Indigenous Procurement Policy 2015).
Social sustainability concept
Troje & Gluch (2019) described social procurement as social sustainability concept
as it involves measures related to health and safety, buying from women-owned
and minority-owned businesses, and employment creation for disadvantaged
groups. The concept of social sustainability with regards to construction projects,
means meeting the needs of the industry, users, and communities where each of
these communities have a unique relationship with the project and different
expectations and interests from the project (Almahmoud, & Doloi, 2018). Thus, the
development of construction projects has the capacity to enhance social
sustainability (Du Plessis, 2002). Social sustainability also refers to corporate social
responsibility (CSR) which indicates the ethics and social responsibilities, amongst
stakeholders resulting from corporate activities with a social dimension (Waddock
and Graves, 1997). Safarzad (2017) defined CSR concept as a legal requirement for
a company which includes continued commitment toward the community. This
increases the efficiency and productivity of the company thereby maximizing its
shareholders ’profit while integrating the community’s ethical and environmental
expectations into the company economic processes.
Eizenberg & Jabareen (2017), proposed a conceptual framework for social

sustainability that seeks to enhance the protection of people, regardless of color,
origin, culture, or socio-economic status, against risk by fostering the adaptation
of just and equitable social, economic, and environmental policies. In the same
vein, the triple bottom line theory (TBL) founded by John Elkington can also be
referred to as CSR framework with sustainability as its main aim (Brin, and Nehme,
2019). It incorporates the three dimensions of sustainability to achieve continuous
profits and long-term social and environmental projects. Therefore, many
corporations and nonprofit organizations have adopted the TBL sustainability
framework in performing CSR projects.
In the study of the current procurement practices in the Nigerian construction

industry, Oyewobi et al., (2017) concluded that Nigeria is yet to embrace the triple
bottom line of sustainability initiatives as it places more emphasis on the economic
aspect of procurement with social aspect being the most neglected. We would,
therefore, like to suggest a conceptual framework that integrates the social aspect
of sustainability to the economic and environmental aspect of sustainability while
linking the social disadvantaged groups to of social procurement.
846
Conceptual model
Figure 1: Conceptual model by Author
Figure 1 shows the conceptual model where the social sustainability links the social
disadvantaged people (women, unemployed youths, disabled, immigrants and
indigenous) to social procurement, Here, the 3 dimensions of sustainability refers
to the Triple Bottom Line Theory (TBL). The social dimension of sustainability refers
to the people (the disadvantage group). When they are given the opportunity for
inclusion, social sustainability is achieved.
METHODS
The study employed a qualitative research approach and adopted a literature
review research design. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and
Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) was used in this research. We searched goggle scholar
database for articles within the year range 2000-2021 with the following keywords:
“social procurement”; “social sustainability”, “construction industry” and “social
disadvantaged groups”. Citations from relevant publications were checked to
identify the relevant articles. Studies that involved the construction industry and
the different social disadvantaged groups in developed countries and developing
countries were used. 2750 papers resulted from the search with their titles and
abstracts of all references and relevant articles retrieved. Full texts were screened
independently, and 1080 papers were retrieved after duplicates were removed. 155
Full text articles were assessed for eligibility while 925 papers were excluded. 132
full text articles were further excluded as they are about social sustainability
without involving procurement leaving 32 studies in the qualitative synthesis. Out
of the 32 studies, 23 studies were used in the review while 7 studies were further
excluded because their abstracts did not reflect the subject topic being searched
while 2 studies were also excluded because the full article was not written in
English. All reasons for exclusion were documented into a PRISMA flowchart. Using
thematic content analysis, data were analyzed and result presented with text and
tables. Inferences were deduced based on the results of the study.
847
Figure 2: PRISMA diagram showing the process of identification of the studies used in the review.
ANALYSIS AND RESULT

Table 1: Overviews of the literature on the barriers to social procurement of disadvantaged
groups
S/N Author Methodology Location Research design Findings
No appropriate policies and practices were in place to
support disabled job applicants through the
Newton and Ormerod Qualitative
1 UK Survey recruitment process. It is likely that contractors are not
(2005) study
fulfilling their obligations under the Disability
Discrimination Act
women are confronted by a significant number of
Amaratunga et al Quantitative barriers, beginning with difficulties in joining the field
2 UK Literature review
(2006) and Qualitative of construction through to capturing the most senior
position in the organization’s hierarchy.
The negative image of the construction industry stands
as a barrier for the recruitment and retention of
3 Ginige et al (2007) Quantitative UK Literature review
women. Welfare facilities (such as medical support and
childcare) are also inadequate.
No evidence of any positive discrimination for women
Clarke and Gribling Quantitative semi‐structured or other target groups or any distinct measures
4 UK
(2008) and Qualitative interviews designed to ensure that people from different groups
were not discriminated against.
workplace and employer discrimination are the primary
5 Shier et al. (2009) Qualitative Canada interview factors impeding people with disability from securing
and maintaining employment in the labour market.
Policy in each country addresses the nature of
exclusion in different ways. The conclusion drawn is
Clarke and Wall UK and Interviews and that a sector-specific approach is needed if disability
6 Mixed method
(2009) Netherlands questionnaires policy in Britain is to be more in tune with the social
model—as apparent from the comparison with the
Netherlands.
There were several emerging disparities in terms of
age, gender, employment status, and employment
conditions. This is due to the marginalization of youths
Chan and McCabe UK and
7 Quantitative Literature review in recruitment into the sector, resilience of women in
(2010) Europe
weathering unemployment, proliferation of non-
traditional forms of employment relationship and
decline of working conditions.
There is need for inclusive approaches within the
participatory construction industry by creating awareness that
Ormerod and Newton
8 research interviews disabled young people can be employed within
(2013)
approach construction industry while dispelling of the myths that
construction is for able-bodied, fit, men.
The construction industry’s disability management
practices remain inadequate. Disability management
9 Quaigrain et al. (2014) Quantitative Canada Literature review continues to be a burden to construction employers for
the most part, making it difficult to challenge
traditional perceptions.
848
Table 1 Cont’d: Overviews of the literature on the barriers to social procurement of

disadvantaged groups
women are confronted by a significant number of
Akomolafe & barriers, especially joining the industry through the
10 Quantitative Nigeria Literature review
Mohammed (2015) most senior position in the organization’s
hierarchy in order to create avenue for other women.
increased loyalty to the employers as result of better
conditions and pay. Although all the foreigners were
case studies and
11 Khatleli (2015) Qualitative South Africa regarded to be disciplined productive workforce, their
interviews
perception of acceptance differed by their country of
origin.
Changes are needed to traditional procurement
practices. social value requirements were to be
interviews and
incorporated into the existing subcontracts which is a
12 Loosemore (2015) Quantitative UK documentary
challenge to the supply chain giving a negative
analysis
stereotype of the disadvantaged groups which the
social enterprises employ.
Findings suggest that the changes in the construction
industry can be understood as an ongoing
Petersen and institutionalization process, where the institutional
13 Quantitative Sweden Case studies
Kadefors, (2016) work of procurement- and construction actors are
reshaping old institutional logics towards a more
socially service-oriented sustainable industry.
social procurement policies which is aimed at helping
Denny-Smith &
Theoretical Indigenous people can inadvertently create negative
14 Loosemore (2017) quantitative Australia
framework social outcomes and even disempower the very groups
they are designed to help.
social procurement in construction is currently
compliance-driven, confined to low value and low risk
Reid and Loosemore, semi-structured activities and delivered mainly by existing industry
15 Qualitative
(2017) interviews incumbents who do not understand how to deliver
social value, or by micro-organisations that do, but
which suffer from a lack of scale and opportunity.
The current procurement practices in the Nigerian
Literature construction industry is yet to embrace the triple
review, interview bottom line of sustainability initiatives as it places more
16 Oyewobi,. et al (2017) Mixed method Nigeria
and document emphasis on the economic aspect of procurement. The
analysis most severe barrier to sustainability is lack of
government commitment.
The barriers which influenced female under-
stratified survey
(Akinsiku & Ajala, representation in the Nigerian construction industry
17 random Nigeria questionnaire
2018) include; male dominance, family commitments, and
sampling literature review
long working hours.
Return-to-work, disability and injury management
exploratory
Quaigrain & Issa review of practices are the most important indicators while
18 and Canada
(2018) literature physical accessibility and claims management practices
quantitative
are the least important
The results demonstrate the conceptual merit of
Furneaux and Barraket’s (2014) typology in a
Loosemore et al. conceptual semi-structured
19 Australia construction industry context by highlighting the
(2019) framework interviews
different constraints on social value creation for each
typology.
Content social procurement can alleviate various forms of
analysis, inequality both in people’s lives and in the
descriptive communities in which they live. However, significant
Mupanemunda, M
20 Qualitative Australia statistics, and implementation challenges must be overcome to
(2019).
logistic ensure that the social benefits generated are
regression were distributed equitably across various stakeholders
applied involved in the procurement process.
Overall, the project shows that national, sector and
sequential
Comparative economic context are more important in understanding
21 Carlos Oya (2019) mixed Africa
framework. labour conditions in Africa than the country origin of
methods
the firm itself.
Subcontractors see significant business risks associated
with safety, productivity and costs with disengaged
Loosemore et al. youth as the highest risk cohort, followed by migrants
22 Qualitative Australia survey
(2020) and refugees, people suffering disability, ex-offenders,
women and Indigenous workers and employment
priorities reflect these perceptions.
Organizational and industrial barriers negatively affect
corporate social responsibility practices. Also,
survey
23 Pham et al (2021) empirical Vietnam education, training and government support could help
questionnaire
construction firms in reducing the impact of such
barriers.
Source: Authors
849
The result of table 1 shown above revealed that just view few studies on social
procurement and sustainability have been conducted in Africa and particularly
Nigeria. In presenting our findings, the result is based on the review of related
articles which indicates the challenges faced by the social disadvantaged in social
procurement in construction industries. The barriers and challenges identified in
other climes are not different from the perceived obtainable barriers in the African
and Nigerian settings. Of all the disadvantaged groups targeted by new social
procurement policies, women represent the most well researched group in
construction industries with the focus on professional than tradeswomen or
disabled women (Amaratunga et al., 2006; Akinsiku & Ajala, 2018; Akomolafe &
Mohammed, 2015; Loosemore et al., 2020). As revealed in table 2 below, they are
also the group with the most barriers as confirmed by the findings of Amaratunga
et al., (2006); Akomolafe & Mohammed (2015); Akinsiku & Ajala, (2018) and this
human species account for a reasonable number of Nigeria’s total population. The
male dominated image and culture of the construction industry is a barrier for
employment of women. This is in line with Fielden et al., (2000) as reported in
Akomolafe & Mohammed (2015), where the industry’s poor image is a reason why
so many people, regardless of gender, are uninterested in a career in construction.
Also, women have been continuously marginalized in Nigerian construction
industry as reported by Akomolafe & Mohammed (2015) and Akinsiku & Ajala,
(2018) as they are always fewer than men in such industries. This Research has
identified the barriers to employment which is the cause of this underlying problem
in the construction industry. Therefore, women should be given the significant
policy focus in Nigeria like in Australia as reported by Loosemore et al (2020) where
gender diversity in the construction industry is now recognized.
The study also discovered that another important barrier of the disadvantaged
group that ranked highest is lack of government commitment. The current
procurement practices in the Nigerian construction industry is yet to embrace the
triple bottom line of sustainability because it places more emphasis on the
economic aspect of procurement than the social or environmental. This
corroborates the findings of Oyewobi et al., (2017). Also, lack of support from
government is a barrier to the employment of the social disadvantaged group
which suggests that social procurement legislation is not being accompanied by
the necessary support structures. The same can be said about the 2007
procurement act in Nigeria. This finding is in line with Newton and Ormerod (2005)
where No appropriate policies and practices were in place to support disabled job
applicants through the recruitment process which suggest that there were no
strong policies or penalties. Therefore, it was very likely that contractors were not
fulfilling their obligations under the Disability Discrimination Act. This gives us an
idea of where policy makers should focus on when implementing the social
procurement policy. The table 2 presented below summaries the categories of the
five socially disadvantaged groups, various barriers identified in literature and
suggested strategies that can be diffused into the Nigeria’s construction industry
to become socially responsible.
850
Table 2: Summary of barriers and strategies for the employment of socially disadvantaged
groups in Nigeria
DISADVANTAGED BARRIERS STRATEGIES
GROUPS
Indigenous People Lack of support. Education and

Disabled. Poorly designed & implemented policies. Training
Unemployed Non-enforcement of gender equity & diversity Encourage Best
Youths policies Practices
Women Cost of training Improved Compliance
Immigrants Cost of supervision, and Efficiency.
&Refugees Career knowledge Reduced
Inability to fit in Unemployment,
Low technical skill Learning About Social
Lack of qualifications Procurement and
Lack of mentorship & role models Employment-Creating
Reduced apprenticeships / training Practices,
Poor education Lowered Maintenance
Wage differentials Costs,
Recruitment practices Reduced Welfare
Family commitments Costs,
Cultural differences Opportunities for
Cause of conflict Recruitment
Stigmatization/discrimination Use of Contract
General view of women inability to work in Clauses.
construction industries.
Harassment
Male-dominated structure
Sexism
Health needs
Literacy/numeracy
Perceived safety
Poor work quality
Poor productivity
Productivity risks
Risk to reputation
Unreliability
Increasing workplace casualization,
Long working hours
Work commitment
Working environment
Modifying workplace
Source: Authors
CONCLUSION
This research examines social procurement practices in the Nigerian construction
industry highlighting the barriers and strategies for diffusing the approach into the
construction industry to achieve social sustainability. Based on a review on existing
literature on the disadvantages group affected by social procurement policies in
other countries with the woman group review from Nigeria, our findings indicate
that priorities in hiring with regards to number of barriers (woman, unemployed
youths, disabled, immigrants, indigenous), strongly reflects policy focus which the
Nigerian Government should implement. It was discovered that barriers to social
procurement and sustainability in other climes are replica of the Africa’s and
Nigerian built industry with women having been the most socially disadvantaged
851
groups. There is no doubt that social procurement is an effective way for the public,
private and not-for-profit sectors to achieve social value and integrate Corporate
Social Responsibility (CSR) into any organizational activity. However, to fully utilize
the opportunities presented by social procurement policies, much work needs to
be done to address the barriers faced by various disadvantaged groups. The
potential impact of this research is that it will contribute to social sustainability and
provide an alternative solution to the increasing shortage of skilled labour force in
the construction industry.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVATIONAL NEEDS OF

UNSKILLED WOMEN WORKING IN NIGERIA’S
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Seun Micheal Oloruntoba1 and Ayokunle Olubunmi Olanipekun2
1Quantity Surveying Department, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria.
2Quantity Surveying, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, England, United Kingdom
The construction sites are characterised by poor planning, deregulation and poor
protection in the Nigerian construction industry. This is demotivating for unskilled
women workers who are unable to work effectively under such site characteristics.
To address the problem, women workers need to be motivated according to the
socio-psychological challenges and needs that help them to work effectively. This
study explores the motivation of unskilled women site workers with an emphasis
on their social and psychological challenges and needs using the qualitative
research methodology. It involves a face-to-face interview of nineteen (purposively
selected) unskilled women working across different construction project sites in
Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. The data obtained were analysed using the
combination of inferential statistics and thematic analysis. The findings reveal the
women’s ’prevalent challenges on construction sites, including sexual harassment,
verbal abuses, unfavourable working conditions, and stress. The findings also reveal
the preference of the women for financial incentives to help them overcome the
prevalent challenges and increase their morale and effectiveness at work. This study
concludes that unskilled women workers can be motivated to work effectively by
addressing their socio-psychological challenges and needs. This study is unique by
linking women workers ’motivation to unfavourable site characteristics in a
developing country. Therefore, the findings in this study can be adapted to other
developing countries to motivate unskilled women working on construction sites.
Keyword: challenges, construction sites, motivation, needs, unskilled women

workers
INTRODUCTION
Motivation helps people to achieve their goals (Monese, 2012). It has been
described as both internal and external driving forces that produce the willingness
to perform an act to a conclusive end (Nnabuife, 2009). As a process, motivation
arouses, energizes, channels, and sustains behaviour and performance into a
specific course of action. In the construction industry, the motivation of
construction workers encourages them to do work (Steers et al., 2004). Therefore,
1 oloruntobaseun92@gmail.com
2 a.olanipekun@wlv.ac.uk
Oloruntoba and Olanipekun (2021) Socio-psychological motivational needs of unskilled women

working in Nigeria’s construction industry In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
857
Oloruntoba and Olanipekun
the motivation of construction workers has become a policy action-point for

supervisors to enhance job efficiency (Shadier et al., 2009). More broadly, by
enhancing the willingness of construction workers to work, motivation improves
the construction industry efficiency (Shadare, 2009). Also, where motivation is
lacking, construction productivity suffers (Monese and Thwala, 2009).
In developing countries like Nigeria, unskilled women workers experience
demeaning conditions on construction sites (Ahuja et al., 2012). Unlike men
workers, the unskilled women construction workers need to combine tedious
construction tasks such as loading and lifting building materials with active family
life on construction sites. Azhar and Griffin (2013) state that this can be challenging
for unskilled women workers to produce expected productivity levels in
construction sites. For instance, owing to lacking regulation, unskilled women
workers have been found to handle their babies while working on construction
sites. This piles pressure on the women throughout the long hours of work and
without rest in most cases (Rajanna, 2015). According to Anvekar et al. (2015), the
tedious workload, extremely long work hours and intense pressure to work harder
leaves unskilled women workers physically and emotionally drained. Consequently,
these experiences (mentioned above) create social and psychological challenges
and needs that are unique to unskilled women workers in construction sites.
The socio-psychological challenges and needs refer to the various needs pertaining
to women's social and psychological influences engaged in the construction
process. Also, research has shown that the socio-psychological challenges and
needs of construction workers can be addressed by appropriate motivation.
Ogunlana and Chan (1998) reveal that high pay (wages), better accommodation,
challenging job, good safety provision, good relationships, and recognition are the
workers' motivations from their supervisors on site. Parkin, Tutesigensi and
Büyükalp (2009) find that money earned (good wages) is a foremost motivation of
construction workers. Regarding unskilled women workers, Rajanna (2015) reveals
that they are motivated by higher wages and relatively regularity of employment.
Similarly, Dabke (2008) reveals that unskilled women workers can be motivated by
increased wages, safety facilities, and supervisor encouragement. However, the
studies of Rajanna (2015) and Dabke (2008) are not limited to unskilled women
workers who undertake tedious tasks under demeaning conditions on construction
sites in developing countries. Therefore, specific insights into motivation for
addressing the socio-psychological challenges and needs of unskilled women
workers in construction sites are unknown.
This study explores the motivation of unskilled women construction site workers
with an emphasis on their social and psychological challenges and needs. The
objectives are to identify the challenges of unskilled women workers, assess the
specific motivators for unskilled women workers, and assess the factors influencing
unskilled women workers' motivation. This study is significant by linking unskilled
women workers ’motivation to unfavourable site characteristics. Therefore,
supervisors on construction sites and construction employers can use the findings
of this study to address the challenges facing unskilled women workers in
construction sites and meet their needs at the same time. This study has been
undertaken in a developing country context, and the findings can be adapted to
858
other developing countries to motivate unskilled women working on construction

sites.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Characteristics of construction sites in developing countries
Construction site practices and procedures did not change for many years, and
common mistakes were regularly occurring (Holroyd, 1999). In developing
countries, construction sites have been labelled as dangerous or highly hazardous
because of the high incidence of accidents and fatalities (Smallwood and Haupt,
2008). In the literature, different factors of poor construction site characteristics
have been identified. The first factor is poor site layout and planning. According to
Muiruri and Mulinge (2014), this factor refers to bad planning and untidy sites
resulting from accidents. The second factor is lacking welfare facilities in
construction sites. According to Kolo Daniel (2015), construction workers are
denied basic toilet and water facilities because of this factor. The third factor is the
poor working environment. According to New York Committee for Occupational
Safety and Health (2017), this factor may also be experienced in the form of a toxic
working environment where hazardous chemicals are spilt over construction sites.
Abdul et al. (2003) state that these chemicals have been found to lead to health
problems such as skin diseases and lung poisoning among construction workers.
The last factor is the lack of safety awareness procedures in construction sites. This
manifests in inappropriate use of protective equipment, lack of knowledge of
hazard recognition and prevention and safe work practices (Keng and Rasak, 2014).
Theoretical frameworks of motivation

There are many theories of motivation explaining the nature of motivation at work.
These theories are McClealland’s Achievement theory, Maslow and Alderfer theory.
Others are Goal setting theory, Reinforcement theory, Equity theory, Herzberg’s
motivation-hygiene theory and Job characteristics theory. The premise of these
theories is that humans need to be motivated to carry out work. However, none of
the theories is generally acceptably (Langford, 1995).
Furthermore, the theories of motivation mainly expresses the social and

psychological needs of humans to work effectively. The McClealland’s Achievement
Theory reveals the need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power
as sources of motivation (Mcshane and Glinow, 2000). These needs expresses the
social desires of human, for instance, to feel powerful and relevant at work. Also,
both the Maslow and Alderfer theories expresses both social and psychological
needs for motivation. Maslow considered that humans have five identifiable needs,
namely physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization and that these
are ordered hierarchically according to whatever need is proponent (Ball, nd). In
the Alderfer theory, existence suggests human safety needs, relatedness suggests
human belongings needs and growth suggests human esteem and self-
actualization needs (Ball,nd). Goal setting theory focuses more on the achievement
of goals, and it premise is that people are motivated to successfully attain
challenging goals. The achievement of a goal is motivating in itself, however,
incentives associated with goals have the effect of encouraging people to work
harder. Money encourages commitment to a task, but in itself is not motivating
beyond a necessary level of income (Hollyforde and Whiddett 2002). The
859
reinforcement theory is slightly different by emphasizing on human behaviors. The

theory explains that people repeat behaviors followed by favorable consequences
and avoid behaviors resulting in unfavorable consequences (Kreitner and Kinicki,
2001). Equity theory is based on fairness. It supposes that a major determinant of
job satisfaction and performance of an individual’s perception is the relationship
between input and output in which input refers to the amount of work put in, while
output is the reward from the work. In cases where the two ratios are perceived to
be the same, equity is said to exist, and where there is difference, inequity exists,
and the person will consider himself as under or over rewarded (Newcombe 1990).
The Herzberg’s theory is hygiene based (Herzberg, 1959). Hygiene means job
environment and if a company fails to provide adequate hygiene factors, the
workers are dissatisfied no matter how adequate the salaries and working
conditions. Job characteristics theory proposes that there are three psychological
states which are experienced meaningfulness of the work, whether the worker feels
the job is generally worthwhile. Experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the
work – how much the worker feels responsible for the results of their work and
Knowledge of the results of the work – the level of knowledge the worker has about
their own effectiveness (Hollyforde and Whiddett 2002).
Challenges facing women construction site workers
In the last section, the theoretical framework of motivation has been identified. The
studies on the challenges facing unskilled women construction workers in
construction sites are reviewed in this section. This review is more indicative than
exhaustive, and not all the challenges may have been covered. The first challenge
is lack of sanitation and care. Chittibabu (2007) finds that standard toilets are not
available for unskilled women workers, and where they are available, they have to
share with men construction workers on construction sites. For instance, a recent
study by Lekchiri et al (2020) find that women in the construction industry in the
USA operate in environments that do not satisfy the basic needs for them to
succeed on the job. Also, care facilities like kiddies ’restroom for unskilled women
workers with children are not available in construction sites (Baruah, 2010). The
second challenge is limited opportunities given to unskilled women construction
workers because they are stigmatised as neither reliable nor hardworking (Ojo et
al., 2019). The third challenge is reduced wages for unskilled women construction
workers in construction sites. Rajanna (2015) reveals that unskilled women workers
have been paid ridiculously lesser than men construction workers and lesser than
the government's minimum wage. The fourth challenge of unskilled women
construction workers is limited opportunities for upskilling in construction tasks on
sites. Barnabas, Anbarasu and Clifford (2009) state that such training conditions do
not equitably permit women to leave their families (or young families) as their men
counterparts. The fifth challenge is belittling remarks which extend to harassments
and physical assaults of unskilled women workers on sites (New York Committee
for Occupational Safety and Health, 2017). According to Toor et al. (2018), this is
almost a culture exacerbated by the “man’s world” assumption in the construction
industry. Worst still, unskilled women workers, especially the ethnic minority
women, perceive themselves negatively and consider themselves at a disadvantage
to women of the ethnic majority to secure construction roles (Toor et al., 2018).
860
Factors that influence unskilled women workers motivation

In the previous sections, the challenging construction site characteristics and the
challenges facing unskilled women construction workers on these sites are
reviewed. The factors that influence unskilled women construction site workers
motivation are reviewed as follows. This can be categorized into financial stability
and good supervision. Devi and Golden Rahul (2019) in their study find that
unskilled women workers are faced with problem of low wages and other financial
benefits that can encourage them to be committed and also to work well. Financial
compensation and reward should be provided to help to motivate them. Kumar
(2013) and Maneesh and Jasna (2017) in their study pointed out that unskilled
women workers are compel with financial problem and the wage structure of the
construction labor is found to be inadequate considering the type of rigorous work
they do on site. Parkin, A.B; Tutesigensi, A & Buyukalp, A.I (2009), though they were
not particular to female but labours in general. They stated that money earn which
can be attributed to wages and financial incentives is the foremost motivating
factors. Supervision also plays a leading role in influencing unskilled women
workers ’motivation. Kazaz et al (2010) in their study finds that good supervision
and adequate follow up while working is very vital and helps in motivating
construction workers on site. Bacharach, Bauer and Coloney (1989) in their study
explained that good supervision helps in improving motivation because workers
are treated with respect while on the other hand, bad supervision leads to
constantly criticism of workers which then breeds poor job satisfaction.
Factors of socio-psychological motivations of unskilled women in construction
In the previous sections, the factors that influence unskilled women site workers
motivation are reviewed. The factors of socio-psychological motivation that
encourage unskilled women construction workers are reviewed in this section as
follows. Malone et al. (2013)’s study finds five factors of socio-psychological
motivation. The first one is having a good working relationship with co-workers,
which provides satisfaction on the job. The second one is respect and fair treatment
from superiors which also enhances the job satisfaction of unskilled women
construction workers and their desire to stick with employers. The third one is a
very interesting one, whereby unskilled women construction workers appreciate
the rigour (or challenge) of construction tasks. Another study by Regis et al. (2019)
supports this finding. The study concludes that although unskilled women working
in construction sites face difficulties, they are proud of their work, mainly because
it is an honest job, with legal guarantees and courage to participate in the
construction work environment. The fourth one is the feeling of accomplishment
by unskilled women construction workers while performing such tedious
construction tasks. The fifth one is similar and is the feeling valued by employers
to enhance women's work satisfaction. A recent study about tradeswomen in the
Australian construction industry suggests that women construction workers who
experience socio-psychological motivation would not leave their trades career for
another job with the same pay and benefits (Lim et al., 2020).
From the accounts in the body of knowledge, it could be seen that construction
sites are challenging, especially for unskilled women workers in developing
countries who must work under detrimental construction site characteristics. At the
same time, the factors of socio-psychological motivation have been identified to
encourage unskilled women construction workers. This study will probe into the
861
specific factors of socio-psychological motivation for encouraging unskilled

women workers in construction sites in the developing country of Nigeria.
This study focuses on the motivation of unskilled women workers who work on
construction sites with an emphasis on their social and psychological needs. This
study adopts qualitative means of analysis to explore the views of unskilled women
workers on the factors of motivation. According to Hamilton (2013), qualitative
methods can be employed to draw out complex and deep-lying issues that
confront unskilled women in construction. The population of the study is unskilled
women construction workers in selected construction sites in Ondo State, Nigeria.
The sites were selected because of their nearness to gather raw data and because
they had quite many women working on them. Twenty-one construction sites were
initially visited, and twelve of them had unskilled women workers working on the
projects undergoing construction on these sites. From these sites, nineteen
unskilled women workers willing to participate in the research were interviewed.
As shown in the table below, the projects undergoing construction in these sites at
the time of research are educational, commercial and residential project types.
Also, the number of sites with women construction workers are presented.
Project sites Number of sites with women workers

Educational projects 3
Commercial projects 2
Residential projects 7
Total 12
Table 1: Project and numbers of sites with women
In line with the qualitative methodology, the interview method of data collection
was employed. This data collection method is useful to obtain deep and rich data
regarding the motivation of unskilled women construction workers, which would
not be possible to reach through surveys (Krishnaswami & Satyaprasad, 2010).
Specifically, the semi-structured interview was used whereby the unskilled women
workers responded to a set of questions, but in the process, they could share
additional viewpoints about their responses (Sanders, 2012). The semi-structured
interview guide had the background and main questions about the respondents
covering age, marital status, level of education, type of project, mode of payment,
challenges they face on site, how often they face these challenges, how they
respond to these challenges, how do these challenges affect them and their work,
their motivators for working on the site, when these motivators should be provided,
why they think the motivators are necessary. The procedure for data collection was
a face-to-face interview of the respondents by the researcher. Before the start of
the interview, each of the respondents was told what the interview was about, that
the interview would be recorded, and if some questions seemed unclear,
clarification should be sought from the researcher. Each interview lasted about
thirty to fifty-five minutes. Also, the interview took three weeks which involved
going from site to site. All the interviews were recorded on two different devices
to ensure that the recordings remain safe and additional notes were made during
862
the interview. Afterwards, the interviews were transcribed immediately after the last
interview to facilitate the analysis.
The data obtained on the background information of respondents was analysed by

frequency. The interpretation of analysed data was made by the highest percentage
using the SPSS software. Also, the method of analysis of textual data about the
main research questions was thematic analysis. According to Guest et al. (2012),
thematic analysis is very useful for capturing the complexities of meaning in a
textual data set. Consequently, the thematic analysis process by Guest et al. (2012)
was followed as follows. Firstly, the transcripts of the data obtained were reviewed,
and important sentences or phrases related to the research objectives were
highlighted. Thereafter, all the highlighted sentences were organized under each
objective to review their similarities and differences. Secondly, the highlighted and
organized data was reviewed again to identify first-order concepts. Afterwards, the
first-order concepts were viewed and reviewed again to identify the potential
second-order concepts. This led to the second-order themes. Thirdly, following the
second-order themes, the aggregate dimensions were formed based on what
would simply describe each theme found. In the following section, after presenting
the results of the background information of respondents, the results of the
thematic analysis of the challenges and factors of motivation of women
construction site workers are presented.
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

Demographic information of respondents
Table 2: Demographic information of respondents

Factors Frequency Percentage
21-30 4 21.1
31-40 12 63.2
Age of Respondents 41-50 2 10.5
51-60 1 5.3
Total 19 100.0
Single 7 36.8
Married 10 52.6
Marital Status
Divorced 2 10.5
Total 19 100.0
Primary school 7 36.8
Level of Education Secondary ‘O’ level 12 63.2
Total 19 100.0
1 year 3 15.8
Working years
2-5 years 11 57.9
6-10 years 5 26.3
Total 19 100.0
Daily 15 78.9
Mode of Payment Weekly 4 21.1
Total 19 100.0
Casual 15 78.9
Mode of Employment Ongoing/permanent 4 21.1
Total 19 100.0
863
The results of the analysis of demographic information of respondents are

presented in this section. As shown in Table 2, 63.2% (12) of the interviewees are
between 31-40 years of age, 10.5% (2) of the respondents are between the ages of
41-50 years, while only one of them is over 50 years of age. In terms of marital
status, 52.6% (10) of the respondents are married, 36.8% (7) are single, and 10.5%
(2) are divorced. This means there are more married women construction workers
in the sites where data was obtained. Regarding the level of education, the findings
revealed that most respondents are secondary school graduates (63.2% or 12
number). Those who have only primary school level of education are lesser (36.8%
or 7 number). For the years of working experience, 57.9% (11) respondents have
been working between 2-5 years in construction sites, 26.3% (5) of them have been
working between 6-10 years while 15.8% (3) of them have only been working for
less than a year. For the mode of payment, 78.9% (15) of the respondents were
paid daily, while 21.1% (4) were paid weekly. For the mode of employment, 78.9%
(15) of the interviewees are casual workers, while 21.1% (4) are ongoing or
permanent workers in their respective contracting companies.
Challenges facing unskilled women construction workers in construction sites
As mentioned previously, nineteen (19) unskilled women site workers were
interviewed to reveal their challenges in construction sites (Objective 1). The results
based on the frequency of responses and their ranking are presented in Table 3.
Due to overlapping responses, the sum of the frequency of responses is greater
than the number of respondents. From the table, nine (9) of the respondents
mentioned sexual harassment as the main challenge they encounter in
construction sites. The male workers try to misuse the relationship they have with
them. With this, their privacies are violated and becomes a serious challenge for
them. This challenge is ranked in the first place.
To illustrate, one respondent said….

“ahh, I used to play with everybody, but someone can come to me now and tell me
that he or she will slap me and even call me different names that I hate to bear”
Another respondent said:

“the major challenges I have been facing is sexual harassment from the male
workers that I work with on site. Male workers that are not even up to my age do
come to disturb me with sexual advances”
Unfortunately, these women further pointed that sexual harassment has become a
regular occurrence and has made them less bothered by focusing on their works.
This could be regarded as a strategy that unskilled women workers employ to
prevent them from becoming victims of sexual harassment in construction sites.
Also, in Table 3, six (6) of the women mentioned that they are challenged by work
stress due to high workload. This is because these women workers participate in a
lot of stressful tasks on site. The stressful tasks include carrying blocks, transporting
aggregates and sand, fetching water and even carrying cement daily. The
tediousness of these tasks is further exacerbated by the hot weather conditions
where unskilled women workers do operate in Nigeria. These tedious tasks affect
these women, and some even have to use half of the wages for medical bills. Most
864
of them suffer from back pain and other musculoskeletal disorders. It is even more
difficult for nursing mothers who have to experience stress while taking care of
their babies. This can be very disrupting to the flow of work on sites. Also, some of
the six respondents mentioned that they had thought about quitting due to work
stress. This challenge is ranked in second place.
To illustrate, one of the respondents said…….
“this work is all about stress and though it is something I do every day. To carry
head pan, fetch water into drums or even sand fill excavated area is not a joke.
Sometimes I get home and I wouldn’t be able to feel every part of my body”
Furthermore, four (4) respondents mentioned unfavourable working conditions

such as unprotected sites as the challenge they faced in the construction site. It is
a result of poor welfare facilities. This is because of the extended and excessive
working hours and exposure to harsh environmental conditions resulting in
dehydration and later sickness. Facilities such as toilets, first aid and child care
facilities are completely ignored in construction sites. Also, unskilled women
workers are exposed to noise, sensitizing and irritant materials, fumes and gases,
dust, and other hazardous materials, resulting in adverse health risk. This challenge
is ranked in third place.
Lastly, three (3) respondents mentioned constant verbal abuse by male

construction workers as their challenge in construction sites. This is because of the
supervisor's lack of supervision and the frustration of male workers to lash out at
female workers to exercise control. This is done by yelling and screaming different
names, lewd comments and abuses. This can be psychologically unhealthy and
prevent the women workers from performing satisfactorily. It is ranked in the last
place.
Table 3: Challenges on construction sites

Challenges Frequency of women Rank
Sexual harassment 9 1st
Work stress 6 2nd
Unfavourable working
4 3rd
condition
Verbal abuse 3 4th
Equally, the respondents were asked how often they encounter these challenges.
Many of them responded that the challenges occur daily at work, and others they
encounter occasionally. For instance, the majority of the respondents agree that
verbal abuse by male construction workers as a daily occurrence. This is plausible
when the women construction workers have conversations with the male ones. The
women also mentioned that they shrug off verbal abuses to focus on work and
maintain working relationships with their abusers. Also, the majority of the women
agree that they encounter sexual harassment occasionally and have been handling
this challenge by playing maturity.
To illustrate, one respondent said……
865
“… when the male workers come to me with their sexual talks, some will be like
they will like to go down with me but I do act mature by playing along with them”
Lastly, the respondents also mentioned that they have been handling the stressful
work by using pain-killing drugs.
Factors of motivation for unskilled women construction workers in construction
sites
To address the second objective, the respondents were asked to reveal their
motivations and the results are presented in Table 4. As shown in the Table, the
respondents agreed that the motivations given to them by contractors on
construction sites are incentives, good wages, overtime allowances and good
supervision. It could be seen that more respondents (11/19) agreed to incentive
motivations. This is because the incentives help to encourage, attract and
compensate women workers for working harder. It influences the behaviour of
workers on construction sites. This also increases the morale of women workers.
The incentives motivation is in the form of tips as stated by one of the respondents
as follows……
“….for example, the day I carried three bags of cement the engineer on site had to
give me 500naira (about 1$) as compensation“
However, few respondents (2/19) agree that contractors provide those good
wages, overtime allowance and good supervision. Good wages allow workers to
make a living from their labour. Good wages make the workers feel valued and also
allows them to take care of the family. It helps the women workers to feel
motivated. Good wages and overtime allowances make the women workers feel
accomplished after each day job and make them work more hours when needed.
Overtime allowances serve as extra allowances pay to women workers, which helps
motivate them to work beyond normal working hours. Most of the women are
happy because it adds to their daily wages, and at least they can settle more bills.
Good supervision helps increase women workers confidence on site. It strengthens
the relationship between the supervisors and the workers. It also saves them from
frustration, confusion, embarrassment and lower productivity.
Regarding good supervision, one respondent said……
“….the engineer usually appreciate me anytime he come to the site, he used to say
that I work like a man and these words makes me try to work more”
Regarding overtime allowance, one respondent said…..

“…sometimes I used to pray that the supervisor should tell us that we are going to
work more than the normal time because whenever I don’t have much with me that
extra money used to fill in voids apart from the daily savings I used to deposit. So
time like this I used to work more than normal”
Regarding wages, another respondent said……
“…. I don’t know if you know how it feels to be expectant, the expectation that I
will collect some amount of money at the end of the day motivates me a lots”
866
However, from Table 4, most respondents did not agree that contractors provide
those good wages, overtime allowance and good supervision (17/19). This is
because they see incentives as the major motivational factors. Regardless, the
respondents were asked if the identified factors would enhance their motivation in
construction sites. Interestingly, nine (9) of the respondents reported that the
monetary factors (e.g. incentives, bonuses, good wages) are critical motivations
that help them cater to their family, welfare, and motivation to work more on site.
To illustrate, one respondent said……

“.. to help me to work hard on site, it’s like my happiness do increase whenever oga
(boss) decided to give more small change (money).”
Another respondent said………….

“… why else will I need money if not to take care of my children, personally I work
to cater for myself and for my children”
Another respondent said……………
“most times these money makes me look at my engineer as a god sent, because
sometimes it is as if he knew what I am passing through by helping me with some
money apart from my daily pay”
Additionally, four (4) of the respondents reported non-monetary factor. They state
that increasing cordial relationships between them and male construction workers,
supervisors, and contractors is a critical motivation factor. This is because it
strengthens the bond between them and so helps in understanding one another.
To these women, this non-monetary factor alludes to good supervision in
construction sites.
Table 4. Interviewees’ motivational factors

Factors of motivation Frequency Percentage
Yes 11 57.9
No 8 42.1
Incentives Total 19 100.0
Yes 2 10.5
No 17 89.5
Total 19 100.0
Yes 2 10.5
No 17 89.5
Total 19 100.0
Yes 4 21.1
No 15 78.9
Total 19 100.0
867
This study has assessed the factors of motivation of unskilled women construction
workers covering the challenges facing unskilled women workers in construction
sites and their motivation factors. The first finding reveals that unskilled women
workers encounter sexual harassment as their main challenge in the construction
site. Sexual harassment is seen as a common practice by supervisors because of
their power and status and financial influences on workers in the construction sites.
Devi and Kiran (2013) stated that women workers face sexual harassment and
several difficulties in construction sites. Findings of Choudhury (2013) also made
us to understand that some women do not get to work regularly or sometimes
dropped because they are not yielding to the demand of people attempting to
make sexual advances. Research findings by Vettriselvan, Anu, and Rajan (2016)
also reported that sexual harassment is a major problem of female workers because
they are face with poor security in the construction sites whereby the supervisors
and the male colleague abuse the unskilled women workers sexually in the name
of payment of wages and giving them jobs.
The study reveals that over-stress due to multiple workload is another challenge
that women construction site workers encountered in construction sites. Most
works at construction site are tedious, strenuous and sometimes make construction
workers tired and aging. This is consistent with the study of Kumar (2018) in India
which states that women construction site workers have pain in different part of
their body due to the strenuous nature of their work. The physical demand of jobs
such as handling of heavy materials, vibration of machine and awkward position
causes numerous work-related disorders and diseases like noise-induced hearing,
silicosis, muscle strain and sprain and other occupational stress (Abrey and
Smallwood, 2014).
Unskilled women workers encounter unfavourable working condition at
construction sites. This is due to the extended and excessive working hours and
overexposure to harsh environmental condition resulting in dehydration and later
sickness. Also, unskilled women workers are exposed to noise, sensitizing and
irritant materials, fumes and gases, dusts, and other hazardous materials, resulting
in adverse health risk. The above exposes these women and their children to
diseases which poses as a treat to their health and safety. Facilities for workers at
site are generally poor and workers do not like such and should be provided with
uniforms, proper ablution facilities and restroom (Choudhury, 2013 and Datta,
2002).
Women workers complains about contractors, supervisors and coworkers being
abusive. This is consistent with findings of Choudhury (2013) in the study of
construction workers in Bangladesh, the researcher reported that women are
always exposed to verbal assaults at the construction sites. Also, findings of Kumar
(2013) in Vijayawada (India) reported that women construction workers women are
regularly abused verbally at work as they are financially weaker and have no way
to talk back to their supervisors and employers.
The study also assessed the psychological motivation of unskilled women

construction site workers and found that incentives serves as the main factor of
868
motivation in construction sites. For instance, Goal-Setting theory advocates the

use of financial incentives to encourage commitment to achieve goals at work. It is
also stated that incentives which aid goals have the effect of encouraging people
to work harder. This aligns with Ogunlana and Chang (1998) on their study on
worker motivation in Bangkok, Thailand. They reported that financial reward is the
best way to motivate workers. They claim that workers are paid additional bonuses
to increase the workers' income. but it is negates McClealland’s achievement theory
which cited that people has three sources of needs which are achievement,
affiliation and power. These makes people believe more in unambiguous feedback
rather than financial incentive.
The finding reveals that good supervision motivates women construction site
workers. According to Skinner (1938), reinforcement theory ensures getting desired
result and avoiding conflict by either encouraging or discouraging human
behavior. This could be either encouraging or attempting to increase a desired
behavior or imposing a negative consequences to reduce an undesirable one. This
finding aligns with Yisa et al. (2000) and Ogunlana and Chang (1998), though the
study focus generally on workers. It explains that positive supervision improves job
satisfaction and then job satisfaction motivates workers by boosting their morale,
increasing their performances, and strengthening the cordial relationship between
workers and supervisors. Barnabas et al. (2009) also reported that
Likewise, overtime allowances and good wages are another factors that motivate
construction workers on site. According to Adams (1965) and Pritchard (1969),
equity theory shows that workers are rewarded base on the amount of work done.
The tedious work that the female construction site workers do on site deserves
better reward but this study negates Maneesh and Jasna (2017) and Barnabas et al.
(2009) study which reported that women construction workers complained that
they are paid less compare to their effort. Khurana (2016) also stated that women
workers are not only denied minimum wages, they are also denied their overtime
payment even after working beyond their work shift.
CONCLUSIONS
This study has assessed the factors that motivate unskilled women construction
workers, the challenges facing unskilled women workers in construction sites and
their factors of motivation. Challenges such as sexual harassment, verbal abuse,
working under unfavorable weather and high degree of stress poses as difficulty
to women workers and sometimes reduce performances. The study also assessed
the various factors of motivation such as financial motivators which are incentives,
good wages and overtime allowances and also good supervision. These will not
only motivate women to work at construction sites but will improve their social and
psychological needs of unskilled women construction workers on site. Sexual
harassment has the highest frequency among the challenges, followed by work
stress due to tedious workload, unfavourable working condition and verbal abuse.
Also, incentives have the highest frequency among the factors of motivation then
followed by good wages, followed by overtime allowances and good supervision.
Therefore, these motivators strengthen the relationship between workers and
supervisors and increase the morale of the women workers, meet their immediate
expenses, and increase performance.
869
This study shows that unskilled women construction site workers faced some
challenges, and also their major factors motivating construction workers are
financial reward and good supervision. Furthermore, the unskilled women workers
revealed that these motivators go a long way in helping them. It is on this premise
that we recommend that challenges such as sexual harassment, stress and
unfavourable working condition should be reduced to the minimum level on site
by enacting a law that will protect the unskilled women workers against sexual
harassment, provision of basic facilities such as toilet, first aid and child care
services and then women should not be forced to work pass the working hour, and
also social and psychological needs of workers should be attended to by the
contractors to increase their performance which in turn increase productivity on
site. This will go a long way by making the women construction site workers happy
and will also create a better relationship with the women workers and the
contractors or supervisors.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
SPATIAL ACCESSIBILITY TO URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

SERVICES AMONG HOTELS IN THE SMALL CITY OF WA,
GHANA
Elvis Attakora-Amaniampong1, Appau Williams Miller2 and Emmanuel K. Derbile3
1,2SD-Dombo University of Business and Integrated Development Studies. Department of Real
Estate and Land Management, Ghana.
3SD-Dombo University of Business and Integrated Development Studies. Department of Planning
and Management, Ghana.
Though access to urban infrastructure services is a critical factor that facilitates

hotel investment, studies have failed to substantiate the accessibility of urban
infrastructure services on hotel, most especially in smaller cities. Using the location-
based accessibility measure, the study assesses the spatial impact of bus stops,
hospital, banks, and shops on hotel accessibility and demand in Wa Municipality.
Samples of 33 registered hotels were selected based on their geo-location and
variations. The study used the buffer geo-processing model and proximity test to
estimate the spatial effect of urban infrastructure services on hotel accessibility and
demand. The findings revealed that, there is a weak correlation of urban
infrastructure services on hotel investment which triggers low clients turn-out in
Wa Municipality. This study contributes to a better understanding of the impact of
spatial correlations on hotel investment. However, development planners need to
adopt development-based infrastructure provision strategy that captures the
impact of UIFs on hotel investment.
Keywords: commercial real estate, hotel investment, infrastructure services, small

city, spatial accessibility
INTRODUCTION
Among the commercial real estate sector, hotel investments have similarly
contributed immensely to economic development through domestic employment
and revenue generation (Chatzimichael & Liasidou, 2019). Hotel investments are
extremely exclusive assets which are typically seen as long-term investments;
because of its life span and immovability. Location strategy can have a high
negative effect on its investment returns (Dai, Xu, Pratt, & Dai, 2017). In line with
these characteristics, hotel investment has since became the focus of geography
research in the late 1980s because of its spatial features (Budović, Ratkaj, & Antić,
2018). Many studies have associated accessibility as a conduit to effective location
1 eattak@uds.edu.gh
2 mappau@uds.edu.gh
3 ekderbile@uds.edu.gh
Attakora-Amaniampong, Appau and Derbile (2021) Spatial accessibility to urban infrastructure

services among hotels in the small city of Wa, Ghana In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West
875
Attakora-Amaniampong, Appau and Derbile
strategy (Godinho, Phillips, & Moutinho, 2018; Lado-sestayo & Fernández-castro,

2019, Graf, 2011; Radojevic, Stanisic, Stanic, & Davidson, 2018). Accessibility, plays
tremendous role to determine tourist decision, and is one of the most important
elements that contributes to hotel performance (Panno, 2019; Li & Du, 2018).
Accessibility to hotels breeds higher room demand (Rogerson, 2014), customer
preference (Kattara & El-Said, 2013), and huge employment avenue (Bohdanowicz-
Godfrey, Zientara, & Bąk, 2019).
Accessibility to urban infrastructure services includes roads, bus stops, shops,

hospitals, and banks. Accessibility to these services provide valuable comfort for
potential clients (Budović et al., 2018). Theory on hotel accessibility has highlighted
that the impact of urban infrastructure services on hotels demand plays critical
urban dimensions that needs further studies (Jiang, Gao, Jiang, & Gao, 2019; Lado-
sestayo, Vivel-búa, & Otero-gonzález, 2018; Adam, 2013). While studies have
tested services such as shops, schools, and train stations in the developed cities
especially where hotel investments are high (Budović et al., 2018; Panno, 2019),
small cites are underexplored area that requires further studies. Again, most
empirical studies used the traveling and walking distance from train station and
shops to hotels based on network analysis (Mingzhao Li, Bao, Sellis, Yan, and
Zhang, 2018; Kim, Jang, Kang, and James, 2018; and Hilmi and Hadi, 2016).
However, the impact of these services on client demand has received little attention
in the global south.
The uniqueness of this study is hinged on its choice of study area in many ways.
The Municipality is a typical fast-growing one from Sub-Saharan Africa with an
emerging and medium-sized city, Wa as its capital (Armed et al., 2020; Dapilah et
al., 2019). In a small city like Wa, land use has changed by 34% between the period
1986 and 2018 with changes in urban infrastructure (Armed et al., 2020, Yachori,
2017). Besides, UN-Habitat III empowered such small cities (including Wa) to lead
the Sustainable Development Goal trajectories and achievement by 2030 (UN-
Habitat, 2016). Again, Wa Municipality as one of the typical West African urban
centres, is characterized by the syndrome of development before planning where
the locations of urban infrastructure services are not well planned and insufficient
(Omar et al, 2020). These dynamics have necessitated for the examination of the
effect of urban infrastructure on hotel investment since similar studies are limited
in the Global south including Ghana. Following this gap, much interest has
motivated current studies in assessing the effects of urban infrastructure services
on hotels accessibility even in developed cities (Latinopoulos, 2020). To fill the
research gap using a dataset of registered hotels, bus stops, shops, hospitals, and
banks, buffer geo-processing model and proximity test of bus stops, shops, banks,
hospitals are utilized to determine the traveling time and its effect on hotel
demand in the Wa Municipality Ghana. We contribute to literature debate on hotel
accessibility analysis in different theoretical and practical ways. First, unlike studies
that used walking distances and travelling cost from hotels to shop, this study
examined the traveling distance in terms of time and its effects on hotel demand.
Secondly, we investigated the effects of distances on hotel demand from the
Central Business District to the hotels. The paper is organized into five sections.
Section 2 presents a theoretical review of spatial proximity of urban infrastructure
service on commercial real estate. Section 3 focuses on the research methodology.
Section 4 presented and discussed the results from the buffer-geo processing
876
model and proximity test analysis. Finally, we concluded the study and discussed
some theoretical and practical implications of the study in section 5.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical scope of accessibility
The concept of accessibility refers to ability to reach or obtain the services and site
of a facility at ease which measures the absolute prospect for interaction with a
given phenomenon (Lyu, Bertolini, & Pfeffer, 2019). Traditionally, accessibility is
embedded in location theory that targets the best use of the productive supply
networks at the minimized cost (Nicholls & Nicholls, 2010). Other studies suggest
three accessibility measures. These include; infrastructure-based measure which
suggests services related to a transport infrastructure that relies on overcrowding
stages and average travel speeds using road network (Bohdanowicz-Godfrey et al.,
2019; Lado-sestayo et al., 2018; Y. Li & Du, 2018; Yang, Mao, & Tang, 2018). The
location-based measures describe the stages of accessibility to spatially distributed
urban infrastructure activities (Nicholls & Nicholls, 2010). With this measure, the
distance to the facility and its indicators are considered. Lastly, the person-based
measures define accessibility at the individual level. Following these approaches,
Lyu et al. (2019) contributes to the debate that accessibility is determined
considering the availability of easy travelling route, travelling cost and monetary
constraints, individual physical conditions, the quality of spatial distribution of
urban infrastructure and activities, as well as individual needs. These services have
both positive and negative impact on the investor, tourist, and the economy as a
whole. According to Lewinson and Esnard (2016), spatial distribution and
accessibility of infrastructure services have impact on people especially older adult
tourist, given that they are likely to spend majority of their tour at the hotel.
Lewinson and Esnard (2016) further indicated that characteristics of the location
must facilitate and enhance walkability of pedestrian shopping, street connectivity,
public ease of transportation, bus stops and, urban designs. Accessibility studies
provide useful suggestion to urban planners for hotel investment (Brans, Engelen,
& Hubert, 1981; Cró & Martins, 2017; Taylor & Islam, 2010)
Spatial attributes of hotel proximity
The performance of commercial real estate investments are connected to the
spatial attributes of the investments (Korea, Noor, Asmawi, & Abdullah,
2015;Gargallo, Miguel, & Salvador, 2017. Spatial attributes are linked to geographic
location, that is longitude and latitude as well multiple quality attributes such as
price and rent of the property. Studies have shown that spatial extent of a hotel is
retrieved by spatial queries that select hotels based on the location and its relevant
distance (Priya & Kalpana, 2018 ; Lu, Lung, & Xie, 2018). Aside that, recent studies
have proven that spatial attributes influence market search and how investments
differ from different locations (Kolpan & Warren, 2017 ; Zhen, Du, Cao, &
Mokhtarian, 2018). Neighbourhood attributes may include the availability of
schools, population density, income levels, location, and nearness to central
business districts Studies (eg: Gargallo et al., 2017; Huang, 2018) confirm that prices
of hotels tend to be similar because they share common local physical
physiognomies such as building size, age, and quality, access to social amenities,
employment and shopping centres, which influence investors decision. Similar
studies showed that environmental quality, characteristics of the transportation
877
network and good site for spatial safety influences proximity (Chiarazzo, Coppola,
Dell, Ibeas, & Ottomanelli, 2014; Kumar & Bansal, 2016). However, spatial
correlation of commercial real estate investments has more complex estimations
as demonstrated by Zhang, Du, Geng, Liu, and Huang (2015). Drawing insight from
hotel investment for example, the walking distance to a resort centre, site free from
flooding, suitable site for on-site wastewater disposal, suitable building sites,
access to roads, access to site for deliveries, employees, and guests area determine
the spatial extent of the investment (Joeyev, Degloria, Noden, & Locke, 1999; Bovkir
& Aydinoglu, 2018). Newell et al. (2006) predict the consequences as high
economic burden on the investor as it increases the investors cost and burdened
on the client. Meanwhile, these studies have neglected the need to assess the
accessibility to shops, hospitals, and banks when defining hotel spatial accessibility.
Models of assessing the spatial extent of commercial real estate investments

Spatial extent of the hotel investment influences investment returns. Mingzhao Li,
Bao, Sellis, Yan, and Zhang (2018) determined the spatial extent of a hotel
investment by examining the transportation profile of the location of the
investments through the nearest geo-locations of the investments with other
facilities such as supermarkets and recreational centres using network analysis.
They revealed that presence of the facility has two investment imapcts. First, client
demand increases as the distance from the train stations to the hotel reduces.
Second, the presence of the investment influenced shopping activities and the
income of the nearest facilities positively. Kim, Jang, Kang, and James (2018)
conducted a similar study using autoregressive-first order spatial model including
autoregressive errors. Their study found a positive correlation between
investments ’location and urban support systems (Kim et al, 2018; Hilmi & Hadi,
2016). Also, Mundell, Taff, Kilgore, and Snyder (2010) used the spatial econometric
models to determine the easy accessibility to a hotel. The model used variables
such as land use categories in the neighbourhood, time and distance attributes to
calculate the relationship between hotel locations and other locational variables.
Their model found a strong relationship among them but failed to substantuate on
the distance factor (Mundell et al, 2010). Suárez-vega, Santos-peñate, Dorta-
gonzález, and Rodríguez-díaz (2011) argues that the use of network analysis as a
measure of distance models the problem of resolution, since the minimum cost
path sandwiched between every pair of network point is not in a straight line which
is usually solved by the ArcGis tools. Also, Multiple regression used by Chiarazzo,
Ibeas, and Ottomanelli (2014) shows that there is positive gains when the
investment is located within 500 meters buffer from a bus stop and train station.
Shen (2005) argues that the mean distance seems to be a more useful measure of
the spatial extent of commercial real estate investment since it characterises the
aggregated proximity of the investment type to a facility type. His analysis involved
the collection of reports of all the mean distances from the investment to the
facilities such as schools and hospitals. From their analysis, it was observed that
there are lower mean values for accessibility to schools. Chiarazzo et al. (2014) are
of the view that though measuring the distance to the facility is important, it
necessary to determine the active accessible time such as the travel cost and the
shortest time in minutes to the facility. Their results showed that the transport
conditions indicated positive signs if the facility were located within 500 meters
range from a bus stop and train station, which yielded a higher real return
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(Chiarazzo et al., 2014). This finding looks consistent with the findings of North
and Miller (2017) where they found that configured coverage maximum travel time
and number of facilities closer to the hotel should not be more than 1hr. However,
the above finding contradicts with Mimi et al. (2015) idea of distance. According
to them determining the distance to commercial facilities does not only ensure
significant investment performance but the relationship between land use mixes
around the investment. They however, used the sensitivity linear regression model
to evaluate number of land use mix within the investment neighbourhood. Their
categories include; cultural attractions, number of natural attractions, traffic land
area, number of bust stops and number of man-made attractions. Their sensitivity
analysis revealed that a buffer of 1000, 2000 and 5000m radii gives a negative
relationship of investments such as hotels closer to attractions. However,
interestingly, this is contrary to the finding of Ahmad, Elsamen, & Ibrahim (2017).
They analysed their data using a circular buffer in the catchment area based on
distance to the facility into uniform concentric circles and concluded that the short
Euclidian distance to the city and the accessibility of shopping centres suggest a
good relation (Ahmad et al., 2017). Surplusingly, our litereature review indicates
that. the previous studies have negeleted the use of hospitals, bus stops, banks,
and shops to assess hotel accessibility, which are somehow common UIFs in the
emerging cities from the SSA.
METHODOLOGY
The study is mixed research based on spatial, statistical, and qualitative data
collection and analysis of hotel and its distances to urban infrastructure services.
The study adopted the location-based accessibility measure approach. According
to Nicholls and Nicholls (2010), location-based measures describe the stages of
accessibility to spatially distributed urban infrastructure. We used this approach
because it allows city planners to track accessible urban infrastructure and pursue
needed future urban associated platform (Gonzalez-feliu & Grau, 2014). Participant
observation was incorporated in the study to identify the effects of externalities
such as nature of road network, hotel environment, and service provisions that
affect accessibility as suggested by Kim, Jang, Kang, and James (2018) and Hilmi
and Hadi (2016).
Data sets
Data for this study involved three sources. The first source involved a registered
hotel and their traveling time from Wa CBD data collected from Ghana Tourist
Authority, Wa. This data was 33 registered hotels grouped into first grade, second
grade, and third grade (budget) categories. The second source involved a collection
of ground control points (geo-locations) of each hotel in the Municipality. The final
data source was a dataset of registered shops, bus stops, hospitals, and banks, from
the Wa Municipal Assembly. The study also sampled 1064 tourists across the hotel
grades to determine the impact of traveling time on hotel accessibility (see table
1). We randomly interviewed 20 out of the 33 investors on their perception of hotel
investment in the Municipal. Ground control points of Urban Infrastructure Services
(UIFS) were collected to ascertain the distance effects on hotels. We used a goggle
earth image as a reference point to identify the location of the hotels and a
shapefile from the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority, Wa to support the
analysis of the geographic data set.
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Table 1 respondents age and gender

Age and Gender of Tourist
20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70+ Total Male Female
Grade 1 15 27 34 77 33 6 192 112 80
Grade 2 53 66 95 88 12 23 337 197 140
Grade 3 127 109 204 38 28 33 539 405 134
TOTAL 195 468 303 363 73 62 1068 714 354
Data analysis
The first analytical approach involved processing of geographic coordinates of the
shops, bus stops, hospitals, and banks. Using a map shapefile of Wa Municipality,
the coordinates were imported in an ArcView GIS application software and
estimated a buffer of 500, 1000, and 1500 meters of hospitals, bus stops, shops and
banks to hotels. As a measure of effects, the second step established the
relationship in distance between the spatial attributes to the hotels. This was
estimated using the proximity test analysis. Empirically, the test has shown a good
measure of effects on proximity (Hendrik, Jeuring, & Haartsen, 2016; Jeuring &
Diaz-soria, 2017; Yuan et al., 2018). The purpose of this test was to assess hotel
accessibility to UIFS. The dependent variables for the test included; Grade 1, Grade
2 and Grade 3 hotels demand. While the independent variables included; the
distances from bus stops, banks, shops and hospitals. The analysis used a
confidence level of 95%. This enabled to determine the effects between vectors of
values among the dependent and independent variables.
Finally, we estimated the traveling distance in terms of time (minutes) to the hotels
using Triclycle, which is locally called “Camboo” in the Municipality and it is the
commonest transport service operated by indivduals with different quoted fares.
For hotels within the CBD, we estimated traveling time of 1-5 minnutes. We finally
estimated a traveling distance of 4-10 minutes for hotels found at the periphery of
Wa. In order to avoid bias in travelling time, we took into accounts the potential
CBD congestion in definining the accessibility to hotels in the Manicipality. Figure
1 presents the analytical approach of the study.
Fig. 1 Analytical procedure of data
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Nature of hotel investments in Wa Municipality
Data gathered from Ghana Tourist Authority showed that hotel investments in Wa
have all the three Grades, including the Grade one, two and Grade 3 (Budget)
hotels. Statistics from the Authority indicated that, there are 4 Grade one hotels, 7
Grade two hotels, and 22 Budget hotels. This demonstrated that Budget hotels
constituted the most dominant hotel investment type in the study area (See table
2). This was supported by assertion by a manager from the Ghana Tourist Authority
that:
[...] Even though the city keeps growing, most of the hotel investors still keeps
investing in budget hotels, because, the taste of many clients for budget hotels
haven’t changed” (Management Interview 1, 2020).
Earlier findings showed that when cities grow economic events create competitive
advantages for investors, and consumers through economies of scale in
commercialization, and infrastructure development (Mimi et al., 2015). Looking at
the pace of growth of Wa, hotel clients are not taking advantage of the
development to change their taste for other hotel categories. The top management
further indicted that;
[...] Over the past 20 years, the cultural, economic and social condition of the
Municipality do not encourage hotel investment, because, the municipality is less
developed and surrounded by deprived agricultural communities” (Management
Interview 4, 2020)
The study revealed that the idea behind the growth was understood to have been
the establishment of University for Development Studies, Wa campus (now SDD-
UBIDS), the improvement in sports, and businesses. The study further uncovered
that even though the urban growth has resulted in investment in other hotel
grades, the local people still prefer budget hotels as earlier indicated. This
development has given advantage to the development of Grade 1 and 2 hotels to
target tourist, businessmen, politicians, NGO’s, and researchers. The general impact
of the direction of budget hotel business development against the other hotel
grades can serve as a good impetus to reform the budget hotel market.
Table 2 Records of hotel category in Wa Municipality

Hotel Category Total Number Percentage (%)
Grade 1 4 12
Grade 2 7 21
Budget 22 67
TOTAL 33 100
Spatial extent and its relationship on hotel investments

This section presents the spatial extent and the relationship among hotel
investment in Wa. The overlay of ground control points of hotel locations gave the
results shown in figure 2. Figure 2 depicts that most budget hotels are spread
mostly around the inner city of the Municipality in the neighborhoods of Dobile,
Market area, Wapaani, Jengbeyiri, Tindamba and Zongo. The budget hotels
dominate over other hotel Grades. Thus, 9 budget hotels out of 22 are in the inner
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city of the Municipality. This result further revealed that, these neighborhoods are
accessible in terms of distance to hospital, shopping centres, entertainment
centres, transport and other inner-city urban services.
Again, it can be observed that budget hotels keep spreading around the outer
zones of the Municipality. That is why it is possible to see budget hotels even at
the outskirt of the shapefile. Also, most hotels of Grade one and two categories are
located in the outskirts of Napagbakoli, Chorkor, Mangu and Konta, Danko
Extention, and Sombo. This implies that, as the city grows, hotels with high
standards emerged in these new locations outside the city centre. The results also
revealed that, 2 hotels out of 5 budget hotels are located outside the captured
neighbourhood of the Municipality. Field observation confirmed that, these hotels
are located along the high-way of the Wa-Kumasi Road. However, it is knowing to
find budget hotels clustering around Grade one and two in the outer zone of the
shapefile. This is in line with Mboup and Oyelaran-oyeyinka's (2019) idea that at
the municipal level, the emergence of a city is based on the fact that the middle of
the city is not recognised as the only centre that grows itself, but, many more
several sub-centres collectively develop a networked urban system, with sub-
centres performing different functions. However, the pattern of spread of
investment products cannot be determined. For example, the locations of budget
hotels in figure 2 do not follow any pattern unlike Grade one and two hotels that
are mostly located outside the inner-city of the Municipality.
Figure 2 Spatial extent of hotel investment in Wa Municipality
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Interview from the office of GTA indicated that:
[...] Even though these budget hotels are the oldest hotels in the neighbourhood,
yet, have not undergone massive improvements which commands for high Grade
hotels” (Management Interview 7, 2020).
Based on this response the study can infer that; hotel owners do not take
advantage of the location of the inner city to improve their hotel Grade. The ripple
effect could be that these ‘obsolete hotels ’would fadeout from the local market
and face diversification problems as well. The possible diversification benefit is
limited to only residential use, because of their nature and design.
Spatial extent of urban infrastructure services and hotel investment

The urban infrastructure services of this study included hospital, bus stops,
shopping centers, banks and roads. The choice of these services was basically their
availability. The result of the ground control points of these services are overlaid
on the neighborhood map of Wa Municipality is presented by figure 3. This
approach supports Zhen, Du, Cao, and Mokhtarian's (2018) idea that the
performance of hotel investment is dependent on linkages of urban infrastructure
services to the hotel. Figure 3 showed that there are 33 shops, 8 bus stops, 7
financial institutions, and 5 hospitals located around the neighborhoods of hotels.
Out of 33 shops, 24 are located around the neighborhoods of budget hotels, 5
around Grade one hotel and 4 at the neighborhood of Grade two hotels
respectively. This implies that shop investors target hotel locations that have the
highest local demand. However, field observation showed that these shops were
not well-structured, yet, attracts the local demand of these hotels. The
consequence of these results is argued by Gozgor and Kablamaci (2015) that rates
in these hotels in unsuitable location will attract low rate and high vacancy. This
literature supports an interview recorded from one investor that:
[...] Here in Wa, the big shops are concentrated in the city centre where clients can
buy valuables. The shops around our hotels are run by petty traders and because
the neighbourhoods where the hotels are situated are normally outside the city
and are not busy, and they don’t sell most goods [sic] (Investor 4, 2020).
On the contrary, most hotels around Dobile are obsolete, field observation shown
that rates are high with low demand. These results give clear characteristics of an
emerging hotel market. The impact factor expressed by investor 8 indicated that:
[...] Providing shops in our hotels offer additional operation and investment cost to
us, so we usually prefer client buying from outside shops, … though this increases
the burdening of our clients” [sic] (Investor 8, 2020).
The above is supported by another investor who expressed that:
[...] few hotels that have shops in-built complain of delays in buying products since
client turn out are usually low. Because of this client will have to travel to the city
centre to buy stuffs” (Investor 12, 2020).
With respect to bus stops, it is evident in figure 3 that 8 bus stops are in the
neighbourhoods of these hotels. This finding corresponds to those of Joeyev et al
(2018) and Bovkir and Aydinoglu (2018) who found that walking distance to a resort
883
centre, access to roads, and shopping mall determines UIFs ’spatial correlation with
client demand. However, their study did not define what constitute accessibility.
For this study, we identified that not all roads are linked to these hotels and as such
do not provide extensive benefits of bus stops and shops (see figure 3). This implies
that the provision of these services will bring economic burden to the investors
which can indirectly be shifted to clients when investors wish to improve on their
hotel facility. In this sphere another investor lamented that:
[...] In Wa, most hotels are located around a major road. But access roads linking
to Grade 1 and 2 hotels are feeder and deplorable. This affects accessibility of our
hostels badly” [sic] (Investor-13, 2020).
The results depict that budget hotel investors are strategic. Thus, they locate their
hotels closer to major road network (see figure 3). This result implies that the
estimation of accessibility requires a critical understanding of the nature of roads.
Banks on the other hand showed that almost all the financial institutions are
located in the inner city of the Municipality, where most budget hotels are located,
followed by Grade 1 hotels. Field observation showed that these financial
institutions have limited withdrawal stands located in the inner city. The ripple
effect could be that clients who want longer stay may demand for hotels in these
locations as indicated by Joeyev et al (2018).
Figure 3 Spatial extent of urban infrastructure services and hotels
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Urban infrastructure services and hotel accessibility

Urban infrastructure services have an inherent effect on the functioning of hotel
investment. According to Pardo-garcía and Mérida-rodríguez (2018), the residents
from speriphery of a growing city often struggle moving to central locations closer
to the busy areas of the city despite the core opportunity cost of commuting long
distance. This seems somehow bias, because, it is not only necessary to determine
how accessible these urban infrastructures are to city centre but to hotels. This
implies that investments ’accessibility is equally important as social mobility in
ensuring urban development. Figure 4 shows the effect of accessibility of bus stops,
shops, hospitals, and financial institutions to the hotels.
Figure 4 shows accessibility of hotels to urban infrastructure services in the Wa
Municipality. The results showed a buffer of 500, 1000, 1500 meters distance to
these services. The results showed that most of the hotels in the Municipality have
few shops around them. From figure 4, at a distance of 500 meters, only 14 hotels
have easy access to hotels located within the CBD. That is why it is not startling to
locate more than one shop around a hotel. This gives an indication that clients of
hotels outside the 500 meters accessibility buffer must walk a long distance to
access basic services. Again, clients who have no basic information about the
neighbourhood (Napagbakoli, chorkor, Mangu and Konta, Danko Extention, and
Sombo) may face challenges accessing shops for their stay. Locals who have basic
information about neighbourhoods may demand such hotels at a low pace as
indicated and supported by investor respondents. With respect to bus stops, a
study by Chiarazzo, Ibeas, and Ottomanelli (2014) showed that there is positive
gains when hotels located within a 500 meter range from a bus stop and train
station. The results from Wa showed that there are few bus stops in Wa
Municipality. Only 8 bus stops were uncovered during field visit. 7 of these bus
stops can be accessed within 500 meters and 1 within 1000 metres buffer (see
figure 4). This implies that clients would have to walk a long distance to access
public transport. Even though some of the bus stops that fall within 500 metres of
the hotels have good road network, sometimes these bus stops are located in the
opposite direction of the road. Meaning, clients must cross to the opposite
direction to access an on-coming vehicle. The positive effect would be easy access
to transport but can lead to accident. This can easily be seen in neighbourhood
such as Waapane, Kaabanye, Sopkayiri. Based on this we can infer that bus stops
can influence positive gains to hotels when their geo-locations are directed
towards the hotel. The other aspects can be improved by effective road network to
reduce walking distance and time. Results from accessibility to banks showed that
most of the hotels are located far beyond the 1500 metre buffer. Only 6 hotels are
located around the CBD which have access within 500 metres buffer. The study
uncovered that aside the bank, mobile money transfer points are located in some
busy neighbourhoods where clients can access. But the distance to these mobile
money stands was not determined. Giving these indications, it can be inferred that
clients who wish to access hotels must have enough money on them. Because ATM
machines are far away from town, not functioning, and queued when functioning.
Figure 4 depicts 5 health facilities in the Municipal. Within a buffer of 500 and 1000
metres most hotels can easily access them. Hotels located in Napagbakoli, Chorkor,
Mangu and Konta, Danko Extention, and Sombo must travel about 5 minutes to
access these facilities. Field observation indicated that most of these hotels have
885
no linking road to the high way where clients can access public transport easily in
an event to accessing medical care. Following the above, Shen (2005) observed
that there are lower mean values for accessibility to hospitals and schools from
hotels and it is a true reflection of hotels in the study area. A new development in
this hotel market is that accessibility to financial institutions and bus stops is of
concern to both investors and clients, because only few hotels have shops.
Following the above results, we finally tested the spatial correlation of these
services with hotels. Using the hotel grades as dependent variables and distance
to shops, banks, hospitals, and bus stops as independent variables, and table 3
depicts the linear sensitivity test results.
Zhou and Clapp (2015) in their estimation used the conditional logit model to
examine facility locations, and selections near limited-access highways to
determine omitted variables. It was observed that there is high accessibility to the
facility if it has a good high way access to the hotel. Their model seems weak
because they failed to examine the sensitive of services such as bus stops, banks,
hospitals, and shops on hotels. This study further goes beyond to determine the
proximity of urban infrastructure services to hotels. From table 3, the analysis
showed that Grade one hotels have weak correlation with bus stops and banks
accessibilty. Budget hotels have weak correlation with banks only, whilst Grade two
hotels have weak correlation with hospitals and shopping centres. Generally, all the
UIFS have weak correlation in terms of accessibilty with the hotels. Therefore, this
somehow diffuses literature in the developed cities that the spatial correlation of
urban infrastructure in emerging cities had positive impact on hotel accessibility.
This cauciously implies that when UIFs are not improved it would affect
performance in the long run badly in our case.
Figure 4 Accessibility of urban infrastructure services among hotel investment in the city of Wa
886
Traveling time and its effects on client’s demand

The travelling time was estimated using the travelling time of a client using a
“Camboo” from the central business district to hotels within the inner city and the
peripherals. We estimated the records of hotel demand considering the distance.
Figure 5, 6, and 7 give the results of traveling time and its effect on hotel demand.

The study presented the spatial accessibility of hotels to UIFS. The study combined
the buffer geo-processing model with Proximity test to measure the distance of
shops, bus stops, banks, and hospitals to hotels. This combination provides an
additional originality to bear to this study. The findings revealed that hotels have
low accessibility to UIFS in the Wa Municiplaity. Among the hotel category, budget
hotels dominate in the Municipality and hospitals, shopping centres, banks, and
bus stops are easily accessibly in terms of distance in the inner city. The
development of the Municipality has also seen a spread in budget hotels in the
outer zones of the Municipality and this hotel type followed no pattern, unlike
Grade 1 and 2 hotels that are mostly located outside the inner-city of the
Municipality. The results further showed that most hotels do not provide basic
shopping services especially among the budget hotels. Based on the distance,
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clients walk a long way to access shops. Also, hotels located far from the road side
normally have no shops around. This implies that shop investors target hotel
locations that have the highest local demand. Even though these shops are not
well-structured, yet, attract the local demand of hotels. With respect to bus stops,
most bus stops that fall within 500 metres of hotels have good road network, and
sometimes bus stops are located in the opposite direction of the road. Accessibilty
to banks showed that most of the hotels are located far beyond the 1500 metre
buffer. Only 6 hotels located around the CBD have easy access to banks within 500
metres buffer. It is further realised that aside the banks, mobile money transfer
stands are located in some busy neighbourhood where clients can access. The
future of hotel investment in Wa Municipality requires that development planners
adopt development-based infrastructure provision strategy that captures the
impact of UIFs on hotel investment. Thus, urban planners in smaller cities require
considering hotel facilities when planning new neighbourhoods for road
construction and its ancillary services. All-inclusive collaboration between hotel
developers and development planners can provide these services together,
especially hotels developing in the peripheries. This will improve hotel accessibility.
The Ghana Tourist Authority needs to collaborate with the Land Use and Spatial
Planning Authority, Development Planning and the Municipal Assembly to develop
an entry guideline for the hotel market. Finally, development planners must
educate investors in the need to require planning permission before development.
Theoretical and practical implications
Few geo-information studies on commercial real estate have focused mostly on
the impact of UIFS such as bus stops, schools, and land use mix on housing. They
focused on accessibility of urban infrastructure to hotels using traveling cost. This
study has made a contribution to geo-information studies using other urban
infrastructure services such as bus stops, shopping centres, banks, and hospitals in
estimating accessibility in small city like Wa. The application of the buffer geo-
processing model and proximity test gave a sense of clarity and confidence in
estimating the spatial effects of urban infrastructure services on hotels in terms of
distance. The study’s usage of average traveling time instead of travelling cost was
due to lack of data on transport cost. Meaning, the method provides a new
approach to examine the effects of urban infrastructure services on hotel
accessibility in a smaller city. Further application of interviews and participant
observation provided a better understanding of accessibility to hotels. This missing
approach in literature added that most bus stops that fall within 500 metres away
from the highway have bad road network. However, these bus stops are located in
the opposite direction of the road. For this reason, clents must cross to the opposite
direction to access an on-coming vehicle. Following this, using travelling cost in
estimating easy accessibility to hotels has some flaws in literature.
The study also has some practical implications. The study showed that presence of
budget hotels keep spreading around the outer circle of the Municipality, but, poor
maintenance culture is common among budget hotels located in the inner-city.
This implies that, investors require regular maintainance of hotels if they want to
compete effectively in the hotel market. However, the reverse could foresee a
future decline in budget hotels which could have diversification disadvantages due
to poor maintanance practice. Furthermore, the results showed that most hotels
do not provide basic shopping services especially among the budget hotels. Based
888
on distance, clients walk a long way to access shops. This demonstrates that the
establishment of shops in hotels or within a distance less than 100m to hotels will
enhance hotel accessibility. Results from accessibility to banks showed that most
of the hotels are located far beyond the 1500 metre buffer. This results looked weak
as the surounding land use within 500 and 1000 meters are not purposely for
banking services. However, the practical implication that can suffice this is that
investors who provide hotel services within 1500 meters are likley to enjoy financial
service at ease.
Limitations of the Study

Finally, two limtations were realised from the study. Practically, although the study
was able to determine the effects of urban infrstructure services on hotels, the
study did not further quantify the effects of these services on hotel performance,
considering income and hotel price. Based on that further future study is necessary
to quantify the monetary effects of accessibility of urban infrastracture on hotels
investments. Also, the use of one medium-sized city study can be a major limitation
to this study, however, further studies are higly recommended to include other
medium-sized cities to validate the findings of this study.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
STRESS-COPING STRATEGIES AMONG CONSTRUCTION

PERSONNEL: AN INTEGRATIVE REVIEW
Janet Mayowa Nwaogu1 and Albert P. C. Chan2
1,2Dept. of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, 11 Yuk Choi Rd., Hung
Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
Construction personnel are faced with a considerable amount of stress, which

negatively impacts their health and well-being. This has spurred research into stress
and mental health in the industry. However, studies reviewing stress-coping
strategies adopted by construction personnel are lacking. The study integratively
reviewed articles on stress-coping strategies among construction personnel to
determine the coping strategies employed in the industry and the effect of such
strategies on personnel's performance and health. The database of PubMed,
Scopus, and Web of Science was searched to retrieve relevant literature within the
period 1990 to 2020. Using the PRISMA guidance and CEBM critical appraisal tool,
a total of nineteen studies met inclusion criteria. The literature on stress-coping
strategies was classified into four categories: family, mental ill-health, workplace
stressors, and coping strategy influencers. Project performance increased with the
adoption of problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping behaviors.
Cultural values, income, and motivation influenced the type of coping strategy
adopted. Problem-focused coping strategies (particularly active coping, social
support, religion, and positive reappraisal) alleviated depression, anxiety, and
stress. This study informs on appropriate methods and policies for researching
stress-coping strategies in the construction industry. There is a need for
investigations into resilience as a coping resource, future-oriented stress-coping
along the generational gap, and assessment of stress-coping interventions on a
"pre and post-intervention" and "short and long time" basis.
Keywords: construction personnel, coping strategies, generational gap, stress,

workplace
INTRODUCTION
Stress is a common factor in the everyday hustle and bustle (Labrague et al., 2018)
and specifically related to the construction industry (Love et al., 2010). Such stress
has its root in increased work pace resulting from globalization and the role the
industry plays in the process (Aitken and Crawford, 2007, Chan et al., 2018). The
massive demand for the delivery of infrastructures and structures has made the
construction industry home to extreme and counterproductive work stress
(Sunindijo and Kamardeen, 2017). Construction professionals and site operatives
1 janet.nwaogu@connect.polyu.hk
2 albert.chan@polyu.edu.hk
Nwaogu and Chan (2021) Stress-coping strategies among construction personnel: an integrative
review In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
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are subjected to work stressors that negatively impact their health and
performance (Bowen et al., 2014, Love et al., 2010, Ojo et al., 2019, Sunindijo and
Kamardeen, 2017). Effects of work stress include: (i) mental ill-health (e.g.,
depression, anxiety, suicidality), (ii) physical ill-health (e.g., headaches, body pains,
blood pressure, cardiovascular disease), (iii) low job satisfaction, and (iv) reduced
performance (Bowen et al., 2014, Chan et al., 2018, Desjarlais, 1995).
Sources of stress within the construction industry include; time pressures, poor
physical work environment, long work hours, work-family/life conflict, low income,
organizational culture, job insecurity, interpersonal conflict, little social support
from colleagues, bullying, harassment, and gender discrimination (Bowen et al.,
2014, Love et al., 2010, Ojo et al., 2019, Sunindijo and Kamardeen, 2017, Leung et
al., 2016, Leung et al., 2006). Work stress is a problem for both individuals and
organizations (Hannigan et al., 2004). The effect of work stress has been evidenced
in the construction industry, as they suffered substantial suicide rates above the
general population (Milner et al., 2015, Peterson et al., 2018, Rees-Evans, 2020). In
order to withstand the stress and mitigate its adverse impact, construction
personnel must engage varying coping strategies. According to Labrague et al.
(2017), “coping mechanisms are necessary when dealing with stress and
accompanying stressors”.
Based on the preceding, this integrative review appraised and synthesized previous
studies to deduce stress-coping strategies employed by construction personnel to
deal with stress. In order to achieve this aim, the specific objectives are to (i)
determine the coping strategies unique to construction professionals and
operatives; (ii) determine the effect of coping strategies on performance and the
health of construction personnel. This review informs future research and
construction organizations on possible coping mechanisms that are more likely to
be employed by the two-primary class of construction personnel (professionals
and operatives), their health, and performance outcomes. It also informs on
research directions which should be target points, thereby giving room for the
cross-cultural analysis of coping strategies with the possibility of developing a
cross-cultural stress management intervention.
LITERATURE REVIEW
While available evidence (Rees-Evans, 2020, Campbell, 2006) shows that stress and
its related outcomes are predominant in the construction industry, reviews on
coping strategies, an important construct in the stress and well-being process, are
lacking. Although there have been reviews on stress or its outcomes in the industry
(Nwaogu et al., 2019, Tijani et al., 2021), none has reviewed coping strategies
among construction personnel. Tijani et al. (2021) focused on the classification of
stressors and their impact on occupational stress among construction personnel.
They recommended the need for considering the role of stressors emanating from
the tendering process and the physical work environment on the stress level of
workers. Using a scientometric review, Nwaogu et al. (2019) linked mental ill-health
to occupational stress in the industry. They emphasized the role of coping
strategies as protective factors against the development of mental ill-health.
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Burnout, depression, and anxiety have been related to coping strategies (Brenda
and Steve, 2006, Haynes and Love, 2004, Langdon and Sawang, 2018). Coping
moderates psychosocial factors that an employee is subjected to daily (Brenda and
Steve, 2006). Based on the preceding, it is expedient to review how construction
personnel in varying economies in the extant literature cope with or manage such
stressors and work stress. This will provide information on coping strategies
prevalent among construction personnel and the triggers for adopting each
strategy. This information would highlight a direction for future research and
necessary interventions.
Explanation of terms
Coping strategies refer to the strategies employed to deal with the psychological
impact of stress and its health or performance outcome (Folkman et al., 1986). It
refers to an individual’s conscious effort to withstand, deal with, or overcome a
stressful event (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). According to Folkman et al. (1986),
coping strategies serve two primary functions, namely: (i) the regulation of stressful
emotions and (ii) alteration of the distress-causing person-environment
relationship.
Coping strategies that directly manage a stressor or cluster of stressors are called
problem-focused strategies, while those that regulate emotions that arise due to a
stressful situation are referred to as emotion-focused strategies (Biggs et al., 2017,
Lazarus and Folkman, 1984).
Problem-focused coping is adaptive in nature and behavioral. It involves a person

taking positive efforts to assess and solve the stress problem in a logical manner.
On the other hand, emotion-focused coping is maladaptive and involves the use
of cognitive strategies in trying to reduce psychological distress (Lazarus and
Folkman, 1984). Emotion-focused can be described as maladaptive or escapist
because the effect is temporary and does not entirely solve the stress. They include
denial (Bowen et al., 2014, Langdon and Sawang, 2018). However, the effectiveness
of a coping strategy or behavior is determined by fit and context because it
depends on how appropriately it corresponds with appraisals and specific
conditions (Biggs et al., 2017).
METHODS
Design
The integrative review approach was adopted to examine diverse literature on
coping with stress in the construction industry. The review method was considered
appropriate due to its ability to allow the inclusion and synthesizing of literature
that employed qualitative and quantitative methodologies (Labrague et al., 2018).
The review began with a systematic search of existing literature in three databases
using keywords. Thereafter, a manual search of specific studies identified from
citations and reference lists of previously retrieved articles was conducted using
google scholar. To ensure the quality of findings, the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting
Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis) guidelines were employed to
select articles fit to be reviewed.
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Search strategy
The search for literature was conducted in three phases: first, the databases of
PubMed, ISI Web of Science (WoS) core collection, and Scopus were visited on
March 2021 to retrieve articles for the review. These databases were consulted as
they contained the largest concentration of articles in various fields which have
undergone rigorous peer review: (i) PubMed for health-related journals (Harris et
al., 2014), and (ii) WoS and Scopus for science-related journals (Aghaei Chadegani
et al., 2013). Several search strings were combined; those with the best result are
‘‘stress‘‘ ’’coping‘‘ ’’construction industry’’; “individual resilience,” “construction
industry,” “stress,” “personal resources.”
Second, to ensure that no critical article was omitted in the retrieval process, the
databases of three top science citation indexed journals in the field of construction
and engineering were visited to retrieve articles that might be missed out in the
first process. The journals are Engineering, Construction and Architectural
Management (ECAM), Journal of Construction Engineering and Management
(JCEM), and Journal of Management in Engineering (JME). The three construction
and engineering-related journals ’database was searched because Naoum et al.
(2018) showed the journal outlets accounted for approximately 73% of the total
stress-related articles in the construction industry. As regards this research field,
the journals satisfy the 80/20 Pareto principle. Figure 1 shows the flow diagram of
the process utilized for identifying the relevant literature.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

For an article to be eligible for review, the following inclusion criteria were set. The
studies had to:
i. discuss stress-coping strategies among construction personnel

(construction professionals or tradesmen).
ii. not limited to any organization structure within the industry
iii. be an empirical study and not a preliminary study
iv. be a journal article
v. published between the year 1990 and 2020
vi. be written in the English language
Apart from the failure to meet the inclusion criteria, studies that considered (i) a
specific coping construct, (ii) a particular organizational structure were excluded.
Measures of depression and anxiety were not considered for exclusion to provide
an insight into coping strategies which have been employed by construction
personnel in different psychological health conditions. The studies reviewed
employed quantitative or qualitative methodologies to elicit stress-coping
strategies.
Search outcome
A total of 222 articles (WoS = 20; PubMed = 7; Scopus = 32; JCEM = 53; JME = 65;
ECAM = 45) were retrieved from the initial database search. Duplicates were
removed using the endnote reference management software through the “find
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duplicates” option. After removing duplicates, a total of 163 articles were subjected
to scrutiny using the inclusion criteria. Three additional articles that met inclusion
criteria were identified from the citation and reference list of the studied articles.
Thereafter, a total of 19 publications were fit for the study (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. PRISMA Flow diagram for identification of studies used for review.
RESULTS
The remaining sections of this study outline the result, discussion of the findings,
the study limitations, and conclusions. The result section details the study
characteristics, research instruments utilized by the studies, and the themes into
which the studies on coping can be classified.
Study characteristics
Nineteen studies were included in the review. Eight of the studies were from Asia:
Hong Kong SAR (Leung et al., 2006, Liang et al., 2018, Brenda and Steve, 2006,
Chan et al., 2014, Yip et al., 2008), China (Chan et al., 2018, Chan et al., 2012) and
Korea (Lim et al., 2017). Four studies from Australia (Haynes and Love, 2004,
Langdon and Sawang, 2018, Sunindijo and Kamardeen, 2017, Lingard and Francis,
2008). Three studies were from the United Kingdom (Davidson and Sutherland,
1992, Naoum et al., 2018, Sommerville and Langford, 1994), two studies from
Nigeria (Ojo et al., 2019, Oladinrin et al., 2014), and one study each from South
Africa (Bowen et al., 2014) and Palestine (Enshassi et al., 2018). All the studies were
cross-sectional, out of which the majority (twelve) utilized the quantitative
technique, one (1) mixed-method, and six (6) employed qualitative techniques in
assessing stress-coping strategies.
Instruments
Coping strategies adopted by construction personnel to manage stress were
measured using quantitative and qualitative methods. Nine (9) of the studies
quantitatively elicited information on coping strategies using a psychometric
coping construct scale or adapting such coping scales to fit the construction
industry context. Two (2) of the nine studies employed Brief Coping Orientation to
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Problems Experienced Inventory (BCI). Four (4) studies measured coping methods
by using the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ). Two (2) studies utilized the
simplified version of the Ways of Coping Questionnaire (WCQ-R), while other
studies derived their coping questionnaire from the WCQ, different coping scales,
or previous studies in construction.
Four (4) out of the studies utilized a stress measurement scale, while others
developed a questionnaire to elicit such information. The stress scales were used
to evaluate stress severity and include Korea Occupational Stress Scale-Short Form
(KOSS-SF) (Lim et al., 2017), Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS) (Haynes and
Love, 2004, Langdon and Sawang, 2018, Sunindijo and Kamardeen, 2017). In
addition to the stress and/or coping scales, some studies utilized other scales to
measure mental health symptoms (Haynes and Love, 2004, Langdon and Sawang,
2018, Lim et al., 2017, Sunindijo and Kamardeen, 2017), burnout (Yip et al., 2008),
culture value (Chan et al., 2014) and social support (Davidson and Sutherland,
1992).
Coping
The studies employed different terms to describe the coping strategies as varying
methodologies and coping psychometric instruments were employed. The articles
were analyzed using the thematic analysis approach as described by Braun and
Clarke (2006) and Labrague et al. (2018). Following that, four themes were
identified from the literature on stress-coping strategies, which formed the basis
for grouping the studies:
(i) Family commitment related coping strategy
Lingard and Francis (2008) focused on the adaptive coping strategies employed by
working couples within the construction profession to withstand work-family
imbalance. The adaptive coping strategies employed are the scaling back strategy
(i.e., “trading-off” strategy and “job versus career”) and work-hour commitment
strategy. The work-hour commitment employed include “neo-traditionalist” (40%),
“alternative commitment” (34.7%), “dual moderates” (21%), “high commitment”
(2.7%), and “crossover commitment” (1.4%). The work-hour commitment differed
between gender, as females employed mostly “dual moderates” while the men
used the “neo-traditionalist.”
(ii) Coping strategies and mental ill-health symptoms
Four studies examined the coping strategies employed by construction employees
to manage poor mental health symptoms following work stress exposure (Haynes
and Love, 2004, Langdon and Sawang, 2018, Lim et al., 2017, Sunindijo and
Kamardeen, 2017). The strategies included a range of problem-focused and
emotion-focused strategies. For instance, among construction professionals, a
higher depression level was related to adopting high levels of avoidance coping,
while an active coping strategy reduced depression (Haynes and Love, 2004). Also,
Sunindijo and Kamardeen (2017) found that depression and anxiety correlated
negatively with active coping, social support, and religious coping behaviors. In
contrast, positive reappraisal correlated negatively with depression and anxiety
(Sunindijo and Kamardeen, 2017). Lim et al. (2017) reported that construction
tradesmen used more active coping strategies (consisting of problem-focused
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coping, social support coping styles) than passive coping strategies (emotion-
focused coping styles).
Among construction tradesmen, adaptive strategies partially mediate stress

(Langdon and Sawang, 2018). The study opined that adaptive strategies seemed
unhelpful to the tradesmen, as both adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies
had low mean scores. However, maladaptive coping skills (especially self-blame
and substance abuse) were used to relieve anxiety by construction tradesmen
(Langdon and Sawang, 2018).
(iii) Workplace stressors and coping strategies
Ten studies evaluated the coping strategies employed to withstand work stress
among construction employees (Bowen et al., 2014, Chan et al., 2012, Enshassi et
al., 2018, Liang et al., 2018, Naoum et al., 2018, Brenda and Steve, 2006, Davidson
and Sutherland, 1992, Sommerville and Langford, 1994, Yip et al., 2008, Leung et
al., 2006). For instance, Naoum et al. (2018) found that poor organizational
structures were positively related to problem-focused coping behavior (particularly
thinking action) and emotion-focused coping (i.e., avoiding action). Likewise,
physiological stress had a significant positive correlation with problem-focused
coping behavior (alternative thinking), while poor home environment correlated
positively with emotion-focused coping behavior (emotional discharge).
Using a qualitative technique, Liang et al. (2018) reported that construction

tradesmen adopted mostly emotion-focused coping styles. Such emotion-focused
coping includes alcohol consumption, smoking, and expressing negative feelings.
Using quantitative techniques, four (4) studies (Brenda and Steve, 2006, Leung et
al., 2006, Naoum et al., 2018, Yip et al., 2008) reported that construction
professionals tended to use problem-focused coping such as rational problem-
solving and direct and control action. Such direct and control actions include
“trying different ways in solving a problem,” “thinking about the event and learning
from the mistake,” and “considering several alternatives in handling a problem”
(Leung et al., 2006).
Seven studies did not report based on the coping strategy construct, which was
mostly employed (Bowen et al., 2014, Chan et al., 2012, Davidson and Sutherland,
1992, Enshassi et al., 2018, Ojo et al., 2019, Oladinrin et al., 2014, Sommerville and
Langford, 1994). However, behaviors employed includes ignoring telephone calls,
exercise, music, reading books, crying, eating, smoking, sleeping/resting, walking,
scolding others, thinking of unrelated things, and attending social functions (Chan
et al., 2012, Enshassi et al., 2018, Ojo et al., 2019, Oladinrin et al., 2014).
(iv) Influencers of the choice of coping strategy
Three studies (Leung et al., 2006; Chan et al., 2014; Chan et al., 2018) found that
cultural values and motivation influenced the choice to adopt a particular coping
strategy in the face of stress. Chan et al. (2014) indicated that cultural values
(particularly interpersonal integration and disciplined work ethos) influenced the
choice of coping strategies. For instance, professionals who emphasized
interpersonal integration adopted the problem-focused coping strategy,
particularly planful problem-solving. Interpersonal integration predicted planful
problem solving; disciplined work ethos, positively predicted positive reappraisal,
and negatively predicted emotional discharge.
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Chan et al. (2018) found that stress expectancy, performance expectancy, and
valence of performance were motivations to employing specific coping strategies.
An earlier study (Leung et al., 2006) reported that project performance correlated
positively with problem-focused coping strategies (i.e., direct and control action,
preparatory action), and emotion-focused coping (negative emotional discharge),
while a negative correlation existed between project performance and emotion-
focused behaviors (e.g., escape coping).
DISCUSSION
This review included 19 articles on stress-coping strategies among construction
personnel. It outlines some highlighted effects of stress, the coping strategies
employed in the face of stress, factors that influence the type of coping strategy
employed, and the impact of coping strategy on performance. Although the
studies can be grouped to cover four themes, some gaps were observed. The gap
includes the research methodology adopted by the studies. As earlier identified, a
number of diverse instruments were employed that may affect the generalization,
comparison, and validity of findings. Some effects of stress highlighted by the
studies were mental health problems (depression, anxiety), physiological strain,
and task performance related (reduced work effectiveness, hasty decision making,
poor critical thinking, and mistakes). Other consequences of stress on performance,
especially among construction tradesmen, were reduced work quality, reduced
work speed, poor interpersonal performance, intention to leave, and increased
work accidents (Liang et al., 2018).
Coping strategies and mental ill-health symptoms

The studies showed that both tradesmen and professionals adopted problem-
focused coping and emotion-focused coping strategies. However, tradesmen,
especially those with lower pay, tend more to adopt emotion-focused strategies
(Lim et al., 2017). The utilization of emotion-focused coping behaviors by
construction frontline workers could be linked to low job control and inadequate
knowledge of effective problem-solving techniques. As regards health, mental ill-
health symptoms (particularly depression and anxiety) were found to reduce with
the use of problem-focused coping strategies (Sunindijo and Kamardeen, 2017),
while the use of substance abuse alleviated anxiety among construction tradesmen
(Langdon and Sawang, 2018).
Few of the studies adopted or adapted coping construct scales. The studies that
utilized the qualitative methodology analyzed their findings through inductive
content or thematic analysis, using previous studies and validated coping
questionnaires (WCQ) as a guide. It was difficult to appropriately compare the
findings of the studies as they used different constructs to elicit information on
coping strategies. The coping assessment tools varied in content and structure. For
instance, the acceptance variable in BCI construct reads as “accepting this
happened,” “learning to live with it” and is classified as an adaptive strategy
(problem-focused), while in the WCQ construct, the acceptance variable is a
maladaptive strategy. This difference in content and structure hinders for proper
comparison of the research findings.
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The studies utilized varying themes for some coping constructs. For instance, Leung
et al. (2006) had problem-focused coping construct as direct and control action,
instrumental support seeking, and preparatory action, while Naoum et al. (2018)
had the problem-focused coping construct as control action, thinking action,
support seeking, and alternative thinking. The study also found that while some
studies (Sommerville and Langford, 1994, Davidson and Sutherland, 1992, Bowen
et al., 2014) classified healthy behaviors including exercising and sporting activities
as adaptive strategies (or active strategies), some others termed them as
maladaptive (avoidance or emotion-focused coping). The use of a unified coping
construct scale could enhance better comparison, interpretation, and summary of
results. There is a need for research into occupational psychology to develop
reliable and validated coping constructs whose wordings are specific to the
construction industry context.
Data collection methodology adopted by the majority of the study was of low
quality. Studies with high methodology are needed; this will improve the quality of
evidence. Presently only a few studies meet high methodology quality. Further
studies into stress and coping in the construction industry can benefit from
employing mixed-method techniques where the qualitative component should be
analyzed using inductive content or thematic analysis. Following that, stress and
coping reactions are highly subjective and affected by perception, investigation
into stress-coping would benefit from qualitative narratives to better understand
how construction personnel handles stress. All the studies reviewed focused on
how construction personnel cope with past or present stressors; it is unknown how
they will cope with anticipated future stressors. Thus, there is a need for studies to
consider future-oriented stress-coping strategies. Such information could improve
the quality of coping resources and training in the construction industry.
Family commitment related coping strategy

The study revealed that coping strategies employed among working couples to
mitigate work-life/family imbalance were adaptive and differed from those
employed individually. There are indications that the highest quality of life is
recorded among couples who adopt “dual moderates” and “alternate
commitments” work hours strategies than those who engage the “neo-traditional”
strategy (Lingard and Francis, 2008, Moen and Yu, 2000). Studying the effect of
work hours and family is most appropriate when considering that a couples ’ability
to cope with stress effectively requires two people (Matthews et al., 2006). More so,
in today’s world, couples tend to work (Jacobs and Gerson, 2001). Therefore, with
the surge in information technology and its influence on work and life, it would be
important to study stress-coping strategies employed by married construction
professionals, in line with the generation gap and its effect on health and well-
being. Such studies would enable drawing conclusions that will inform sustainable
job design, job satisfaction, and improved physical, mental health and well-being.
Choice of coping strategies

This study deduced that a few factors influenced construction professionals ’choice
for a specific coping strategy. These factors (cultural values and motivation) acted
in the capacity of an antecedent and a facilitator. The cultural values are
interpersonal integration and disciplined work ethos. Interpersonal integration
such as trustworthiness, patience, sincerity influenced the adoption of the
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problem-focused coping strategy, particularly planful problem-solving (Leung et

al., 2010). In comparison, disciplined work ethos such as persistence, prudence,
knowledge, and resistance to corruption prevented the use of emotion-focused
coping (especially emotional discharge) and enhanced the use of a problem-
focused coping strategy (Chan et al., 2014, Leung et al., 2010).
The motivation to adopt a particular coping strategy (or strategies) in the face of
stress was related to stress expectancy, performance expectancy, and valence of
performance. According to Chan et al. (2018), the motivations are stress expectancy
(effective stress reduction, increasing problem-solving abilities, maintain a clear
mind), performance expectancy (increase task performance), and valence of
performance. The study noted that the choice of coping strategy imparted on
performance outcomes. The categories of performance were task performance
(project performance, poor process performance), interpersonal performance
(good cooperation, negative interpersonal relationship), and organization
performance (poor organization relationship).
Project performance increased due to the adoption of “direct and control action”
problem-focused strategy, and “negative emotional discharge” emotion-focused
coping strategy (such as smoking, taking more tranquilizers) (Leung et al., 2006).
Also, the use of “instrumental support” such as seeking support from colleagues
improved project performance.” On the other hand, escape coping behavior
negatively affected project performance. This implies that the kind of performance
which a construction employee desires to see motivates them to adopt specific
coping strategies.
Presently, there are few studies into copings strategies that considered the effect
of personal resources, particularly self-efficacy, self-esteem, or resilience, on the
choice of coping strategies adopted by construction personnel. There is a need for
stress-coping studies among construction personnel to consider these personal
resources construct, their influence on coping strategies, and related impact on
health, well-being, and performance. This would inform on personal resources and
coping interventions required for each category of construction personnel.
LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The results are heterogeneous with different names for coping construct measures
due to the use of different scales or the adaptation of coping construct questions
from several authors. The exclusion criteria were relaxed to allow for reviewing
more studies into coping strategies adopted by the construction workforce.
Despite the number of articles, the study contributes to the body of knowledge by
calling on research with quality methodologies.
CONCLUSIONS
This study reviewed stress-coping strategies among construction personnel. It
showed that stress influenced health, well-being, and performance. It was deduced
that both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies are adopted
by construction professionals, while construction frontline workers tend more to
adopt emotion-focused coping behaviors. There is a need for training construction
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Nwaogu and Chan
personnel on coping strategies and the adoption of effective coping strategies. The
study indicates that researches on coping strategies should link specific strategies
to stressors among construction personnel. The link could highlight better points
and measures for primary and secondary job stress interventions. This review
recommends that further studies should employ mixed methods. The findings from
studies that adopt such mixed methods will better inform on appropriate stress-
coping interventions for the construction industry. In the case of a purely
quantitative study, the use of WCQ or its simplified version might yield a better
result in the industry. There is a need for research in occupational psychology to
develop reliable and validated coping constructs whose wordings are specific to
the construction industry context.
The study recommends extensive studies on coping strategies among construction
personnel in other countries to enhance developing interventions necessary for
appropriate job stress management and education on healthy and adaptive coping
measures. Studies into the effect of coping strategies on physical and mental health
and the role of personal resources (e.g., resilience, self-esteem) as a coping
resource are needed. Further studies should consider future-oriented stress-coping
strategies; the studies can also be done from a generation gap perspective.
Intervention studies on the effect of coping strategies at pre and post-intervention
stages are required in the construction industry; this will improve the quality of
evidence and better inform interventions needed for effective stress management.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ABOUT TRAINING ON PROPERTY

VALUATION TECHNIQUES IN SELECTED TERTIARY
INSTITUTIONS IN NIGERIA
Augustina Chiwuzie1, Daniel Ibrahim Dabara2, Edith Mbagwu Prince3, Sayo Tolani
Olawuyi4 and Sayo Tolani Olawuyi5
1,3,4,5Department of Estate Management, The Federal Polytechnic Ede, Nigeria
2Department of Estate Management, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Techniques employed in property investment valuation have continued to serve as

an endless discussion topic among academics and professionals in the real estate.
Throughout the discussion, a common thread is a need for property valuers to be
adequately trained on critical valuation techniques, which is necessary for ensuring
that property investment valuations are reliable and compare with other
investment mediums in the investment market. Over the years, real estate students'
training on valuation methodologies has followed two distinct techniques, namely,
conventional and contemporary valuation techniques. This study assesses students'
perception of property valuation techniques in selected tertiary institutions in
Nigeria to identify gaps in knowledge. The study's data was collected through a
survey of all graduating real estate students from two universities and two
polytechnics in South-west, Nigeria. A total of 114 students across the identified
institutions was selected using purposive sampling. Descriptive statistics were
utilised in analysing the data obtained. Analyses are presented for the students ’
level of awareness and understanding of conventional and contemporary property
valuation techniques. The results show that awareness and understanding levels
are higher for conventional valuation techniques with group mean scores of 3.96
and 3.80, respectively. Further analysis on students ’views on the teaching and
learning of property valuation techniques was conducted. The respondents
strongly agreed that practical-based training would promote a better
understanding of property valuation techniques. The study concludes that a
practical-based property valuation curriculum in the Nigerian tertiary institutions is
necessary to equip graduates with the requisite knowledge that aligns with the
needs of the property investment market.
Keywords: conventional and contemporary valuation methods,, learning and

teaching, polytechnic, real estate investment, university
1 okaugusta@yahoo.com
2 danieldabara44@gmail.com
3 edithmbagwu@gmail.com
4 pade202@yahoo.com
5 tolanicaro@gmail.com
Chiwuzie, et al. (2021) Students’ perceptions about training on property valuation techniques in
selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
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Chiwuzie, et al.
INTRODUCTION
Property valuation is the crux of the real estate career and thus demands all the
focus required to be in line with the current economic realities. Property valuation
is an objective estimation by knowledgeable practitioners of the most probable
sale price of land and buildings. In Nigeria, property valuation is exclusively
reserved for persons properly registered under the Estate Surveyors and Valuers
(Registration, etc.) Act No. 24 of 1975, now Cap E13 Laws of the Federation of
Nigeria 2007, as estate surveyors and valuers. Therefore, property valuation
remains one of the primary functions of estate surveyors and valuers (Ifediora,
2005). The estate surveyors and valuers employ established valuation techniques
to give an expression of the value of a property, after thorough investigation of a
number of variables. One important criterion for evaluating the value of a property
is the comprehension and application of suitable techniques for a particular
valuation assignment (Oloke et al., 2017).
Techniques employed in property investment valuation have continued to serve as

an endless subject of debate among real estate academics and professionals. A
common theme in the debate is the need for property valuers to be properly
trained in vital valuation techniques to meet the changing needs of investors
caused by changes in the economic environment. Valuers ’training in Nigeria
begins with the acquisition of academic qualifications including the Senior
Secondary School Certificate of Examination (SSCE), National Diploma (ND), Higher
National Diploma (HND), Bachelor and Higher Degree in Estate Management or
other cognate disciplines, as well as the passing of relevant professional
examinations. Akinbogun (2018) noted that a good real estate practise requires
advanced training from a certified higher education institution.
Estate management is offered both at polytechnics and universities as an academic
discipline in Nigeria. Valuation learners are required to be educated and properly
prepared with basic knowledge of the concepts and methodologies of property
valuation. The teaching of real estate students on valuation methodologies over
time has adopted two distinct techniques, namely conventional (traditional) and
contemporary valuation techniques. This study assesses students' perception of
property valuation techniques in selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria to identify
knowledge gaps. The research questions this study sought to answer include what
are the levels of awareness of conventional and contemporary property valuation
techniques by students in tertiary institutions? What are the levels of
understanding of conventional and contemporary property valuation techniques
by the students? What are students ’views on the teaching and learning of property
valuation techniques in the tertiary institutions? The remainder part of the paper is
organised as follows: an exposition of property valuation techniques is presented
in the next section (section 2); the methodology adopted for this analysis is given
in section 3; this is followed by the results and discussion in section 4 while
concluding remarks are contained in section 5.
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Chiwuzie, et al.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Property investment valuation techniques in context
Property valuation is the means of deciding the value of a piece of real estate at a
given point in time for a specific reason. Valuation subsists as a subject because of
the ambiguity that exists among potential buyers, sellers, investors and others.
According to Kinnard Jr. (2001), the uncertainty is due in part to the complexities
of real estate and the uninformed, incomplete and complicated character of the
property market. Property valuation methodology “is rooted in discussions
devoted to the category of value and the principles of its measurement” (Zrobek
et al., 2014, p. 7). Udo (2003) describes property investment valuation as an exercise
involving the use of mathematical model to provide an objective answer on how a
group of investors (representing the market) assess the present value of a property.
Baum and Mackmin (1989) also submitted that property investment valuation
requires careful consideration of a number of variables before figures can be
substituted in mathematical formula or model that represents real-life situation.
According Li et al. (2015), property valuation is an activity in which the valuer in
line with the valuation purpose selects the appropriate valuation method and on
the basis of a quantitative study of the factors affecting real estate values, estimates
the objective value of the real estate. The methods used in property investment
valuation are systematic and established. Different methods exist for
accomplishing a property valuation assignment. The appropriateness of each
property valuation method is determined by the intent of the valuation, the
property's nature and the availability of data. Over the years, two broad
classification of property valuation methods have been developed, namely,
conventional and contemporary techniques.
Conventional property valuation techniques

The conventional property valuation techniques are the historically formed
valuation methodologies. Valuation methods grouped under conventional
techniques include the investment (income capitalization) method, cost
(contractors’) method, comparative (sales) method, profits (accounts) method and
the residual method. The approach to value determination via the above-
mentioned methods varies from one method to another. The investment method
determines the value of a property by reference to the property’s actual or potential
income. The investment method or income capitalization method converts income,
especially initial income to value by means of compound interest-based multipliers
(OLoke et al., 2017). On the other hand, the cost or contractors ’method utilises the
construction cost; property’s value is arrived at by recourse to the cost of replacing
the property. Cost method assumes that the value of the property equals the value
of the site plus the replacement cost of that property. The method estimates the
replacement costs of a modern comparable property and subsequently, make
allowance for the age and condition of the subject property (Ifediora, 1993). Cost
method is usually applied in a situation where there is a lack of data for other
valuation methods; where the property is new or specialised in nature and there is
no sufficient evidence of recent transactions in the open market (Onyejiaka et al.,
2015). Meanwhile, the comparative or sales valuation method relies on evidences
from current market transactions (lettings/sales) of comparable properties.
Comparable factors such as size, location, condition etc. are considered and
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Chiwuzie, et al.
analysed. Adjustments are subsequently made for observed differences (Sarip,

2005). Determination of value employing the profits or accounts ’method is based
on the volume of trade or business carried on in the property. Profit method is
used for properties which are seldom the object of transactions in the market and
whose values depend primarily on their earning potentials. Such properties include
restaurants, hotels, cinema etc. (Zrobek et al., 2014). The Residual method is used
to assess the market value of undeveloped land or property under construction
(Kupec and Dlask, 2020). Residual method of valuation could also be used to
estimate the value of properties with redevelopment potentials (whose current use
can be changed to something more profitable). According to Skarzynski (2006),
residual valuation method is the most useful method for valuing property that has
potential value as a result of increased investment in rebuilding, extension,
refurbishing, modernisation etc. and which can bring return of the capital and
profit. The property’s value in its present status, is the gap between the property’s
value after redevelopment and the total construction cost, taking into account the
developer’s profit (Skarzynski, 2006).
Contemporary property valuation techniques
The contemporary valuation techniques are categorized as Statistical methods,
Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) models, Geographic Information System (GIS)
methods and Neural Networks.
The statistical methods are said to be entirely objective as values are calculated on
the basis of measurable characteristics of the property and its location. Statistical
valuation approaches comprise of Hedonic Models, House Price Index and
Automated Valuation Models. Besides, the statistical approaches comprise a variety
of analytics approaches, such as linear and non-linear multiple regressions, genetic
algorithms, time series and fuzzy logic among others (Zeicu et al., 2017).
The DCF models estimate property value by discounting of streams of future

income. The variants of the DCF models are Equated Yield Technique, Real Value
Approach, Real Value/Equated Yield Hybrid and Rational Approach (Salau, 2012
and Udoekanem, 2012). Baum and Crosby (1995) posited that all the variants of
Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) demonstrate the same explicit cash flow projection
and capitalisation process.
GIS is defined by Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), (1990) as “an
organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data and
personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyse and
display all forms of geographically referenced information”. In property valuation,
GIS is used to record all information about a property's value and display it as
spatial-based information in a digital format (Oud, 2017). GIS technologies,
according to Oud, allow for the quantification of information that was traditionally
gathered in a subjective manner, such as the property's spatial variables, including
location, accessibility, view distance etc. Previous studies such as Rodriguez et al.
(1995), Wyatt (1997) and Castle (2000) recognised that real estate valuations gained
from the use of GIS in a number of ways.
Neural network is an artificial intelligence model uniquely inspired to replicate the

human brain’s learning process (Soni and Sadiq, 2015). Neural networks as
computational methods or systems are designed to perform tasks (computation)
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by learning from given example without necessarily following specific rules or

without specific prior knowledge of the tasks. However, they generate results from
the example that they process (Peter et al., 2020). The use of neural networks in
real estate valuation can be divided into two categories: identifying real estate
features that have a significant impact on their value and determining real estate
values. Abidoye and Chan (2015) confirmed that the predictive accuracy and
reliability of neural networks have led to its application in property valuation
studies.
Meanwhile, it is worthy to mention that the application of the conventional

techniques in property investment valuations has been strongly criticised for being
unreliable. The conventional techniques are thought to be unreliable because they
are based on an intuitive adjustment of the relevant variables. “The economic
environment in which the professional operates has witnessed rapid changes in
terms of emerging investment alternatives, financing options and more
sophisticated clients” (Mohammed et al., 2016, p.26). The steadily advancing
vagaries in the economy of nations call for the need to adapt to evolving
circumstances. Thus, in the light of ever-changing economic realities, there are
concerns that “conventional valuation methods were no longer able to achieve the
expected results” (Bello and Bello, 2007, p.3). The conventional methods were
criticised as technically inappropriate in an inflationary economy and failing to
offer a comparative basis between property investment and other alternative
investments in capital market (Mallinson, 1994; Trott, 1980). As a consequence, the
contemporary techniques were developed and thoroughly explored. The
contemporary property valuation techniques are structured to resolve the concerns
of conventional valuation techniques. Contemporary valuation techniques are
specifically designed to be explicit in the analysis of the pertinent variables (Ajayi,
2006). There has been a significant shift from conventional to contemporary
techniques in the global valuation practices. Mohammed et al. (2016) attributes the
changes in the methodology of investment valuation to factors such as the
changing needs of investors triggered by changes in the economic climate
(inflation, recession, emergence of new form of investments etc.).
However, despite the increasing influence of the contemporary valuation
techniques in international valuation practices, Bello and Bello (2007) reported that
valuation practitioners in Nigeria have a low degree of knowledge, comprehension
and application of these techniques. Bello and Bello also blamed the practitioners'
lack of understanding of the theoretical foundations underlying contemporary
valuation techniques on the fact that these techniques were not included in their
undergraduate curricula. Conversely, Udoekanem et al. (2013) observed that
undergraduate instructions on property investment valuation in recent years is
based on both conventional and contemporary valuation techniques. Udoekanem
et al. further claimed that students ’overall level of understanding was good in basic
topics which are aspects of the conventional valuation techniques and low for
contemporary valuation techniques. Oloke et al. (2017) also suggested that some
aspects of the fundamentals of property investment valuation are not satisfactorily
taught. Therefore, this study seeks to assess the perception of property investment
valuation techniques among students in selected Nigerian tertiary institutions
intending to highlight crucial areas in which valuers ’tutoring in property
investments valuation techniques in the country needs to be strengthened.
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METHODOLOGY
Property investment valuation is a course in estate management education. The
target population for this study comprises students of two Polytechnics and two
Universities offering estate management as an academic discipline in Southwest
Nigeria. The polytechnics considered are Federal Polytechnic Ede and Yaba College
of Technology, Yaba. On the other hand, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife and
University of Lagos were selected for the study. The sample frame for this study
comprised of all the graduating estate management students in these four
institutions i.e., the HND II students in the Polytechnics and 500-level students in
the Universities. The graduating students were considered suitable for this study
because, having been tutored on property investment valuation at various levels
for 3 to 4 academic years, they are expected to have a better understanding of the
course than the lower-level students. Thus, they are able to give reliable responses
to the research questions. In line with the methodology of Finlay and Tyler (1991)
and Bello (2003), survey research design was adopted in this work to elicit the
students ’knowledge of property investment valuation techniques. Specifically, this
study sought to assess the level of awareness and understanding of property
investment valuation techniques among students and also, the students ’views on
the teaching and learning of property investment valuation techniques in tertiary
institutions.
Data were obtained through questionnaire administration using purposive

sampling. A total of 258 copies of questionnaire were distributed to graduating
real estate students in the four tertiary institutions comprising 98, 51, 46 and 63
students of Federal Polytechnic Ede, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Obafemi
Awolowo University Ile-Ife and University of Lagos, respectively. However, a total
of 114 (representing a 44.2% response rate) were properly completed and found
suitable for analysis. The questionnaire consisted of four sections. The first section
focused on the profile of the students. The second and third sections examined the
students ’level of awareness and understanding respectively, of property
investment valuation techniques while their perceptions about teaching and
learning of property investment valuation techniques was the focus of the fourth
section. Under sections 2 – 4, the students were asked to rate their responses on a
5-point Likert scale. The Likert scale is capable of handling the respondents ’level
of agreement to questions. The numerical values assigned to respondents rating
in the 5-point Likert scale used in this study comprised of 1 - not aware to 5 -
extremely aware (for level of awareness), 1 - very poor to 5 - very good (for level
of understanding) and 1 - strongly disagree to 5 - strongly agree (for opinions on
the teaching and learning of property valuation techniques). Before analysing the
data, the reliability coefficient of the items being rated by respondents was
determined using the Cronbach’s alpha test.
The data analysis methods employed in this study include frequency counts,
percentages, mean scores and standard deviation. Data collected were analysed
through EXCEL. The responses from the questionnaire on the profile of the
respondents were analysed using frequency counts and percentages. On the other
hand, mean score and standard deviation were used to analyse the respondents ’
responses regarding awareness, understanding as well as teaching and learning of
property investment valuation techniques. In this study, the responses to each
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Likert-type item were summed across respondents. Next, means and standard
deviations were computed for each item. The overall respondents ’opinions on the
questions raised were interpreted based on the mean scores obtained. Similar
studies such as Oloke et al. (2017) and Ayodele (2018) employed 5-point Likert
scale, mean scores analysis and standard deviation to assess respondents ’opinions.
For the purpose of this study, mean score is determined as follow:
1n1 + 2n2 + 3n3 + 4n4 + 5n5 (i)
N
Where:
n1 = number of respondents who answered not aware, very poor and strongly
disagreed.
n2 = number of respondents who answered slightly aware, poor and disagreed
n3 = number of respondents who answered moderately aware, fair and undecided
n4 = number of respondents who answered very aware, good and agreed
n5 = number of respondents who answered extremely aware, very good and
strongly agreed
N = total number of questionnaires retrieved.
To develop the standard deviation values, the weights assigned to respondents ’

rating were squared. The squared weights were then used to compute the second
mean for each Likert-type item within the set. Next, the standard deviation value
was computed as the square root of the difference between the second mean and
the first mean for each Likert-type item. The second mean score is determined as
follows:
1n1 + 4n2 + 9n3 + 16n4 + 25n5 (ii)

This section presents and interprets the results on students ’perception of property
valuation techniques in selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria. The findings are
organised and discussed by the research questions. The first subsection presents
the level of awareness of property valuation techniques among students. The level
of understanding of property valuation techniques by the student were presented
in the second subsection. The third subsection captures the consensus opinion of
students on the level of awareness and understanding of property valuation
techniques. In the last subsection, students ’views on the teaching and learning of
property valuation techniques in Nigerian tertiary institutions were discussed. The
students ’profile is presented in Table 1 below.
The profile of the respondents as shown in Table 1 revealed that the study includes
students from different educational backgrounds, gender, age groups and marital
statuses. From Table 1, most of the respondents (57.0%) were HND students. The
gender distribution revealed that 61.4% of the respondents were male. Also, 39.5%
of the students surveyed were below 25 years old. Over one-half (57.5%) were age
25 to 29 and 7.0% were age 30 and older. The marital status showed that the
majority of the respondents (94.7%) were single.
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Table 1: Profile of the student respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage
Mode of study
HND 65 57.0
BSc 49 43.0
Gender
Male 70 61.4
Female 44 38.6
Age
Below 25 45 39.5
25-29 61 57.5
30 and older 8 7.0
Marital status
Single 108 94.7
Married 6 5.3
Level of awareness of property investment valuation techniques

Property valuation methods were group into two categories; conventional and
contemporary techniques. Respondents were asked to rate their degree of
awareness of various property valuation techniques. The responses based on each
category of property valuation techniques were presented in Table 2 below.
Table 2: Students’ awareness of property investment valuation methods

Mean Std.
Valuation Methods NA SA MA VA EA Total Remark
score Dev.
Conventional
Techniques
Investment Method 0 8 13 57 36 114 4.06 3.6250 Very aware
Cost method 0 7 16 47 44 114 4.12 3.6921 Very aware
Comparative method 0 8 19 51 36 114 4.01 3.5811 Very aware
Profit method 0 11 23 42 38 114 3.94 3.5343 Very aware
Residual method 0 19 30 33 32 114 3.68 3.3166 Very aware
Contemporary
Techniques
DCF models 0 21 31 34 28 114 3.61 3.2390 Very aware
Statistical methods 30 31 30 15 8 114 2.47 2.2595 Slightly aware
Neural networks 38 30 26 14 6 114 2.29 2.1026 Slightly aware
GIS method 37 32 23 12 8 114 2.29 2.1068 Slightly aware
Capital asset pricing
36 32 25 13 8 114 2.34 2.1562 Slightly aware
model
Source: Analysis of surveyed data (2020)
(NA= Not Aware; SA= Slightly Aware; MA= Moderately Aware; VA= Very Aware; EW= Extremely
aware)
Decision rule: Mean score 1.00-1.49 = Not aware; 1.50-2.49 = Slightly aware; 2.50- 3.49 =
Moderately aware; 3.50-4.49 = Very aware; 4.50-5.00= Extremely aware.
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From Table 2, the findings show that the respondents ’level of awareness of both
the conventional and contemporary valuation techniques. The results in Table 2
reveal that all the property valuation methods listed under the conventional
techniques have mean values ranging between 3.68 and 4.12, suggesting that the
respondents are very aware of the conventional property valuation techniques
comprising the investment, cost, comparative, profit and residual methods. On the
other hand, the level of awareness of the contemporary valuation techniques
among the respondents indicate that the students are very aware of the discounted
cashflow models with mean value of 3.61 and slightly aware of statistical
approaches, neural network, GIS approach and capital asset pricing model with
mean values ranging between 2.29 and 2.47.
Level of understanding of property investment valuation techniques
Students ’responses concerning their level of comprehension of the conventional
and contemporary valuation techniques together with the mean values and
standard deviations were presented in Table 3. The results revealed that the
respondents have good understanding of the investment, cost and comparative
methods with mean values of 3.78, 4.05, and 3.94, respectively. On the other hand,
profit and residual methods with mean value of 3.61 each suggest that respondents
have fair understanding of these methods. Furthermore, analysis on the
contemporary valuation techniques shows that discounted cash flow models have
the highest mean value of 3.53, which indicates a fair level of understanding of
discounted cash flow models among the respondents. However, level of
understanding of the other four contemporary valuation techniques among the
respondents revealed that they are poorly understood with respective mean values
of 2.59, 1.92, 1.93 and 2.11 for statistical approaches, neural network, GIS approach
and capital asset pricing model.
Oloke et al. (2017) also reported that some aspects of the fundamentals of property
investment valuation are not satisfactorily taught and Nigerian students still find it
difficult to comprehend valuation techniques.
Table 3: Students’ level of understanding of property investment valuation methods
Mean Std.
Valuation Techniques VP P F G VG Total Remark
score Dev.
Conventional Techniques
Investment Method 11 5 16 48 34 114 3.78 3.4565 Good
Cost method 4 4 17 46 43 114 4.05 3.6539 Good
Sales Comparative method 4 5 21 47 37 114 3.94 3.5541 Good
Profit method 7 11 20 57 19 114 3.61 3.2525 Fair
Residual method 4 17 26 40 27 114 3.61 3.2579 Fair
Contemporary Techniques
DCF models 13 10 26 34 31 114 3.53 3.2498 Fair
Statistical methods 23 34 35 11 11 114 2.59 2.3508 Poor
Neural Networks 51 40 9 9 5 114 1.92 1.7321 Poor
GIS methods 50 39 13 6 6 114 1.93 1.7472 Poor
Capital asset pricing model 39 48 11 8 8 114 2.11 1.9149 Poor
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(VP = Very Poor; P = Poor; F = Fair; G = Good; VG = Very Good)
Decision rule: Mean score 1.00-1.49 = Very poor; 1.50-2.49 = Poor; 2.50-3.49 =Fair; 3.50-4.49 =
Good; 4.50-5.00= Very good
Meanwhile, beyond assessing the respondents ’levels of awareness and

understanding of conventional and contemporary techniques on individual
valuation methods, this study equally analysed on an overall, the respondents ’
ratings to determine the consensus opinion on the levels of awareness and
understanding of conventional and contemporary valuation techniques as
presented in Table 4. This assessment was necessary to offer insight as to the
students ’overall responsiveness regarding conventional and contemporary
valuation techniques in Nigerian tertiary institutions.
Students’ consensus opinion on the level of awareness and understanding of

property valuation techniques
To determine respondents' consensus views on the levels of awareness and
understanding of conventional and contemporary valuation techniques in Nigerian
tertiary institutions, all respondents' responses for individual valuation methods
under the two grouping; conventional and contemporary valuation techniques
were analysed to assess their group mean and interpreted on the basis of the group
mean value. The results were shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Students’ consensus opinion on the level of awareness and understanding of property
valuation techniques
Factors Techniques Group mean Consensus opinion

Level of awareness Conventional 3.96 Very aware
Contemporary 2.63 Moderately aware
Level of understanding Conventional 3.80 Good
Contemporary 2.41 Poor
The results show that awareness and understanding levels are higher for
conventional valuation techniques on an aggregate with group mean values of 3.96
and 3.80, respectively. These results suggest that on an overall, real estate student
in Nigerian tertiary institutions are very aware and have good understanding of the
conventional valuation techniques. However, for the contemporary valuation
techniques, the group mean values are 2.63 and 2.41 for levels of awareness and
understanding respectively. On the overall, the students ’responses demonstrated
a moderate awareness and poor understanding of contemporary valuation
techniques. This result is consistent with Udoekanem et al.’s (2013) claim that
students ’overall level of understanding was low in contemporary property
investment valuation techniques.
Students’ perceptions on teaching/learning of property investment valuation
methods
Further analysis focused on students ’views concerning teaching and learning of
property valuation techniques in the tertiary institution intending to highlight
crucial areas requiring further development in the teaching and learning of
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property investments valuation techniques in the country. The results were

presented in Table 5 below.
Table 5: Students’ perceptions on teaching/learning of property investment valuation

Techniques
Mean Consensus
Opinions SD D U A SA Total
value opinion
Property valuation techniques are
23 24 28 28 11 114 2.82 Undecided
difficult to comprehend
The teaching of property
investment valuation methods is 8 17 19 51 19 114 3.49 Undecided
not detailed
Most illustrations in property
17 9 5 47 36 114 3.67 Agreed
valuation classes are hypothetical
Students should be given real-
world property valuation problems 7 6 5 30 66 114 4.25 Agreed
to solve
Practical exercises will facilitate a
Strongly
better understanding of property 0 7 0 32 75 114 4.53
agreed
valuation techniques
Only the conventional valuation
39 57 8 10 0 144 1.51 Disagreed
techniques are being taught
None of the contemporary
40 53 10 11 0 114 1.92 Disagreed
valuation methods is being taught
(SD=Strongly Disagree; D=Disagree; U=Undecided; A=Agree; SA=Strongly Agree)
Decision rule: Mean score 1.00-1.49 = Strongly Disagree; 1.50-2.49 = Disagree; 2.50- 3.49 =
Undecided; 3.50-4.49 = Agree; 4.50-5.00= Strongly Agree.
From the results in Table 5, the respondents generally assent to enquiries regarding
hands-on application in the teaching and learning of property investment
valuation techniques. The items on the subject of real-live application were the
three highly rated opinions having a mean value of at least 3.67. Most of the
respondents strongly hold that practical-based training would promote a better
understanding of property valuation techniques with the highest mean value of
4.53. In addition, respondents are generally undecided about whether property
investment valuation techniques are difficult to understand (mean value = 2.82)
and the teaching of property investment valuation techniques is not detailed (mean
value = 3.49). Moreover, respondents disagreed on the opinion that only the
conventional valuation techniques are being taught at undergraduate level in
Nigerian tertiary institutions. This result suggests that contemporary valuation
techniques are currently being taught at undergraduate level in Nigerian tertiary
institutions in line with Udoekanem et al.’s (2013) submission.
CONCLUSIONS
This study assessed students' perception of property valuation techniques in
selected tertiary institutions in Nigeria to identify knowledge gaps. Specifically, this
study assessed the level of awareness and understanding of property investment
valuation techniques among students and also, the students ’views on the teaching
and learning of property investment valuation techniques in tertiary institutions.
The results revealed that awareness and understanding levels are higher for
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conventional valuation techniques; group mean values of 3.96 and 3.80,

respectively, suggest the students are very aware and have good understanding of
the conventional valuation techniques. Conversely, the students demonstrated a
moderate awareness and poor understanding of contemporary valuation
techniques with group mean values of 2.63 and 2.41, respectively. Also, the
respondents strongly agreed that practical-based training would promote a better
understanding of property valuation techniques. These results have implication on
the future of real estate practice in Nigeria. Poor understanding of the
contemporary valuation techniques implies that the respondents who are the
future valuation practitioners would face challenges employing the contemporary
techniques in real estate practice. Remarkably, property investment valuation is no
more a strictly expert-based business. The real estate profession is changing,
particularly in terms of investment valuation, as real estate is increasingly becoming
a global business. The profession is experiencing significant transformation in the
valuation process and methods. Contemporary valuation techniques have
transformed global valuation practise, which has been largely influenced by today's
clienteles ’call for a more explicit and objective method for arriving at a value
estimate. The new trend in the global market is for real estate investment to be
viewed as part of a broader investment area rather than in isolation. Therefore,
there is a need to develop property valuation skills in line with global valuation
practices. To this end the academics in the Nigerian tertiary institutions need to
place a greater emphasis on the teaching of contemporary valuation techniques.
In addition, a practical-based property valuation curriculum in the Nigerian tertiary
institutions is needed to equip graduates with the knowledge that aligns with the
needs of the property investment market.
LIMITATIONS
As with most research, the results of this study, must be viewed in the light of
methodological limitations. The study was limited to only four tertiary institutions
with data collected from only 44.2 % of the study population. Meanwhile, the
opinions expressed by the remainder of the sample’s respondents aligned with the
responses in the analysed questionnaire. Hence, the researchers believe that the
responses obtained and analysed were generally applicable in the tertiary
institutions. This assertion notwithstanding, further study involving a larger sample
is recommended.
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APPENDIX
Questionnaire for a study on the Learning of Valuation Methods in Tertiary
Institutions
Section 1
1. Gender: Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. Age: 18 – 24 years [ ] 25 – 29 years [ ] 30 years and older [ ]
3. Mode of study: HND [ ] B.Sc. [ ]
4. Level of study: Final year [ ] Others (Please specify)……………………………..
5. Marital status: Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ]
Section 2
6. On a five-point scale -Not at all aware (NA), Slightly aware (SA), Moderately
aware (MA), Very aware (VA) and extremely aware (EA), please rank your Level
of awareness of the under-listed Property Investment Valuation Methods
S/n Valuation Methods NA SA MA VA EA

i. Investment method
ii. Cost method
iii. Sales comparative method
iv. Profit method
v. Residual method
vi. Discounted Cash Flow models
vii. Statistical Approaches
viii. Neural Network
ix G I S. Approach
x Capital asset pricing model
Section 3
7. On a five-point scale - Very poor (VP), Poor (P), Fair (F), Good (G), Very good
(VG)), Please rank your level of understanding of the under-listed Property
Investment Valuation Methods
S/n Valuation Methods VP P F G VG
i. Investment method
ii. Cost method
iii. Sales comparative method
iv. Profit method
v. Residual method
vi. Discounted Cash Flow models
vii. Statistical Approaches
viii. Neural Network
ix G I S. Approach
x Capital asset pricing model

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Chiwuzie, et al.
Section 4
8. To what extent would you agree or disagree on the under listed statements as
it relates to teaching and learning of property investment valuation methods
(SD=Strongly Disagree; D=Disagree; U=Undecided; A=Agree; SA=Strongly
Agree)
S/n Opinions SD D U A SA
Property investment valuation techniques are difficult to
i.
understand
The teaching of property investment valuation methods is not
ii.
detailed
iii. Most illustrations in property valuation classes are hypothetical
Students should be given real-world property valuation
iv.
problems to solve in the classroom
Practical exercises will facilitate a better understanding of
v.
property valuation techniques.
vi. Only conventional valuation techniques are being taught
vii. None of the contemporary valuation methods is being taught

924
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
SUCTION OF CLAYEY SOIL TREATED WITH QUARRY DUST

BASE GEOPOLYMER CEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE PAVEMENT
SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION
Ezenwa Chinenye Amanamba1 and Kennedy Chibuzor Onyelowe2
1Department of Civil Engineering, Abia State University, Uturu, Abia State Nigeria
2Department of Civil Engineering, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State,
Nigeria
Suction is a very important factor in pavement subgrade materials whether treated

or untreated, and it is more important with the influence of seasonal changes in
moisture for hydraulically bound environments. This physical property was
investigated in a cemented and uncemented clayey soil treated with quarry dust
based geopolymer cement (QDbGPC). The representative clayey soil was
preliminarily studied and was classified as A-7-6 group soil according to the
AASHTO classification system. It was also classified according to USCS as poorly
graded clay (CP) with high clay content (CH). It was further classified as highly
expansive and highly plastic with plasticity index above 17%. 200g of the
representative sample was further treated with synthesised QDbGPC at
temperature of 20˚C. The effect of the varying proportions of the treatment mixed
in the proportions of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5, 35, 37.5
and 40% by weight of dry soil on the suction of cemented and non-cemented test
soils was observed. The stabilisation procedure was conducted under varying
curing time on the soil. The results obtained showed a consistent reduction in
suction with increased proportion of QDbGPC and with increased curing time. But
cemented soil showed a slightly higher reduction in suction than the non-
cemented soil. Portland cement had high shrinkage, and less suction tendencies,
though it showed lower values of suction but the difference between cemented
and non-cemented soil was too small that QDbGPC can totally replace OPC
because of the properties it exhibits as a modifier construction material in
compacted subgrade.
Keywords: clayey soil, geopolymer cement, pavement subgrade, quarry dust,

suction
INTRODUCTION
During the state of moisture exposure to pavement foundation materials, the
strength properties and consequently the durability of the foundation materials;
natural or treated are affected by physical factors for instance suction or absorption
1 engr.namba@gmail.com
2 konyelowe@mouau.edu.ng
Amanamba and Onyelowe (2021) Suction of clayey soil treated with quarry dust base geopolymer
cement for sustainable pavement subgrade construction In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs
932
925
Amanamba and Onyelowe
(Onyelowe and Duc, 2018). Several researchers have tried to understand how
suction can be improved, especially in problematic soils.
Sauer and Monismith (1968) demonstrated that low suction values in soil samples
can be achieved by compacting the soil wet of optimum for the particular
compactive effort. On the flip side, compacting a soil sample dry of optimum for
the particular compactive effort would result in higher suction values.
Petry and Jiang, (2007) in their study of soil suction and the behaviour of clay
treated with hydrated lime and a solution of potash and ammonium lignosulfonate
observed the increase in osmotic suction as the soil reacted with the chemical
stabilizers.
A study conducted by Pooni et al. (2019) examined the strength of soils stabilized
with enzyme-based stabilizer, taking into account the challenge of moisture
fluctuation. The results showed that with addition of enzyme-based stabilizer, the
strength of the soil was considerably increased, and showed evidence of
maintaining the stiffness as moisture fluctuates. Hence, the enzyme-based
stabilizer improves the suction of the soil.
Geopolymer cements (GPC) have been studied and discovered to possess
properties that could counterbalance the effects of exposure to suction and
absorption. This is achieved by withstanding exposure to moisture attack in a
hydraulically bound medium, a factor dependent on the moisture sensitivity of
GPCs (Davidovits, 2013).
In the present research, GPC was synthesized from highly aluminosilicate bound
materials under alkali-activator medium of NaOH + Na2SiO3. These materials rich
in aluminosilicates are fly ash (FA), ground granulated blast furnace or metallurgical
slag (GGBFS). Quarry dust (QD) was characterized and was discovered to possess
great compositions of aluminosilicates. Quarry dust (QD) is a waste product of rock
quarry operation of highly aluminosilicate content, with potentials to improve the
physico-mechanical properties of treated soil especially highly expansive clayey
soils (Fedrigo et al., 2017). This inorganic composition gives it the highly pozzolanic
properties it possesses (ASTM C618, 2014; Bui, Onyelowe and Nguyen, 2018).
Geopolymers on the same hand are produced from amorphous or organic or
inorganic materials of highly aluminosilicate content though with activator
compounds of sodium or potassium. These alkali activators enhance the
attainment of a steady state with the stoichiometric release of Si and Al in the
geopolymer synthesis chain leading to polycondensation (Bui, Onyelowe and
Nguyen, 2018). In the present work, it is used as a replacement for FA in the
synthesis of QDbGPC, which was used to treat the test clayey soil in the proportions
of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10..., 40% by weight of the treated matrix. It is also important to note
that the constituents of the GPC possess high pozzolanic properties (ASTM C618,
2014), which triggers pozzolanic reaction causing condensation and densification
of the dispersed clayey soil particles. However, the synthesized product possesses
cementing properties, which ensures hydration and displacement reaction of
certain metallic ions. GP cements, binders and concretes have found wide
application in the infrastructures development industry and exhibits great use in
solid waste management, construction repair as geopolymer injection, toxic metal
926
immobilization and coatings (Hamidi, Man and Azizi, 2016; Gopal and Rao, 2011;
Onyelowe et al., 2020).
While several works have been done to reduce the damaging effect of suction on
soil stability, the application of blended QD base geopolymer for the treatment of
compacted soils was investigated in the present work. However, the specific
objective was to study the effect of GP cement addition on the suction potential of
the treated soils, adopting the methods described by Davidovits (2013) and
Hamidi, Man and Azizi (2016).

Materials
The test soil sample was collected from Amaoba borrow pit on Latitude
05°26’44.288’’N and Longitude 07°32’33.229’’E. The disturbed sample was
collected, tapped to remove lumps, sun dried for 3 days and readied for use. Quarry
dust was collected as waste (by-products) of quarrying (crushed-rock) operation
from Amasiri quarry site in Afikpo, Ebonyi State, Nigeria. It was sundried and stored
in silo bags for the laboratory exercise. Dangote Ordinary Portland Cement (DOPC)
brand was used for this exercise; corresponding to 42.5N/mm2 grade. Fly Ash (FA)
and Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)/Metallurgical Slag (MS) were
collected from NigerPet Structures, Uyo, Nigeria and Delta Steel Company, Aladja,
Warri, Nigeria respectively. The QD based Geopolymer (GP) was synthesized in
accordance with the findings of Davidovits (2013) and Hamidi, Man and Azizi
(2016). According to the above research findings, the aluminosilicate materials
needed in the formation of GP are FA and GGBFS or MS under the reactive influence
of Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) and Sodium Silicate (Na2SiO3) as activators with a
combined molar concentration of 12 as an eco-friendly material. QD contains high
concentration of aluminosilicates (Al-O-Si), maintains a highly pozzolanic property
and serves well in the synthesis of GP cement. These materials are mixed in the
proportion of 12% by weight Activator plus 44% by weight QD plus 22% by weight
FA plus 22% by weight GGBFS (MS), following Davidovits (2013) and Hamidi, Man
and Azizi (2016). The GP cement dry powder was stored for use as supplementary
cementing material in the laboratory stabilization exercise.
Experimental Program
The following conventional tests were conducted on the natural test soil for the
purpose of characterization and classification in accordance with BS 1377-2 and
Nigerian General Specification (BS 1377-2, 1990; NGS/FMWH, 1997); sieve analysis
test, compaction test (Standard Proctor test), California bearing ratio test (CBR),
Atterberg limit test, specific gravity test was conducted by Pycnometer method and
chemical oxides composition test on the test soils and the test materials with XRF
method and results were obtained. Furthermore, suction cylindrical specimens
were prepared from the geopolymer treated fixed 5% cemented and uncemented
soils in accordance with the standard proctor mould geometry, which were
compacted in three layers and cured for 14 days under the same laboratory
conditions as the unconfined compressive strength specimens. Extra specimens
were prepared for each mixture to ensure accuracy and forestall time loss due to
accidents. The tests were conducted in accordance with the British Standard
(NGS/FMWH, 1997; BS 1924, 1990). After initial curing, the prepared specimens
927
were dried to steady mass at a temperature of 60°C ±5°C. Then, the height and
mass of the specimens were measured as the control and standard reference
values. The specimens were finally placed in a curing bowl with water level
maintained at 10mm and at room temperature of 26.8°C ±2°C. The mean heights
of water rising up the specimens were measured from the base of the sample
specimens and equally their masses were determined at 24 hours, 48 hours and 72
hours curing periods. Suction as the percentage of the specimen height was
determined and calculated as the percentage of the specimens ’dry masses (BS
1377-2, 1990; NGS/FMWH, 1997; BS 1924, 1990)

Properties of the raw materials
The test soil sample was investigated and characterized under the laboratory
conditions with the preliminary tests as presented in Tables 1& 2 and Fig. 1. The
test soil was classified as A-7-6 group according to the AASHTO classification
system (AASHTO, 1993). It was also classified according to USCS as poorly graded
clayey soil (CP) with high clay content (CH, SP-SC). It was also classified as highly
plastic soil with plasticity index above 17% and expansive (Gopal and Rao, 2011).
Table 2 presents that the test materials have high aluminosilicate content and
possess pozzolanic properties with aluminosilicate strength of over 70% (ASTM
C618, 2014).
Table 1. Geotechnical Properties of the Test Soil

Soil %passing NMC LL PL PI Cc Cu AASHTO USCS OMC MDD
properties no. 200 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (g/cm3)
Results 42 13 40 18 22 4.54 4.23 A-7-6 CP/CH 16 1.83
Fig. 1. Grain size distributions of studied materials
928
Table 2. chemical oxide composition of the test materials

Oxides Composition (content wt %)
Materials Al2O Fe2O K2 Na2 TiO P2O Free
SiO2 CaO MgO LOI SO3 IR
3 3 O O 2 5 CaO
77.7 0.89 0.02 - - - - - -

Test Soil 16.65 1.42 3.22 0.07
3
63.4
5.56
8 4.65
QD 17.72 12.1 1.77 2.76 0.01 3.17 0.88 - - - -
63.4 0.78
FA 4.14 1 1.23 1.09 0.01 1.78 1.89 0.71 0.11 - 0.03
5 11.4
GGBFS 12.34 42.1 0.05 - - - 0.21 - - - 0.40
33.4 5
0
5
21.4 63.8
DOPC 4.45 3.07 2.42 0.83 0.20 0.22 0.81 0.11 2.46 0.16 0.64
5 1
*IR is Insoluble Residue; LOI is Loss on Ignition, FA: Fly Ash
QD: Quarry Dust, GGBFS: Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
DOPC: Dangote Ordinary Portland cement
Suction of the treated clayey soil under varying curing time

The effect of varying proportions of QDbGPC by weight of treated sample on the
suction of the treated soil expressed as the percentage of the original mass of the
treated sample under varying curing time on both cemented and non-cemented
soil was presented in Fig. 2. It was observed that increased proportion of QDbGPC
brought about a reduced suction on both cemented and non-cemented treated
test soil and at the same time at a prolonged curing time, suction equally reduced.
The consistently reduced suction with the increase in QDbGPC proportion may be
due to the GPC acting as fillers to reduce the porosity of the treated soil thereby
reducing suction. The reduction in porosity reduced the quantity of cementitious
products occupying the matrix voids eventually reducing suction (Onyelowe et al.,
2020; Meegoda and Ratanweera, 1994; Gidigasu and Dogbey, 1980). At increased
QDbGPC, the treated soil achieved a more densified microstructure which does not
allow the absorption of moisture due to the flocculation and agglomeration of the
treated soil particles (Meegoda and Ratanweera, 1994). Hydration reaction of a GPC
takes place at room temperature within 24 hours letting the material at high
degrees of suction within which it gains its maximum strength and used up the
highest amount of moisture needed for this process (Onyelowe et al., 2020;
Austroads, 2002). This showed that if water is used as pore fluid, the influence of
the mechanical factors would remain the same (Meegoda and Ratanweera, 1994;
Gigigasu and Dogbey, 1980; Austroads, 2002; BS 8615-1, 2019). During this
procedural exercise, the rate of suction decreased as the water content of the
treated matrix increased even at increased water exposure time (Bui and Onyelowe,
2018; Hervé et al., 2009). So, at prolonged curing beyond 24 hours, the rate of
moisture intake is reduced drastically hence the behaviour that was observed
(Gidigasu and Dogbey, 1980).
929
Fig.2.Effect of Geopolymer Addition on the Capillary Rise at different curing time on the treated
Soil
CONCLUSIONS
Taking into consideration the results of the laboratory exercises conducted on the
QD base GPC treated soil, it can be concluded with the following remarks;
1. The test soil was tested for the basic properties and results show that it was
classified according to AASHTO classification system and USCS as A-7-6 and
GP groups respectively; it was also classified as a highly plastic soil with
plasticity index above 17% and expansive.
2. The QD base GPC was synthesized in accordance with the conditions suggested
by previous research findings, was used to treat the test soil under the
laboratory conditions and was added in the proportions of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5,
15, 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, 32.5, 35, 37.5 and 40% and under varying water
exposure time to determine the capillary and suction behaviour and strength
development behaviour of the treated soils.
3. The alkali-activated (NaOH + Na2SiO3) cement produced under dry condition

provided the possibility to adapt waste inorganic materials and the properties
of such cements are always better than those of ordinary Portland cement
(OPC). The concentration of NaOH was kept lower than the concentration of
Na2SiO3 to check the excessive release of OH- which may have led to inefficient
geopolymerization reaction.
4. Results from the above procedure showed that the QD base GPC treated soils
demonstrated significant and consistent reduced suction with increased QD
base GPC proportion by weight. This showed that the properties of GPC may
be fully utilized in the stabilization protocol to achieve a hydraulically bound
stabilized material that possesses resistant to high moisture exposures. This
behaviour may be attributed to the properties of the constituent elements of
the GPC where GGBFS produced high level of calcium and QD produced high
930
concentration of aluminosilicates, which contributed to prolonged hydration,

calcinations, cation exchange reactions and polycondensation.
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932
ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
THE BENEFITS OF BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING IN

ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Elimisiemon Monday Chris1, Poopola J. O.2 and Salisu A. S.3
1Department of Architecture, Kaduna State University, Kafanchan, Kaduna State, Nigeria
2,3Department of Architecture, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
The contemporary built environment is defined by complex infrastructural designs

and plans. Architects are confronting and overcoming these challenges through the
aid of technological innovations such as Building Information Modeling, BIM.
Architects, engineers and construction, AEC professionals with the aid of BIM are to
efficiently plan, design, construct, and manage buildings and infrastructure. This
study examined the benefits and also identify challenges of BIM education in
Nigeria among architects. A field survey was be conducted using structured closed-
ended questionnaires administered face-to-face and via email, WhatsApp and
internet using google form to practicing architects and architects in the academia.
The data collected was analysed using SPSS 16. The major findings in this study
reveal the provision of BIM awareness, knowledge and skills for present and future
generation of architects to achieve success in productivity and sustainable future
and also collaboration between project participants in AEC industry are the most
important benefits of BIM education. The major challenges to BIM education in
architecture include lack of trained teachers/staff, lack of collaboration between the
academia and practicing architects and lack of clear government mandate on
adoption. The study concluded by recommending that NUC in collaboration with
tertiary institutions through the colleges of engineering, should sponsor teachers
in AEC for training on BIM in countries where such programmes are offered to
enable them have the requisite knowledge to train others learners in schools of
architecture.
Key words: architects, BIM, BIM education, BIM tools, BIM usage architects
INTRODUCTION
The contemporary built environment is defined by complex infrastructural designs.
The architectural, engineering, construction and operation (AECO) stakeholders
have been working on ways to mitigate the negative impact of the built
environment through adoption new technologies such as building information
modeling (BIM) and concepts such as green or sustainable architecture.
1 chrisdesign2000@yahoo.com
2 poparchassociates@yahoo.com
3 arcsalisu@gmail.com
Elimisiemon, Poopola and Salisu (2021) The benefits of building information modeling in
architectural education in Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
933
Elimisiemon, Poopola and Salisu
According to Autodesk (2020), BIM is an intelligent 3D model-based process that

gives architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) professionals the insight
and tools to more efficient plan, design, construct and manage building and
infrastructure. Specifically, it enables architects make better design decisions,
improve building performance, and collaborate more effectively throughout the
project cycle. It is widely accepted and adopted innovation in Europe, Americas
and Asia that has emerged as a way to create a virtual of a construction project
prior to the actual construction work in order to detect, stimulate and analysed
potential problems and factors or delay encountered throughout the construction
phase and after (Liu, Xie, Tivendal, & Liu, 2015; Chimhundu, 2015).
However, BIM acceptance and adoption in Africa fall behind the develop countries
mentioned above in spite of high level of awareness, with South African being the
country with highest adoption (Saka & Chan, 2019; Hamma-adama, Salman &
Kouider, 2017 and Shakantu & Froise, 2014). The major reason for this is attributed
to lack of technical skills/expertise, lack of trained staff/experts, lack of government
support and legislation and lack of standards and guidelines (Abubakar, Ibrahim &
Bala, 2013; Abubakar, Ibrahim, Kado & Bala, 2014; Ugochukwu, Akabogu & Okolie,
2015; Wang, Cho & Kim, 2015; Ezeokoli, Okoye & Nkeleme, 2016; Timothy,
Kehinde, Fagbemi & Sadiku, 2016; Ebiloma, Daibi-Oruene & Bumaa, 2017;
Onungwa & Uduma-Olugu, 2017, Hamma-adama, Galadima & Kouider, 2018).
One of the ways to address the above challenges is through BIM education. The
Australia Institute of Architects and Consult Australia (2012), BIM education is the
process of learning the sum of conceptual and practical knowledge relating to BIM
technologies, workflows and protocols. Globally, many tertiary education systems
are investing how to incorporate BIM based on contemporary industry
expectations and government mandates. BIM educationists and researchers have
invested huge efforts in BIM educational frameworks, designing BIM curricula,
conduct BIM courses, and developing new strategies for its implementation. Others
have delivered overview of BIM educational trends in the past (Becker et al, 2011,
Salman 2014; Rooney 2015 in Chegu Badrinath et al, 2017; Barison & Santos 2010c,
2011; Wong et al. 2011; Lee & Dossick 2012).
This study is aim to identify the benefits BIM education in architecture in Nigeria.
LITERATURE REVIEW
BIM education is the process or acquiring the necessary knowledge and required
skills to generate BIM deliverables and satisfy their respective requirements. It
involves data management, team collaboration and risks management, technical,
procedural and regulatory (Australian Institute of Architects and Consult Australia,
2012). It encompasses both theory and practice (academia and industry), meeting
the requirement of current and future professionals through learning, spreading
awareness to developing highly specialized skills in tertiary institutions, industry
workshop, online media and on-the-job-training (Succar, et al, 2012).
The demand for BIM education has grown significantly over the years (Becerik-
Gerber et al., 2011; Lee and Hollar, 2013). Recent studies shows that most tertiary
institutions in developed and developing nations are yet to run full BIM courses or
934
fully collaborative BIM courses between students of AEC disciplines. However, the
narrative is changing is fast changing among developed countries like USA, UK and
Australia. Some of the major barriers to developing BIM education in tertiary
institutions include lack of resources and conservative practices at tertiary
institutions (Suwal, Javaja & Salin, 2014).
Some researchers have attempted to develop empirical evidence for integrating
BIM into AEC disciplines in tertiary institutions. According to Clevenger, Glick & del
Puerto (2012), in US only, employers who seek BIM-ready employees (students and
graduates) do not require software expertise from such employees. However, other
researchers conclude that students are required to have a working knowledge of
BIM, in addition BIM-compliant graduates must be able to communicate effectively
and demonstrate extraordinary ability to create, share and use robust information
across autonomous technologies in addition to graduates ’core skills in
construction (Akanmu, Olatunji, Love, Nguyen, & Matthew, 2016; Male, Bush &
Chapman, 2010; Singh, Gu & Wang, 2011 Ku & Taiebat, 2011; Gu &London (2010).
Some of the benefits of BIM education is to present and future professionals is that
allow them to be further competitive and flexible in a rapidly changing Information
Technology (IT) environment (Hsieh et al. 2015). It encourages collaboration
among professionals in the BIM environment thereby minimizing errors and
enabling professionals work on projects to create a single communication
language among them (Azhar, 2011; Hardin, 2009); it equips equip engineering
graduates with an adequate understanding of BIM concepts and BIM skills as a
means to help achieve the successful uptake of BIM within the AEC industry (Ghosh,
Parfitt & Chasey, 2013).
Although there is progress in the integration of BIM tertiary institution curricula,

there are still major challenges identified in various studies. One of the major
challenge is the lack of competent teaching staff (Mandhar & Mandhar, 2013; Pillay,
Musonda & Makabate, 2018), new teaching methodologies; material, books and
other specific sources deficiency; platform costs; difficulty in finding the required
multidisciplinarity, development of curricular components, and lack of rules and
requirements for the curriculum implementation, professionals resistance to seek
training (Sabongi, 2009; Sacks & Pikas, 2013; Checcucci, 2014; Böes, Barros Neto,
& Lima, 2021). Other barriers include lack of motivation, non-uniform global
accreditation, professional accreditation issues, BIM curriculum issues, and diverse
BIM modeling skill requirements, BIM tool selection, BIM software licenses, BIM
technical affairs, the need for BIM IT lab facilities, object libraries, and coordination
tools, weak ties between industry and academia, the need for trans- disciplinary,
inter-level, and multinational collaboration, and incomplete BIM curricula. BIM
activists and educationalists have put effort into resolving these BIM educational
issues.
Several studies have been carried out on BIM awareness level, benefits and barriers
to BIM adoption in Nigeria. Computer-aided design (CAD) is being taught to
students of architecture across all stages of development in Nigeria (Uwakonye et
al, 2017). However, BIM is not yet reflect in the curricula of school of engineering
in tertiary institutions in Nigeria. This is reflected in the emergence of obsolete
graduate in the practical world (Chegu Badrinath et al, 2017 & Omotosho, 2016).
935
Few studies, however have been carried out on BIM education in Nigeria. Maina
(2018) observe inadequate integration within the curriculum, lack of steady power,
time to master skills were among the major challenges to effective use of CAD/BIM
use in architectural education, government and institutional related barriers
recorded the highest.
Engineering schools plays a vital role in promoting BIM concepts. The involvement
of students in research projects, and the dissemination of BIM through short
courses and workshops addresses the AEC community outside the school (Sampaio
2014). The NATSPEC’s global summary report, based purely on responses received
from a global group of parties with interest in BIM, advocated the need for TEIs
with backing from industry and government to fully incorporate BIM education into
curricula (Rooney, 2015). This report attempted to fully document the status of BIM
education/awareness by considering three key factors—education/training,
initiatives/organizations, and awareness/uptake—in countries such as Canada, US,
UK, the Netherlands, the Czech Republic, Finland, Norway, South Africa, China,
Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand (Chegu, Chang & Hsieh,
2016).
METHODOLOGY
A Survey was carried out using a close-ended structured questionnaire, 100
questionnaires were distributed face-to-face and via email, WhatsApp and internet
using google form to practicing architects and architects in the academia., 62 were
returned. Using a 5-point Likert scale, respondents were asked to indicate their
degree of agreement with the barriers on the Likert scale of 5 = strongly agree, 4
= agree, 3 = fairly agree (average), 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree. The results
were analyzed using mean and Relative Importance Index (RII) methods. Mean:
logic to determine a cut-off mean of 3. The sum of the weight of 5,4,3,2 and 1 is
15, which is divided by 5 (number of response category: it follows from this that a
response can be considered as significant when the mean score is equal or greater
than 3 (≥3). A response is considered insignificant if the mean score is equal or less
3 (≤3). RII values of 0.75 and above were considered highly important for this
study. These correspond to ratings in the upper quartile range (75% and above).
RII values between 0.50 and 0.74 corresponding to the second quartile (50%-74%)
are considered important. RII values below 0.5 (or median) are considered
unimportant in this study.
The formula for the Relative importance index:
(RII) = Σ w / (A x N) - - - , (0 ≤ RII ≤ 1)
Where: Σ w = total sum of weighting given to each factor by the respondent; A =

highest weight; N = total number of respondents

Table 1 shows the gender of respondents in the survey. 76% of the respondents
are male, while 24% are female. Majority of the respondents are M.Sc holders
(66%). Predominantly 39% of the respondents are lecturers followed by consultants
936
and project supervisors (16% respectively). Finally, majority of the respondents are
beginners in BIM proficiency (56%).
Table 1: Demographic profile of respondents

Item Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 47 76
Female 15 24
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
BSc/HND 12 19
MSc 41 66
BArch or PhD 9 15
Job title
Consultant 10 16
Lecturer 24 39
Supervisor 10 16
Project manager 4 6
Site engineer 5 8
Contractor 9 15
BIM proficiency
Beginner 56 90.3
Intermediate 4 6.5
Expert 2 3.2
Table 2: Benefits of building information modeling education in architectural practice in in

Nigeria
Descriptive
S/N Item
Total Mean RII Rank
Provision of BIM knowledge and skills 298 4.80 0.96 1
Facilitates collaboration between projects
275 4.44 0.89 3
participants in AECO industry.
Main communication method to spread
technology-enabled, process-driven and
286 4.62 0.92 2
policy-encouraged advances in design,
construction and operation facilities.
Competitiveness and flexibility in dynamic
270 4.36 0.87 4
information technology (IT) environment.
Improve efficiency of information exchange
for architectural, engineering, construction
267 4.32 0.86 5
and operation (AECO) industry
stakeholders.
Addresses the requirement of current
255 4.12 0.82 6
practicing architects
Empowers future generation of architects
to achieve success in productivity,
286 4.62 0.92 2
reduction in waste and fulfillment of an
aesthetic and sustainable future.
Overall, provision of BIM knowledge and skills ranks the 1st with RII 0.96 (mean of
4.80). Main communication method to spread technology-enabled, process-driven
and policy-encouraged advances in design, construction and operation facilities
and empowers future generation of architects to achieve success in productivity,
reduction in waste and fulfillment of an aesthetic and sustainable future rank 2nd
937
with RII 0.92 (mean of 4.62). The least benefit of BIM education (even though the
mean is significant, mean of 4.12). These findings agree with previous findings
(Ahn, Kwak & Suk, 2016; Miettinen & Paavola, 2014; U.S. General Service
Administration (GSA), 2007; Hamdi & Leite, 2014; Samuelson & Bjork, 2014; Bynum,
Issa & Olbina, 2013)
Table 3: Challenges of building information modeling education in architectural practice in in

Nigeria
Descriptive
S/N Item
Total Mean RII Rank
High cost of hardware 259 4.18 0.84 5
High cost of software 256 4.14 0.83 6
Lack of trained teachers/staff 288 4.65 0.93 1
Unclear benefits of BIM education 280 4.52 0.90 4
Lack of clear government mandate on
283 4.58 0.91 3
adoption
Lack of collaboration between academia
255 4.12 0.82 7
and practicing architects.
Lack of access to internet/high cost of
287 4.64 0.93 2
internet services
Unstable power supply. 253 4.08 0.82 8
As shown in Table 3, lack of trained teachers/staff (RII: 0.93; mean of 4.65) is the
major challenge to BIM education in Nigeria. Lack of access to internet and high
cost of internet services follows with a mean of 4.64 (RII: 0.93). The least challenge
to BIM education in Nigeria is lack of collaboration between the academia and
practicing architects (RII: 0.82; mean of 4.12). Recent findings in BIM Education in
architecture is similar to these findings (Maina, 2018; Botton & Forgues, 2018; Lee,
Yu & Jeong, 2015, Gheisari & Irizarry, 2016 and Ahn, Kwak and Suk, 2016).
Table 4: Strategies for BIM education in architectural practice in in Nigeria

Descriptive
S/N Item
Total Mean RII Rank
i. Teacher/Staff BIM education 301 4.86 0.97 1
ii. Integration into educational curricula 299 4.82 0.96 2
Curriculum preparation, development and
iii. 275 4.44 0.89 5
improvement
iv. Availability to practicing professionals 288 4.65 0.93 3
v. Government support and legislation 285 4.60 0.92 4
Compulsory internship (hands-on
vi. 248 4.00 0.80 6
experience) for undergraduate on BIM
In response to the strategies for improve BIM education in architecture in Nigeria,

Teacher/staff BIM education ranks 1st with RII 0.97 (mean of 4.86). Integration into
educational curricula of architect education follows with RII 0.96 (mean of 0.96).
compulsory internship (hands-on-experience) for undergraduate on BIM
technology is the least with RII 0.80 (mean of 4.00). Recent findings also identifies
some of these factors as strategic factors that can positively influence BIM
education in architecture in Nigeria (Maina, 2018; Maina et al, 2017).
938
CONCLUSION
The aim of the study is to investigate the benefits of BIM education in architecture
in Nigeria. The specific objectives are to identify the benefits of BIM education in
architecture, identify major challenges to BIM education and also provide strategies
that will improve BIM Education. The benefits of BIM education established in this
study include provision of BIM knowledge and skills, main communication method
to spread technology-enabled, process-driven and policy-encouraged advances in
design, construction and operation facilities and empowers future generation of
architects to achieve success in productivity, reduction in waste and fulfillment of
an aesthetic and sustainable future, facilitates collaboration between project
participants in AECO industry, competence and flexibility in dynamic IT
environment. The major challenges to BIM education in architecture include lack
of trained teachers/staff, lack of access to internet and high cost of internet
services, lack of collaboration between the academia and practicing architects, lack
of clear government mandate on adoption, unclear benefits of BIM education, high
cost of hardware and software.
The recommendation based on the findings of this study: Stakeholder in faculty of
engineering, through the department of architecture in the tertiary education
systems should sponsor teachers of architecture for training on BIM in countries
where such programmes are offered to enable them have the requisite knowledge
to train others learners of architecture.
Second, BIM should be integrated into tertiary institutions systems educational
curricula to enable both current professionals and future architects learn BIM to
provide necessary competence and flexibility for practice in dynamic contemporary
architectural practices. This is possible through curriculum preparation,
development and improvement among BIM educationists and researchers.
Third, BIM education should be made available to practicing professionals through
collaboration between the academia and industry stakeholder like department of
architecture, Nigeria Institute of Architects, Architect Registration Council of
Nigeria and Association of Architectural Educators in Nigeria (AARCHES).
Finally, Government support should support tertiary institutions department of
architecture through legislation that will mandate the BIM adoption and education
in the country.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
THE IMPACT OF PROJECT CONTRIBUTORY FACTORS ON THE

COST PERFORMANCE OF BUILDING PROJECTS
V. H. Jiya1, A. D. Ibrahim2, D. Kado3 and K. Bala4
1Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Ground Engineering Air Force
Institute of Technology, Kaduna, Nigeria
2,3,4Department of Building, Faculty of Environmental Design, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria
Construction projects are complex and vast in nature with a large number of
available procurement options, participants, directions, technologies and external
factors which are generally deduced as contributory factors and can influence the
attainment of project objectives. These demands and pressures for the attainment
of project objectives from the client have led to the consideration of the most
appropriate contributory factors for a given project, being seen as an important
issue in construction project performance. In view of this, the research explored the
impact of project contributory factors on building project cost performance based
on the attacked level of perception on the extent to which contributory
factors(NPRC/PRC) impact on cost performance of building projects . To achieve
this goal, the research identify projects contributory factors that impact on the cost
performance of building projects and to determine the extent to which contributory
factors (NPRC/ PRC) impact on the cost performance of building projects. The aim
was achieved by administering 120 questionnaires to professionals in State
Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) and Government Agencies who have
handled SUBEB building projects across the twenty three local government areas
in Kaduna State. The obtained data were statistically analysed using descriptive
statistics. The results revealed that for non-procurement related factors, client
financial stature and project size and complexities are the most popular
contributory factors impacting building cost performance. The research further
ascertained that for procurement related contributory factors project procurement
method used and project responsibilities, contractual obligations to people and
organizations are the most popular contributory factors that impact building
construction cost performance. The study concluded that NPRC and PRC do exist
and can impact cost performance at varying extent. The findings necessitate NPRC
and PRC appropriateness by the construction professionals involved in building
construction to ensure better cost performance.
Key words: building projects, cost performance, impact, project contributory

factors
1 hassvics@gmail.com
3 kadobbdikko@yahoo.com
4 balakabri@gmail.com
Jiya, et al. (2021) The impact of project contributory factors on the cost performance of building
projects In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
945
Jiya, et al.
INTRODUCTION
The need to achieve project performance remains a prominent issue in
construction project construction because project performance deals with the key
performance indicators (KPIs) that is projects defined objectives which must be
achieved. Moreover, there are numerous resources and factors which need to be
efficiently considered due to the complex nature of construction projects (Soewin
and Chinda, 2018; Mohmoud, 2020). Olubunmi and Ayo (2013), Idoro (2012) and
Babatunde, et al. (2010) all stressed that, achieving project goals for a given project,
is necessary not only to judge whether the appropriate procurement and other
contributory factors are considered. The basic issue is how the adopted
procurement and other project contributory factors enhances or inhibits on project
performance indicators (PIs), such as cost, time, client satisfaction, quality among
others in order to increase the chances of fulfilling project performance objectives
and successful completion of a construction project (Omran at el., 2013).
Construction project success is often evaluated for performance dimensions cost
inclusive. Cost is one of the most significant dimensions of construction project
performance and the driving force of project success (Oladirin, 2013). Rahman et
al. (2012) affirmed that the completion of any project within the estimated cost is
the basic criteria for the success of any construction project regardless of size and
complexity of project. In recent time due to the abnormal increase in the cost of
projects, cost of construction projects has received the attention of most
stakeholders. This is because cost is among the major considerations from
inception throughout the construction project life cycle. It is however obvious from
previous studies that achieving cost performance of any construction project, cost
dimension performance is related to numerous project contributory factors
impacting on the performance.
Project contributory factors that impact project performance are grouped into
procurement and non-procurement related contributory factors Dissanayaka and
Kumaraswamy (2012). CIOB (2010) supported that, procurement attributes are
contributory absolutely crucial to the performance dimensions. These are the basis
for the various processes that bring about the construction of project that meet
the client needs known as procurement related contributory factors which contains
function attributes as incorporating principal procurement sub-systems and
possible choices that are there in. The procurement related contributory factors
include: work package, functional grouping, payment modalities, selection
methodologies and contract conditions Erikson and Westerberg (2012). Ogunsami
(2013) also mentioned that other factors of client characteristics, project
requirements, external environment, and contractor characteristics among others
are contributory factors known as non-procurement related contributory factors
are also essential in procurement process and project execution at the end
impacting project performance.
In the construction industry, project performance has gained significant interest

recently among both practitioners and academics. This can be seen in several
efforts made by researchers to develop project performance based model for
946
Jiya, et al.
construction project execution by Dissanayaka (1998). Cost models and validation

of the model by several other researchers such as Dissanayaka and
Kumaraswamy(1999), Enshassi et al (2009), Saraf (2013), Owolabi et al (2014),
(Hassan, 2015). As part of effort to ensure efficient construction cost performance
by this model, there is general overview by researches such as Dissanayaka and
Kumaraswamy (2012), Mathonsi and Thawal (2012) that procurement related
factors and non-procurement related factors must be considered on cost
performance of construction projects. These factors only become useful basis for
modeling and assessing cost performance of construction projects when the extent
of impact of both procurement related factors and non-procurement related
factors are considered on cost performance.
In Nigeria, studies such as Babalola et al. (2015), Olubunmi and Ayo (2013), Ahmadu
et al, (2013), Ogunsanmi (2013), Ishaya and Adogbo (2013) have examined and
ranked the factors that are responsible for the performance of construction
projects. However following the present Nigerian government’s decision to
transform sectors of the Nigerian economy, educational, commercial, health care
and other several categories of building construction are anticipated to be on the
increase. It will thus be useful if factors impacting construction cost can be assess
across the different Universal Basic Educational building projects, in order to
provide a basis for developing cost performance models that can be used for these
projects. This study is therefore aimed at assessing the extent of impact of project
contributory factors on cost performance of Universal Basic Educational building
projects.
Factors impacting cost performance of construction projects

From literature, it was observed that there is no consensus on the identification of
plethora of factors which impact construction cost performance of building
projects, basically because researches have widely viewed the subject from diverse
perspective to define or determine the performance of construction projects.
Amongst several research works which have been conducted to identify project
contributory factors (procurement and non-procurement related factors) on
project performance dimensions include:
The study conducted by Omran et al (2012) to investigate project performance in

Sudan construction industry: A case study. The result found out that project
availability of time, the size and complexity of projects, the type of project and
duration of project, communication among project participants and overall
managerial action, adequacy of design and specification, consultants commitment
to ensure construction work according to specification, consultant cooperation to
solve problems, consultants involvement to monitor the project progress, client
ability to brief the project objectives, the size of client’s organization and client’s
ability to make decision, client’s interference during construction, the economic
environment, political, social, skillful workers, quality control of materials, enough
supply of materials, procurement method, tendering method, project team leader
experience, planning effort, budget progress monitoring. The result of a similar
study by Saraf (2013) of India construction projects which was aimed to investigate
factors affecting performance of construction project. The survey findings indicate
that the most important factors affecting project performance are: improper
planning, improper designing, site management, decision making, methods,
947
Jiya, et al.
shortage of labor and technical personnel, quality and shortage of materials,

construction mistakes and defective work and productivity.
Eriksson and Vennstrom (2012) carried out a similar study to investigate the Effects
of procurement on project performance. The result found that Cooperative
procurement procedures of joint specification, limited bid invitation, soft
evaluation parameters, joint sub-contractor selection, incentives, collaborative
tools, contractor self-control and collaboration on project all have various effects
on project performance. these factors according to Erickson and Westerberg (2012)
shows how various procurement precedence the different procurement related
factors at the design, bid invitation, bid evaluation and sub – contracting selection
stages, compensation factors that can have various influences on project
performance affect different aspects of project performance.
Nyangwara and Datche (2015) in Kenya supported that the most important factors
agreed by the owners, consultants and contractors were: average delay because of
closures and materials shortage; availability of resources as planned through
project duration; leadership skills for project manager; escalation of material prices;
availability of personals with high experience and qualification; and quality of
equipment and raw materials in project. It was concluded that projects were
delayed and the actual cost of projects was more than the estimated cost because
of coastal region of Kenya political conditions and delayed payments which results
to unavailability of materials.
Study by Mathonsi and Thawal (2012) also carried out a similar study in South
Africa. The result revealed factors such as internal factors (project and client
characteristics) and external factors (market competition, information technology,
regulatory environment, natural causes and globalization) influence of the project
life cycle, expedited project delivery; time, quality and price certainty. Dissanayaka
and Kumaraswamy (2012) concluded that significant factors through quantitative
models developed that, time overrun levels were mainly governed by non-
procurement related factors( project characteristics and client/client representative
characteristics while cost overrun levels were significantly influence by both
procurement and non- procurement related factors (contractual payment
modalities and project characteristics and client/client representative
characteristic).
In Nigeria, Odediran and Windapo (2013) conducted a study on a systematic review

of factors influencing the cost performance of building projects. The study
highlighted fifteen (15) significant factors which include: additional works, material
price fluctuation, variation order, project planning, monitoring and design
accuracy. Cost estimated method. Others include design and construction errors,
financial/cost planning, labour cost and requirements, poor site conditions, poor
financial/ cost control and monitoring, poor materials and equipment procurement
strategies, market conditions/ indices and contract documentation and
administration.
The study conducted by Ogunsami (2013b) on the Effects of procurement related

factors on construction project performance in Nigeria, shows that variation order
factors strongly affect project performance causing time, cost overruns. Rashid et
al. (2006) also conducted a similar study to investigate the Effect of procurement
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Jiya, et al.
systems on the performance of construction projects. The result shows that the
different procurement systems allocation of responsibilities, activities sequencing,
process and procedure and organizational approach have invariably affected the
project performance.
RESEARCH METHODS
The research adopted a conceptual framework of the independent dominant
variables and dependent variable that shows the relationship of the extent of
impact of Procurement Related Contributory Factors (PRC) and Procurement
Related Contributory Factors (NPRC) on cost performance of building projects is
proposed. The research evaluation of NPRC and PRC extent of impact on cost
performance will be analyzed conclusively. The target population of the study
comprised of two categories, first category are State Universal Basic Education
Board (SUBEB) construction professionals in SUBEB and Government Agencies who
have handled SUBEB building projects across the twenty three Local Government
Areas (LGAs) in Kaduna State. The second category is completed building projects
undertaken in the LGAs by SUBEB, Kaduna State.
SUBEB sponsored projects within the last few years (2014 -2018) in lower basic
schools of learning of the 23 LGAs in Kaduna State. Preliminary investigations
shows that SUBEB is active in these schools. Hence schools where SUBEB is not
active are not included in the study. One hundred and twenty of such projects were
identified from the twenty three LGAs and constitute the research population.
Purposive sampling selection of well reputable and experienced construction
professionals and completed building projects were made within the study area.
The research adopted a quantitative, survey approach and primary data were
collected by means of 120 questionnaires based on the 120 focal projects arcos
LGAs of interest, 105 returned, 7 dropped and 98 valid for analysis. The
questionnaires were administered to the informants (Quantity surveyors,
Architects, Engineers, builders) in State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB)
and Government Agencies who have handled SUBEB building projects across the
twenty three Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Kaduna State.
A questionnaire on a 5 point Likert scale: where 1 stands for very low impact and 5
signifies very high impact was employed to establish the perception of the
respondents on the extent to which 59 projects contributory factors of the 2 major
NPRC and PRC factors with thirty nine (39) NPRC sub factors and PRC twenty (20)
sub factors respectively.
The use of tables was employed in this research for data presentation. Mean score
was used to analyzed the various project contributory factors (NPRC and PRC) likely
to impact on building projects cost performance. The analysis was done using
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 software. The data sourced
from the response of the respondents were analyzed and mean score were
obtained using arithmetic mean and ranking method of the statistical analysis. The
results were ranked and conclusions were deduced.
Further analysis was conducted to provide insight into the Conformity test of mean
responds of extent to which NPRC factors impact on cost and time of the focal
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Jiya, et al.
projects using one sampled t- test. This is to test the mean responds of extent to
which the NPRC and PRC factors impact on cost and time of the construction
projects using mid-point as test score (2.5). Hypothesis: Ho: there is no significant
differences between the mean responses of NPRC factors on cost of construction
projects and mid-point and H1: there is significant differences between the mean
responses of NPRC factors on cost of construction projects and mid-point. Level of
significances: α= 5% = 0.05. Decision criteria: reject Ho, if probability value (p value)
is < 0.05 as shown in table 3 and table 5 below.

Table 1: Respondents and projects profile
Category Frequency Percentage
i Years of working experience
1- 5years 8 19.5
6-10years 10 24.4
11-15years 16 39.0
16-above 7 17.1
Total 41 100.0
ii Respondents position in the organization
Senior management level 8 19.5
Middle management level 22 53.7
Lower management level 11 26.8
Total 41 100.0
iii Project executed within the research scope
1- 10 13 13.27
11-20 17 17.35
21- 30 22 22.45
31- 40 30 30.61
>40 16 16.32
Total 98 100.0
Table 1 ( i - iii) above shows that 41 professionals that responded to the

questionnaire are from the meddle management level representing 53,7% with 11
– 15 years of working experience( 39%) and have executed 31 – 40 number of
projects, representing 30.61% of the 98 projects used within the research scope.
For the purpose of this research, the perception on extent to which NPRC and PRC
contributory factors impact cost performance of building projects were measured
using a five Likert-type scale. Fifty nine (59) indicators of the two major groups
(NPRC and PRC) were presented to construction professionals in the form of
statement items. Given their experience on the focal projects, the respondents were
requested to rate the extent of perception to which they agree with the statements.
Table 2 and 3 shows the mean score for each of the fifty nine indicators of NPRC
and PRC and their ranks.
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Jiya, et al.
Table 2: Summary of extent to which NPRC factors impact on cost performance of building
projects
Mean Std
NPRC factors Rank
score Dev.
Client financial stature 4.50 .707 1
Project size and complexities 4.47 .613 2
Project team collaborations 4.45 1.006 3
Project cost/ duration 4.35 .775 4
Client project budget/action plan 4.29 .760 5
Design team experience 4.20 1.031 6
Availability of skilled workers in the locality 4.22 1.021 7
Adequacy of design and specifications 4.14 1.055 8
Client rational/ need assessment 4.06 1.024 9
Accuracy of design details to contractor 4.02 1.065 10
Contractor’s experience 3.98 .718 11
Quality control of materials 3.96 .903 12
Client’s ability to brief the project objectives 3.94 1.003 13
Political considerations/interferences 3.93 1.372 14
Contractor involvement in decision making 3.92 1.012 15
Consultant’s commitment to ensure construction work according
3.86 1.035 16
to specifications
Project site condition difficulties 3.84 .960 17
Nature of Project 3.78 1.099 18
Overall project team common goals and strategies 3.80 1.015 19
Availability/ enough supply of quality materials in the locality 3.80 1.218 20
Consultant’s involvement to monitor the project progress 3.73 1.215 21
Contractor’s involvement/ control of subcontractors 3.69 1.078 22
Economic activity levels 3.61 .970 23
Strength of contractor workforce 3.43 1.055 24
Contractor information flow 3.43 1.149 25
Client’s ability to make decision 3.39 1.448 26
Client in-house capability 3.39 1.090 27
Material/labour site management difficulties 3.36 1.188 28
Client’s experience 3.24 1.540 29
Client overall project management 3.24 1.500 30
Contractor financial status 3.12 .987 31
physical climate and force majure 3.07 1.379 32
Design team leadership skills 2.98 1.457 33
Consultant cooperation to solve problem 2.38 1.162 34
Changes in designs 2.31 1.134 35
Mistakes/delays in design documents 2.31 1.134 36
Material/ labour rate approval 2.29 1.377 37
Social and cultural conditions in the area 2.19 1.164 38
Project team feedback capabilities 2.10 1.540 39
Table 2 Revealed that 39 non procurement related factors were considered. 33 non
procurement related factors are impactful on project cost performance. The
topmost of non-procurement related factors is client financial stature (Mean Scores
=4.50). The second factors of non-procurement related are project size
complexities (Mean Scores = 4.47). The third factor is project team collaboration
(Mean Scores = 4.45). The three least mean scores of non-procurement related
factors are feedback capabilities (Mean Score= 2.10); social and cultural condition
in the area (Mean Scores: 2.19) material rate approvals (Mean Scores: 2.29) the
lowest factors are dropped because these factors doesn’t contribute to the
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Jiya, et al.
performance of the buildings/construction in these areas in terms of cost. This was

however obvious because the cost of the SUBEB buildings depend on the financial
stature of the client (SUBEB/ UBEC sponsored).
Table 3. One-sample test of NPRC factors impacts on the cost of projects

Test Value = 2.5
Sig. 95% Confidence Interval

d Mean of the Difference
T (2-
f Difference
tailed) Lower Upper
NPRC factors impact on 9.68 3

.000 1.05821 .8371 1.2793
construction projects 9 8
Table 3 shows that since p value =0.000 is < 0.05, we reject Ho and conclude that
there is significance differences in the mean responses of NPRC factors impact on
the cost of construction projects and mid points. This means the respondents
agrees NPRC factors has impacts on the cost of construction projects.
Table 4: Summary of extent to which PRC factors impact on cost performance of building
projects.
Mean Std
PRC factors Rank
scores Dev.
Procurement method type 4.08 .949 1
Project responsibilities and contractual obligations to people
4.08 .949 2
and organizations
Participation of many decision makers 4.06 .771 3
Payment arrangement motivations to contractor 3.90 1.223 4
Project work co-ordination 3.80 .930 5
Contract award price and time 3.69 1.277 6
Project structure and elements identification 3.65 .982 7
Contract documents coherent with the existing legal framework. 3.65 1.277 8
Appropriate project processes and procedure 3.53 .933 9
Legal obligations, roles and responsibilities between parties 3.46 1.037 10
Contract conditions type 3.43 1.035 11
Payments in an efficient manner by the client 3.29 1.149 12
Contract documents reduce uncertainties, disputes and
3.24 1.370 13
interference
Selection method type 3.19 .960 14
Variation orders 3.06 1.225 15
Amended contract conditions clauses to client’s advantage sue for
2.90 1.640 16
the project.
Payments in an economic manner by the client 2.78 1.523 17
Early consideration of selection method of the project 2.69 1.395 18
Consideration of a wide range of necessary and sufficient decision
2.53 1.151 19
criteria
Type of Payment arrangement 2.37 1.179 20
Table 4 revealed 20 procurement related factors that are considered. Nineteen

factors are impactful to the building performance in terms of cost. The project
procurement method used and project responsibilities, contractual obligations to
people and organizations (Mean Scores = 4.08 each). The second is participation
of many decision makers (Mean Score = 4.06). The third factor is payment
arrangement motivations to contractor (Mean Score = 3.90). The three lowest
procurement related factors are type of payment arrangement (Mean score = 2.37).
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Jiya, et al.
The two other factors under procurement related which are less impactful are
consideration wide range of decision criteria (mean score = 2.53) and early
considerations of selection method of the project (mean score = 2.69). This was
obvious from SUBEB organization visit, interviews on building budget and action
plans and one can deduced that project payment arrangement, wide range of
decision criteria and early considerations of selection method does not really have
much impact on SUBEB building construction in terms of cost.
Table 5 One Sample Test of PRC factors impacts on the cost of projects
Test Value = 2.5
95% Confidence Interval of
Sig. (2- Mean the Difference
T df
tailed) Difference
Lower Upper
PRC factors
impact the cost of
7.475 19 .000 .86900 .6257 1.1123
construction
projects
From Table 5 above the Conformity test of mean responds of extent to which PRC
factors impact on cost of the focal projects using one sampled t- test, revealed that
p value =0.000 is < 0.05, we reject Ho and conclude that there is significance
differences in the mean responses of PRC factors impact on the cost of construction
projects and mid points. This means the respondents agrees PRC factors has
impacts on the cost of construction project.
Discussion of findings
Based on the findings, the levels of thirty three of the identified NPRC were found
to fall between moderate impact and very high impact with weighted mean values
between 2.98 - 4.50; this means that majority NPRC factors impact building project
time performance except Consultant cooperation to solve problem , Changes in
designs, Mistakes/delays in design documents , Material/ labour rate approval,
Social and cultural conditions in the area and Project team feedback capabilities
all with mean scores below 2.38. Nineteen of the identified PRC levels were found
to fall between moderate impacts and very high with weighted mean values
between 2.53 – 4.08; this also means that all PRC factors impact time performance
of building project except type of payment arrangement with mean scores below
2.37.
In addition, the results concerning the impact of NPRC factors on cost performance
of building projects shows that, NPRC factors have high impact on cost
performance of the focal building projects. The findings from table 2 shows client
financial stature, project size / complexities and project team collaborations as the
leading NPRC factors that impact on cost performance of the focal building
projects. These findings was similar with the study concluded by Babalola and Ojo
(2016) in Nigeria that Client’s experience whether he is sophisticated or specialized;
complexity of project; motivating skill of the project team leader; project team
leader experience among others. PRC findings from table 3 in this research shows
Procurement method type, Project responsibilities and contractual obligations to
people and organizations, Participation of many decision makers and payment
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Jiya, et al.
arrangement motivations to contractor. This finding is similar to the study by

Rashid et al. (2006) that revealed the different procurement systems allocation of
responsibilities, activities sequencing, process and procedure and organizational
approach have invariably affected the project performance. This finding was
slightly different from Ibrahim et al (2014) that reveals late honoring of payment
certificate, too many variations, and technical incompetence were the most severe
factors affecting performance.
Further analysis was conducted to provide insight into the Conformity test of mean
responds of extent to which NPRC factors impact on cost and time of the focal
projects using one sampled t- test. This is to test the mean responds of extent to
which the NPRC and PRC factors impact on cost and time of the construction
projects using mid-point as test score (2.5). Hypothesis: Ho: there is no significant
differences between the mean responses of NPRC factors on cost of construction
projects and mid-point and H1: there is significant differences between the mean
responses of NPRC factors on cost of construction projects and mid-point. Level of
significances: α= 5% = 0.05. Decision criteria: reject Ho, if probability value (p value)
is < 0.05 as shown in table 3 and 5 below.
The result from table 3 and table 5 conformity test of mean responds of extent to
which NPRC and PRC factors impact on cost of the focal projects using one
sampled t- test, revealed that NPRC (p value =0.000 is < 0.05) and PRC (p value
=0.000 is < 0.05), we therefore, reject Ho and conclude that there is significance
differences in the mean responses of NPRC and PRC factors extent of impact on
the cost of SUBEB building construction projects and mid points. This means the
respondents agrees PRC factors has impacts on the cost of construction project.
This means the respondents agrees that both NPRC and PRC factors have impacts
on the cost of construction projects.
CONCLUSION/ RECOMMENDATION
In order to examine the extent of the impact of procurement related contributory
factors and non-procurement related factors on the cost performance of building
projects. The study affirmed that, project contributory factors do exist and can
impact cost performance at varying extent. This is because cost performance of
building projects is dependent on a number of project contributory factors
(Procurement Related Contributory factors (PRC) and Non-Procurement Related
Factors (NPRC) among others, though majority of these factors showed high
impact on cost performance of building projects, but the very high impact of NPRC
are Client financial stature (mean = 4.50), Project size/complexities (mean = 4.47)
and Project team collaborations (mean = 4.45). While the very high impact for PRC
are procurement method type (mean =4.08), project responsibilities and
contractual obligations to people/ organizations (mean = 4.08) and participation
of many decision makers (mean = 4.06). A need for appropriate and adequate
consideration of the very high impact identified NPRC and PRC factors should be
develop and were recommended as the basis for SUBEB building construction
projects in any scenario aimed at effective cost performance. This study therefore
calls on SUBEB construction professionals and construction industry professionals
in general to the knowledge of impact of NPRC and PRC factors on cost
performance of building projects. This study recommended that NPRC and PRC
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Jiya, et al.
factors should be taken serious as these factors can be problems militating against
effective cost performance of building projects. This is evident in the mean
responds conformity one - sample t- test that demonstrated the respondents ’
agreements of both NPRC and PRC factors extent of impacts on the cost of building
projects at different extent.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
THE POTENTIAL ROLE OF GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE ON

MENTAL HEALTH AND WELL-BEING: THE COVID-19
PANDEMIC EXPERIENCE
Adedotun Ayodele Dipeolu1 and Akintunde Olaniyi Onamade2
1Department of Architecture, College of Engineering and Environmental Studies, Olabisi Onabanjo
University, Ogun State, Nigeria
2Department of Architecture, Caleb University, Imota-Lagos State, Nigeria
Urban Green Infrastructure (GI) is an essential element in the urban environment,

providing multiple ecosystem services that could help combat many urban
environmental challenges and improve physical and mental health for city dwellers.
Although, rapid changes in urban growth rates has put these facilities under intense
pressure in cities worldwide, the present challenges of COVID-19 pandemic have
declared a need to harness the potentials of available strategies that can efficiently
manage the sustenance of life and the living conditions of human in the built
environment. This study examined the influence of GI on mental health and
wellbeing of residents affected by COVID-19 lockdowns and restriction to mobility
in selected neighbourhoods in Abeokta, Ogun State. A multi-stage sampling
technique was used to select 162 residents who participated in a questionnaire
survey conducted in the study area. The results of the descriptive statistics reveal
that 78.4% of the residents are aware of the COVID-19 and restriction to mobility.
44.4% of the participants visited GI sites within their neighborhood to ease the
perceived mental stress of the lockdown, while 34.6% of the respondents confirmed
that lockdown allowed them to spend more time with their family. Also, 40.7% of
the respondents agreed that adequate provision of UGI facilities in their
neighbourhood will enhance opportunity for recreation in case of future
lockdowns. This implies that with appropriate government policies on expanding
the planning and implementation of various UGI facilities and strategies both in
public and private spaces, the effects on mental health and well-being of COVID-
19 lockdowns and other similar crises can be sufficiently tackled among urban
residents.
Keywords: COVID-19, ecosystems, environmental sustainability, green

infrastructure, mental health
INTRODUCTION
Globally, governments are working round the clock to invent strategies to reduce
or prevent the spread of the COVID-19 following the declaration of a global
pandemic by the World Health Organization in the first quatre of year 2020. Part
1 dipeolu.adedotun@oouagoiwoye.edu.ng; archidot2002@yahoo.com
2 onamadeasso@yahoo.com
Dipeolu and Onamade (2021) The potential role of green infrastructure on mental health and well-
being: the covid-19 pandemic experience In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
957
Dipeolu and Onamade
of the immediate measures to curb the pandemic include stepwise restrictions in

individual mobility and public life with total lockdown of cities in some part of the
world (Hanzl, 2020; Ugolini et al, 2020). Apart from these, the quest for
environmental strategies which facilitate healthier lifestyles while impeding the
spread of the epidemic has recently gained fresh recognition. Studies conducted
during the ongoing pandemic have shown how important urban green
infrastructure (GI) is for the physical, mental health and wellbeing of urban
residents. Other recent studies have also shown that green infrastructure offers a
wide range of ecosystem functions and services essential to human health,
wellbeing and urban sustainability (O’Brien et al, 2017; Staddon et al, 2018). These
aspects of GI are of particular relevance under environmental and health crises such
as the current COVID-19 pandemic.
Urban Green Infrastructure (GI) includes strategically planned and delivered

networks of multi-functional green space and facilities that contribute to the
protection of natural habitats, species diversity and other environmental features
designed and managed with the aim of delivering ecological services and quality
of life benefits to the built environment (Wolch et al, 2014; Mexia et al, 2018;
Dipeolu, Ibem & Fadamiro, 2021). Among other benefits, GI strengthens the
quality of life in the built environment (Venter et al, 2020; Sanesi et al, 2011), as it
provide avenue to reduce stress and increase motivation (Zuniga-Teran et al, 2020;
Kim & Song 2019), enhance social cohesion (Dipeolu, Ibem & Fadamiro, 2020;
Zijlema et al, 2017), encourage physical activity (Hunter et al, 2015), improve
physical health (Van den Bosch & Sang, 2017) and even promote a person’s
wellbeing and mental health (Nath et al, 2018; Zhang et al, 2017).
Most importantly, GI has ability for city resilience. Urban resilience has been
defined as the ‘ability of an urban system and all its constituents ( socio, economic
and environmental) networks across temporal and spatial scales to maintain or
rapidly return to desired functions in the face of any form of tilting or disturbance,
to adapt to change, and to quickly transform systems that limit current or future
adaptive capacity (Meerow et al, 2016). Thus, a resilient city is one that anticipates,
forecasts, plans and acts to prepare for and respond to unexpected turbulence.
Urban forests and parks for example, provide cooling benefits during hot summer
(Norton et al, 2015), thus reducing the effect of urban heat island and heat related
diseases or infections. Street tree canopies are suggested as a solution for shading
pedestrian space, with broadleaf tree species being most effective in increasing
thermal comfort (Pamukcu-Albers et al, 2021) especially when there is need to
engage in trecking.
Like several other nations, the Nigerian government in a bid to curtail the spread
of the pandemic, imposed lockdowns and restriction to mobility in every states of
the federation. This emergency decision took residents by surprise as they were
mostly less prepared for the pandemic just like many other people around the
globe. This forced residents to devise various strategies to cope with the situation
while the imposed lockdowns last. In view of the foregoing and the need for human
race to find a solution and survive the numerous challenges of COVID-19
pandemic, this study examined the impacts of GI on mental health and wellbeing
of people affected by COVID-19 lockdowns and restriction to mobility in selected
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Dipeolu and Onamade
neighbourhoods in Abeokuta, Ogun State. The specific objectives of this study are
to:
i. assess the effectiveness of awareness about COVID-19 and the coping

strategies by residents during the lockdowns in the study area;
ii. examine the perceived effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on mental health and
well-being of residents in Abeokuta Ogun State; and
iii. investigate the perceived role of GI facilities during the COVID-19
lockdowns in Abeokut,a, Ogun State.
This study makes contribution to knowledge by improving understanding of the

specific role GI plays in promoting mental health and wellbeing during the
compulsory lock down or stay at home period in many cities around the world. It
also uncovers the strategies through which urban residents engaged in order to
cope with the mental stress and maintenance of well-being during the COVID-19
pandemic saga. In this regard, the study informs urban designers, planners and
managers on the way to strengthen the planning and implementation of GI
facilities and strategies to improve good health among human populations which
is vital in creating safe, long and sustainable urban life in African and other
continents of the world.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Effects of COVID-19 pandemic on human life and population
The COVID-19 pandemic has been reported to forced entire countries into total
lockdown, threatened citizens around the world, and ignited a rapid economy
meltdown (Uchiyama & Kohsaka, 2020; Venter, Barton, Gundersen & Figari, 2020;
Badejo, Ogunseye & Olasunkanmi, 2020). National governments have requested
that citizens adopt and adjust to the concept of the “new normal” lifestyle in order
to adapt to the changes. Measure such as “work from home”, lock down of religious
houses, restriction on mass gathering, reduction in passengers on commercial
vehicles and various forms of home quarantine were all put in place to avoid
crowds in workplaces, religious houses, event centres and traffic (Honey-Rosés et
al, 2020; Uchiyama & Kohsaka, 2020).
Most importantly, people who have potentially come into contact with the infection
were asked to isolate themselves at home or in a dedicated quarantine facility in
many countries. Owing to the lockdown of cities to control the spread of infection,
access and use of green areas and other public spaces were been restricted. During
lockdowns, the distances that could be travelled were restricted and public
transport was reduced, meaning that people could only access green spaces if it
was close to home. Their amenities and features also became important as
residents sought out the greenest public spaces within their neighborhoods with
most tree coverage to recreate or relax in order to tackle COVID-19 mobility
restrictions (Pamukcu-Albers et al, 2020; Samuelsson et al, 2020). Existing studies
(Ely & Pitman, 2014; Craik et al, 2015; Dpeolu et al, 2020) have shown that residents
in neighbourhoods without or inadequate availability of GI facilities are likely to
suffer more boredom environment and are also more likely to be willing to escape
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Dipeolu and Onamade
from their neighbourhoods in order to gain access to nature in other neighbouring

communities.
Planning green infrastructure to increase urban pandemic resilience

Green infrastructure (GI) is an interconnected network of green spaces that
conserves natural ecosystems values and functions and provides associated
benefits to human populations (Benedict & McMahon, 2002). It consists of natural
and semi-natural landscapes such as grasses, trees domestic gardens, informal
parks, green walls, green roofs, open spaces, as well as water features of streams,
wetlands found within residential neighbourhoods in urban areas (Jennings et al,
2017; Kumar et al, 2019). Ely and Pitman (2014) observed that GI exists in various
physical forms such as public parks and gardens, greenways, street verges and
open space pockets in residential and other streets, sports and recreational
facilities, private and semi-private gardens, green roofs and walls, squares and
plazas, natural green space, utility areas, and agricultural and other productive
land.
Studies on the role of GI in addressing the challenges induced by the COVID-19
pandemic is just emerging (Uchiyama & Kohsaka, 2020). Generally, findings of
these studies have shown how important urban nature is for the mental health and
wellbeing of urban residents. The importance of availability of GI in urban
neighbourhoods became very noticeable especially during the imposed lockdowns
and restrictions by various governments in many nations as an attempt to curtail
the spread of the virus. Hanzl (2020) reported that during the lockdown human
mobility patterns in most part of the world was significantly altered as there were
limited access to the green spaces and recreation areas very far from residents
neighbourhoods. Thus, the imposed lockdowns brought additional mental stress
to many residents who were used to the hustling and bustling of the city life. While
the containment measures contributed to lowering the virus outbreak and the
number of positive cases, they strongly limited personal freedom and deprived
people of their liberty to visit their preferred green spaces (Ugolini et al, 2020).
However, studies of Ugolini et al. (2020) and those of Samuelsson et al. (2020) have
argued that urban nature can help reduce stress momentarily and provide
relaxation during long periods of social distancing and household confinement.
Other studies in congruent to this submission include the study by Venter et al.
(2020) which showed that pedestrian activity in Oslo increased in city parks, peri-
urban forests, and protected areas during the COVID-19 pandemic. Previous
studies also submitted that accessibility and usability of green areas are important
aspects for improving the quality of life in urban settlements for a variety of reasons
related to wellbeing (sports or physical exercise), observing nature especially when
areas are rich in biodiversity and socializing activities (Kumar et al, 2019; Quatrini
et al, 2019; Zijlema et al, 2017; Jennings et al, 2017;)
METHODS
Study area and research population
Abeokuta the study area, lies on latitude 70 8 ’N and longitude 30 25 ’E coordinates.
It is a fast-growing city in the Southwest Nigeria and capital of Ogun State. It is a
nodal urban centre situated about 81 kilometers south-west of Ibadan, the capital
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of Oyo state, 106 kilometres north of Lagos, the former capital of Nigeria, 63
kilometers from Ota. Around the Ota-Agbara axis is the Lagos state boundary with
Ogun State with fast growing industrial opportunities. Apart from the large
industrial activities, other economic values in Abeokuta are the medium and small-
scale plants of saw milling, food processing, clothing, woodworks, carving,
quarrying, pottery, dyeing confectionery and steel works. Abeokuta has two (2)
Local Government Areas (Abeokuta South= 250,295 and Abeokuta North=
198,793) and with total population of 449,088 in 2006 which increased to 624,700
in 2016 at the rate 3.4% annual population growth (Solanke, 2016). Abeokuta is
linked with Lagos; the acclaimed commercial capital of Nigeria via the Lagos-
Ibadan expressways through the Abeokuta-Sagamu expressway as well as the
Abeokuta-Otta expressways. This rapid population growth, coupled with the
buoyant economic activities which has been reported to deplete the initial forest
covers in the town (Dipeolu & Fadamiro, 2013), suggest a great demand for green
infrastructure in the city for recreation and relaxation purposes.
Figure 1: Map of Nigeria showing the Location of the study area in Ogun State
Source:
https://www.google.com/search?q=map+of+ogun+state+in+nigeria&rlz=1C1CHBF_enNG875NG
875&oq=map&aqs=chrome.0.69i59l2j69i57j0i271l3j69i60l2.2145j0j15&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF
-8
Research design
The research design adopted for this study was a cross-sectional survey. This is
because of the nature of the research objectives and the advantages it offered in
the collection of quantitative data from the participants within these two Local
Government Areas (LGAs) in Abeokuta town within the shortest period of time.
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Dipeolu and Onamade
For the sample size, previous studies have suggested that sampling frame and
sampling sizes are better determined in proportion to the population of the study
area. Also, scientific selection of small sample from larger population gives a true
representation of the study area and guaranteed accuracy (Okoko, 2000; Babbie,
1998). Neuman (1991) opined that larger population permit smaller sampling ratio.
He asserted that as the population size grow, the returns in accuracy for sample
size shrinks. Therefore, to get a reasonable sample size for this study, a total of
200 questionnaires were given out for the survey.
The data were obtained from the participants with the help of pretested structured
questionnaire designed by the researchers. The review of literature was helpful in
the identification of variables investigated. The questionnaire was structured into
different sections based on the specific issues investigated. Specifically, the first
section was used in extracting data on the following variables 1) the participants ’
demographic characteristics 2) awareness, coping strategies and perceived effects
of the COVID-19 lockdown in the study area 3) the Perceived role of green
infrastructure among residents of the study area during the COVID-19 lockdowns.
Data collection
The data presented in this paper were sourced from authors field-work in a survey
conducted between the months of November and December 2020. Participants
were household heads or adult representative who can and were willing to provide
the needed information. Part of the data collection process involved visits by the
authors to the Ogun State office of the National Population Commission (NPC) to
obtain the lists of Enumeration Areas (EAs) in the two LGAs involved in the study.
These documents helped in the identification of 4 EAs in each of the two LGAs
making 8 EAs in all.
The main survey comprised of the administration and retrieval of copies of the
questionnaire from the residents in the selected neighbourhoods. The selection of
the participants in the survey was based on the sampling intervals (n) determined
by dividing the number of houses in each of the 8 enumeration areas (EAs)
identified by the determined sample size for each of the EAs. The household heads
were then systematically sampled from the list of numbered houses in each EA until
the required household heads allocated to each of the EAs was achieved. The first
(1st) house at the nodal point within each EA was chosen, subsequent selections
were systematically done based on the predetermined sampling interval (n) for
each of the two LGAs sampled. One copy of the questionnaire was administered
by hand to every consenting household head or adult representative found in the
housing units when the survey was carried out. Out of the 200 copies of the
questionnaire administered by the researchers, 162 of them were retrieved and
correctly filled giving a response rate of 81.0 %.

Socio- demographic distributions of Respondents
There were 162 respondents, 59.3% were male while 40.7% were female (Table 1).
Nearly half of the participants (48.8%) were aged 30-49 years old while only 13.6%
of the participants were 50 years or older. Participants were mostly married (56.8%)
living in household comprising of two-four (44.4%) and more than four (38.3%)
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Dipeolu and Onamade
persons per household. Also, from Table 1 more than half of the participants
(53.1%) had tertiary education while only few (4.3%) have no formal education.
Some of the participants (38.9%) were management staff/business owners, while
30.2% were junior staff and 19.8% were senior staff in either civil services or private
companies.
Table I: Socio-Demographic distributions of respondents N= 162
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Sex
Male 96 59.3
Female 66 40.7
Current age
˂30 42 25.9
30-49 79 48.8
˃=50 22 13.6
Not Reported 19 11.7
Marital Status
Never Married (Single) 59 36.4
Married 92 56.8
Previously Married 10 6.2
Not Reported 1 0.6
Household Size
One person 16 9.9
Two-four Persons 72 44.4
More than Four Person 62 38.3
Not Reported 12 7.4
Religious Affiliations
Christianity 84 51.8
Islam 67 41.4
Others 10 6.2
Not Reported 1 0.6
Highest Educational Qualification
No Formal Education 7 4.3
Primary Education 14 8.6
Secondary / Technical Education 52 32.1
Tertiary Education 86 53.1
Not Reported 3 1.9
Profession
Unemployed 18 11.1
Self employed 64 39.5
Private/Public employee 52 32.1
Students and Others 28 17.3
Rank in Occupation / Income level
Junior Staff 49 30.2
Senior Staff 32 19.8
Management staff/ Business owners 63 38.9
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Awareness and coping strategies by residents during the COVID-19 lockdown

Awareness level about the COVID-19 related lockdowns was sought from the
respondents. Table 2 indicated that 78.4% of the respondents were aware while
only 7.4% claimed not aware of the lockdown periods. 41.9% were aware through
the radio, 30.2% through the television, 14.2% through either friend, relatives or
neighbours and 11.1% through government officials. Due to this level of awareness,
more than half (53.2%) of the participants did not receive visitors in their houses
while 38.2% still received visitors during the lockdown period.
When the participants were asked how they coped with the emergency lockdown
and restriction to mobility, 50% responded that they did not visit anywhere outside
their neighbourhood while 34.6% reported otherwise. However, 77.8% reported
that they visited places within their immediate neighbourhood during the
lockdown to ease boredomness while 19.1% reported no visitation even within the
neigbourhood. Majority (44.4%) of the participants visited neighbourhood GI sites,
27.2% visited their friend’s houses,12.4% visited religious houses/places of worship
while only 11.1% visited other places to ease the boredomness of the lockdown.
On participants reasons for visiting places within their neighbourhood during the
COVID-19 lockdowns, 51.9% asserted this to relaxation and recreational purposes,
15.4% and 11.7% said it is for religious and educational purposes respectively
while17.9% attributed it to other reasons. Rating the lockdown compliance in the
study area, 28.4% of the participants rated compliance to be very good, while 38.9%
and 24.1% of the participants rated compliance to the lockdown to be good and
fair respectively in the study area.
Perceived effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on mental health and well-being of
residents
The study also assessed both the negative and positive impacts of the deployed
COVID-19 lockdown measures on the mental health and well-being of the
participants. The greatest negative impact from Table 2 was mental stress from
boredomness (34.6%). Others that are of significance were low business patronage
(21.6%), poverty/increased debts due to no job (14.8%), loss of job (14.2%),
spending less time with friends (8.0%), and domestic violence with spouse (6.2%).
Despite the negative impacts, respondents have also perceived the lockdown
measures from a positive angle. A larger proportion (34.6%) of the respondents
confirmed that lockdown allowed them to spend more time with their family, 25.9%
learned to do regular physical exercises and recreate, 20.4% engaged in new
business, 16.1% learned to cope with available resources, while 1.8% learnt to
prepare for future global disasters (Table 2).
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Dipeolu and Onamade
Table 2: Awareness, coping strategies and perceived effects of the COVID-19 lockdown
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
Awareness of lockdown in your neighbourhood
Yes 127 78.4
No 12 7.4
Any visitor during the lockdown
Yes 62 38.2
No 86 53.2
Not Reported 14 8.6
Did you visit anywhere outside your neighbourhood
during the lockdown to ease boredomness?
Yes 56 34.6
No 81 50.0
Did you visit anywhere within your neighbourhood
during the lockdown to ease boredomness?
Yes 126 77.8
No 31 19.1
Not Reported 5 3.1
Where did you mostly visit in your neighbourhood
during the lockdown to ease boredomness
My friends’ houses 44 27.2
Neighbourhood green infrastructure sites 72 44.4
Religious houses/places of worship 20 12.4
Others
18 11.1
Medium of awareness of the lockdown
Radio 68 41.9
Television 49 30.2
Friend/Relative/Neighbour 23 14.2
Government officials 18 11.1
Not Reported 4 2.6
Rating of lockdown compliance
Very good 46 28.4
Good 63 38.9
Fair 39 24.1
Not reported 14 8.6
Which part of your building environment did you spend
a good number of hours during the lockdown period
Indoor 54 33.3
Outdoor 103 63.6
Not Reported 5 3.1
What were the perceived negative effects of the
COVID- 19 lockdown on your mental health and
well-being
Low business patronages 35 21.6
Loss of jobs 23 14.2
Spent less time with friends 13 8.0
Mental stress form boredomness 56 34.6
Poverty/increased debts due to no job 24 14.8
Domestic violence with spouse 10 6.2
Not Reported 1 0.6
What were the perceived positive effects of the COVID-
19 lockdown on your mental health and well-being
Spending more time with the family 56 34.6
I learnt to do physical exercises and recreate regularly 42 25.9
Engaging in new business ideas 33 20.4
I learnt to cope with available resources 26 16.1
I learnt to prepare for future global disasters 3 1.8
Not Reported 2 1.2
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Perceived role of GI during the COVID-19 lockdowns

To ascertain if GI play any significant role during the COVID-19 lockdown periods,
participants were asked about their level of agreement with some statements on
perceived role of GI facilities.
Table 3: Perceived effect of GI on the COVID-19 Lockdown
Variable Frequency Percentage (%)
Green infrastructure (GI) facilities are available in my
neighbourhood for relaxation purposes
Strongly disagree 23 14.2
Disagree 44 27.3
Undecided 37 22.8
Agree 34 20.9
Strongly agree 24 14.8
You need to go outside this neighbourhood to get
Recreational parks
Disagree 35 21.6
Undecided 12 7.4
Agree 46 28.4
Compare to any other solution, availability of GI facilities
greatly helped people in my neighourhood to cope with
the compulsory lockdown
Disagree 22 13.6
Undecided 14 8.6
Agree 54 33.3
Visit to the neighbourhood GI helped me to cope with
boredomness during the compulsory lockdown
Disagree 18 11.1
Undecided 8 4.9
Agree 64 39.5
I visited my neighbourhood GI more than usual during
the compulsory COVID-19 lockdowns
Disagree 15 9.3
Undecided 12 7.4
Agree 52 32.1
Adequate provision of GI facilities in this neighbourhood
will enhance more opportunity for recreation in case of
future lockdowns
Disagree 24 14.8
Undecided 9 5.6
Agree 44 27.2
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On availability of GI in the study area for recreational purposes, Table 3 revealed

that 14.2% of the respondents strongly disagreed, 27.3% disagreed while 20.9% of
the respondents agreed and 14.8% strongly agreed. Participants were also asked if
visits to the neighbourhood GI helped them to cope with boredomness during the
compulsory lockdowns. 16.1% of the respondents strongly disagreed, 11.1%
disagreed while 39.5% agreed and 28.4% strongly agreed. When asked if visit to GI
sites helped people in their neighbourhood to cope with the compulsory
lockdowns better than any other solutions, 13.0% of the respondents strongly
disagreed, 13.6% disagreed while 33.3% agreed and 31.5% strongly agreed with
only 8.6% undecided on the matter.
Furthermore, in Table 3 the statement on whether residents visited neighbourhood

GI more than usual during the COVID-19 lockdowns has 16.0% of the respondents
strongly disagreed, 9.4% disagreed while 32.1% strongly agreed and 35.2% agreed.
At thesame time, the question on if adequate provision of GI facilities in their
neighbourhood will enhance opportunity for recreation in case of future lockdowns
has 11.7% of the respondents strongly disagreed, 14.8% disagreed while 27.2%
respondents agreed and 40.7% also strongly agreed.
DISCUSSION
This study investigated the influence of GI on mental health and wellbeing of
residents affected by COVID-19 related lockdowns and restriction to mobility in
selected neighbourhoods in Abeokuta, Ogun State. Based on the findings, a
number of issues that relate to the research objectives formulated for the study
have emerged and brought forward for further discussion. First, in addressing the
first objective, which deals with the effectiveness of awareness about COVID-19
lockdowns and the coping strategies by residents during the period, our survey
data indicate that although a good number of the residents were aware about the
COVID-19 pandemic and the related lockdowns, still some residents allowed
visitors in their houses despite the lockdown and restrictions to mobility. However,
awareness of the lockdowns by residents was majorly through the radio and the
television. This proved significantly the role played by the media in deepening
awareness about the pandemic as supported by studies of Badejo et al. (2020) and
Samuelsson et al. (2020).
On the coping strategy during the lockdown periods, residents visited their
neighbours, religious house and other places of interest within their
neighbourhood. However, majority of the participants visited neighbourhood GI
sites for the purpose of recreation and relaxation. In fact, the participants in the
survey were emphatic that they preferred more outdoor environment than staying
indoor during the compulsory lockdown periods. Going by the evidence in the
literature (Pamukcu-Albers et al, 2021; Ugolini et al, 2020), GI provides cities with
the capacity to withstand epidemic or pandemic induced stresses. This role of
green areas in providing needed adaptation services in times of such crises has
been widely studied and demonstrated (e.g., Gill et al, 2007; Kazmierczak & Carter,
2010)
Secondly, regarding the perceived effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on mental
health and well-being of residents in the study area, respondents perceived that
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Dipeolu and Onamade
the lockdowns has both negative and positive effect on their mental health and
well-being. Top among the negative effect is the mental stress from the
boredomness of the lockdown. As reported in previous studies (e.g Brooks et al,
2020),at the stage one of the COVID-19 pandemic, implementation of stay-at-
home orders was effective in "flattening the curve" and provided the much-needed
time for healthcare systems to increase their capacity while reducing the number
of peak cases during the initial wave of the pandemic. However, after few months,
most studies (Brooks et al, 2020; Uchiyama & Kohsaka, 2020; Ugolini et al, 2020)
reported negative psychological effects including post-traumatic stress symptoms,
confusion, and anger.
On the other hand, the findings of this research also reveal that respondents have
also perceived the lockdown measures from a positive angle despite the mental
stress, larger proportion of the respondents discovered that lockdown allowed
them to spend more time with their family and they also learnt to do regular
physical exercises and recreate. Previous studies have asserted that GI enhances
socialization and strong communal bonding (Dipeolu et al, 2020), improves sense
of identification of neighbours (Kim & Song, 2019) as well as the care by
neighbours for one another (Zhang et al, 2017) These are indeed some of the social
and health benefits of GI identified by previous authors as having link to sense of
community, mental health and well-being (see Stigsdotter et al, 2010; Wloch et al,
2014; Venta et al, 2020).
Lastly, as it relates to the perceived role of GI facilities during the COVID-19

lockdowns in the study area, our survey data also reveal that availability of GI for
recreational purposes in the study area is presently not well pronounced. This is
because nearly half of the study participants disagreed with availability of GI in
their neighbourhood while the remaining half agreed that GI is available in the
study area. This result suggests that although GI is available (as confirmed by
authors ’reconnaissance survey) in the study area but the available quantity and
quality is not well pronounced to receive consensus acceptance availability by the
residents. Furthermore, a good number of the residents reported that GI helped
them to cope with boredomness during the compulsory lockdowns. Again,
respondents were emphatic that no other solution that helped people in their
neighbourhood to cope with the compulsory lockdowns better than the visit to GI
sites. This result further emphasized the recreational values of GI as ascertained in
the literature. GI rendered services to that are crucial to the wellbeing of urban
populations, in particular in terms of human health benefits, both physical and
psychological (Venta et al., 2020; Ugolini et al, 2020; Kumar et al, 2019; Quatrini et
al, 2019; Tzoulas et al, 2007). Also from the study, the residents visited
neighbourhood GI sites more than usual during the COVID-19 and opined that if
adequate attention is given to the provision of GI facilities in their neighbourhood,
it will enhance opportunity for recreation in case of future lockdowns. Existing
studies have already addressed the potential for urban nature to enhance resilience
of urban populations during the pandemic (Pamukcu-Albers et al, 2021; Hanzl,
2020; Ugolini et al, 2020) to provide ‘quality of life ’by increasing resilience of cities.
Results from these studies supported quality of life and health outcomes when
patients and their relatives have good access to nature. The magnitude of improved
health was positively associated with access to nature, suggesting that green
spaces facilitated healing, social distancing and indirectly mitigated the spread of
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COVID-19. Thus, UGI can contribute to the social resilience of cities, by acting as
refuge for urban residents during periods with high levels of stress (Pamukcu-
Albers et al, 2021).

This study investigated influence of UGI on mental health and wellbeing of
residents affected by COVID-19 related lockdowns and restriction to mobility in
selected neighbourhoods in Abeokuta, Ogun State. Based on the findings, three
conclusions were arrived at. The first conclusion is that good number of the
participants in the survey were aware of the COVID-19 lockdowns and they were
able to device visits to GI facilities in their neighbourhoods as strategy to cope with
mental stress of the lockdown. The second conclusion is that in spite of the mental
stress, larger proportion of the respondents discovered that the lockdown allowed
them to spend more time with their family and they also learnt to do regular
physical exercises and recreate within GI facilities. The last conclusion is that
presence of GI within the study area enabled residents to visit neighbourhood GI
sites more than usual during the COVID-19 lockdown periods and opined that if
adequate attention is given to the provision of GI facilities in their neighbourhood,
it will enhance opportunity for recreation in case of future lockdowns.
These findings from this study imply that GI contributes effectively in helping
residents in urban neighbourhoods to quickly devised strategy to cope with the
mental stress of the emergency COVID-19 lockdowns. Thus, there is need for
adequate provision of GI facilities and the rate at which green areas are depleted
in the neighbourhoods needs to be checked through preservation and
conservation. In addition, access to parks and gardens in the neighbourhoods
should be improved and emphasis should be on the provision and maintenance of
adequate number of well-equipped and properly located GI that meets the needs
of every segment of the society, including children.
Lastly, the research design adopted in this study suggests that the current study is
not without limitations. Firstly, since the data were sourced mainly via the
administration of questionnaire, the findings are limited to biases of the
respondents in the survey. Secondly, the geographic coverage of the survey is
limited to the selected neighbourhoods in the two Local Government Areas in
Ogun State as a result, the findings cannot be generalised for the entire Ogun State.
Therefore, future study is needed to include more neighbourhoods and other LGAs
for more robust results.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-EFFICACY BELIEFS AND

CAREER CHOICES OF UNDERGRADUATE BUILT
ENVIRONMENT STUDENTS
Mariam Akinlolu1 and Theo C. Haupt2
1,2Faculty of Engineering, Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
This study examines the relationship between career choices and career self-
efficacy beliefs among a sample of South African university students. This study
surveyed 229 conveniently sampled students, including 116 men and 113 women
enrolled in construction-related programs at two universities in South Africa. The
samples were drawn from student cohorts enrolled in construction management,
civil engineering, property development, land surveying, building and quantity
surveying. Adopting the Social Cognitive Career Theory as the study’s theoretical
framework, an exploratory factor analysis yielded support for 5-item scale of self-
efficacy. The EFA provided support for the internal validity and reliability of the
scale. Results of structural equation modeling indicated that a significant
relationship exists between self-efficacy and the student’s decision to undertake a
career in construction. The Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis test was conducted
to test for gender and SES differences in the extent to which self-efficacy beliefs
influenced a career choice in construction. No significant differences were found in
in the influence of self-efficacy beliefs between men and women. The study
revealed significant differences between the high and medium SES groups.
Findings of the current study have meaningful implication for practice in career
choice and development in built environment occupations.
Keywords: career, self-efficacy, South Africa, university students
INTRODUCTION
Construction education in South Africa is an interesting and peculiar context in
which to study the gender-differences in career choices. The construction industry
is demonstrably male-dominated, which makes it hard for women to persist in
construction-related programs, as well as in the industry (Madikizela and Haupt,
2010; English and Le Jeune, 2012). Despite an extensive range of global legislation
developed to promote women’s participation in construction, women are still
underrepresented in the construction industry, and more so among students in
construction (Male et al., 2017; English and Le Jeune, 2012; Akinlolu and Haupt,
2019). While both first and third world countries share the problem of inadequate
representation of women, women are very present in the construction workforce
1 akinlolumariam@gmail.com
2 pinnacle.haupt@gmail.com
Akinlolu and Haupt (2021) The relationship between self-efficacy beliefs and career choices of
undergraduate built environment students In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built
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Akinlolu and Haupt
of some developing countries compared to European countries (English and Le

Jeune, 2012).
Making a career choice in the construction industry has not been a prevalent
decision by women in South Africa (Enshassi and Mohammaden, 2012; Ozumba
and Ozumba, 2012). Gender-related studies have revealed that women’s career
choices are affected by social and cultural role expectations (Powell et al., 2009).
Due to South Africa’s cultural diversity, many women are brought up with the
understanding that they cannot undertake non-traditional careers such as
construction and are advised to follow instead, ‘soft skills ’occupations such as
nursing (Sangweni, 2015). Their primary roles are to take care of the family and
nurture their children, while their spouses are the breadwinners and are entitled to
the workplace (Madikizela and Haupt, 2010; English and Le Jeune, 2012). Putting
women’s roles in such stereotypical boxes is one of the hindrances that shorten the
working life of women and makes it impossible to maintain an upward trend in the
number of women in construction (Enshassi and Mohammaden, 2012).
Recent studies have begun to dismiss the assumption that references made to
women include all women and that all women have similar experiences (Byrd, 2009;
Flores et al., 2010). Although in the South African context women may share a
common gender, their cultural and socio-economic backgrounds vary (Louw-
Harmse, 2015). The differences in their environments may influence the extent to
which socio-cultural factors affect their career decisions more than others. Findings
from previous studies suggest that demography and socio-economic differences
may have an impact on the career decisions of women and their perceptions of
career-related barriers. The aspirations of children are influenced within the
prevailing social and cultural environment in which they develop. Personality
interests, family, school, media, socio-economic and geographic settings were
found to have an impact on the professional aspirations of children (Watson et al.,
2011). While scholars have begun seeking the role culture and society plays on the
career decisions of women and their development at the workplace, fewer studies
have focused on inter-group differences (Holvino, 2010). Likewise, although
numerous researchers have suggested a convergence of major career development
theories (Eccles et al., 1984; Hackett et al., 1991; Lent et al., 1994) most recognize
that this has still not been achieved. Although there have been numerous studies
on the experiences of women in the construction industry (Chileshe and Haupt,
2010; Vainikolo, 2017), few studies have attempted to view their experiences from
a theoretical perspective to give a larger meaning to their career choices and
development. The lack of empirical research in this area suggests that more in-
depth exploration of this problem is required.
Self-efficacy has been found to play a strong predictor of career choice behaviors
in individuals (Sawtelle et al., 2012). Self-efficacy belief which is the core construct
of the Socio Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and typically influences a person’s
academic and professional aspirations is influenced by learning experiences
(Saiffudin et al., 2013). These beliefs are influenced by a person’s success at a given
task, as this information is integrated into the person’s self-concept in that specific
domain. High levels of self-efficacy are related to the extent to which a person
intends to undertake a career in a particular profession (Kelly, 2009). Since self-
efficacy deals with feelings of being capable of executing a specific task, self-
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efficacy constructs are strong predictors of career behaviours (Betz and Hackett,
1981; Sheu et al., 2010). Lent et al. (2007); Kelly (2009); Huang (2013) reported a
positive correlation between the confidence of men and women in their abilities to
complete necessary job tasks and educational requirements in construction.
Students who had low self-efficacy of their abilities to persist in construction were
unlikely to undertake such occupations (Kelly, 2009).
Similarly, Foud and Smith (1996) considered the concept of domain-specific self-
efficacy by testing self- efficacy as a predictor for intentions and choice in STEM
careers and found that, self-efficacy directly influenced intentions, which resulted
to a direct impact on career choice. Also, the study found that there was a strong
positive correlation between self-efficacy and career decisions. Several studies
highlight gender and SES difference in perceived self-efficacy in the decision to
undertake a particular career (Ali and McWhirter, 2006).
Applying SCCT, the current study focused on role of self-efficacy on career choice.
This study examines the gender and SES differences in self-efficacy as it relates to
the career choices of undergraduate students in the Built Environment in South
Africa. The study further determines whether differences exist among men and
women and students from different socio-economic categories in the influence of
self-efficacy beliefs on career choices.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
This study was framed by the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) as it relates to
the students ’career choices in the construction industry. SCCT (Lent et al. 1994) is
a direct application of the social cognitive theory by Bandura (1989) and elaborates
exclusively on the educational interest formation, career development,
performance, and persistence of individuals in their career endeavours. Processes
whereby the educational and professional interest of individuals are developed;
the influence of interests and other socio-cognitive mechanisms on career choices
and the attainment of different levels of career performance and persistence are
outlined in the SCCT (Lent et al., 1994; Ali and McWhirter, 2006). Of interest to the
present study is the cognitive process of self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to “people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and
execute courses of action required attaining designated types of performances”
(Bandura, 1989). From the social-cognitive perspective, self-efficacy is a set of
beliefs concerned with specific performance domains and interacts complexly with
external and contextual factors (Shumba and Naong, 2012). These beliefs help to
determine the choice of activities, environments, persistence, and emotional
reactions to certain events (Malach-Pines and Kaspi-Baruch, 2008). Ali and
McWhirter (2006) ; Kelly, (2009) ; Lent and Sheu (2010) described self- efficacy as a
person’s perception of their capabilities and ability to perform at certain levels in a
specific domain, that influence certain events which have an impact on their lives.
It is a conviction by a person that a target can be achieved (Hunt et al., 2017). Self-
efficacy beliefs are predominantly determined by four sources: performance
accomplishments, vicarious learning, social persuasion, and emotional arousal
(Hunt et al., 2017). Commonly, a person has a higher level of self-efficacy when
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they believe they have the required competency and efficacy to obtain necessary
results (Bandura, 1977). Elements of self-efficacy are perceived to assist a person in
determining their choice of activities, degree of persistence, and emotional
reaction to situations (Peña‐Calvo et al., 2016). Introduced to career development
literature by Hackett and Betz (1981), self-efficacy has received wide attention in
career literature and has been identified as a major predictor of choice to undertake
and remain in a male-dominated career such as construction (Lent and Brown,
2006; Lent et al., 2008).
METHODOLOGY
A quantitative research method was adopted for the study. The study used a close-
ended questionnaire in a survey of university students enrolled in construction-
related programs in South Africa. Based on the advantages of the non-probability
sampling method, the study used a conveniently selected sample from two public
universities in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa to participate in the
study. The two universities were conveniently chosen because of their proximity to
the researcher. Convenience sampling consists of selecting participants who are
closest and more convenient to access (Sekaran and Bougie, 2010). This sampling
method was preferred to conveniently select two universities, which were closest
to the research domicile. Undergraduate students enrolled in construction-related
programmes such as construction management, land surveying, building, civil
engineering, quantity surveying and architecture in South African Universities were
chosen as the sample frame. A sample size of 229 was used for the analysis.
The survey questionnaire was administered for five weeks. The questionnaires were
designed using Google forms and administered electronically by sending out
hyperlinks to the questionnaire via email and the WhatsApp platform. Google
forms is a cloud-based and online tool used to create and customize
questionnaires.
To determine the normality of the data gathered, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z and

Shapiro-Wilk test were adopted. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z and Shapiro-Wilk
tests indicated a non-normal distribution at p=0.000 for all the variables.
Following the result of the normality test, which revealed a non-normal distribution
of data, a non- parametric test was deemed suitable to test for significant
differences among the gender and SES groups concerning the study constructs.
The study adopted the Mann-Whitney U test to the significant differences between
the gender groups. Mann-Whitney U test is the non-parametric version of the
parametric t-test used to assess independent samples. The Mann-Whitney U test
compares the median of the two different groups on a continuous measure and
converts the scores obtained to ranks. It then determines whether significant
differences exist between the two groups (Pallant, 2011). The values to consider
after the Mann-Whitney- U test are the Z value and the significance value, which is
represented as the Asymp.Sig (2 tailed). A Sig. value of 0.05 or smaller (p≤0.05)
indicates a significant difference between groups.
In this study, the Kruskal-Wallis test was adopted to test for significant differences
between the SES groups. Similar to the Mann-Whitney U test, the Kruskal-Wallis
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Akinlolu and Haupt
test is the non-parametric alternative to the one- way analysis of variance

test(ANOVA) and is used to test for significant differences among three or more
independent groups by comparing the scores on continuous variables (Field, 2013).
An alpha level of 0.05 or less suggests a significant difference between groups.
Scale measures
The questions for the questionnaire survey were captured on a 5-point Likert
scale where 1= strongly-disagree and 5= strongly agree. Respondents were
required to indicate their level of agreement with statements about their career
choices.
The scales utilized for the study are introduced below;
To measure self-efficacy in this study, the short version of the 25-item career
choice self-efficacy scale derived from Betz, Klein, and Taylor (1996) was adopted
and compressed.
DATA ANALYSIS
Demographic Information
Table 1 presents the demographic distribution of the respondents. There were 116
men (50.7%) in the sample. First year students had the largest number of
participants with 94 students (41%), followed by 2nd year students at 87 (38%). This
rate of participation is possible because of the 1st year cohort of students at South
African Universities being usually larger than the later years or more advanced
levels of study.
Table 1: Demographic distribution

Gender No Percent
Man 116 50.7%
Woman 113 49.3%
Total 229 100.00%
Year of Study
1st year 94 41.0
2nd year 87 38.0
3rd year 30 13.1
4th year 18 7.9
Total 229 100.00%
Programme of Study
Construction Management 110 48.0
Land Surveying 4 1.7
Quantity Surveying 50 21.8
Civil Engineering 17 7.4
Building 47 20.5
Architecture 1 0.4
Total 229 100.00%
Most respondents were enrolled in the discipline of Construction Management (n=

110; 48%), which also accounted for the largest number of participants because of
both participating universities offering the programme. Architecture had the
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Akinlolu and Haupt
lowest number of students (n=1; 0.4%) in the sample because only one of the
universities offered the programme and typically had smaller numbers of students
compared to the other disciplines and programmes.
To determine the socio-economic background of the respondents, participants

were required to indicate the current or last occupation and the highest
qualification of the breadwinner of their household.
Table 2 presents results relating to the socio-economic data of the participants.

Most of the household breadwinners were unskilled workers such as housekeepers,
farmers, waiters, and gardeners (n= 161; 70.3%), followed by graduate workers such
as teachers, nurses, and police officers (n=39; 17%).
Table 2: Socio-economic background

Occupation of the breadwinner of the household No Percent
Unskilled 161 70.3
Skilled 21 9.2
Graduate 39 17.0
Specialist 8 3.5
Highest qualification of the breadwinner of the household No Percent
Post- Matric 59 25.7
Matric 54 23.7
High School 59 25.7
Primary School 57 24.9
Socio-economic Category No Percent
High SES 42 18.3
Medium SES 54 23.6
Low SES 133 58.1
Total 229 100.00%
Concerning the highest qualification of the household breadwinner, 59 (25.7%) had

post-matric education, 54 (23.7%) had matric education, 59(25.7%) had high school
education, and 57(24.9%) had primary school education. Based on the occupation
and the highest qualification of the breadwinner of the household, 133 (58.1%) of
the students were categorised to be of low socioeconomic status.
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was used to test the reliability and validity of the
variables assessed in the study. The EFA aims to reduce data by finding the smallest
manageable set of common components that will account for the intercorrelations
of a set of variables (Pallant, 2011). The steps involved in the EFA include
assessment of the suitability of the data for factor analysis, determining numbers
for factor extraction, retaining and rotation, interpretation of resulting factors. The
analysis included the evaluation of reliability (Cronbach alpha and composite), and
discriminate and convergent validity of the survey instrument.
To determine the strength of intercorrelation among the variables, the Bartlett’s

Test of Sphericity and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling
adequacy test was used to assess the data’s factor suitability (Pallant, 2011). Factor
analysis is deemed appropriate when the value of the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure
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Akinlolu and Haupt
of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) is higher than the acceptable minimum limit of 0.6
and a limit of 1 (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2013). The cut-off value of .05 for the
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity indicates the significance and appropriateness of the
factor model (Hair et al., 2010). Dimensionality and significance of factors were
determined using Maximum likelihood. Maximum likelihood factoring is beneficial
for confirmatory analysis and calculates population values for factor loadings that
maximize the likelihood of sampling the observed correlation matrix from a
population (Pallant, 2011). The Kaiser’s criterion or the eigenvalue rule was adopted
to determine the number of factors to retain (Pallant, 2011; Tabachnick and Fidell,
2013).
Five items of the self-efficacy scale were analysed. Inspection of the corrected item-
total correlation values were above 0.3, indicating that the items measured the self-
efficacy construct adequately. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) for self-efficacy was
0.846 and a Bartlett’s test of Sphericity with p<0.000 was obtained as shown in
Table 3. A Cronbach’s alpha of 0.836 was obtained for the self-efficacy scale,
indicating adequate internal reliability. The results meet the criteria for factor
analysability.
Table 3: KMO and Bartlett’s Test for Self-Efficacy

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .846
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Df 10
Sig. .000
As shown in Table 4, factor loadings for all the five items were above the cut-off
value of 0.30. For the communalities, all the factors were less than 0.999, indicating
that all the items were within an acceptable range, and could be perceived as key
factors determining the influence of self-efficacy on career choice.
Table 4: Self-efficacy factor statistics

Corrected Communalities
Factor
Item Element item- total
Loading Initial Extraction
correlation
I have confidence in my ability to identify
resources, limitations, and personal
SEF1 .693 .629 .406 .480
characteristics that might influence my
career choices.
I am confident about being able to
collect information about training and
SEF2 employment opportunities for myself .602 .557 .314 .362
and manage them
effectively.
develop lists of priorities on the effective
SEF3 .622 .575 .333 .387
actions to successfully manage my own
personal professional development
I am confident about being able to plan
SEF4 the steps needed to realize a project .857 .750 .576 .734
related to my profession
SEF5 address any difficulties related to my .773 .681 .498 .598
career
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From the results presented in Table 5, one factor with an eigenvalue of 3.024
accounted for 60.478% of the variance. The total variance explained is above the
recommended cut-off value of 50% (Field, 2013). Since only one factor was
extracted, it was unnecessary to rotate the solution. The solution was therefore
considered unidimensional and adequate evidence of convergent and discriminant
validity was provided for the self-efficacy construct.
Table 5: Initial eigenvalues for self-efficacy

Initial Eigenvalues
Factor Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 3.024 60.478 60.478
2 .604 12.084 72.562
3 .580 11.593 84.155
4 .479 9.577 93.732
5 .313 6.268 100.000
Multivariate analysis to assess gender differences

To test for significant differences between men and women, with regards to the
five assessed self-efficacy variables, the Mann-Whitney U test was conducted.
Table 6 shows the mean scores for the career choice predictor, their rank orders
for men group, women group and men and women combined. The Z-value and
the Sig. value obtained from the Mann-Whitney U test were also presented. On the
self-efficacy construct men reported a mean score of 20.51 while women reported
19.64.
Results of the Mann-Whitney U test revealed no significant differences among the
gender groups with regards to their perception of the influence of self-efficacy (Z
value =-1.380, p=0.168, as the Sig. values were less than the cut-off value of 0.05.
Table 6: Test Statistics for Gender and Career choice predictors

Men Women
Mann-Whitney U
MIS MIS
Z-value Sig.
Self-Efficacy 20.51 19.64 -1.380 0.168
Multivariate analysis to assess SES differences

Table 7 shows the mean scores for the self-efficacy variable, their rank orders for
the high SES, medium SES and low SES groups. The Chi-square value, degree of
freedom (df) and Sig. value obtained were also presented.
To test for the significant differences in the influence of self-efficacy between the
SES groups, the Kruskal Wallis test was conducted. Table 7 shows that significant
differences were found among the SES groups for self-efficacy (Chi-square
=12.361, p=0.002), as the Sig. value was less than the alpha value of 0.05.
Table 7: Test Statistics for SES and Self-efficacy

Medium
High SES Low SES Kruskal-Wallis
SES
MIS MIS MIS Test Static Df Sig.
Self-Efficacy 20.71 16.83 19.51 12.361 2 0.002
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Akinlolu and Haupt
A post-hoc procedure was conducted to determine where the significant .
Table 8: Analysis of Dunn- Bonferroni Test

Test Static Std. Error Adj. Sig.
High-Low SES 18.819 13.556 0.495
Self-Efficacy High-Medium SES 39.094 11.662 0.002
Low-Medium SES 20.275 10.632 0.170
For self-efficacy, there was substantial evidence (p< 0.002) of a difference between
high and medium SES group, as shown in Table 8. The mean score for the high
SES was 19.51 compared to16.83 for the medium SES group.
DISCUSSION
Gender differences in the influence of self-efficacy
Gender has been identified to play a significant role in determining educational
and career choices (Buchmann and Dalton, 2002). By viewing gender as a socially
constructed aspect of the experience, it may be emphasized that it is a major
sociocultural agent that helps shape career choices (Saifuddin et al., 2013). Findings
from Wynn and Correll (2017) suggested that men and women have different
perceptions of how self-efficacy beliefs influence their career decisions in male-
dominated professions such as construction, as these professions have been
resistant to the participation of women.
Findings from the study revealed no significant differences in the influence of self-
efficacy among men and women.
Consistent with the findings in this study (Kelly, 2009; Huang, 2013; Stamarski and
Son Hing, 2015) reported a positive correlation between the confidence of men
and women in their abilities to complete necessary job tasks and educational
requirements in construction. Students who had low self-efficacy of their abilities
to persist in construction were unlikely to undertake such occupations (Kelly, 2009).
SES differences, self-efficacy and career choice

Socio-economic status is a person input variable that may influence a person's
career choice (Ali and McWhirter, 2006). In this study, socioeconomic status (SES)
was determined using a combination of the Nakao-Treas Socio-economic index
and the Four Factor Index of Social Status based on ratings of occupation,
education, income, and marital status (Nakao and Treas, 1994; Hollingshead, 1975).
This index accounts for differentiated and unequal social status. Consistent with
Blustein et al. (2015) this study determined the socio-economic status of young
adults based on that of their parents or the head of their household, as they had
not yet established their own (Ali and McWhirter, 2006). Diemer and Hsieh (2008)
identified social class as a key variable that influences the way in which individuals
make their career decisions. Trusty et al. (2000a); Trusty et al. (2000b); Diemer and
Hsieh (2008) opined that students from lower SES backgrounds compared to those
from higher SES backgrounds may have limited access to information, career
guidance and financial resources, which could limit their choice of careers.
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Akinlolu and Haupt
A statistically significant difference was found for the influence of self-efficacy on

career choice among the three SES categories. Further tests revealed that
disparities existed between the high SES and medium SES categories. These
findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that group differences exist
on self-efficacy with career choice (Ali and McWhirter, 2006; Gushue and Whitson,
2006).
Gushue and Whitson (2006) examined the influence of socio-economic
background as related to self- efficacy and career decisions in traditionally male-
dominated environments high school students and postulated that higher levels
of self-efficacy was strongly associated with academic and career choice. Hannah
and Kahn (1989) examined the influence of SES on self-efficacy, and on the careers
considered by high school students, and found that low SES students reported
lower self-efficacy beliefs compared higher SES students.
An investigation of the school-to-work transition of young adults from various SES
backgrounds, conducted by (Kelly, 2009) revealed that respondents from high SES
backgrounds reported higher levels of confidence in their abilities and career
adaptability compared to their counterparts from other SES backgrounds. This
finding is also consistent with past studies highlighting the influence of SES
backgrounds on career choices (Trusty et al., 2000a; Trusty et al., 2000b).
Respondents who aspired to undertake careers in construction-related professions
reported higher SES. Consistent with Moore (2006) career choices in the
construction industry is perceived as the least option; findings indicate that a career
in construction is unappealing to students from impoverished backgrounds.
In the current study, students from high SES backgrounds indicated higher self-
efficacy than their lower counterparts, as demonstrated by the mean scores.
Empirical findings from (Ali and McWhirter, 2006; Lent et al., 2008) reported that
societal issues influence career decisions, and these influences can be
differentiated by an individual’s personal circumstances such as poverty and
parent’s professional status. Ali and Saunders (2006) argued that students from
lower SES backgrounds may have lower self-efficacy beliefs compared to their
counterparts from higher SES backgrounds which has the potential influence their
career choices. Lent et al. (2002) also argued that “how individuals construe the
environment and themselves also affords the potential for personal agency and a
sense of reliance in one’s career development”.
CONCLUSIONS
The study reported on focused on the role of self-efficacy on career choice in
general and in construction in particular. More specifically, the gender and socio-
economic status (SES) differences in self-efficacy of undergraduate construction
students in South Africa were examined as they related to their career choices. This
study confirmed that a relationship existed between self-efficacy and the decision
of a student to pursue a career in the construction industry. However, no significant
gender differences were found in the influence of self-efficacy beliefs between men
and women. A positive correlation existed between the confidence of men and
women in their abilities to complete necessary construction job tasks and activities
and the requirements of construction-related education. Students who had low
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self-efficacy about their ability to succeed in the construction industry were unlikely
to want to work in the sector. On the other hand, students from high SES
backgrounds had higher self-efficacy and were more likely to consider construction
as a career option. Finally, given that very few studies have attempted to view the
experiences of university students in construction programs from a theoretical
perspective to determine what drives their career choices and development, further
research in this area is required.
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THE RELATIONSHIP OF ATTITUDE AND PERCEIVED

BEHAVIORAL CONTROL ON BEHAVIORAL INTENTION TO
PRACTICE SURVEYING
Ayodele Oduwole1
Surveying and Geoinformatics Department, the Federal Polytechnic Ilaro, Nigeria.
User acceptance of information technology is attributed to individual’s intention to

engage in an activity or venture and perception that are factored by many
indicators called items. Surveying education and practice involves series of theories
and practical instructions that aimed at providing background knowledge and
procedures in obtaining information about real world phenomenon. This research
evaluated the behavioural intention to practice as exercised by surveyors using the
Users Acceptance of Information Technology’s Technology Acceptance Model
(TAM)(Grun, 1998; Jatau, Fernandes, Adebomehin, and Gonçalves, 2010; Larson,
1977; RICS, 2014; Sekaran, 2003; Sharma, 1997) and Theory of Planned Behaviour
(TPB). The research relied on survey instruments structurally built to obtain
manifest/items that measures intention and perception based on TAM and TPB. The
questionnaires and all the information gathered duly processed to obtain valid
indicators that can sufficiently explain the impact and relationship among variables
under consideration. Partial Least Squares - Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-
SEM)(Fajemirokun, 2006) was the statistical method used for the analysis of latent
constructs of endogenous and endogenous variables. The entire analysis was done
with SmartPLS 3 software. The model was validated and hypotheses tested. Results
shows the significance of the variables on each other, which exposes the
relationship between latent constructs and their variables. It shows that self-efficacy
has high impact on Perceived Behavioural Control and the latter as an important
variable to measure Behavioural Intention to Practice
Keywords: PLS-SEM, practice, smartPLS, surveying, and technology acceptance

model
INTRODUCTION
The use of information technology requires considerable depth of understanding
that has narrowed the field of expertise of many individual practitioners. Many are
factors attributed to behavioral intention such as, ease of use, usefulness, attitude
etc.
This study evaluates the factors of affects intention and perception. It further
inquire to understand the factors that affect behavioral Intention to surveying
practice. The significance of the research centers around reviewing the perception
1 ayodele.oduwole@federalpolyilaro.edu.ng Tel. +2348034532643
Oduwole, A. (2021) The relationship of attitude and perceived behavioral control on behavioral
intention to practice surveying In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment
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Oduwole
of different stakeholders involved in the practice of surveying in the federation.

Understanding practitioner’s belief and view of the profession, the relationship
between indicators and their impacts on intention and perception will be
necessary. The observations and information gotten would be a source of
information for stakeholders and used in understanding surveyor’s view. This
research tends to show the behavioral intention of all parties in the profession as
regards to intention to practice surveying. Although many researches are on
determining the relationships between the factors, that influences intention and
perception of practitioners in many fields, no method is adopted the best
approach. This study contributes to knowledge by identifying suitable methods for
such relations in SEM applications. The information obtained through this research
would guide decision makers in dealing with issue in these perspectives.
Professional surveyors
As there is no single, certain definition of professionals, there is an emerging
consensus that professionals are individuals in occupations that have achieved
professional status of special power and prestige because of their special
competence in esoteric bodies of knowledge (Larson 1977; Sharma 1997). In other
words, the key distinguishing characteristic of professionals is the license they
exclusively own and apply. No one outside the profession has the license to
practice surveying. Many privileges come with achieving professional status
through the exclusive license to practice; among them, professional autonomy is
the most important. With such autonomy, professionals are trusted to work
conscientiously without supervision as well as to undertake proper regulatory
action on those rare occasions where an individual does not perform his work
competently or ethically. Therefore, peer review processes under professional
autonomy measured job performances of professionals. However, performance
measures may or may not have been established in some professions and may
reflect the true job performance of a professional due to the nature of
professional work. The privilege of professional autonomy is justified by the belief
that individuals outside the profession do not possess the professional knowledge
needed to evaluate the practices of the professionals and protect themselves
against incompetence, carelessness, and exploitation in the profession.
Performance measures not established in some other professions increased this
autonomy (Walter and Lopez, 2008). Thus, professionals proclaim that they are in
the best position to operate, control, and regulate their own practices. The process
of professionalization in which they establish rules and procedures to regulate their
own practices (e.g., codes of conduct) help them gain the trust of individuals
outside their profession and obtain professional autonomy. Professional
autonomy in turn enforces other privileges such as social status, resource control.
Where professional hierarchies exist, there is professional dominance over
subordinate para-professions (Walter and Lopez, 2008).
In the surveying parlance in Nigeria, the Surveyors Council of Nigeria (SURCON),
the Nigerian Institution of Surveyors (NIS) and its supervisory body (Akinola and
Ojo, 2014), lay down both the professional ethics and the code of practice
governing the profession. The SURCON Decree 44 of 1989 is the only authorized
regulation vested with the powers of regulating and controlling the practice of the
profession in all ramifications.
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There is a dearth in literatures on evaluation of the factors that affect intention and
perception to practice surveying. Many researches on the theory of user acceptance
of information technology are available, but none modelled the relationship
between factors and impact of intention and perception on survey practice. There
is an ongoing research on the various variables that affect the intention and
perception based on user acceptance of information technology. Many authors
have published on this new area in many different regions, context and targets.
However, the coverage is minimal, hence, the main reason for undertaking the
research. It is therefore important to contribute to the research community by
adding findings on intention and perception of surveying practice in the context
of User Acceptance of Information Technology, Technology Acceptance Model,
Theory of Planned Behavior and Theory Reasoned Action.
Professional surveying issues in Nigeria

Modelling the intention of these practitioners is necessary; to better understand
the factors that affects the acceptance of technology that influence their choice of
practice. User Acceptance of Information Technology is a body of knowledge that
helps in evaluating the factors and indicators that influences the intention and
perception using the models that supports this theory such as Technology
Acceptance Model, Theory of Reasoned Action and the Theory of Planned Behavior.
Path Modelling in Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) is a mathematical tool that
is capable of examining the relationship and impact of indicators on the variables
(intention and perception) they measure. There may be lot of other publications
on intention and perception of practitioners, but few adopted the Structural
Equation Modelling using Partial Least Squares as an analytical method and tool. It
has become very necessary therefore to evaluate the positions of these
practitioners in terms of their intention and perception respectively; this will also
serve as a reference document in determining ways to bring sustainable solutions
to the underlying issues. This research is important in contextualizing the
perception of the stakeholders and effectively documenting the views of important
bodies in surveying to help manage opinions uniformly to enact new sets of law.
In this new research focus, the method employed Structural Equation Modeling
(SEM), a second-generation statistical method; as a multivariate statistical tool.
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) used to model the relationship between
dependent variables (intention to practice) and independent variables (perception
of practicing surveyors).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Surveying and its practice
The definition of surveying with advent of computers is the science and technology
of taking measurements on, above and under the surface of the earth and its
representation on a plan or map. Grun (1998) referred to these enlarged tasks of
Surveying as Geomatics and defined as the science of acquisition, management,
modelling, analysis and representation of spatial data and processing with specific
consideration of problems related to spatial planning, land use/land development
and environmental issues. Recent advances in computer, digital, information and
satellite technologies have influenced tremendously the practice of surveying all
over the world. Rapid technological development has positively affected the scope,
methods, volume and speed of data acquisition, processing, storage, management
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and production of maps and allied products. The evolution of Internet has also
revolutionized the field of Information Technology, and made the world a global
village. Advances in digital technology and globalization have imposed a multi-
disciplinary approach on survey and mapping. The advent of globalization has also
brought about the collapse of professional boundaries; it is no longer possible to
clear-cut professional boundaries. In other words, it is not easy to say where
surveying for example ends and civil engineering starts. Professional boundaries,
i.e. boundary lines demarcating one profession from another are collapsing. The
traditional parcel boundary demarcation, which had been the preserve of
surveyors, has turned into a major pre-occupation. Technology has changed the
instrumentation for surveyors much to the exclusion of those practicing in
traditional ways. Data processing and management techniques are the major
concern of the survey world in which data quality are favorably increased. Poor
service engagement, boundaries collapse, inadequate training, lack of interest in
surveying with concerted effort aimed at self-promotion and clear vision are some
of the challenges surveying profession in Nigeria has to tackle with in order to
ensure its future and survival. A Surveyor in Nigeria is someone recognized by the
Council as passing through all the processes to practice professionally. Such duly
registered individuals are obligated to promote the highest level of professional
practice to the end of delivering high quality and efficient service to their clients in
adherence to the provisions of the overseeing bodies. Doubtlessly, the self-efficacy
of early surveyors held high the torch of integrity in the discharge of their duties in
difficult terrains and personal discomfort notwithstanding. Given credence to this
fact are professional monuments of high significance and unfading relevance.
Examples of such monuments are the products of the first geodetic surveys of
Nigeria performed by the British Royal Engineers in 1910-12. The geodetic
(horizontal and vertical) networks started observation in the late 1920s and most
of the network materialized between the late 1940s and early 1960s. Those
networks are been used and are still in use extensively in land management, urban
development, physical planning, mineral exploration, road and water
transportation etc. this was because the perceived the usefulness initially and
allowed their intentions to materialize without allowing subjective norms and low
motivations disrupt actualizing the aim (Jatau et al 2010).
Hard-to-access hilltops or high grounds harbor triangulated points of those

networks such that one could only wonder how those early surveyors accessed
those locations; what with large instruments to carry along (Fajemirokun, 2006).
Yet all they had were such crude equipment as Gunter chains, Invar tapes, and few
precision equipment like geodetic theodolite. In addition, worthy of note is the
volume of rigorous after-field processing involved in getting those jobs done.
Interestingly, mainly British personnel carried out those early survey works. The
surveying profession has its roots in practice rather than theory. Thus in the early
days, an intending professional surveyor was only sent to a surveyor already
reputed in the practice for training (Thompson, 1968). However, even then, they
expressed concerns about the need for theory to complement practice. The
relatively recent phenomenon of ‘professionally accredited degree ’would suggest
a concurrence with the need for professional training of surveyors for deeper
knowledge in theoretical training. So, as with other professions (law, medicine and
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divinity), modern day surveying education provides training in both theory and
practice, with the latter delivered by others who are already experienced.
Professional bodies such as the Nigerian Institution of Surveyors, Surveyors

Registration Council of Nigeria, usually oversee the process of professionalization.
These institutions stress competence in the training of surveyors. With such rich
background and professional history, one could expect the highest level of
professional etiquette and strict adherence to ethics from the modern surveyor.
However, this is hardly the case. In recent times, queries are on the character and
status of the modern Nigerian surveyor especially in areas of cadastral concerns.
There are forged survey plans used in land registrations and approving building
plans. Survey beacons demarcating parcel boundaries seen with archaic identities,
which is a telltale sign of foul play to the discerning eye. The abnormalities
mentioned above deter professionalism and integrity expected in surveying
practice.
Challenges of surveying profession in Nigeria
The profession of Surveying in Nigeria faced currently with a number of problems
that needs address for effective professional growth and development. The first
step towards addressing the problems is to identify the problems and then proffer
solutions to them. One of the major problems of professional surveying practice in
Nigeria is lack of co-operation and personal greed among surveyors in private and
public sectors have not helped the profession. Surveyors in the public sector often
feel that their colleagues in the private sector are too comfortable and deliberately
become hard on them in the award of contracts. In some cases, there are
allegations that surveyors in government work out some arrangement to execute
public sector works or nominates while paying a private sector registered surveyor
to sign the plans. In addition, it seems that for some reason, surveyors in both
public and private sector find it difficult to collaborate with their colleagues in
universities, polytechnics and research institutes in addressing some of their
problems. These are the normative beliefs that controls their perception; it also
affects their motivation to comply with certain rules, procedures and practices. All
these are to be analyzed in this study. Typical examples include the issues of the
adjustment of the Nigerian geodetic networks, analysis of the GPS network by
Federal Surveys, oil spillage and other environmental hazards to mention but a few.
It must, however, be acknowledged that some of our surveyors have encouraged
research and co-operative efforts between institutions of higher learning and their
personnel.
Professional ethics
Professional ethics encompass the personal, organizational and corporate
standards of behavior expected of professionals. Professionals and those working
in acknowledged professions, exercise specialist knowledge and skill. How to
govern this knowledge when providing service to the public is a moral issue and
termed professional ethics (RIBA, 2005). Some professional organizations define
their ethical approach in terms of a number of discrete components (RICS, 2014).
Typically, these include honesty, integrity, transparency, accountability,
confidentiality, objectivity, respectfulness, obedience to the law, loyalty. Surveying
and mapping places emphasis on harmonizing standards for spatial data capture
and exchange, the co-ordination of data collection and maintenance activities and
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the use of common data base by different agencies, thereby promoting the use of
spatial information in decision making and removing impediments to the use of
spatial information. Now, organizations and institutions responsible for surveying
and mapping are full of institutional and organizational deficiencies, which need
tackling in order to perform their duties efficiently and in particular be able to
respond promptly to the ever changing and improving users ’requirements.
Modern Instrumentation and equipment in the Surveying and Mapping sector are
technology based. Training personnel to acquire new knowledge and expertise for
the use of these technological movement is capital intensive and it also requires
human capital that are capable of transmitting knowledge when so needed. This
requires huge capital outlay in foreign exchange and consistency in funding in
order to meet the requirement for critical capacity building in terms of
instrumentation, personnel and labor development. The Federal and State
budgetary allocation for Surveying and Mapping operations had declined steadily
over the past two decades. Over this period, the approved annual allocation by
government to Surveying and Mapping activities through the Federal and State
Surveys Department were always less than 10% of the capital budget proposals of
the department. Nevertheless, some evaluation on the interest, belief, attitude,
behavior and perception of stakeholders of surveying profession will help in
making good plans, policy papers and strategies to further enhance productivity
and sustenance, hence the reason for this research work.
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
In this study, the theoretical framework centered based on intention. This is based
on Ajzen’s 1991 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), an extension of the 1975 Theory
of Reasoned Action (Bebetsos, Derri, Zafeiriadis, and Kyrgiridis). The TPB states
that, a combination of attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm and perceived
behavioral control form intention. Before one performs behavior, an individual
must have intention for those behaviors. In addition to these variables, other
factors such as educator characteristics (ethnicity, years of teaching, educational
attainment level, and training) influence intention. Studies about intention are
applicable in this study for the following reasons: (a) are built on a social
psychology foundation; (b) they focus on perceptions and attitudes; (c) they deal
with how attitude and perceptions affect behavioral outcomes. The best predictor
of an individual’s behavior is his or her intention to engage in that behavior (Cascio,
Dal Lin, and Falk, 2013);(Glasman and Albarracín, 2006).
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Davis developed TAM in 1989 as a standout amongst the most well known research
models to the extent users can embrace and utilize information systems and
technology. TAM generally considered and confirmed by various researches that
assessed the individual technology acceptance behavior in various information
systems concepts.
In TAM framework, two main factors affect the user’s intention of using innovative
technology; these are perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. According
to Davis (Davis), perceived usefulness refers to "the degree to which a person
believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her task performance",
while perceived ease of use refers to "the degree to which a person believes that
using a particular system would be free of effort". External dimensions, namely,
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social, cultural, and political factors further affect these two factors (Echchabi, Al-
Hajri, and Tanas, 2019)
The TAM models the causal relationships between:

i. Behavioral intention to use technology (BIU), which is an indicator of the
factors affecting the desired behavior (e.g., use of computers). It also
specifies how much effort an individual is willing to put in order to perform
this behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980).
ii. Attitude toward use (ATU), which refers to the degree to which a user likes
or dislikes using a certain technological tool (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1977).
iii. Perceived ease of use (PEU), which refers to the degree to which a person
believes that the use of the given tool will be free of effort (Davis, Bagozzi,
and Warshaw, 1989).
iv. Perceived usefulness (Chilakpu), which refers to the extent to which a person
believes that using this particular tool would enhance his/her job
productivity and performance (Davis et al., 1989).
Behavioral intention (Echchabi et al.)
This is a proxy measure for behavior. It represents a person's motivation in the
sense of her or his conscious plan or decision to perform certain behavior (Conner
and Armitage, 1998), (Chao, 2019), (Ratnasari, Gunawan, Septiarini, Fitrisia, Sylva,
Kirana, and Kusuma, 2020). Generally, the strong the intention is, the more likely
the behavior performed.
Subjective norm (Ritchie, Snelgrove-clarke, and Murphy)

This refers to the belief about whether significant others think he or she will
perform the behavior. It relates to a person’s perception of the social environment
surrounding the behavior.
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)
This refers to the individual’s perception of the extent to which performance of the
behavior is easy or difficult (Ajzen, 1991). It increases when individuals perceive
they have more resources and confidence (Ajzen, 1985) ;(Hartwick and Barki, 1994)
;(Lee and Kozar, 2005).
The Theory of Reasoned Action (Bebetsos et al.) (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980)
hypothesized that human actions explained and based on the relationship between
pre-existing attitudes and behavioral intentions. This theory gave birth to a number
of models that all seek to explain one’s intention to use technology. Among them,
the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), validated and widely used (Davis et al.,
1989).
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
The hypotheses for the study formulated as thus:
H1 there is a positive relationship between Attitude and Behavioural Intention to

Practice
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H2 there is a positive relationship between Perceived Behavioural Control and

Behavioural Intention to Practice
H3 there is a positive relationship between Perceived Ease of Survey Practice and

Attitude towards practice
H4 there is a positive relationship between Perceived Usefulness of Practice and
Attitude towards practice
H5 there is a positive relationship between Self-Efficacy and Perceived Behavioural
Control
H6 there is a positive relationship between Subjective Norms and Perceived

Behavioural Control
Figure 1 – Conceptual Model
RESEARCH METHODS
The data used are responses from electronic questionnaires distributed online
through google form to targeted audience. Majority of the forms were transmitted
randomly and repeatedly because rejections it faced by private practitioners.
Hence, number of distribution not directly analyzed.
The research targeted surveying professionals in Nigeria with major reference to
Ogun, Lagos and Oyo states. In this study, stratified random sampling was
technique used to administer the questionnaire. Subsequently, only 84 copies of
questionnaire. A sampling method suggested that the minimum required sample
size depends on the maximum number of arrows pointing to a latent variable as
specified in the structural equation model (Macrolides & Saunders, 2006); Wolf,
Harrington and Miller (2013). Sekaran, (2003) also opined that a purposive
sampling method be utilised when the samples collected are based on certain
considerations and several criteria. Therefore, sample size adopted with a minimum
number of ninety-one respondents has six number of arrows pointing at the
Behavioural Intention to Practice, but eighty-four were responses found usable.
This is at 95% confidence interval and an alpha level of 5% returned (Victor,
Thoppan, Nathan and Maria, 2018).
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ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The structured responses were to fit the input format of the analytic tool of the
data processing software.
The measurement (Outer) and structural (inner) models were analysed using
SmartPLS 3, a variance-based Structural Equation Modelling Software through
Partial Least Squares (PLS).
Table 1 Significance level, composite reliability results and validity

Construct Indicators Ldgs α AVE
Perceived Usefulness of Practice PUP 0.966 0.855
PUP1. Survey Practice can improve my professional career. 0.911
PUP2. Engaging in Survey Practice increases my job performance. 0.939
PUP3. Private practice will open new professional areas for me 0.926
PUP4. Practicing can allow me to do more interesting and imaginative work with
0.928
more productivity.
PUP5. Frequent survey tasks will enhance the effectiveness of my professional
0.928
practice.
PUP6. Overall, I find the survey practice important for my career. 0.915
Perceived Ease of Survey Practice PSP 0.902 0.718
PSP1. It would be easy for me to become an expert when I engage in survey
0.901
practices.
PSP2. Practicing will make me a smarter practitioner. 0.926
PSP3. It will be easy to summon the pressures in survey practice 0.766
PSP4. I would make less error due to my years of experience in survey practice. 0.831
PSP6. I will find it easy to corroborate existing principles of survey practice. 0.804
Attitude of Practitioners ATP 0.863 0.879
ATP4 I have a positive attitude towards Survey Practice 0.925
ATP5 I think survey practice is good for my work experience. 0.949
Behavioural Intention to Practice BIP 0.929 0.825
BIP2 I will definitely love to practice surveying whenever I chance to do so 0.871
BIP3 I intend to [or continue using] practice when the policy allows it. 0.896
BIP4 I intend to use my seal for upcoming jobs. 0.923
BIP5 I plan to use engage in survey practice as soon as possible 0.941
BIP6 Assuming I had access to practice, I will definitely love to 0.871
Subjective Norms SN 0.895 0.705
SN1 It is pleasing if the extant policies are regulated to allow lecturers to practice 0.864
SN2 Current or potential employers would allow the lecturers to engage in
0.832
professional practice.
SN3 Current or potential clients would prefer of survey practice of lecturers 0.780
SN4 The services of the survey lecturers will improve when they engage in
0.876
professional practice
SN5 If lecturers practice, they will impart more field experience on the trainees. 0.843
Perceived Behavioural Control PBC 0.892 0.699
PBC2 My office has a good grasp of new functions of survey practice. 0.901
PBC3 My office has enough income to own survey-practicing firm. 0.926
BC4 My office could deal with any survey practice. 0.766
PBC5 The volume of the survey task influences my decision to engage survey
0.831
practice.
PBC6 I will be able to manage my time for other duties aside survey practice. 0.804
Self-Efficacy SE 0.928 0.738
SE1 I know quite well the reasons I will subscribe to survey practice. 0.826
SE2 I am capable of any survey practice 0.919
SE3 I am able in making good survey practice 0.912
SE4 I can make use of Computer Aided Drafting and design for my survey
0.868
works
SE5 I have new survey equipment that would enhance my survey tasks 0.760
SE6 I am versatile with Survey Practice 0.858
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For the measurement model, three (3) evaluation criteria are employed namely; the
significance level of factor loadings of all the items, the composite reliability which
should not be less than 0.7 and also the Average variance extracted (Godin,
Bélanger-Gravel, Eccles, and Grimshaw) which should be 0.5 and above. The results
shows that the variables used in the questionnaire is adequate and reliable. The
Cronbach alpha ranges from 0.7 to 0.9. This surpassed the widely accepted value
of 0.60 or greater in social sciences research (Pallant, 2010; Field, (2013), Awolesi
(2019), (Rachbini, 2018).
Validity and reliability test results

A Cronbach alpha less than 0.5 is assumed to be unreliable while a Cronbach alpha
value of 0.5 and above is assumed to be reliable. However, the closer the Cronbach
alpha value to one, the more reliable the data set. Each construct in this study has
alpha of >0.7, which means all the constructs reliable. Another result is the factor
loadings in table 1 above shows that all the measuring indicators sufficiently
explains the variable they measured.
Model fit evaluation
An extract of its window shown in Figure 2. To evaluate the model fit, the
standardized root mean square residuals (SRMR) was used to measure approximate
fit of the theory (Yahaya et al 2019). Models can yield SRMR values higher than
0.05 (Henseler, et al., 2014). Therefore, a cut-off value of less than 0.08 adopted as
proposed by Hu & Bentler, (1999). The fit summary of the study is 0.082 as shown
in table 2
Table 2 Model fit summary

Saturated Model Estimated Model
SRMR 0.082 0.103
d_ULS 3.735 5.913
d_G 2.494 2.747
Chi-Square 975.704 1010.510
NFI 0.710 0.700
Table 3 Coefficient of determination

R Square
R Square R Square Adjusted
ATP 0.413 0.399
BIU 0.639 0.630
PBC 0.731 0.724
The coefficient of determination R2 measures the predictive power of the model,

it is explains variance in endogenous construct from exogenous constructs
connected to it (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2017). The R2 value of Attitude is
0.413 (41%) regarded as low, Behavioral Intention to Practice is 0.638 (64%)
moderate and Perceived Behavioral Control is 0.731 (73%) considered high impact
relationship.
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Table 4 Effect size

F Square
ATP BIP PBC
ATP 0.359
BIP
PBC 0.446
PSP 0.013
PUP 0.224
SE 1.638
SN 0.020
Effect sizes (F2)

The effect size F2 have values classified into ranges of 0.02 as small, 0.15 as medium
and 0.35 as large (Samar et al 2018). Path PSP-ATP and SN-PBC are in the small
region, while PUP-ATP is in the medium and others ATP-BIP, PBC-BIP and SE-PBC
are the over-effect regions.
Figure 2 Measurement model
Table 3: Hypothesis test results

Original Standard
Sample T Statistics P
H0 Sample Deviation Significance
Mean (M) (|O/STDEV|) Values
(O) (STDEV)
H1 ATP -> BIP 0.430 0.438 0.100 4.277 0.000 Significant
H2 PBC -> BIP 0.479 0.473 0.111 4.301 0.000 Significant
H3 PSP -> ATP 0.129 0.131 0.159 0.813 0.416 Not Significant
H4 PUP-> ATP 0.541 0.544 0.147 3.684 0.000 Significant
H5 SE -> PBC 0.802 0.797 0.060 13.399 0.000 Significant
H6 SN -> PBC 0.088 0.095 0.063 1.405 0.160 Not Significant
Out of six hypotheses tested, four hypotheses were significant (accepted) while two
were not significant (rejected). Attitude and Perceived Behavioural Control have
proven to be strong variables to measure human intention. Although, Perceived
Usefulness and Self-Efficacy acted as boosters to Attitude and Perceived
Behavioural Control respectively, it is important to identify the significance level of
Self-Efficacy on Perceived Behavioural Control as shown by the effect size.
Perceived Ease of Survey Practice is weak in measuring Attitude has shown in the
result above, therefore, a critical evaluation can still be carried out in further
researches to explore other factors that defines intention. H1 shows high impact of
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attitude on behavioural intention to practice, H2 also has high impact variable

perceived behavioural control on behavioural intention to survey practice. High
impact was recorded for H4 and H5, but H3 and H6 are not significant to the latent
construct they measured in the study, therefore, they were rejected. The main aim
of the study to show the relationship of attitude and self-efficacy in perceived
behavioural control on behaviour modelled successfully with evidences and
supports shown by different categories of test and models.
CONCLUSION
The evaluations, estimations and weights used to measure the factors that affects
intention and perception, the relationship between intention and perception and
the research model have shown to be valid and acceptable. This study has revealed
the role of main constructs (attitude and perceived behavioral control) in human
behavior and also the relationship between these constructs and other variables
such as perceived ease of survey practice, perceived usefulness, self-efficacy and
normative norms in model. This further explains that there is a certain level of
knowledge and expertise required for surveying practice. It is important to note
self-efficacy is a very strong indicator to perceived behavioral control that leads to
actual behavioral intention.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
THE ROLE OF SAFETY ATTITUDE IN CHANGING SAFETY

BEHAVIOUR AND HAZARD RECOGNITION CAPABILITY OF
CONSTRUCTION WORKERS
Bello Mahmud Zailani1, Mu’awiya Abubakar2 and, Yahaya Makarfi Ibrahim3
1,2Department of Building, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria
3Department of Quantity Surveying, Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria
Worker’s safety has been a major concern in the successful execution of various
construction activities. Workers that are unable to recognise the active, emerging,
or latent hazards, in the work environment are often exposed to safety risks, leading
to catastrophic accidents and injuries. Despite research efforts on strategies to
improve the safety of workers on construction sites, recent studies have reported
the apparent disregard for human-related factors in the formulation of safety
strategies which limits their effectiveness. In this regard, this study provides insight
on the specific role worker’s safety attitude plays on safety behaviour towards
improving Hazard Recognition Capability (HRC) of the worker. A quantitative
research approach was adopted for the study, using a structured questionnaire to
collect both ordinal and nominal data. Both descriptive and inferential statistical
tools were used to analyse the data. Spearman’s correlational analysis technique
was used to ascertain the monotonic relationship between worker’s safety attitude,
safety behaviour, and hazard recognition capability. Findings of the study show that
worker’s safety attitude has an influence on worker’s safety behaviour on the job
site, although no relationship was established between worker’s safety behaviour
and respective hazard recognition capability. This finding provides an empirical
evidence on the fractional relationship between safety behaviour and HRC. Thus, it
is recommended that other human-related factors be studied in relation to the area
of safety management with a view to find a sustainable solution to the abysmal
safety performance of the global construction industry.
Keywords: attitude, behaviour, construction industry, hazard recognition, safety
INTRODUCTION
The construction industry has been identified as one of the most dangerous
industries, recording high rate of accidents and fatality (Tam & Fung, 2012; Törner
& Pousette, 2009). According to International Labour Organisation (ILO, 2005),
about 16% of fatal accidents recorded at work occurs on construction sites.
1 bellomahmud34@gmail.com; +2348032987321
2 muawiyaabubakar1@gmail.com
3 makarfi@gmail.com
Zailani, Abubakar and Ibrahim (2021) The role of safety attitude in changing safety behaviour and
hazard recognition capability of construction workers In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West
Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 1001-
1011
1001
Zailani, Abubakar and Ibrahim
Relatedly, census data from the Bureau of Labour Statistics showed that 774
recorded fatality cases were from construction site injuries in the year 2010. This
fretting data emphasises the urgent need to device safety management strategies,
and hazard control mechanisms that will improve the safety performance of the
industry. In this regard, Zhou, Goh and Li (2015) noted the increasing number of
academic studies around the globe, focused on devising novel approaches and
techniques to key safety related issues such as safety climate, accident statistics,
design for safety, and safety culture.
Despite this surge in academic and professional efforts towards curbing the safety
issues in the construction industry, there has been very little improvement on the
safety performance of the industry (Namian et al., 2016b). A major deficiency of
these efforts has been noted to be the almost complete overlook of human-related
factors in the design of safety management systems (Abubakar et al., 2020). Due
to the dynamic and unique nature of construction operations, the design of generic
safety management systems and techniques are ineffective in addressing safety
challenges in all contexts (Dekker, 2012). Choudhry, Fang and Ahmed (2008)
argued that workplace safety is a complex phenomenon, and the management of
the human element in construction industry is even more complex. Moreover,
safety cannot be guaranteed by legislation or regulations alone, as there is
apparent need for workers and employees to also commit themselves to safety
practices (Baig, 2001).
In line with the aforementioned deficiencies, recent studies in construction safety

management have begun to look at the inherent factors that limit the safety
performance of construction workers (Abubakar et al., 2020; Namian et al., 2016b).
Hazard recognition capability of workers has been identified as a fundamental
requirement for addressing the health and safety challenges encountered on
construction sites (Abubakar et al., 2020; Albert et al., 2014). Construction site
accidents have been found to be mainly caused by worker’s unsafe behaviours,
largely due to nonchalant attitude towards safety hazards (Fang & Wu, 2013; Feng,
2015). Workers often tend to underestimate safety risks on construction site, which
limits their ability to identify hazardous situations (Pandit et al., 2019). Chen,
Golparvar-Fard and Kleiner (2014) defined the concept of Hazard recognition as
the ability of managers and workers to sense, analyse, and extract physical or
mental stimuli that indicates the existence of a hazardous situation in a complex
and dynamic scenario of construction environments. These hazardous situations
often when not recognised and managed lead to unsavoury safety incidences and
fatalities in construction.
Abubakar et al. (2020) classified the key factors influencing hazard recognition
capability of construction workers into four distinct taxonomies (personal,
organisational, social, and project), towards developing context-based strategies
for improving the safety performance of the construction industry. The study
established a significant influence of workers personal attributes on respective
hazard recognition capability. However, with a view to fill the gap in literature on
human-related safety studies and strategies for improving safety performance of
construction workers, this study builds on the findings of Abubakar et al. (2020) by
providing insight into the dynamics of worker’s safety attitude which is an
antecedent of personal factors, influencing safety behaviour and hazard
1002
recognition capability of workers. Notably, Choudhry, Fang and Ahmed (2008)

noted that the subject of worker’s attitudes and its relation to safety performance
in construction industry is complex. However, as attitude is a core manifestation of
inherent individual traits which reflects on characteristics and behaviour (Beus et
al., 2015), this study provides an answer to this research question “Does worker’s
safety attitude have influence on safety behaviour and hazard recognition
capability of the worker?”.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Safety attitude, behaviour and HRC
The definition of Attitude in literature is quite vague and dynamic. Sawacha (1993)
observed that the definition often depends on the context of the discourse, and
the observables selected as the basis for inference. Despite the concept of attitude
being seen as an abstraction or a hypothetical construct rather than an actual
principle, Sartain et al. (1974) defined it as the tendency of an individual to react
positively or negatively towards an object or a person. Katz (1960) has described
attitude as the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some symbol or object,
or aspect of the world in a favourable or unfavourable manner". The concept of
Safety Attitude could then be seen as complex and multidimensional with deep
roots in fields such as safety science, psychology and management science.
More so, as human behaviour is a clear manifestation of attitudes and beliefs, social
and psychological dynamics of workers may have a strong influence on their safety
behaviour on construction sites ( Choudhry, 2014; Krech & Crutchfield, 1948).
Lingard and Turner (2017) found that embracing of healthy behaviours by workers
is influenced by factors playing around the individual. Leung, Chan and Yuen (2010)
showed that safety cases and risky behaviours can be affected by the safety
attitudes of construction workers.
More often, workplace accidents comprise the failure of workers to identify a
hazardous condition. Studies have reported that more than 42% of injuries in
construction occur because of inadequate hazard recognition and evaluation
(Haslam et al., 2005; Sacks et al., 2013). Zhou and Ding (2017) observed that workers
found themselves in a position of risk either due to their ignorance or inability to
behave safely. Although their ignorance may be linked to limited knowledge and
experience, their attitude towards safety may inform their unsafe behaviour.
Based on the forgone, it can be hypothesised that worker’s safety attitude as a
corresponding effect on the worker’s behaviour towards safety, and the respective
ability to recognise hazards on job site. This assumption is driven on the
psychological theoretical base of the planned behaviour theory which links human
beliefs to respective behaviour. Ajzen & Fishbein (1975) noted that an individual’s
belief and attitude towards a certain phenomenon commensurate with the
individual’s tendency to behave positively or negatively. Pandit et al. (2019) noted
that worker’s nonchalant belief towards safety risk often result in risk-taking
behaviour and the normalisation of deviance from safe-work operations. For
instance, Perlman et al. (2014) observed the behaviour of worker’s that are
commonly used to using ladders as a job routine to become increasingly
insensitive to the risk of falls even in circumstances where the potential of fall is
1003
recognised as a relevant hazard. This is also common amongst workers working in

other distinct job trades (Bohm & Harris, 2010; Choudhry & Fang, 2008)
Measuring attitude and behaviour

Several methods and techniques have been adopted across various literatures for
the measurement of individual attitude in diverse contexts (Johnson & Scott, 1965).
Green, (1954) classified these methods into six major categories namely Judgement
Method, the Summated Ratings methods, the Scalogram Analysis method, the
Rating Method, the Unfolding Technique and the Latent Structure Analysis method.
The structure of the safety behaviour scale designed by Hayes et al. (1998) was
adapted to fit the context of this study in measuring the safety behaviour of
construction workers on site, sourcing the measurement items from specific
construction related literature. Table 1 highlights the respective measurement
items for both constructs.
Table 1: Measurement items
SN Measurement Items (Safety Attitude) Source
Provision of PPE and other safety tools on construction (Abubakar et al., 2020; Gao et
1
site is an unnecessary effort. al., 2020)
Pressure from other workers and supervisors on site (Gao et al., 2020; Wu et al.,
2
makes me behave unsafely. 2017)
(Abubakar et al., 2020; Pandit
I can never be involved in an accident because of my vast
3 et al., 2019; Sacks et al., 2013;
experience on the job.
Sawacha, 1993)
My workmate’s safety on site is not very much important
4 (Sawacha, 1993)
to me.
Safety Training prior to commencement of work is (Namian et al., 2016b;
5
unnecessary. Sawacha, 1993)
I am safety conscious on site only when I know
6 (Sawacha, 1993)
management is strict on it.
I will rather finish my work early discarding safety, than
7 (Pandit et al., 2019)
follow safety protocols that takes longer time to finish.
8 I do not follow safety rules that I feel are unnecessary. (Gao et al., 2020)
SN Measurement Items (Safety Behavior) Source
1 I take drugs while on site to enable me work harder. (Abubakar et al., 2020)
While working, I get overwhelmed that i become unaware (Abubakar et al., 2020; Hayes
2
of my environment. et al., 1998)
(Gao et al., 2020; Hayes et al.,
3 I barely wear PPE or use other safety tools while on site.
1998)
(Abubakar et al., 2020; Gao et
I sometimes breach safety protocols in order to finish my
4 al., 2020; Hayes et al., 1998;
work on time.
Pandit et al., 2019)
I hardly check the conditions of my tools and site (Gao et al., 2020; Hayes et al.,
5
equipment before I use them. 1998)
I sometimes engage in hazardous works even when I
6 (Sawacha, 1993)
know my safety is not guaranteed.
I do not always stick to my workstation as I like to wander
7 (Sawacha, 1993)
around the site.
I do engage in works on site that I had no prior training (Gao et al., 2020; Sawacha,
8
on because I feel they are easy to do. 1993)
1004
METHODOLOGY
A Quantitative research approach was adopted for the study, using a questionnaire
as research instrument. The population of the study included workers on 3 selected
construction sites in Kaduna state, Nigeria. The choice of the city and construction
sites where at the convenience of the researcher as Burnett and Holton (1997)
noted one of the advantages of quantitative research methods is their ability to
use relatively smaller convenient sample size to make inferences about larger
populations that would be prohibitively overwhelming to study. The demography
of the workers involved in carpentry, masonry, plumbing and electrical works were
purposively selected due to the hazardous nature of such tasks (Davies & Tomasin,
1996). Overall, a total of 30 workers that fit the study demography were identified,
and all agreed to participate in the study. However, 3 responses were discarded
due to errors in filling the research instrument.
The summated ratings method developed by Likert (1932)was used to measure
respondent’s safety attitude and behaviour on site. The scale used in this study was
initially subjected to both academic and professional scrutiny to ascertain its
validity and reliability. Adaptations were made from the initial scale based on the
outcome of the validity exercise, and the resulting scale recorded a reliability value
(α=0.90) which shows strong of reliability (Cronbach, 1951). Respondents were
then asked to respond with their respective level of agreement to each item using
a scale of 1-5 (1= strongly disagree, 2= disagree, 3= somewhat agree, 4= agree,
5=strongly agree). Subsequently, an average score across all measurement items
for individual worker was calculated using Eq. (1) and Eq. (2). This gives an
aggregated safety attitude and safety behaviour scores for each worker ranging
from 1-5, with positive score and negative score at both extremes (1= Positive, 5=
Negative) considering the negative structure of the measurement items.
∑81 𝑆𝐴
SAworker = ………………………………………………………………….………(1)
8
∑81 𝑆𝐵
SBworker = ………………………………………………..…………………………(2)
8
where SAworker is a measure of the safety attitude of an individual worker,

SBworker is a measure of behaviour of individual worker, SA and SB are the
responses of individual workers to each of the survey statement items for safety
attitude and safety behaviour respectively.
Relatedly, the Hazard recognition capability of the workers was assessed using
pictures capturing a total of 8 common hazards often encountered on construction
sites. These hazards included Using ladder horizontally, working at height without
harness, scattered tools on the floor, working close to electric lines without harness,
misuse of PPE, hanging out of a window to work, working in extreme weather
condition, and working in confined spaces. Respondents were required to look
through, and identify the hazards from respective pictures. This technique
according to Han et al. (2020) is an effective method in accessing hazard
recognition capability of individuals in diverse work contexts. The hazard
recognition capability of each worker was calculated using Eq. (3).
1005
𝐻𝑎𝑧𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑
HRC = 𝑥100…………………………………………………………………(3)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐻𝑎𝑧𝑎𝑟𝑑
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

Demography of respondents
The characteristic nature of the study respondents, which puts the findings of the
study into relative context was defined using questions that inquired about the
respective demography of the respondents. Table 2 shows that Masons and
Carpenters formed 74% of the total respondents with 37% representation
respectively. Whereas, 26% of the respondents were involved in mechanical and
electrical works. More so, with regards to the years of experience in respective jobs,
majority of the workers representing 57% of the respondents reported having work
experience ranging from 6 to 15 years, 30% having over 16 years of experience,
whilst only 15% reported having 1 to 5 years of experience.
Table 2: Job demography
Percentage Years of Percentage
Nature of Job Frequency Frequency
(%) Experience (%)
Carpentry 10 37 1-5years 4 15
Masonry 10 37 6-15years 15 56
M&E 7 26 16years and above 8 30
Total 27 100 Total 27 100
Namian, Albert, Zuluaga and Behm (2016) noted the significant role safety training
Programmes play in orienting construction workers on safety. Along this line, this
study enquired about the prior engagement of the respondents in related safety
trainings on respective job tasks.
Table 3: Accident experience
Percentage Percentage
Prior Accident Frequency Severity Frequency
(%) (%)
Yes 26 96 Not Severe 9 33
No 1 4 Severe 12 44
Very
27 100 6 22
Severe
Total 27 100
Prior Percentage
Nature of Accident Frequency Frequency
Training (%)
Electrocution 2 Yes 20 74
Stepping on Sharp Object 2 No 7 26
Fall from Height 18
Fall into an Open Pit 1
Falling Objects 3
Chainsaw Cut 1
Findings presented in Table 3 showed that 74% of the respondents have had prior
safety training on their respective job tasks, with only 26% responding negatively
1006
to the question. Relatedly, Gharibi et al. (2008) observed that workers who have
been previously involved in a job-related accident, or have witnessed the
occurrence of an accident, are often more safety cautious when on site. A vast
majority of the respondents representing 96% have had an accident experience on
job site, with “Fall from Height” being the most frequent nature of accident
experienced as shown in Table 3. Other types of accident noted by the respondents
include Electrocution, Stepping on Sharp Object, fall into an Open Pit, Falling
Objects, and Chainsaw Cut. More so, 22% of these accidents were reported to be
fatal, 44% resulted into major injuries, while only 33% resulted into minor injuries.
Safety attitude, behaviour and hazard recognition capability of workers
As discussed in the methodology section, an aggregated score was calculated for
workers safety attitude and behaviour respectively, based on responses to the
measurement items presented in the questionnaire. Analysis of the data shows
workers having a relatively positive attitude towards safety in their respective job
tasks, with an aggregated mean value of 2.43 across all the 27 workers. More so,
the one sample T-test showed that the mean value is significantly distant from the
T-value (t=3, p<0.05) being the threshold for negative safety attitude. Relatedly,
the aggregated score of 2.44 for safety behaviour across all the workers shows a
relatively good safety behaviour on job site, which is also significantly different
from the T-Value (t=3, p<0.05).
The hazard recognition capability as a measure of the ability of a worker to identify
potential risks and hazards that could result in job site accident was measured as a
function of percentage. Collectively, all 27 construction workers were only able to
Identify an average 49% of the total hazards presented in the image with over 50%
of the hazards unidentified. It is also important to note that the deviation between
the scores of respective workers was statistically quite minimal (std=0.18) with only
a few workers scoring very high, and very low marks respectively.
Ultimately, to achieve the aim of this study, a correlation analysis was conducted
to scientifically ascertain the relationship between worker’s safety attitude, safety
behaviour, and respective hazard recognition capability on work site. Due to the
nature of data collected, the Spearman’s non-parametric correlation technique was
used to test the relationships at 95% confidence level. Result of the analysis
presented in Table 4 shows a non-significant weak association between worker’s
attitude towards safety, and the respective capability to recognise hazard on job
site (rs=0.10, P>0.05). More so, Although Liao, Sun and Zhang (2021) noted that
different types of hazards can induce different cognitive demands which manifests
into individual behaviours, no correlation was found between worker’s safety
behaviour and hazard recognition capability of the worker in respective job site
(rs= -0.147), with the correlation also being not statistically significant (P>0.05).
Table 4: Spearman’s Correlation Between HRC, Attitude and Behaviour
HRC Safety Attitude Safety Behavior
0.10 -0.147
HRC 1
(P=0.77) (P=0.47)
0.10 0.69
Safety Attitude 1
(P=0.77) (P=0.00)
-0.147 0.69
Safety Behavior 1
(P=0.47) (P=0.00)***
*** Significant at 95% Confidence Level
1007
The result of the correlation analysis provides a scientific answer to the research
question in this study. A significantly strong association was found between
worker’s safety attitude and safety behaviour on respective job site (rs=0.69,
p>0.00), although the partial association between positive safety attitude and
hazard recognition capability was found not to be significant (rs=0.1, p>0.77). it is
paramount to note that the significance level of the spearman’s correlation does
not mean to disregard the association, but rather limits its reliability and
application in a broader context (Schober et al., 2018). Therefore, it can be claimed
that a positive change in worker’s safety attitude those not influence any significant
improvement on the hazard recognition capability of the worker, but rather
improves the worker’s safety behaviour in dynamic safety climates. As Pandit et al.
(2019) observed that providing a positive safety climate improves hazard
recognition capability of construction workers, and safety risk perception which is
a manifestation of safety attitude, it can be seen that safety attitude is not a stand-
alone factor in changing hazard recognition capability of construction workers. This
is in line with the views of previous literature focused on understanding the
antecedents of worker’s hazard recognition capability on respective job sites
(Abubakar et al., 2020; Albert et al., 2017; Namian et al., 2016a).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The fretting nature of the construction industry with regards to safety of workers,
and the execution of tasks begs the need for an urgent response. Building on the
numerous efforts from studies in this regard, this paper provides a new perspective
to the management of construction safety on construction sites by focusing on the
human related dynamics of the worker. Understanding the antecedents of worker’s
safety hazard recognition capability certainly has the potential of minimising the
occurrences of avoidable accidents, and improving the overall safety performance
of the industry. This study found that although safety attitude was found to
influence safety behaviour of workers with slight impact on hazard recognition
capability, the behaviour of worker with regards to safety has no direct correlation
with the capability of the worker to identify hazardous working circumstances. This
finding prompts a different outlook to the relationship on the role of safety attitude
in changing behaviour and improving hazard recognition capability. It could be
probable that safety behaviour of worker plays a facilitating role between safety
attitude and hazard recognition capability. As thus, it is recommended that further
studies be carried out in divergent demographic and statistical contexts to put this
relationship into clearer perspective.
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TOWARDS A RESEARCH AGENDA FOR SMART CONTRACT

ADOPTION IN LESS TECHNOLOGICALLY ENABLED
CONSTRUCTION ENVIRONMENTS: A SYSTEMATIC
LITERATURE REVIEW
Ekweani Chioma Precious1, Kolo Baba Adama2, Adogbo Kulomri Jaule3 and
Mohammed Abdullahi4
1Department of Quantity Surveying, Baze University Abuja, Nigeria
2,3,4Department of Quantity Surveying, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, Nigeria
Smart contract (SC), a tool created for technologically enabled environments (TEEs)
is poised to tackle the obsolescence within and inefficiencies of the traditional
environments in construction. Generic considerations of SC are predicated on ideal
TEEs, in spite of the slow pace of technology adoption in the construction industry.
This is indicative of the fact that, quite a lot of less TEEs(LTEEs) still do exist in
construction. But how should SC in construction be implemented within the LTEEs
remains largely unknown, thereby creating the potentials for a research agenda
within the LTEEs. This paper conceptualizes the state of the art of SC research in
construction. A systematic literature review was undertaken to explore the ontology
of SC in construction and applying the theory of technology adoption, the paper
further characterized the ontological considerations into two domains i.e. TEE and
LTEE. The outcome of this investigation revealed that under the LTEE perspective:
existing research is challenged at addressing SC related issues; third parties are
indispensable; and that the block-chain technology is most suitable for
implementing SC. The findings provided information on how SC can be
implemented in less technologically enabled environment. To conclude, the paper
suggests that SC in construction research should be approached from a hybrid
perspective whereby third parties (e.g. consultants) would still have prominent roles
in contractual transactions as opposed to the fundamental principles of SC e.g.
autonomous processes, and elimination of third party participation.
Keywords: construction, smart contract, technologically-enabled environment
INTRODUCTION
SC has revolutionized the norm of traditional contracts in the construction industry.
Studies show transactional transparency, independent processes and security of
1 ekweanichioma@gmail.com Tel: 2348060188330

3 kjadogbo@yahoo.com
4 bnabdallah02@gmail.com
Ekweani, et al. (2021) Towards a research agenda for smart contract adoption in less technologically
enabled construction environments: a systematic literature review In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds)
Ghana, 1013-1022
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payments in SCs which addresses major problems with progress payment in

construction projects (Hamledari & Fischer, 2020; Ahmadisheykhsarmast &
Sonmez, 2020; Li & Kassem, 2019; Alharby & Moorsel, 2017; Bartoletti & Pompianu
2017). SCs are contracts that are written in computer codes and operate on a block
chain (BC). SC automatically verifies, executes and enforces a contract based on the
terms written in the code (Wang, Yuan, Ouyang, Ni, Han & Yue-Wang, 2019;
Cardeira, 2015; Natanoshi 2009). SC is an efficient and reliable means of payment
used for automated execution of contract conditions needed to redeem the
inefficient traditional payment system in the construction industry. In SCs, payment
is made at an instantaneous effect which is largely unobtainable via the traditional
contracts (Mason, 2017). The main attribute of SC according to
Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, (2020) is the provision of security of payment
for construction works without incurring administrative costs or requiring
intermediaries such as Architects and Quantity Surveyors (QS) in a traditionally
procured construction contract. SC in an idea TEE uses big data sensors such as
drones and reality capture cameras to monitor work progress and effect payment
upon completion of tasks.
Despite the move towards technology advancement in the Construction industry,

a lot of LTEEs still exist causing poor adoption of SC technology in the industry.
Specific problems that researchers have solved in SC can largely be categorized
into two –method and technology. ‘Method-related ’problems reveals non
established systems for implementing SCs while the ‘technology ’problems
indicated costs, crypto currency fluctuations, data capture/preparation time and
accuracy of input data generated by reality capture technologies
(Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020; Hamledari & Fischer, 2020).
Existing research on the use of SC technology to expedite payment in real time
construction projects were done with reality capture technologies at the
construction sites to confirm work done before automating on-chain payment. In
LTEEs, SC technology might be impracticable hence an introduction of a human
component is inevitable.
The traditional payment system requires inputs from both the Architect and
Quantity Surveyor (QS) during the certification process which are usually complex
in nature. These third party consultants are fundamental to progress payment and
their quality assurance functions cannot be performed by technologies in use in
the LTEEs. Hence, SC methodology would have to be modified to accommodate
third party interaction.
There are currently no attempts in literature made to implement SC based on the
contractual provisions governing construction contracts. Hence, this research
hybridizes SC using block chain (BC) technology and the traditional payment
system to cater for the peculiarities of construction projects by introducing a
synergy between project consultants and SC technologies such that the consultants
can play prominent roles in contractual transactions as opposed to the
fundamental principles of SC e.g. autonomous processes, and elimination of third
party participation projects.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
This section is divided into five sections to provide detailed information on the
general concepts and applications of SC as found in literature. The first section
discusses SC applications, the second section explored SC technologies, third
section considered SC limitations, fourth section discussed SC features in TEEs and
LTEEs and the fifth section looked at various interactions of SC in TEEs and LTEEs.
SC applications
Researchers have dwelt on one major aspect of SC namely: progress payment of
construction works (Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020; Hamledari & Fischer,
2020; Li & Kassem, 2019; Mason, 2019; Alharby & Moorsel, 2017, Cardeira, 2015).
Over the years, the construction industry has experienced unsteady flow of
payment for construction projects in real time. Payment has been a lingering
problem in the construction industry and one of the top causes of disputes on site
(Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020). Researchers have covered payment in
three areas namely: Factors, Effects and Measures (Ahmadisheykhsarmast &
Sonmez, 2020; Thanuja & Olabode, 2020; Li, Greenwood &Kassem, 2019; Peters,
Subar, & Martin, 2019; Mohammad, Suman, Harum & Hasim, 2018; Hansen,
Rostiyanti & Purnomo, 2017; Niazi & Painting, 2017; Ramachandra & Rotimi, 2015).
The factors identified have been summarized into: Contractual issues, and financial
issues (Peters et al., 2019; Hansen et al., 2017; Niazi & Painting, 2017; Ramachandra
& Rotimi, 2015). The effects of late payment practices have led to negative cash
flow for main contractors and delayed payment of subcontractors where as poor
payment systems have caused destruction of trust between contracting parties and
abandonment of contracts (Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020; Thanuja &
Olabode, 2020; Peters, Sabar & Martin 2019; Li, Grenwood & Kaseem 2019;
Mohammad, Suman, Harum & Hasim 2018; Niazi & Painting 2017; Ramachandra
& Rotimi, 2015). Quite a number of proposed measures to payment exist in
literature, the common one been: creating a feasible form of financial security at
the outset of a project which formed the basis of the argument in this paper
(Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020; Hamledari & Fischer 2020; Moumita et al.,
2020).
It has become evident that the traditional system cannot address the inefficiencies
of payment problems for construction works (Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez,
2020; Hamledari & Fischer, 2020). Hence, there is a paradigm shift to an automated
system which supports the new normal ushered by the pandemic. SC with features
such as transparency, security of payment, autonomous transaction and
guaranteed execution is the new deal (Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020;
Hamledari & Fischer, 2020; Brydon & Wang, 2018; Cardeira, 2015).
SC Technologies
Blockchain (BC) technology
BC is a way of storing records of value and transactions; a database (Gates, 2017).
Most transactions between people require an intermediary (e.g banks) to provide
trust, security and to facilitate transactions. BC technology removes the need for
an intermediary, allowing people to transact directly and promote trust and
assurance with each other (Gates, 2017; Mason, 2017). In order for a transaction to
be processed, it is grouped with other transactions and added to a new block on
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top of the previous block in the chain. Each block refers to the previous block
number, linking them together in a chain. The chain of blocks in the BC links all the
way to the first block on the chain thereby ensuring security. SC with BC technology
transfers ownership of securities (lien rights) into the BC. A party (the contractor) is
expected to perform some tasks on a certain date, once the SC verifies the
completion of the task, it enforces the contract automatically by paying the
contractor. The set out conditions are spelt out and imputed into the chain
(Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020; Hamledari & Fischer, 2020; Gates, 2017;
Mason, 2017).
Decentralized Apps (DAPPS)
These are apps that are open source, not controlled by one person or entity and
runs across a distributed BC. DAPPS has no central server; instead users connect to
each other through peer to peer connects (Gates, 2017). A web of interconnected
SC can be used to create a fully autonomous organisation which is capable of
carrying out functions similar to the traditional organisation.
Reality Capture Technology (RCT)
Robotic reality capture machines such as camera equipped unmanned aerial
vehicles (drones) are machines used to document progress of tasks on site whose
outputs are fed into the SC to value the percentage of works done and enforce
payment accordingly (Hamledari & Fischer, 2020). The relevance of this technology
to SC according to Hamledari & Fischer (2020) is argued to bridge the gap between
the on and off chain realities, a limitation of using only the BC technology.
Secondly, RCT captures the physical reality exactly as it is thereby introducing
objectivity into the valuation of works and ensuring consistency across the chain
as only reliable data are imputed.
SC Limitations
Despite the potential advantages of SC, there are specific limitations of SC that
researchers have identified which include: costs of acquiring RCTs, fluctuations of
crypto currencies, data capture and preparation time, vulnerability (cyber attack)
and misinterpretation of input data (if data are captured wrongly)
(Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020; Hamledari & Fischer, 2020; Li & Kassem,
2019; Nanayakkara & Perera, 2018; Alharby & Moorsel, 2017; Kosba, Miller, Shi,
Wen, Papamanthou & Hawk, 2016; Luu, Chu, Olickel, Saxena & Hobur, 2016; Natoli,
& Gramoli, 2016; Zhang, Cecchetti, Croman, Juels & Shi, 2016). These limitations
are arguably bearable compared to the magnanimous challenges of the traditional
payment system which subjects valuation of works to the interpretation of the
valuer. Additionally, the discrepancy of the wrongly captured data affects only the
timing of a minor fraction of the payment but not the entire valuation (Hamledari
& Fischer, 2020).
Cost:
Acquiring RCT in LTEEs is capital intensive. The average cost of a drone with
minimal gadgets is about N1, 500,000 (in Nigeria) which is a little too much for an
average client in both public and private sectors. With digital cameras and a good
smart phone, project progress can be captured with reasonable accuracy which
offers a cheaper alternative.
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Fluctuation of crypto currencies

SC utilises special currencies known as crypto currency for payment common ones
being bitcoin (BTC) and ethereum (ETH). The primary difference between BTC and
ETH is that BTC is mainly used as a distributed ledger for financial transactions
while ETH is designed to be used as a distributed computing platform for running
applications (multiple facets). Employers might incur losses due to fluctuations in
the exchange rates of crypto currencies. The current exchange rate of ETH/NGN is
731,839.08 while BTC/NGN is 22,498,522.85 (Morningstar, 2021). A large amount
of buying demand from an employer for a mega project is likely to lead to a rapid
appreciation of ETH making this a limitation for adoption in large scale projects
(Ahmadisheykhsarmast & Sonmez, 2020).
Data capture and preparation time
According to (Hamledari & Fischer, 2020), data processing time using digital
images takes about 14 minutes excluding the data capture time from site. From
processing to payment might take some days. Despite the ease of this process
compared to the traditional payment system, for projects where time is of essence,
there may be a need for a quicker technology.
Vulnerability of SC platform
Researchers have analysed the vulnerability of SC and categorised them into
security and privacy issues. Cyber attack is a common phenomenon with
technological inventions. According to (Dika &Nowostawki, 2020), “Reentrancy”
which relies on the interaction between two SC is viewed as the most common
severe vulnerability of SCs. This permits one SC interacting with another SC to
retrieve multiple information from the interacting SC which can be used to defraud
that SC if there is an incomplete interaction between them. Transaction origin,
timestamp dependence, external calls, unchecked send-bug, etc other
vulnerabilities identified by (Dika &Nowostawki, 2020) that limits the adoption of
adoption of SC.
Misinterpretation of data
The accuracy of data fed into the SC is important in achieving best payment
practices. According to (Hamledari & Fischer, 2020), a 5% inaccuracy was detected
in the input data arising from the misinterpretation of a painted wall as a plastered
wall. The implication is that 5% of the misinterpreted element was paid either too
early or later. Although, this inaccuracy exists, it still offers a better result than the
traditional format where the inspector might be biased.
Features of SC in TEEs and LTEEs

Automated Process
The ability to enforce a contract upon the completion of certain tasks without any
human intervention makes SC desirable in the new normal for contracting.
Researchers reveal that the instantaneous potential of SC can be largely seen in its
ability to save cost and time of projects as well as improving project performance
(Mason, 2019; Bartoletti & Pompianu, 2017; Mason, 2017). This also eliminates the
inefficiencies of managing hard copy documents.
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Compatibility with other technologies

A. Building Information Modelling (BIM): There is recent improvement in the
adoption of BIM in the CI. Although BIM provides a yardstick against which
smart contracts can align, Mason (2017) opined that SC should run solo so as
to generate thousands of “straightforward contracts executed by high
performance”. The argument is that if SC relies closely on BIM to operate, then
there are chances of centralization of operations due to the issues with BIM
adoption complexities across its levels (level 3: a single shared project model)
which opposes the fundamental principles of SC.
B. BC technology: BC is a distribution of database among a continuously growing
list of transactions in units of blocks linked together and secured from
tampering and breakage. BC offers enhanced speed of transactions with the
potential for the real-time instant transfer (Gates, 2017). Researchers revealed
that BC has the potential to change almost every industry in the world due to
its transparency of transactions, removal of intermediaries and decentralization
of operations (Lauslahti, Mattila & Sepppala, 2017). SC works best on BC
technology because it operates automatically without a central authority. Once
the conditions written into the SC are met, payment is made and released and
if not met, payment is withheld. Hence, series of activities/ sub contracts in a
project can be linked together in a SC but operates independently. The beauty
of SC with BC technology is that a uniform view and record of transactions are
maintained throughout the chain and irrespective of the amount of new
instructions fed into the block, the system remains intact.
Third party elimination

One of the attributes of SC is the elimination of a central control/ command. The
decentralized nature of SC permits individual activities to operate independently
without the authorization of a central command. This promotes objectivity and
transparency and eliminates bias. It also improves the speed and accuracy of works
as each component is structured to monitor progress and dispense value
automatically once a completion command is triggered.
Real time progress and records

With the RCT upon which SC operates with, real time progress and records of daily
tasks are captured using drones and big data sensors positioned strategically at
different points on the construction site. Information is managed and disseminated
across the block and progress of works can be tracked with ease. According to
Hamledari & Fischer, (2020), a robotic reality capture machine was used to capture
physical site progress while the SC dispenses payment when tasks were
accomplished. This was used to make payment to seven subcontractors without
relying on a centralised control mechanism. The subcontractors did not have to
apply for payments because payment was made automatically once the SC
confirms data received. The major challenge the researchers encountered using
this approach is the data capture and preparation time which delayed payments
for a few days.
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Interactions between TEEs and LTEEs
Figure 1: Interactions between SC environments
In LTEEs, technological advancement is at embryonic stage, hence full automation

is unlikely and the inclusion of consultants for project supervision and
endorsement of payment becomes inevitable. The study therefore, proposed a
hybrid SC payment system to suit the complexities of the construction industry. In
the proposed hybrid SC payment system, the contract is written as codes in the SC.
Upon collection of data from site using digital cameras/ smart phones which is fed
into the SC for verification of completed tasks. A consultant in the block-chain
values and approves due amount to be paid to the contractor/supplier. SC verifies
completed transaction and payment is made. Series of sub contracts can be written
in blocks and added to the BC, such that many activities are going on concurrently
without interference and progress of works can be viewed by everyone on the
block. Hence, eliminating inaccurate progress report and delayed payment.
Figure 2: Hybrid smart contract block
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CONCLUSION
SC can be used to overcome the inefficiencies of the traditional payment system
which has plagued the Construction Industry (CI) over the years. Advancement in
technology in the Construction Industry has made the need for SC evident as it
encourages minimal physical site interactions, transparency of transactions, and
speedy delivery of projects. However, how SC should interact in LTEEs remained
unknown. This study provided information to bridge the cap by establishing a
hybrid SC payment system for adoption in LTEEs which will be tested in life projects
as part of an ongoing PhD research work. The study also supports (Mason, 2019)
on the semi-automation of SC in the CI for best practices. Major limitation of the
study is the poor technical experience of construction consultants which can be
overcome by awareness/training of consultants in technological skill
acquisition/software development. The study is recommended for adoption in
medium-sized public projects.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
URBAN MORPHOLOGY AND CRIME PATTERNS IN URBAN

AREAS: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Idris Isah Iliyasu1, Aldrin Abdullah2 and Massoomeh Hedayati Marzbali3
1Landscape Architecture Programme, School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
2,3School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
The emerging challenges of urban planning and design professionals across the
globe is on how to mainstream crime prevention and control in the planning and
management of cities, and that rose the interest of Environmental designers in
conducting research on urban morphology and crime. Researches on urban
morphology provide sufficient explorations and understandings of crime areas and
fear of crime in cities. Despite the effort so far, the existing literature on morphology
of crime areas and pattern of crime presents different perspectives to the study of
crime and spaces, reflecting the varied field of urban morphological research. There
is a need to understand these perspectives in view of their directions and inherent
limitations for effective understanding of crime pattern and urban morphogenesis
in cities. The focus of the paper is on the understanding of different perspectives in
the study of crime pattern and urban morphology in setting up an effective
mechanism for crime prevention and control. Eighteen (18) paper articles and six
(6) thesis published between 2010 - 2021 where selected based on the
Environmental criminological research perspectives from the field of Geography,
Urban Planning, Urban Design, Landscape Architecture and Architecture; and
systematically reviewed based on their characteristics and then classified according
their relevance to environmental criminology for analysis and drawing of
inferences. The findings indicated that, there is inadequate empirical research on
the influence of urban morphology on crime pattern in cities. Therefore, the paper
recommends for further researches to focus on exploring the various elements of
urban morphology and how they help in understanding the spatial distribution of
crime in areas and the explanations they could provide for effective crime
prevention and control in cities.
Keywords: built environment, crime pattern, environmental criminology, urban

morphology
INTRODUCTION
The greatest challenges facing the world in the 21st century are poverty, inequality,
insecurity and climate change (Beall & Fox, 2009; UN-habitat, 2016 & 2019a). With
more than half of the world’s population living in urban areas, the reality of the
1 urbanist2005@gmail.com
2 aldrin@usm.my
3 hedayati@usm.my
Iliyasu, Abdullah and Marzbali (2021) Urban morphology and crime patterns in urban areas: a review
of the literature In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research
1023
Iliyasu, Abdullah and Marzbali
21st century is that these issues will impact strongly on cities and as Yunusa (2011)
and UN-habitat (2020), indicated that, the battle against these mutually reinforcing
situations shall be won or lost in cities.
Urban crime threatens the quality of life, human rights, social and economic
instability and sustainable development in cities around the world (Baker, 1998;
UN-habitat, 2005; 2019b & Umar, et al., 2015a). This is especially true in developing
countries that have high poverty rates and many informal settlements. The poor
are the worst affected by urban crime and violence, regardless of their
geographical location (UN Habitat, 2007). Other studies further attested to the fact
that usually, areas of the city that are most blighted by violence also happen to be
the poorest (Alemika & Chukuma (2012); Assiago, 2017; Bernasco & Block, 2009;
Winton, 2004; Umar, et al., 2015b).
The 2011 World Bank’s position is that, if decisive action is not taken, the scale of
urban violence can ellipse that of open warfare (World Bank, 2011, p.24). For
millions of people in cities of the developing world, violence or the fear of violence
is a daily reality (Ojo & Ojewale, 2019; UN Habitat, 2019a). Rising urban crime
across Africa contributes to pervasive fears that impede commerce, fray social
capital and undermine normal urban activity (Assiago, 2017). The 2020 Global
Report on Human settlements estimated that over 60% of all urban residents have
been victims of crime with 70% of them in Asia and Africa (Unhabitat, 2020, p. 16).
Different conceptions of crime in design practice, sociology, environmental

psychology, and criminology indicate an extensive articulation of crime in relation
to the built environment and urban form in the city (Cozens et al., 2019 & Carr,
2020; Wuschke & Bryan, 2018). Five decades of different studies on urban crime,
crime prevention through environmental design, and fear of crime indicate an
implicit and gradual movement from deterministic to possibilistic propositions in
exploring the relationships between urban crime and environmental design both
in theory and practice (Curman, et.al., 2015 & Umar, et al., 2018). In this way, various
dimensions of crime prevention in both theory and practice can be categorized
into morphological, social, functional, and perceptual dimensions. While the social
and perceptual dimensions of crime phenomenon have been widely addressed in
criminology, environmental psychology, and sociology disciplines in terms of fear
of crime, sense of community, people participation, demographic profiling, socio-
economic attributes, risk, and victimization. The morphological and functional
dimensions of urban crime have been relatively less explored comprehensively as
a complex combination of urban forms and functions in relation to social and
perceptual outcomes (Eck & Weisburd, 1995; Wuschke, 2016, & 2018). Moreover,
considering the complexity of the city as a combinational network of multi-scalar
activities and emergence, the issue of urban crime needs to be explored in relation
to various scales and dimensions of the city and urban environments.
Considering the large body of knowledge and research on the issue of crime in
relation to the built environment in terms of spatial structure, demographic status,
urban morphology, sociocultural and economic condition, it is probable to
conceive an evolutionary process in which different approaches and trends
advocate for a comprehensive articulation of the complex relation between crime
and the city (Cozens, 2007; Perkins, et.al, 2009; Salau & Lawanson, 2010; Silva & Li,
1024
2020). Despite the fact that crime is one of the critical problems of cities worldwide,
most of the previous studies have been conducted in sociology, criminology, and
psychology in order to either explore the sociocultural and economic predictors of
crime, whether in sociocultural context or individuals, or evaluate the proposed
theories or propositions (Cozens, 2011). However, although the studies have
gradually extended the crime discourse over the hedge of narrow-minded
determinism that was implicitly embedded with the early trends of environmental
research on the issue of crime, they have relatively ignored or reduced the
“complexity of the city problems” (Jacobs, 1961; Jones & Fanek, 1997; Lamya &
Madanipour, 2006) into crime statistics while abstracting crime from its urban
context. However, whilst planners and designers need to adopt theories and
propositions in relation to spatiality and sociality domains in order to forecast the
social outcomes of their spatial amendments in the built environment, the
efficiency of these propositions remains ambiguous while societies are paying the
price and the challenge is overwhelmingly critical when “design-level” theories are
needed for interventions (Hillier & Sahbaz, 2008; Ojo & Ojewale, 2019; Umar, et al.,
2020). Thus, conducting a theoretical review the paper posed a question on what
should guide the focus of future research in crime and environment through the
exploration of the morphology of urban spaces, for understanding the pattern of
crime and criminal activities in cities as basis for drawing up a Planning and Design
framework for developing crime resilient cities.
METHODS AND MATERIALS

Literature search
This paper focused on the role of urban morphology in understanding crime
pattern. It also attempted to review the influence of such findings in shaping crime
prevention frameworks in cities. The research objectives were addressed by
conducting a comprehensive systematic review of most recent literature that
examines the influence of built environmental elements in understanding crime
pattern in urban areas. A systematic and extensive search was conducted in several
electronic databases, which include articles published from 2010 to 2021 as
suggested in the PRISMA statement (Moher, et.al., 2009). The literature search was
conducted between August, 2019 to January, 2021; using the major databases,
including Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect and Sci-hub. The search keywords
used include: ‘environmental criminology’, ‘urban morphology’, ‘Design out crime’,
‘crime pattern’, ‘crime and urban form ’and ‘crime prevention through
environmental design’.
Literature review criteria

In the course of selecting publications to include in the review and subsequent
analysis, no geographical limit was set against inclusion or exclusion of materials,
but rather adopted a worldwide domain. The selection process was conducted in
two stages. The titles and abstracts were assessed, and then the whole text of
selected articles was reviewed. A definition of inclusion criteria was conducted prior
to the extensive search. The inclusion criteria for articles used include:
- published between 2010-2021,
- published in peer-reviewed journals and unpublished Thesis written in English,
- highly cited,
1025
- relevancy to the objectives of the study,

- outcomes related to Sociological, Psychological and Economic aspects of crime
were excluded,
- interconnection analysis and ability to answer research questions.
Our search identified 106,097 records. After title screening, approximately 312
articles were found appropriate. Consequently, further screening was carried out
based on the content of the abstract, 55 records were selected based on their
appropriateness to the study focus. Finally, 20 records were selected for detailed
content analysis. Unpublished thesis was also used, six (6) Thesis were purposively
selected and analysed; the findings have been presented in the discussion.
LITERATURE REVIEW: CONCEPTS AND THEORIES EXPLAINING CRIME

PATTERN IN URBAN AREAS
Concept of urban morphology
Before identifying urban morphology and urban form, it would be useful to look
into the origin of the words. As stated in various dictionaries, morphology is
constituted from the Latin words morphe (form) and logos (description); therefore,
morphology is concisely the description of form. The Oxford English Dictionary
defines morphology as the particular shape, form, or external structure of an
organism, or landform. It is also described as the history of variation in form. Form
is characterised as the general system of arrangement, whereas figure is defined
by lines and angles. Ching (1996) defines form as a three-dimensional mass, which
also concerns figure and shape; it is the external outline, internal structure, and the
unity of the whole.
Urban morphology is defined as “the organized body of knowledge” and “integral
part of urban geography”; it relates forms to their socio-economic context and
historical development (Psarra, 2012 & Krieger, 2006; Whitehand, 1987). Urban
morphology is about shapes, forms, spaces and places; it is also associated with
the nature and scale of physical places and the connections between them. It can
be both descriptive and classificatory. It also focuses on the question of “how and
why settlements took the shape they did” which includes analytical element of
morphogenesis (Kalimapour, 2016). It is the study of the city as a human habitat
(Moudon, 1997). Despite multiple definitions, briefly, urban morphology means the
structure or the study of urban form (Kropf, 2005; Larkham, 2005; Whitehand,
2005).
Urban morphology was firstly defined in the geography literature. Geography deals
with the morphological processes of settlements; and the main pioneers of this
discipline are (Conzen, 1960; Kropf, 2001; Larkham, 2005; & Whitehand, 1987).
Secondly, Architecture tackles the typological processes of the subject and here we
can mention (Lefebvre, 1994; Malfroy, 1986; Moudon, 1998; Psarra, 1997) as the
forerunners. Thirdly, philosophy, which tackles the philosophical processes within
urban morphology, differs from the other disciplines in that it questions more the
social issue of space. The key proponents of this approach are Harvey, Foucault,
Lefebvre and Harvey (Madanipour, 1996). Fourth, urban design deals with the
public space network, space and place issues, and (Krieger, 2006; Lynch, 1960 &
1981; Jacob, 1961) and many others can be mentioned here. Finally, by the late
1026
twentieth century, in terms of science, Geographical Information Systems GIS,

Space Syntax by Hillier and his colleagues (1970s), and other mathematical models
by (Alexander, 1977; & Salingaros, 2000) can be cited as recent quantitative
approaches to the analysis of urban morphology (Cozens, 2019; Sima & Zhang,
2009).
In addition, urban form is described as the basic element that gives character to
cities. Morris (1994) mentions that it is how we conceptualise the complexity of
physical form. Urban form is composed of buildings, streets, squares, roads, and all
the elements that comprise the city. It is the outcome of a process that is formed
by specific determining forces (Larkham, 2005). Alkim, (2006) classifies these forces
under two groups; firstly, geographical factors such as climate, topography, and
local construction materials, and secondly, man-made determinants such as socio-
political and economic powers, culture, and religion.
Therefore, urban morphology is related to the history of the city, spatial relations,
social relations, economic relations, culture, traditions, various factors shaping that
form, and its rural/urban landscape. It is about the people, institutions, regulations,
and management. Therefore, it is an important phenomenon and an analytic tool,
which helps cities to understand their development processes, and the
characteristics of each element in the city.
Crime and urban form

Exploration of crime and place is a rapidly evolving area of research in the 21st
century. Some of the early works in the 1970s examined topological structure of
neighborhoods, identifying a way to measure the permeability of edges of the
neighborhood, allowing crime committed by non-residents to drift away from the
usual location along major streets into roads toward the centers of neighborhoods
(Brantingham & Brantingham, 1993c). For decades, researches focus on
understanding of crime and the urban environment, particularly how people live in
and interact with the landscape (buildings, people, roads, and activities) that
surrounds them. It advances understanding of crime within the urban landscape
(Brantingham & Brantingham, 1995). Crime changes with urban development
patterns. Opportunities for criminal activity emerge, disappear, or move as
geography changes across the urban landscape (Weisburd et al., 2012). Patterns
emerge, dissipate, or persist; but crimes are far more predictable by place of
occurrence than by a particular offender (Umar, 2020).
Jacob’s book The Death and Life of Great American Cities (1961) was the first
contemporary piece to show how an active street life could considerably reduce
opportunities for crime. This was followed by Jeffery’s book Crime Prevention
through Environmental Design (1971 & 1977). Jeffery considered a broad array of
environmental factors that influence offenders, including the physical environment
(urban form and design), the legal environment (reinforcing rules and regulations),
the economic environment and social structures and social organization. The work
stimulated researchers such as the Brantingham, Felson and Clarke, as well as
professionals such as planners, geographers, sociologists, psychologists and
architects to study crime in relation to environmental factors (Cozens et al., 2019).
Criminal events are inseparable from the environments in which they occur. The
origins, pathways, and destinations of individuals are shaped by their physical
1027
surroundings. In urban environments, in particular, the built physical form of the

city encourages (and often restricts) movement along specific, planned pathways,
which connect the origin and destination points such as; residences, workplaces,
schools, shopping and entertainment areas, to name a few (Boivin & D’Elia, 2017;
Boivin & Felson, 2017; Frank et al. 2013). As urban structure shapes patterns of
movement, so too does it shape patterns of criminal activity (Brantingham &
Brantingham, 1995; Brantingham et.al. 2015; Bowers, 2010; Boivin & D’Elia, 2017;
Johnson & Wuschke, 2007; Wuschke 2016; Wuschke & Bryan, 2018; Silva & li, 2020).
Changes to the built urban environments, such as urban development, growth,
decline or gentrification, are designed to shift the movement within and use of
urban spaces; as such, these processes may have considerable impacts on the
distribution of criminal activity.
Theories explaining crime pattern in urban areas

Studies in environmental criminology have also indicated that there is a strong
relationship between the patterns of crime in a city and the urban form. In 1978,
Paul and Patricia Brantingham studied how crime locations scatter themselves into
specific patterns in relation to the variables that govern growth of cities. Older cities
with concentric zonal forms have crime-locations concentrated towards the dense
core of the city. The cities with mosaic patterns that are relatively newer seemed to
have a scattered pattern of crime spots. The patterns of roads in a city also have a
relation with the patterns of crime because the roads determine the accessibility
to potential crime spots in a city. Cities built on gridiron patterns are known to have
higher crime rates when compared to cities with naturally developed street layouts,
(Brantingham & Brantingham, 2000, 2008; Silva & Li, 2020).
Environmental criminologist attempted to predict crime based on elements such
as target distribution, land use patterns, transportation pathways, and offender
residence distributions (Suryavanshi, 2001; Rengert, 2004; Wuschke & Bryan, 2019).
They have proposed models of decision making that lead potential offenders to
specific targets and specific locations (Brantingham & Brantingham et al. 2009;
Curman et al. 2015; Brantingham & Brantingham, 2015; Hashim et al., 2019). The
criminality of place is most often connected to the level of activity, ease of access,
the presence of juveniles, and the presence of easy targets or victims. The sense of
place is temporal by nature. People may feel fear in a dark parking lot at night, but
completely safe in the same parking lot during the daytime. In essence, criminal
places as well as criminal activities have a temporal dimension in accordance with
environmental criminology (Meena, 2016 & Perry, 2017). Crime and urban form
researches have also explored potential offender decision making by arguing that
crime is associated with offender awareness of space that led to decisions about
target attractiveness. Crimes occur where and when the immediate environment
makes the offender feel that a crime can be committed with reasonable safety and
ease. Conversely, victim decision making can affect crime patterns. Victims ’choices
about where to work, shop, or play affect their chances of coming in contact with
offenders (Kim, 2018 & Cozen, 2019). Several theories have emerged over time to
provide comprehensive understanding on the inter play between crime and the
environment, table 2.0 has provided summery of these theories and their
fundamental assumptions and inherent limitations as observed by researchers.
1028
Table 2.0: Theories explaining crime pattern in urban areas

Theories Author (s) Assumptions Emerging criticisms
The theory proposes that urban crime

analysts should search for concentrations of
The theory attracts its own criticisms. It
Clarke, offence targets and reduce the chances of re-
was considered counterproductive as it
1983; offending. The basic assumptions here is that
Opportunity does not alter the disposition of
Wortly, more opportunities lead to more crime,
Theory criminals to continue offending and was
2008, easier ones attract more offenders and such
also criticized on the grounds that it led
2010 existence of easy opportunities makes
to crime displacement across areas.
possible for a lifestyle of crime within urban
settings.
(Park &
burgess, The theory has been criticized by
The effects of location and location specific
1928; Park environmental criminologist for been
characteristics of fragile communities such as
Social et. al., purely offender focused approach to
poverty, ethnic heterogeneity, and weakened
Disorganisation 1969; investigating the occurrence of crime
social stability influences the perpetuation of
Shaw & while ignoring the influence of built
crime.
Mckay, environment on crime - criminal events.
1942)
The theory assummes that criminals think
The theory placed emphasis on
exactly the same way as non-criminals. That
impulsive behaviours of offenders in
crime perpetrators within urban settings
committing crime. Several critics argue
(Cornish intentionally choose to commit offence
that impulsive emotions can have
Rational Choice & Clarke, largely because they feel it would be more
significant effects on the predisposition
Theory 1986; rewarding for them than non-criminal
to commit crime. Other critic of the
2008) behaviour. The theory also, places greater
theory shows that other extenuating
emphasis on the influence of purposive
factors may influence offenders and that
behaviour in the risk-reward calculation of
they may not always act rationally.
offenders.
The theory suggests that the organization of
(Cohen &
repetitive activities in urban settings creates
Felson,
opportunities for crime. The assumption here
1979; Eck, The theory over time has attracted a
is that crime occurs when: there is an
1995; number of criticisms. This includes the
offender who is motivated enough to commit
Felson, assumptions that: the offender has to be
Routine Activity a crime; there is a target against which the
1995; motivated; it contradicts the
Theory motivated offender can strike; a capable
Felson & assumptions of other criminological
guardian for the potential victim is absent at
Clark, theories such as crime pattern theory
the place and time when the offender strikes;
1998; which focus on the spreading of crime.
there is a presence of a place manager and a
Felson,
handler capable to exert some control over
2008)
the offender.
Although the theory has been
(Branting The underlying premise for the crime pattern popularized within the domain of
ham & theory is that crimes do not happen environmental criminology, it still faces
Brantingh randomly or uniformly in time, urban space, some criticisms. The underlying
am, 1993, across social groups and during daily or assumptions that are used to create the
Crime Pattern
1995, lifetime routines. Similarly, there are those routine activities triangle comprising
Theory
2008; Eck offenders who repeatedly commit crimes Nodes, Paths, and Edges focus largely
& within urban settings and there are targets on the behaviours of criminals and
Weisburd, (persons and places) that repeatedly fall victims which can change from time to
1994) victim to such crimes. time. Consequently, the theory struggles
to address the root causes of crime.
The central assumptions made by CPTED is
CPTED has attracted a range of
(Jeffery, that the built environment represents an
criticisms from criminologists. CPTED
1971; important underlying determinant of crime.
proposes environmental design
Crime Newman, The idea here is that an efficient and effective
methods such as target hardening and
Prevention 1972; utilization of the physical environment helps
restrictions and control of access; some
Through Moffat, to reduce crime. “There are no criminals…only
of these methods actually create urban
Environmental 1983; environmental circumstances that result in
fortresses which further entrench urban
Design (CPTED) Cozens & criminal behaviour. Given the proper
segregation. Another criticism of CPTED
Love, environmental structure, anyone will be a
is that it also led to the displacement of
2015) criminal or a non-criminal” (Jeffery, 1977,
crime.
p.177).
1029

Perspectives of researches on urban morphology and crime pattern
It is clear that research on Environmental Criminology has largely focused on the
relationship between patterns of crime and urban form and has gained
considerable attention in the last four to five decades (Cozens, 2007; Meena, 2016
and Carr, 2020; Song et.al. 2016). Advances are evident from theoretical
perspectives, pointing at best approach to view and better understanding of crime
events, management, prevention and control, and in terms of methodologies in
conducting empirical research to test the validity of such theories. This trend has
addressed a lot of pressing questions with some fascinating explanations as to why,
where, when and how crimes occur. As new findings continue to emerge prompting
new sets of questions, much research is still needed to provide more answers
(Azande, 2015; Danis, 2012; Groff & Lockwood, 2014; Mihinjac & Saville, 2019;
Umar, 2018; Zubairu, 2016).
Table 3.0: Perspectives of researches on urban morphology and crime pattern

Perspectives of
Author(s) Discussions Limitations of the studies
Researches
Urban form and pattern of crime
largely focus on exploring the
(Ahmed, 2010; Ackerman & The studies are limited to the exploration of
spatial pattern of crime in spaces
Murray, 2004; Adel, et al., 2016; crime pattern over space and understanding
over period of time, with
Arthur, 1994; Appiahene- of the influence of spatial forms at
emphasis on macro scale of
Gyamfi, 1999; Emamanuel et.al, neighbourhood level of analysis, ignoring the
Geographical analysis for the understanding of
2015; Hillier & Shu, 2000; Isin, role of social indices such as poverty level,
the social and spatial
2012; Rengert & Brain, 2009; education and land use mix in explaining
environmental elements that
Ratcliffe, 2012; Song, et al., crime events and pattern across areas of the
could provide explanations of
2013a. Umar, 2017, 2020) city.
crime for effective crime
prevention and control.
Urban form and pattern of crime
researches largely dwell on the
impact of planning decisions on
(Cozens et al., 2020; Hillier, The studies mostly focused on micro to
urban transformation with
2008; Heidarzadeh, 2014; Kim, macro spatial design conditions which are
respect to land use change
et al., 2017; Kim & Hipp, 2019; relevant to spatial design intervention, spatial
dynamics, social and physical
Lopez & Nes, 2007; Ojo & designer and spatial design prevention policy
Urban Planning infrastructures and safety and
Ojewale, 2019; Satiawan, et al., making. These explanations are limited in
insecurity in cities. The focus
2018; Salau & Lawanson, 2010; terms of scale of analysis to district levels
here is on how these decisions
Summers & Johnson, 2017; without consideration to the wider city
explain crime events and
Wuschke, 2016; Zubairu, 2017). network of crime flow.
distribution over space and how
possible it is to plan for crime
prevention and control in cities.
Urban form and crime studies
largely deals with the public
(Arabi et al., 2020; Armitage, space network, space and place
These studies consider only the physical
2004; Azande, 2015; Beavon et issues with respect to crime
elements at the buildings and streets level
al., 1994; Bowers, 2013; prevention through urban
(micro scale), without making reference to the
Brantingham & Brantingham, design. The focus of urban
social fabrics of the places of crime events.
1995; Crowe, 2000; Curman et design studies on morphology of
The studies are limited to the physical fabrics
Urban design al., 2015; Dwidinita et al., 2018; space and pattern of crime is to
of the places in terms of Target hardening,
Frank et al., 2013; Groff, (2014; reduce the opportunities for
Surveillance and image of the areas, ignoring
Groff & McCord, 2012; Kinney crime through alteration of
the influence of macro form elements such as
et al., 2008; Jeffery, 1992; Lin, situational factors or
connectivity to other areas and Land use
2010; McCord & Ratcliffe, 2009; modification of physical settings
dynamics of the city.
Newman, 1996) at which a crime event is likely to
occur, i.e., Crime prevention
through Environmental Design.
Urban morphology and pattern
of crime studies focus on
typological process of buildings
and opportunities they present Most of these studies evaluated the role of
(Bafna, 2012; Lefebvre, 1994;
to crime events in terms of Crime prevention through environmental
Legeby, 2009; Marcus, 2007;
attraction, prevention or control. design (CPTED) models in understanding the
Psarra, 2009; Carr, 2020;
The research concern here is on crime pattern, fear of crime and victimization
Architectural Marzbali, et al., 2015, 2016,
how building design and across areas. The studies largely looked into
2017, 2018, 2019a & 2019b;
construction as well as organised the CPTED suitability and applicability in
Meena, 2016; Milinjac & Saville,
open spaces attracts crime or crime prevention while under plying the
2019)
deter crime in areas and what model’s adaptability to different urban forms.
inform a better design of
buildings and Spaces for crime
prevention and control.
1030
It is important, however, to note that contributions to this field of research have

been approached from different disciplinary perspectives, such as; Geography,
Urban Planning, Urban Design and Architecture, to explore the interaction of crime
with space through morphological analysis of places (Groff and Lockwood, 2014;
Kamalipour et al., 2012; Kamalipour et al., 2014; McCord & Ratcliffe, 2007; Kinney
et al., 2008; Perry, M.A., 2017; Wuschke, 2016). However, table 3.0. indicated that,
even within these professional disciplines there are lots of variation in context in
terms of research focus.
LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCHES ON URBAN MORPHOLOGY AND

CRIME PATTERN
Lynch, 1960 and Jacobs, 1961 has identified the critical role of urban planning in
explaining urban crime, violence and juvenile as well as a profession that provides
a viable opportunity and environment for prevention, management and control of
deviance in urban areas (Moudon, 1997). Since then, the study of crime has become
a research interest to several urban researchers, such as; (Adel et.al., 2016; Ahmed,
2010; Azande 2015; Cozens, 2008; Felson and Boivin, 2015; Kalimapour et.al., 2014;
Kropf, 2001; Larkham, 2005; Umar, 2017; Whitehand, 1981). Most of these studies
examined crime in the context of urban morphology and draw understanding on
the explanation of crime events and pattern in urban areas. Though the studies
vary in the context of morphological analysis and approaches adopted. According
to the morphological theory, for effective explanation to be provided through
morphological analysis on crime pattern, it is necessary to consider all the
fundamental elements of form, resolution (scale) and time (history) (Conzens, 2001,
2005, 2008; Kumar & Borbor, 2018; Moudon, 1997; Wharton, 2005; Whitehand,
1981, 2005).
Moreover, most studies adopt different elements for consideration in the analysis
from which explanations were drawn. For instance, using police recorded data
(1980 – 1996), the PhD work of Appiahene–Gyamfi applied morphological
approaches to examine the spatial ecology of six crime types in Ghana (Appiahene–
Gyamfi, 1999). Although much of the analyses presented in that work were
descriptive, the findings suggested that crime is unevenly distributed across
regions of Ghana. Considering the patterns of journey to crime in the city of Accra,
the study also revealed that suspected burglars lived in slum neighbourhoods but
travelled to planned neighbourhoods to commit burglary offences (Owusu et al.,
2015). The study adopted crime ridges theory which seek to explain pattern of
crime in spaces by exploring journey to crime areas; and is limited to only elements
of form and resolution (scale) ignoring the role of time (historical transformation)
of areas.
Suryavanshi (2001), studied urban morphology and opportunities for crime in the
cities of Sarasota Florida and Boston. The study used elements of form (Land uses)
and history of city transformation to draw understanding of the crime pattern in
the areas of the cities, the morphogenic factors responsible for the spread of crime
events. The study is limited to only land uses and how the transformation of land
uses influences change in the form of areas and how the form informed the crime
events in the hot spots studied.
1031
In a Ph.D work by Armitage (2004) attempts were made looking into the
performance of an existing crime prevention programme “Secured by Design
(SBD)” in areas of Huddersfield UK. The research examined the history of crime and
the programme, the current practices and the possible future challenges of the
programme. The work is a morphological study of crime places in the areas of the
city, and its focus were mainly on the micro scale analysis of the selected estates
and as well as planning history for the understanding of the current situation of
crime incidences within the areas studied. Less emphasis was given to the physical
form of the study areas; therefore, the study was limited to the understanding of
the crime in places rather than influence of flow of people and activities on the
crime events in the city.
The analysis made by (Ahmed, 2010), examined the pattern of crime distribution in
Osun State of Nigeria over a period of Fifteen years (1985-2000). The study was
limited to the understanding of pattern and distribution of crime incidence in the
areas of the state. Moreover, the morphological elements used in the study were
scale (neighbourhoods and local governments) and history of crime locations or
areas; ignoring the roles of elements of form in providing adequate explanation on
the pattern and distribution of crime incidences across areas of the state.
Crime spatial analysis were carried out in Akure Town, Ondo state of Nigeria by
(Emmanuel, et.al, 2015), to established the factors responsible for the spatial spread
of crime activities in the town; focused mainly on the spatial analysis of the spread
of the factors of crime activities in the area. The study used only element of scale
in analyzing the morphology of the areas in explaining the spread of crime
activities across space; hence ignoring the elements of form and time which could
have provided an in depth understanding on the geographic spread of crime
activities in the areas of the town and also inform better policy decisions on
prevention and control measures to be taken.
The applicability of CPTED in city of Accra, Ghana was studied by (Owusu et al.,
2015), the study found that rising crime rates in the city of Accra has led to the
adoption of target hardening measures (e.g., use of burglary– proofed windows,
high walls, security doors etc.). Responding to crime through these measures in the
context of Ghana, however, has had limited impact on the rates of crime in
communities and in the long term, has tendency to weaken social cohesion among
communities. The study explored the applicability of Target hardening component
of Crime prevention through Environmental Design with respect to understanding
its impact on crime control in communities of Accra Ghana. The study considered
only spatial scale and history of community transformation, while ignoring the role
of form of spaces in explaining the crime pattern across communities in Accra
Ghana.
The applicability of Territoriality principle of CPTED were looked at by (Azande,

2015) in Makurdi Town with the view of establishing its effectiveness in reducing
the crime prevalence in the High, Medium and Low-income residential areas of
Makurdi town, Benue state of Nigeria. The work dwell on the statistical tests to
measure its applicability and effectiveness. The findings indicated that there is no
variation of the effectiveness of the application of the principle among the three
categories of selected residential areas. The study concluded with a call for further
1032
studies to conduct an in-depth micro and macro analysis of residential areas so as

to provide better explanation on how best to apply the CPTED approach for
effective crime prevention and mitigation in Nigerian cities. Again, this research
focuses mainly on form and scale ignoring the influence of the historical
transformation of the area on crime prevalence.
In a PhD work by (Wuschke, 2016), the connections between urban space,
development and pattern of crime in the selected areas of cities of Coquitlam and
Port Coquitlam BC, Canada were examined. The study was able to establish that,
built urban environment influences the spatial distribution of criminal activity.
Common activity nodes are clustered in specific urban areas, drawing individuals
from within and beyond municipal boundaries for legitimate, daily needs; and the
importance of locally based, micro-scale analysis when exploring connections
between crime and the urban environment. Despite these explorations, the study
has not provided explanation on the transformation process of the form of the
areas of the cities studied for drawing adequate understanding of the flow of crime
activities beyond boundaries for driving effective planning policy for effective
crime prevention and control.
The PhD. work of (Umar, 2017), specifically looked into utility of the Euro-American
theories in explaining spatial pattern of crime in developing cities, using Kaduna
metropolis, Nigeria as a case study. The work was purely based on statistical test,
and hypotheses were tested regarding (a) whether the; law of crime concentration
at places applies in the context of Nigeria and (b) the utility of the two main
theoretical perspectives. The study adopted two environmental criminological
perspectives; opportunity and social disorganization in explaining variations in the
rates of urban crime supported by morphological analytical approaches of form
and scale. The results of the findings were mixed, supporting premise of such
theories in some cases but and different in others. The study made a novel
exploration on spatial criminological research in developing countries, but yet
could have done much better if it had extended the analysis to include the urban
transformation process over time that brought about changes in the form and
explanations drivable from that would have inform better planning policy for
prevention and control of crime in the city.
The Ph.D. research by (Kim, 2018), further elaborated the relationship between
urban environment and crime pattern in cities. Kim examined how the Land uses,
street network connectivity, and physical boundaries in urban settings dictate the
activity patterns of persons; and thus, influence spatial crime patterns. The research
made remarkable contributions to the understanding of the roles of urban form
and structure in explaining varied crime patterns in urban areas, yet less attention
was paid by the study in distinguishing the specific characteristics of the physical
environment that is of utmost important for the understanding of crime location
and patterning in cities.
The study on the influence of Urbanization on Urban crime is the work by (Ojo &
Ojewale, 2019). The research made an in-depth exploration on the relationship
between urbanization and Crime in some selected Nigerian cities. The study
offered theoretical and empirical explanations of the factors within the Urban
environment in Nigerian cities that shape and are shaped by criminal activities. The
1033
data used for the empirical analysis to arrive at the conclusions were drawn from
Police crime records which were poorly recorded, were scanty and does not
represent the true situation of crime events on ground across the sample areas
used in the study. The main limitation of the study is under playing the importance
of understanding the relationship between the Built environmental transformation
as influenced by Urbanization processes and Urban crime pattern.
Several researches were carried out to further understand Urban crime occurrences
in relation to built environmental characteristics (Urban Morphology) and its
implications on the future of Urban design strategies in cities, one of which is the
work by (Silva & Li, 2020). Silva and Li attempted to further explore the influence
of the built environmental elements on urban crime occurrences and how the
understandings of the factors will inform the future urban design strategies using
African cities as case study. The research further developed a set of Urban
Environmental Quality Indicators (UBEIs) for the cities under study based on the
two data sets: Building footprints and Road networks at the neighbourhood level
across the studied areas. The research concluded that, the physical form of the
urban built environment is substantially associated with the crime rates. The
limitation of the research is that the spatial mobility of crime across areas were not
captured in the variables used in the analysis, and this limits the findings on
understanding the flow of crime across neighbourhoods and the built
environmental characteristics that drives the flow and the factors responsible for
the spatial variation of crime rates across space.
Recently, (Carr, 2020), in a thesis argued that Crime Prevention Through

Environmental Design (CPTED) results to the development of Hostile Urban
Architecture that excludes the major segment of the community in an attempt to
instill crime preventive mechanisms in place for the few. The study further argued
to justify that much has not been achieved in terms of crime reduction in the areas
were CPTED were implemented, but rather exclusion of the Urban majority from
getting access to the shared Urban public spaces. The researched concluded that,
the proponents of CPTED: Jacobs, Newman, Jeffery, Cozens and a host of others
attempted to established a program to enhance public security and safety through
the manipulation of the built environment, but instead researched has established
that they only end up with a dangerous precedent for urban public space. The study
was limited in focus to the impact CPTED implementation on the Urban public
spaces rather than looking at it in the context of Urban built environment and its
influence on manipulating the built environmental characteristics towards
achieving an improved secured habitation for people.
In summary, a number of common themes emerged from within the focused body
of these researches exploring crime within the context of built urban form. First,
while consistencies exist across a number of urban areas, key environmental
features can have different associations with crime patterns in different urban
environments (Ahmed, 2010; Arabi et al., 2020; Bolton, et.al., 2017; Carr, 2020;
Chiodi, 2015; Erdogan & Erkan, 2020; Frank et al., 2013; Hashim et al., 2019;
Heidarzadeh, 2014; Hipp, et.al., 2018; Kim, 2018; Kim & Hipp, 2019; Nangia, et.al.,
2019; Ojo & Ojewale, 2019; Perkins et al., 2009; Siti & Abdullahi, 2012; Silva & Li,
2020; Song et al., 2016; Taylor & Harrell, 1996; Umar, 2018, 2020; Wuscke & Bryan,
2018). However, while such findings have clear potential value to Planners, Urban
1034
designers and policy makers alike, there is still inadequate understanding of the
influence of urban morphology on crime pattern in our cities as established in the
previous studies. There is absence of an existing study that explore adequately the
morphology of urban spaces and crime pattern in the context of form, scale and
time, therefore there is an existing gap in the literature that needs to be filled by
future researches so as to provide better understanding of local crime pattern for
effective crime prevention and management in our towns and cities.
CONCLUSION
Urban crime has largely been addressed with different approaches to the
conception of crime and its main initiatives. However, the growing body of
knowledge in the studies of urban crime refers to the social and spatiality aspects
of the problem in the cities worldwide. While different approaches to the study of
crime do exist as identified in the paper, it is possible to denote that urban crime
pattern cannot be thoroughly explored in the absence of social constructs and
spatial features of spaces in the context of form, scale and time. Furthermore, the
issue of urban crime is multidimensional. That is why any desire for planning and
designing a safe place in cities should incorporates functional and morphological
analysis of the urban environment. Therefore, there is need for further researches
to focus on providing explanation on the relationship between morphological
character of spaces and the pattern of crime in places within the context of urban
environment. This is with the view of actualizing the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) and mainstreaming the mandates of New urban Agenda towards
realizing the safe city and crime resiliency in our cities.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
USERS’ ASSESSMENT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

HOUSING QUALITY AND THE CONDITIONS OF RESIDENTIAL
OUTDOOR SPACES IN ILESA, NIGERIA
Yussuf Shakirat Oladayo1, Jiboye Adesoji David2, Agbabiaka Hafeez Idowu3,
Adeyemi Toyin Ebenezer4 and Oke Oluyemi Ebenezer5
1,4Departmentof Architectural Technology, Osun State College Of Technology, Esa-Oke, Nigeria
2Department of Architecture, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
3Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
5Department of Architectural Technology, Federal Polytechnic Ede, Nigeria
The community space is utilized as a vital strategy for developing housing product.
The house and its surroundings directly affect human beings to the extent that it
sometimes serves as vital determinants of wellbeing and quality of life.
Consequently, this study seeks to understand if there exist a relationship between
the condition of residential outdoor space (CROS) and Housing quality (HQ) in Ilesa,
Nigeria. The study selected 231 household heads using systematic random
sampling technique for questionnaire administration in the study area. The quality
of housing and residential outdoor space were assessed using five point likert scale
to determine the quality index (QI). Findings revealed that CROS (Condition of
residential outdoor space) and HQI (housing quality index) were 3.84 and 3.52
respectively indicating a good condition of housing and residential outdoor space
in the area. The study further established a statistical significant relationships
between CROS and HQ (R2= 0.959, F (1 & 11) = 232.340, and P ≤ 0.000), meaning
that 95.9% of the variation in HQ(y) is explained by CROS. Therefore, the outcome
of this study could contribute immensely in evolving policies formulation towards
improved residential housing design and sustainable city development.
Keywords: building design, housing, quality, residential outdoor space,

sustainable development
INTRODUCTION
An important issue calling for urgent attention from all and sundry is need for
qualitative housing and residential environment for the increasing global
population. Access to decent and good quality housing has posed a serious
challenge to sustainable growth and development. The house and its surroundings
1 shakymohammed@yahoo.com
2 jiboye.adesoji@gmail.com
3 wisdomislifee@yahoo.com
4 ebenadex01@gmail.com
5 yemiokejr@gmail.com
Yussuf, et al. (2021) Users’ assessment of the relationship between housing quality and the
conditions of residential outdoor spaces in Ilesa, Nigeria In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West
Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference, 9-11 August 2021, Accra, Ghana, 1045-
1061
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directly affect human being (Yip, Muhammad and Ching, 2017). In addition, Good
quality outdoor spaces in residences contribute to quality of life as well as that of
housing (Burton, Mitchell and Griffin, 2014). The general residential environment
as well as housing and neighbourhood quality are vital determinants of social class
of inhabitants (Ilesanmi, 2012). One of the factors that contribute to healthy status
of man is housing condition (Olukolajo, Adewusi and Ogungbero, 2013).
In addition, Fogh and Saransi, (2014) asserted that “architectural design using
residential outdoor based approach can be a very effective step towards systematic
design of housing”. These points emphasized the importance of outdoor space
quality to housing and residential environment. Ashley (2018) identified four major
parameters of an ideal home as design quality, good environmental conditions,
construction quality and a sense of community. This shows that community space
is utilized as a vital strategy for developing housing product (Lee, Hyejin and
Hyegyoung, 2010). An essential aspect of every community, neighborhood and
urban design is the outdoor space; consequently, the outdoor spaces are germane
feature of every building design (Gray, 2013).
Furthermore, the outdoor space is an important aspect of the residential

environment and that of dwellings (Coolen & Menster, 2012).The private residential
outdoor spaces are referred to as outer room, especially when they are integrated
as part of the inner living areas in building design (Gray, 2013). These outdoor
spaces according to Naceur, (2013) are regarded as “natural extension of the
interior”. Afon and Adebara (2019) noted that these open spaces are integral
aspects of the cities that contribute significantly to sustainable urban development.
Moreover, Not only do good quality spaces create a sense of safety and comfort
that makes people happy and healthy, but also serve as clean and well preserved
areas with easy accessibility for humans to carryout variety of activities(Farr, 2011;
Li, & Wu, 2013;Kaźmierczak, 2013; Hadavi, Kaplan, & Hunter, 2015). Despite this, it
has been observed that several literatures (Gray, 2013; Olukolajo, et.al 2013;
Ilesanmi, 2012; Verissimo 2014; Adeleye 2016; Yussuf, 2018;Olowu, Jaiyeoba,
Agbabiaka, & Daramola, 2019;Jiboye, 2004 and Jiboye, 2010 among
others)emphasize the importance of good housing quality and residential
environment as germane to proper quality of life without actually showing the
relationship between the duos. This study therefore, is an effort in this direction.
Conversely, according to Adeleye (2016) among other authors, the provision of
qualitative housing and residential environment in some areas in Nigeria still show
up as a recurring issue, that may be as a result of residents’ socio-demographic
peculiarities. The present study attempted answering the following specific
questions: who are the residents in Ilesa? What are the conditions of residential
outdoor space (CROS) in the study area? What is the overall housing quality (HQ)
in the study area? How does CROS influence HQ? It is against this backdrop that
this study focuses on users’ assessment of CROS and its relationship with HQ in
Ilesa, Nigeria; with a view to evolving people’s oriented policy response on ROS
design.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Housing and its components
Housing defies an objective definition because of its multi-faced nature. Extant
studies reveal the multi-dimensional nature of housing as follows: according to
Jiboye (2010) “housing is conceived as a unit of environment which has a profound
influence on health, efficiency, social behavior, satisfaction and general welfare of
the community”. He added that housing reflects social, economic and cultural
values of a society as it showcase the best evidence of a country’s physical and
historical civilization. Olowuet.al. (2019), conceptualize housing to include three
dimensions being environmental (water supply, refuse waste disposal, sewage
disposal, roads, drainage (gutter), vehicular circulation, pedestrian circulation,
street lighting, car parking, electricity supply, open space(s) and park(s)), external
building (renderings and painting, weathered exterior wall finishes, paint decay,
removing surface materials, dilapidated roof, broken and leaking soak away,
broken and leaking plumbing pipes, broken and leaking water pipes, broken and
leaking sewage disposal pipes) and internal building dimensions (ceiling collapse,
broken tiles, partial settlement in foundations, sagging beams, broken doors and
windows fixtures and leaking roofs). Agbola(1998) defined housing as an array of
social, economic, and psychological phenomena; it is a combination of different
characteristics to provide a unique home in a neighbourhood. Olatubara (2007)
noted that housing has the capacity to influence human being psychologically,
culturally, economically politically and socially; it in turn involves material and
human resources for its production. Housing is a process and a product (Agbola,
1998). Housing as explained by Jiboye (2009) cited in Adeleye (2016) is one of the
best indicators that reveals an individual standard of living and class in the society.
Consequently, housing transcends beyond a mere shelter, it includes quality,

comfort, community and social amenities as it embraces all social services (utilizes)
that make a neighborhood as well as a community a livable environment (National
Housing Policy, 1991). This was corroborated by Existing studies (Adeoye, 2016;
Amao, 2012 and Jiboye, 2010) that “housing is a multidimensional package of
goods and services that extend beyond shelter itself”.So also, according to
Eldredge (1967) cited in Adeoye (2016) housing represents “a bundle of goods and
services that facilitate and enhances good living; it is a key to neighbourhood
quality and preservation”.
Ilesanmi (2020) summarized six descriptive dimensions to the concept of housing

as functional term, collective term, physical term, professional term, social and
political term. The functional term as related to housing entails a physical shelter
occupied by a self-selected household for habitation; that is the basic day-to-day
human activities of a household occur in this place. Consequently, the collective
term of housing relates to collection of residential units with provision of facilities
for shared uses.
Ilesanmi (2020) further defined housing as a physical term to mean an
incorporation of “attributes of the structures” to reveal its design, size, condition,
location, affordability, accessibility, comfort and warmth. Housing as an
administrative connotes an active verb that implies day-to-day administration; that
is, managing, maintaining and paying for the property. In addition, Ilesanmi (2020)
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also explained housing as a professional term to denote “provision, management

or maintenance of such structures and their surrounding environment. Lastly,
housing as social and political term represents “a focal point for communication
between citizens and state; citizens and other people” as well as an “organic hub
serviced by a range of professionals and others; that is, parties in the building
industry.
Residential Outdoor Space (ROS)
Verissimo (2014) assessed domestic outdoor spaces and described it as
multifaceted spaces surrounding the house. These domestic outdoor spaces in the
view of (Gray, 2013; Burton, 2014 and Huang, 2005) are also referred to as
residential outdoor spaces (ROS). Residential outdoor spaces according toHuang,
(2005) are private to residents; they are living spaces that are part of the home;
they are activity nodes that provide the greatest opportunity for access and
exposure; they in turn, serve as buffer zone between the outside world and housing
community. They are also known as private outdoor spaces (Burton et.al, 2014)
Moreover, private outdoor spaces according to Cooper Marcus (2010) are outdoor
spaces on a confined area of land owned by individuals such that they are
accessible to the owners and invited guests. Gray (2013) defined private outdoor
space as a space around the dwelling that is exclusive for the occupants’ use. She
also asserted that due to numerous uses and values, this type of outdoor spaces
are strongly desired by residents’ all over the world; because the main purpose of
outdoor spaces around building is to provide adequate lighting, ventilation and
circulation (Afon and Adebara, 2019). Outdoor spaces in residences are essential
part of home and an extension of living space. Extant studies (Canter, 1977; Bonnes
& Secchariaroli, 1995; Carr et al, 1992; Dillman & Dillman, 1987; Burgess et al 1988
& Harrison 1983 as cited in Huang, 2005) revealed that these spaces are
“interactional spaces, social arena and most valued urban open space because of
their familiarity and closeness to homes; this make them more accessible and
usable by home residents”.
Studies revealed the importance of outdoor spaces in different ways (Coolen &
Meester, 2012 and Yussuf, 2018) as it provide residents’ with privacy, peace, safety
and security; it also attaches value to houses as well as providing safe play area for
children, it reflects peoples’ identity and symbolizes status. Private residential
outdoor spaces provide buffer zones between neighbouring houses. It provides air
space for safety and space to keep pets. It contributes to peace and restoration of
mind and body; thereby, contributing to health and well-being of residents. It helps
residents to escape from stress and intrusion of city life, work and family. It is also
helpful in speeding up recovery time from surgery or illness (Cooper-Marcus &
Sarkissan, 1986; Frumkin& Fox, 2010; Hall, 2010; Holbrook, 2009;
Coolen&Meesters, 2010 and freeman et al., 2012 cited in Gray, 2013).
Assessment of Housing and Residential Outdoor Space Quality

Assessment of housing quality have formed the basis of improvement in housing,
this in turn helps to enhance quality of life of residents (Opoko, Oluwatayo, Ezema
and Opoko, 2016). Housing quality as noted by Amao (2012) is a function of factors
such as “physical condition of the building as well as services and facilities that
bring about conducive living in a particular area”. Although, quality is a composite
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measure; it varies according to contexts (formal/informal housing, urban/rural,

developed/developing nations) and conceptually for diverse groups of users
(Ilesanmi, 2012). Housing quality is multi-dimensional and dynamic concept
subjected to social, behavioural and engineering criteria (Soen 1979 cited in Opoko
et.al 2016). Somecriteria identified as indicators for quality in the evaluation in
residential development as revealed by Adeoye (2016) & Olowu et., al., (2019)to
include “aesthetics, ornamentation,sanitation, drainage, age of building, access to
basic housing facilities, burglary, spatial adequacy, noise level within
neighbourhood, sewage and waste disposal, air pollution and ease of movement
among others”. Suratkon & Jusoh (2015) defined building design quality as “a
combination of functionality, impact and build quality. The commonly used
building design quality indicators are also used for housing quality indicators such
as; Privacy, Identity/Uniqueness, Comfort, Taste, Accessibility and orientation,
Aesthetics, Crime Protection, Connection and Flexibility, Territoriality, Security and
safety (Adedeji, 2006; Yussuf, 2018 and Grant-Savela, n.d). Lai, Zhou, Huang, Jiang,
Long, and Chen(2014) identified the factors that influence the quality of outdoor
space design. Among the factors are functionality, convenience, safety, acoustic
environment, aesthetics and air quality. Quality of outdoor spaces (quality
indicator) is judged using criteria such as comfort, planning, landscape and design
of built structure; visual structure, outdoor livability and level of outdoor activities
(Hafiz, 2002). According to Fogh & Saransari (2014) residential quality standard in
open spaces relates to issues such as safety, security, tranquility, privacy, solitude
and connection with nature. Safety and security, orientation and accessibility,
connection and flexibility are identified by Grant-Savela (n.d.) as residential
outdoor space quality indicators.Burton et al. (2014) highlighted limitations to
maximum utilization quality of outdoor spaces as poor maintenance,
unattractiveness and lack of privacy and safety. Mohammed et al. (2014) noted the
following as constraints associated with poor quality of residential outdoor
environment; they include: lack of security, minimum quality of materials, little or
no car park, low quality workmanship and poor maintenance. The study further
confirmed the following five indicators by Bonaiuto et. al. (2013) to be evaluated
in assessing residential outdoor space design quality. They include safety, level of
design, user’s friendliness; occupant’s involvement in housing and the provided
facility.
Residential outdoor space and quality of life

Good-quality places are clean and well preserved areas with easy accessibility for
humans to carryout variety of activities. These spaces attract people to use them
and help create a sense of safety and comfort that makes people happy and
healthy. On the other hand, badly designed and managed spaces can quickly
discourage, create eye-sores and attract anti-social behaviours. Lovett, & Chi,
(2015), posited in designing outdoor spaces, neighbourhood situations should be
adequately considered to increase identity and place attachment. The quality of
Outdoor spaces places importance on quality of life in terms of Contact with
Nature, Recreation and Leisure, Nature ranging from wilderness to a view of trees
and grass in an urban setting, has three systematic, positive effects on people
(reduces mental fatigue (Berto, 2014), relieves feelings of stress and arousal due to
stress (Bratman, Hamilton, Daily, 2012), and a positive effect on mood (Thompson,
Boddy, Stein, Whear, Barton, Depledge, 2011). Contact with nature contributes to
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higher quality of life and environment in the following ways: quality of

neighbourhood residents, coexistence among families, increase public health and
reduce levels of violence and crime in the inner-city (Farr, 2011; Li, & Wu, 2013;
Kaźmierczak, 2013; Hadavi, Kaplan, & Hunter, 2015).
Karuppannan & Sivam (2013) posited that outdoor spaces are mostly enjoyed by
children, the elderly, and homemakers based on their peculiarities for a broad
extent of activities including but not limited to: walking, jogging, cycling, hiking,
and playing sports and games. Environmental impact on quality of life is related to
quality of its physic and its close relationship with human beings in all dimensions.
Outdoor space becomes of a collective nature, a place for mutual communication
and social cognition (Peters, Elands, &Buijs, 2010) that meets social and personal
daily needs of residents (Ergas, 2010), improve social interactions through a well-
designed residential environment (Gehl J., 2011), and encourage face-to-face
short-duration outdoor talks and greetings (Finnegan, 2014). The uniqueness of
place should be considered in designing outdoor spaces to prevent distortion of
norms and values, Social imageability, and neighbourhood’s identity of the
community (Scarborough, Like-Haislip, Novak, Lucas, Alarid, 2010; Southworth,
Ruggeri, 2010). Tuan (2013) believes that people, in an emotional way, have a need
to connect to places. For example, residents in the Middle East and the West
consider identity to be a part of urban and neighbourhood design (Chiodelli, 2012;
Kallus, Kolodney, 2010) and attributed loss of symbols and place identity of the
residential environment (Lewicka, 2011; Brugger, Kaiser, Roczen, 2011).

The study area
Ilesa is a city located in Osun state, south-west, Nigeria. It lies within latitude 70
30’ and 70 35’North of the equator and longitude 40 30’ and 40 43’East of the
Greenwich meridian (Orimoogunje, Oyinloye & Soumah, 2009). Ilesa is an urban
area comprising two local government areas (Ilesa East and Ilesa West) located in
the eastern part of the state (Ayoola & Amole, 2014). It is an ancient Yoruba city
with a typical traditional African setting. It covers a total land area of113 sq. km
(one hundred and thirteen square kilometer).
The city is serves as the zonal headquarters for other Ijesa people found in four
other Local Governments Areas of Obokun, Oriade, Atakunmosa west and
Atakunmosa east Local Government (Adeleye, 2016). Like othertraditional Yoruba
city that comprises three major zones or districts of residential developments (Ojo,
1966 and Egunjobi, 1995 cited in Jiboye, 2010). Ilesa consist of the core area, the
intermediate zone and the periphery area. The city lies within the rainforest belt of
south-west, Nigeria.It is about 32 km from Osogbo, the Osun State capital, 119 km
from Ibadan the capital of Oyo State, about 32 kilometers northwest of Ile-ife and
85 km from Akure the capital of Ondo State (Adeleye, 2016). The city is
predominantly occupied by traders, public servants, artisans and farmers.
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Figure 1: Map of Nigeria Indicating Osun State.
Source: Cooperative Information Network (COPINE), OAU, Ile-Ife 2015
Figure 2: Map of Osun State Indicating the study area (Ilesa).
`Source: Cooperative Information Network (COPINE), OAU, Ile-Ife 2015
Research Design
The study adopted quantitative research design, to elicit information on User’s
assessment of the relationship between housing quality and the conditions of
residential outdoor spaces in Ilesa, Nigeria. Quantitative approach to the study
involved the use of questionnaires, which were administered on randomly selected
house owners or household heads of residential buildings at the periphery areas
of Ilesa city. The information obtained from the questionnaire include: socio-
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economic characteristics of the residents, alongside with quality indicators for

housing and conditions of residential outdoor spaces. The variables used to
determine socio-economic characteristics of residents in the study area are: age,
gender, Income, marital status, religion, occupation and Length of stay.
Moreover, the quality of housing and the conditions of residential outdoor spaces
was determined by rating residents’ perception on a five point Likert’s scale from
very bad-V.B. (1); bad-B (2); fair-F (3); good-G (4); to very good-V.G. (5). The scale
was used to determine the Summation of Weight Value (SWV), Housing Quality
Index (HQI) and Condition of Residential Outdoor Space (CROS). The variables used
to examine Condition of Residential Outdoor Space (CROS) were: Privacy, Security,
Comfort, Air circulation, Accessibility, Natural Energy & Sustainability, parking
spaces, Noise level, seating space, Activity space, maintenance and landscape. On
the other hand, Housing Quality Index (HQI) was determined using variable such
as: floor structure, wall structure, roof, support (column & beams) ceiling,
foundation, interior and exterior paints, building services, lighting and ventilation.
Other variables are window, door, refuse disposal and drainage. Data were
analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as regression and analysis
of variance (ANOVA).
Data Collection
The research survey made use of questionnaire to obtain information on the
respondents’ housing and outdoor space quality within the study area. The study
area (Ilesa) consists of two local government areas with three major residential
zones namely the core, transitional and peripheral zones. The peripheral area was
chosen for the study out of the three zones in city because they consist of high
concentration of housing units with private outdoor spaces as revealed in Table 1.
Table 1: Categories of residential zones in Ilesa East and West Local Government Area
S/No Core Zones Transitional Zones Periphery Zones
1. Ereja, Isida, Adeti. Egbedi, Ijoka, Ogudu, Ifosan Oke-Omiru/ Ibala
2. Ereguru, Isare, Itabalogun Okesa. Anaye, Oke-eso Ilaje
3. Odo–esira, Lemodu, Itisin Upper and lower Igbogi Arimoro/Ido-Ijesa,
4. Itakogun, Isinkin, Ilemo Igbaye, Odundun/Obokun av. Imo/omi-asoro
5. Otapete, Ogudu Ikoti, ikoyi, Araromi Irojo/Sabo
6. Aroaji, Odo-iro Isokun, Omi-eran, Olorutedo Bolorunduro
7. Ijofi, Isona, Orogba, Oke-iro

Source: Researcher’s field work (Yussuf, Jiboye, Agbabiaka and Oyedokun2019)
Housing samples for this study were randomly selected from Imo/Omi-asoro and
Ibala/Oke-omiru area, having 9344 and 1373 buildings respectively; making a total
of two thousand three hundred and seventeen (2317) buildings. The selected areas
also represent a political ward from each local government area of the city as
revealed in Table 2. The study adopted systematic sampling technique in which
every (10th) tenth building on the street were selected to determine the sample
size of 231 buildings where household-heads were sampled for questionnaire
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administration, and 205 copies of the administered questionnaire were retrieved

representing 88.8% of the sample size.
Table 2: Political wards and locations in Ilesa east and west local government area
Political Ilesa West LGA Ilesa East LGA
Ward
1. Egbe-idi / Itakogun Okesa, Obokun Avenue
2. Cappa / Omi eran Imo,Omi-asoro
3. Upper and lower Igbogi Igbaye, Oke-eso, Ifosan
4. Omofe / Idasa Ilemo, Lemodu, Ogudu, Itisin
5. Isokun/ Oke-omiru / Ibala Ijamo
6. Ikoti / ikoyi / Araromi Ijoka, LejokaAbiola avenue, Ireti Ayo
7. Ilaje Iloro, Iroye, Idio
8. Isida / Adeti Isare, Orogba, Arogbo
9. Ereja Irojo, Sabo, Ilerin
10. Ayeso / Ido-ijesa Bolorunduro, Ijofi, Isona, Oke-iro and
Itabalogun
Source: Ilesa west and east local government area, 2016.
Methods of data analysis

Both descriptive and inferential statistics was employ to analyze the data collected.
Cross tabulation and percentages was used to analyze the data on socioeconomic
characteristics of the respondents (See table 3). The housing quality was examined
using the perceptual data derived from likert scale on the rating of the conditions
of the attributes to compute the housing quality index (HQI) as presented in Figure
3 and Table 4. Furtherance, regression analyses was employed to establish the
relationship between Housing Quality (HQ) and the Conditions of Residential
Outdoor Spaces (CROS) with regression model is Y = a + bixi.

This section discusses detailed analysis of the data, interpretation and discussions
of result findings collected from questionnaire administration on user’s assessment
of the relationship between housing quality and the conditions of residential
outdoor spaces in Ilesa, Nigeria.
Respondents’ Socio-Economic Characteristics
Data on respondents’ socio-economic characteristics revealed that there is
predominance of male respondents in the study area with (66.8%), married
respondents (55.6%), active age population (80.0 %), Christian (56.6%), and Islamic
religion (42.4%), Civil servant and students (63.9%), while, majority (66.4%) of the
respondents earn between N18,000 to N100,000 and (67.3%) has stayed in the area
for less than 10years as presented in Table 4.
Table 3: Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents

Age Oke-Omiru/ Ibala Imo/omi-asoro Total
Freq. % Freq. % Freq. %
0 to 20 yrs 21 15.4% 13 18.8% 34 16.6%
21 to 40 yrs 84 61.8% 37 53.6% 121 59.0%
41 to 60 yrs 28 20.6% 15 21.7% 43 21.0%
Above 60 3 2.2% 4 5.8% 7 3.4%
Total 136 100% 69 100% 205 100.0%
Gender
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Male 85 62.5% 52 75.4% 137 66.8%

Female 51 37.5% 17 24.6% 68 33.2%
Total 136 100% 69 100% 205 100.0%
Income Distribution
Below N18,000 36 26.5% 15 21.7% 51 24.9%
N18,001 to N50,000 46 33.8% 29 42.0% 75 36.6%
N50,001 to N100,000 40 29.4% 21 30.4% 61 29.8%
N100,001 to N150,000 7 5.1% 1 1.4% 8 3.9%
Above N150,000 7 5.1% 3 3.3% 10 5.0%
Total 136 100% 69 100% 205 100.0%
Marital Status
Single 52 38.2% 29 42.0% 81 39.5%
Married 81 59.6% 33 47.8% 114 55.6%
Divorced 1 0.7% 3 4.3% 4 2.0%
Widowed 1 0.7% 3 4.3% 4 2.0%
Separated 1 0.7% 1 1.4% 2 1.0%
Total 136 100% 69 100% 205 100.0%
Religious Affiliation
Islam 60 44.1% 27 39.1% 87 42.4%
Christianity 74 54.4% 42 60.9% 116 56.6%
Traditional 2 1.5% 0 0.0% 2 1.0%
Total 136 100% 69 100% 205 100.0%
Occupation
Student 43 31.6% 25 36.2% 68 33.2%
Artisan 6 4.4% 12 17.4% 18 8.8%
Civil Servant 54 39.7% 9 13.0% 63 30.7%
Trading 23 16.9% 13 18.8% 36 17.6%
Retiree 2 1.5% 6 8.7% 8 3.9%
Farmer 2 1.5% 2 2.9% 4 2.0%
Others 6 4.4% 2 2.9% 8 3.9%
Total 136 100% 69 100% 205 100.0%
Length of Stay
Less than 10years 96 70.6% 42 60.9% 138 67.3%
11 to 20 years 29 21.3% 12 17.4% 41 20.0%
21 to 30 years 9 6.6% 9 13.0% 18 8.8%
Above 30 years 2 1.5% 6 8.7% 8 3.9%
Total 136 100% 69 100% 205 100.0%
Housing Quality (HQ)

The overall housing quality index (HQI) computed was 3.75. However, Nine out of
the seventeen indicators adopted to measure and compute HQI has positive
deviation about the HQI, meaning that the individual HQI of the positively skewed
indicators were higher than overall HQI; which connotes positive user’s perception
with varying degrees. The users considered the conditions of Wall, Floor,
Foundation, Support services, and Sewage system, Ventilation, Ceiling, External
Painting and Roofs of their buildings to be of good quality with varying positive
variation about the means of 0.45, 0.31, 0.3, 0.17, 0.17, 0.16, 0.12, 0.11, and 0.05
respectively as presented in table 4. This indicates that the conditions of the
building components are relatively good and could be better in the face of
appropriate policies on maintenance and management.
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Figure 3: Users’ Assessment of housing Quality
Table 4: Users’ Assessment of Housing Quality

VB (1) B (2) F (3) G (4) VG (5) SWV HQI DEV
Wall 2 19 38 59 87 861 4.2 0.45
Floor 0 5 44 90 66 832 4.06 0.31
Foundation 0 6 23 130 46 831 4.05 0.3
*Support 3 9 53 77 63 803 3.92 0.17
Sewage 3 9 53 77 63 803 3.92 0.17
Ventilation 2 21 34 86 62 802 3.91 0.16
Ceiling 4 11 44 94 52 793 3.87 0.12
*Paint Ext. 0 7 46 121 31 791 3.86 0.11
Roof 1 8 72 73 51 780 3.8 0.05
*Paint Int. 0 13 54 111 27 767 3.74 -0.01
*Int.spaces 4 18 49 93 41 764 3.73 -0.02
Lighting 3 17 57 85 43 763 3.72 -0.03
Window 0 15 86 71 33 737 3.6 -0.15
Door 0 13 99 64 29 724 3.53 -0.22
*Bldg serv. 9 13 92 53 38 713 3.49 -0.26
Drainage 12 29 84 53 27 669 3.26 -0.49
Refuse 23 37 75 48 22 624 3.04 -0.71
Total 66 250 1003 1385 781 13057 59.78
Please Note: VB= Very Bad (1), B= Bad (2), F= Fair (1), G= Good (4) and VG= Very Good
(5).*Support = Beams and column, *Paint Ext. = Exterior Painting *Paint Int. =Interior Painting
*Int.spaces=Interior spaces and *Bldg serv.= Building Services, Cut-off point= 3.52
Conditions of Residential Outdoor Spaces (CROS)

The ROS quality was assessment using a number of variables derived from
literature as attributes. Twelve (12) attributes were examined through the
perception of the inhabitants of the environment. The inhabitants rates five
attributes very highly, which connotes that they have strong positive perceptions
about their conditions. These attributes are Privacy (CROSI = 4.25, and DEV= 0.41),
Comfort (CROSI = 4.19, and DEV= 0.5), Security (CROSI = 4.05, and DEV= 0.21), Air
space (CROSI = 3.92, and DEV= 0.08), and Activity space (CROSI = 3.85, and DEV=
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0.01). On the contrary, it can be deduced from the findings that the ROS are not
freely accessible, maintained; good as parking space, properly landscaped an
generate much noise. This was evident from the findings as present in table 5.
Invariably, the conditions of ROS may play a lead role in shaping the portion of
people about the overall housing quality. Hence, the need to assess the
relationship between conditions of ROS and the overall housing quality: using the
conditions to predict housing quality.
Table 5: Assessment of the Use of Residential Outdoor Spaces

VB (1) B (2) F (3) G (4) VG (5) SWV ROSI DEV.
Privacy 2 2 27 85 89 872 4.25 0.41
Comfort 0 1 38 87 79 859 4.19 0.35
Security 2 5 44 83 71 831 4.05 0.21
Air space 3 7 45 99 51 803 3.92 0.08
Activity space 1 13 56 80 55 790 3.85 0.01
Accessibility 0 8 51 114 32 785 3.83 -0.01
Maintenance 4 11 63 77 50 773 3.77 -0.07
Parking space 8 13 53 85 46 762 3.72 -0.12
Circulation 5 16 60 86 38 751 3.66 -0.18
Natural energy 4 9 70 95 27 745 3.63 -0.21
Landscape 3 19 60 97 26 737 3.60 -0.24
Noise level 3 23 72 73 34 727 3.55 -0.29
Total 9435 46.02
Please Note: VB= Very Bad (1), B= Bad (2), F= Fair (1), G= Good (4) and VG= Very Good (5), ROSI=
Residential Outdoor Space Index, and DEV= Deviation about the Mean, Cut-off point= 3.84
Relationship between the Conditions of Residential Outdoor Spaces and Housing

Quality
The identified attributes such as wall, floor, foundation, support services, sewage,
ventilation, ceiling, paint external, roof, paint internal, lighting, window, door,
drainage and refuse, which were adopted to compute HQI were summed together
and categorized as the dependent variable (y), while the variables for measuring
the CROS were also summed as independent variable (x). Findings presented in
Tables 6 to 8 revealed the multiple regression model that produced R2= 0.959, F
(1 and 11) = 232.340, and P ≤ 0.000. This indicates that the overall model is
statistically significant. The regression (R = 0.979) indicated that there exists a
strong positive correlation between Conditions of Residential Outdoor Spaces
(CROS) and Housing Quality (HQ). The coefficient of determinations is 0.959,
meaning that 95.9% of the variation in Housing Quality(y) is explained by
Conditions of Residential Outdoor Spaces. Therefore, it is conclusive that the
predictor is useful for predicting Housing Quality in the study area.
Table 6: Regression model summary

Std. Error of the
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Estimate
1 .979a .959 .955 .03136
a. Predictors: (Constant), CROSI
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Table 7: Anova
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression .229 1 .229 232.340 .000a
Residual .010 10 .001
Total .238 11
a. Predictors: (Constant), CROSI
b. Dependent Variable: HQ
Table 8: Coefficient of regression

Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta T Sig.
1 (Constant) 1.488 .158 9.394 .000
CROSI .629 .041 .979 15.243 .000
Dependent Variable: HQI
Housing Quality(Y) = 1.488 + (0.629× CROSI)
CONCLUSION
This paper examined users’ assessment of the relationship between housing quality
and the conditions of residential outdoor spaces in Ilesa, Nigeria. It showed that
houses with well-defined residential outdoor space perhaps gated and fences have
a good quality assessment by the users. Findings of this study also revealed that
users (respondents) rated comfort, privacy, security and air space high; it showed
that these quality indicators are more preferred by the users compared to other
quality indicators. This was confirmed by (Gray, 2013) that provision of good quality
residential outdoor spaces should follow basic urban design principles such as
flexibility of space for diverse activities and privacy.
Similarly, the study established a strong positive correlation between housing

quality and the condition of ROS in the study area. This is an indication that the
nature of the environment in which a house is located influences the perception
on its quality. This assertion does not only provide basis for prevention of poor
quality of housing and residential outdoor space quality but also to save the built
environment as it will in turn aid sustainable environmental development.
Consequently, it will go a long way in improving the life expectancy as well as
quality of life of an average citizen (Amao, 2012).
However, this study is limited to users’ assessment of the relationship between
housing quality and the conditions of residential outdoor spaces. Other studies can
also research into other topical issues in outdoor spaces such as satisfaction with
outdoor spaces, preferences for different types of outdoor spaces, usability of
outdoor spaces for different age groups, spatial standards in residential outdoor
spaces, outdoor spaces and quality of life among others.
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The study has become imperative as it shows the link between housing quality and
residential outdoor spaces to guide policy response in achieving sustainable
development. The study concludes that residents’ views and participation are
highly recommended to facilitate successful policy formulation and
implementation.
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ISBN 978-0-620-95367-2
WATER ABSORPTION QUALITY OF CLAY BRICKS MADE BY

EMERGING MANUFACTURERS IN SOUTH AFRICA
Bonga PraiseGod Khuzwayo1
Department of Civil Engineering and Geomatics, Durban University of Technology, South Africa
Masonry walling comprising clay units in South Africa is required to comply with
SANS227, in addition to other South African National Standards. The water
absorption quality of clay masonry is an important characteristic since it determines
the flexural strength of masonry walls. The prevalence of substandard materials and
the inability to enforce construction standards by statutory bodies and the existing
legislation in South Africa (SA) creates a breach between the intentions of the
designer and what can be achieved physically on site. Two sites in Qwaqwa and
Newcastle, South Africa, where clay bricks are manufactured by the community,
were identified. From these sites, 11 samples of each unit type, namely; low (11
number off) and high (11 number off) burnt units were purchased from each site
over a 12-month period. These samples were newly made clay bricks. A total of 264
units per site (11 units x 2 types x 12 months) were purchased from
developing/local entrepreneurs/manufacturers, for testing for the water absorption
quality. Considering only the manufacturing site and the water absorption of brick
purchased from them, they produced the following results: (1) Qwaqwa had 27.3%
with a standard deviation of 6.6; (2) Madadeni had 34.3% with a standard deviation
of 9.6. In view of the site only and with respect to the brick type, the investigation
yielded the following means: (1) Qwaqwa had 32.2% with a standard deviation of
7.5 which means that the data is more spread out; (2) Madadeni had 29.4% with a
standard deviation of 10.1, which means that the data is more spread out. Even
though hard burnt has a slightly higher value than low burnt, the difference in the
water absorption is not significant (p = 0.287). Besides the water absorption quality
being far above the recommended range of between 12% and 20%, the water
quality varies significantly. Citizens who purchase clay bricks for the construction
of their homes have little or no knowledge of the hidden water absorption quality
problem which significantly affects the flexural strength of structural elements, such
as cantilevered masonry retaining walls and walls required to have flexural strength.
The South African Bureau of Standards must enforce good quality of clay bricks
made by emerging manufacturers in South Africa.
Keywords: clay bricks; flexural strength, masonry walling, water absorption quality
INTRODUCTION
Stiff, sticky, fine-grained soil, such as clay, is molded when wet, dried and baked to
make masonry units such as bricks and blocks, pottery and/or other ceramic items.
They consist of extremely fine particles, making them immensely flexible when wet.
1 bongak@dut.ac.za
Khuzwayo, B. P. (2021) Water absorption quality of clay bricks made by emerging manufacturers in
South Africa In: Laryea, S. and Essah, E. (Eds) Procs West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER)
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Khuzwayo
‘Brick ’as a term, covers an extensive number of products produced through the
mixture of clay, composing and shaping it, before drying it slowly and then baking
it, in an oven or fire source. Mineralogical and textural fluctuations transpire as the
temperature increases (Cultrone and Sebastián, 2009). Clay units are the most
popular building material in the construction industry, having been used for over
a thousand years (Al-Sibahy and Edwards, 2017). However, according to tests done
on prehistoric fired bricks and pottery remains in kiln-like structures from the
Middle Neolithic archaeological site of Xinjie in Shaanxi Province, in China, the
construction of clay bricks in East Asia started about 5000-5300 years ago, which
seems earlier than initially assumed. The sporadic occurrence of different size fired
clay bricks suggests that it was not until the Qin Dynasty that bricks, made with
locally available loess, were widespread (Yang et al., 2014).
There are other types of masonry units manufactured, using various materials and
techniques, such as adobe. This is an earth brick/block indigenously made using
natural soil and fibre materials. It is widely utilised in developing countries, such as
China, India, Iran, Turkey and Botswana (Wu et al., 2013). In fact, China has been
using adobe to build houses from as early as the Shang dynasty (1500 -1000 B.C.),
showing that adobes have been utilised in the construction industry for thousands
of years. Earth brick/block construction is commonly found in less-developed
countries where it is often used to imitate sturdier structures using unreliable
building materials. The use of adobe is associated with low income status. The
existence of earth brick construction dates from the early agricultural societies that
existed, according to our present understanding, from around 12,000 to 7000 BC.
Although this material is associated with low income status, it is also found in
developed countries, where there is a growing consciousness of the significance of
earth construction (Pacheco-Torgal and Jalali, 2012).
Clay bricks are utilised for various purposes ranging from residential, and
commercial to public buildings (Molnár and Larsson Ivanov, 2016). Their core
function is that of walling up a building to provide usable safe and comfortable
space. Masonry walls are made up of arranged bricks/blocks that are attached to
each other through a mortar bed and head joints (Noor-E-Khuda and Albermani,
2019). Burned clay bricks are common in South Africa and are used as reinforced
or unreinforced walling, with unreinforced being popular. Unreinforced masonry
walls can be used as both structural and non-structural walls in the construction
industry (Li et al., 2017). Clay bricks are required/expected to have a water
absorption capacity of 12% to 20%. However, 12% has been proven to be the ideal
water absorption capacity when using engineering units (The Clay Brick Association
of Southern Africa, 2021). An adequate bonding between clay units and mortar is
needed to execute a design, safely, depending on the flexural strength (Rao et al.,
1996). Tests have shown that moisture affects mechanical properties of brick,
mortar and masonry, notably decreasing the compressive strength of a brick and
cement mortar. Some of the attributes that make clay units common, in addition
to their better performance when compared to other construction materials,
include compressive strength, durability, thermal and acoustic insulation, fire
insulation and classical appearance.
Clay units are believed to provide employment opportunities for both skilled and
unskilled labour, which makes them popular in countries with developing
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economies. Their excellent thermal mass affords them the ability to absorb mass-
energy during the day and to release it at night, smoothing the high-temperature
variations (Al-Sanea et al., 2013). This is important because over 30% of primary
energy is consumed by structures to preserve their indoor temperature, which
changes due to heating and cooling loses (Rashid et al., 2019). The construction
industry is known to provide many employment opportunities for both
experienced and inexperienced, professional and unprofessional individuals
(Marglin, 2017). With the ever-increasing demand for construction work, some
individuals have identified new business opportunities, while others have tried to
produce some of the materials themselves. It is for this reason there is a surge in
people working at the micro, small and medium to large operations making
construction materials such as clay bricks. However, understanding is needed as to
how the construction industry is supposed to function with regard to providing
good-quality materials which includes the role they play in legislation compliance,
in the provision of safe structural environments and quality systems. The majority
of manufacturers do not possess the required knowledge and skills, which has
resulted in the production of poor-quality clay units. South Africa is no different
from other countries such as Zimbabwe, as indicated in Figure 1 taken by the first
author during an exploratory study in SADC countries.
Figure 1. Manufacturers of clay bricks in Zimbabwe
Manufacturing construction clay materials, such as bricks, tiles and blocks, by firing
is the most beneficial method in the industry when compared to other methods
such as cementing, and this, it is believed, will last for the next two decades
(Monteiro and Vieira, 2014). The core challenge for the masonry industry is the
shortage of skilled artisans that are capable of providing quality construction work
(Bosiljkov et al., 2010). Furthermore, the quality of materials and production
procedures are compromised by manufacturers who do not comply and use
substandard materials (Day, 2011).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Bricks are divided into two types: material-oriented and process-oriented bricks.
The process of producing clay bricks consumes enormous amounts of energy
whilst producing a significant carbon footprint, as it involves firing. On the other
hand there are cement products such as cement bricks (and blocks) which also face
challenges. Future research in the construction of bricks faces a challenge of
skepticism towards innovative bricks, as cement and lime-based calcium-silicate-
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hydrate bricks have proven to be unsustainable (Zhang et al., 2018). The majority
of low-cost and original construction materials (such as unburned clay bricks) have
been shown to be interestingly low on carbon, easily accessible, and less waste-
handling issues (Nordby and Shea, 2013). With respect to burnt bricks, the kiln
firing, where the ultimate properties of the brick are achieved, is regarded as a
highly complex process in brick making. However, the drying process has also
presented its own set of composite processes and problems that prove difficult for
the operator to control, making it equally complex in firing. Drying has proven to
cause defects that cannot be fixed by firing (Slevin and Whalen, 1998).
Mechanical behaviour of the bricks manufactured by old-style technologies using
high-temperature exposure depends on the quality of the firing. The high porosity
and low density of bricks from traditional technologies induce low thermal
conductivities which limits the effects of heat on the material. Such low quality
bricks should be used as siding and filling elements in structures and they are not
suitable for structural purposes (Bidoung et al., 2016). Clay bricks consume an
enormous amount of clay, which contributes to environmental degradation, as
large amounts of clay soil have to be mined. The mining process affects the soil
and vegetation, thus when done carelessly/excessively without rehabilitation steps
being taken, soil erosion is the result (Santhosh et al., 2013). Many regions in the
world have limited natural resource material for producing the traditional bricks,
which presents a threat to the environment and to sustainable development
(Zhang, 2013).
The bond strength is greatly affected by the water absorption of the brick
components and mortar paste during construction. Moisture curing of the wall
after construction also affects the strength. This was demonstrated by undertaking,
in-plane shear and out-of-plane bending tests conducted on multiple brick wallets
and infills, built with different pre- and post-construction moisture conditions
(Maheri et al., 2011). It may be assumed that values of bond strength quality are
directly influenced by compression strength but bond strength has proven to be
closely related to the coarseness of the substrate, the petrographic features of the
stone, the water absorption of the substrate, and to the grout applied (Luso and
Lourenço, 2017). The strength of the mortar mix is important as it affects the
strength of structural elements made of masonry. To give an example, the utmost
strength or moment-carrying capacity of a masonry beam is greatly affected by the
strength of the grout, verified by the sensitivity analysis (Zohreh Heydariha et al.,
2017). The design of walls made with clay units, however, is different. Designers
prioritise specifications for the water absorption, deemed critical in this case, as the
bond mechanism between clay bricks and mortar yields dissimilar flexural
strengths for numerous types of mortar class (Crofts and Lane, 2011). This is
indicated in Figure 2 of the South African Bureau of Standards (1980).
The activities that are crucial in the design and execution of the construction are
the accurate specifications and suitable measures for the total resistance-capacity
increase of the masonry structural element (Juhásová et al., 2008). The poor
performance of non-structural components, such as chimneys and balustrades,
compromise the protection of occupiers in slightly damaged buildings mainly in
historical centres, thus stressing the importance of detailed designs (Penna et al.,
2014).
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Figure 2. Characteristic flexural strength of clay units, fkx, in MPa for plane of failure parallel to
bed joint
Natural materials like clay do not always meet the technical demands (Maubec et
al., 2017). There are distinct clay soils comprising distinct kinds of clay minerals
(Ouhadi et al., 2006). The conduct of clay soils relies heavily on the type of clay
minerals included (Hamidi and Marandi, 2018). Quantitative mineral assessment of
clay soils is a key step in ensuring accurate soil recognition and behaviour (Ouhadi
and Yong, 2003). This is rarely practised by local unskilled clay brick producers. This
presents difficulties to come even close to complying with technical requirements
of clay bricks and ensuring consistent performance. The deposits of clay are created
over several decades and contain a combination of several minerals of distinct
grain sizes (Muñoz Velasco et al., 2014). The mineralogy of the clay products also
influences the characteristics of their water retention (Ajayi and Horn, 2016).
Although the production of unfired clay bricks is relatively simple, the type and
quantity of additives used, the optimum water absorption to maximise the
compaction effort and the achievable dry density, must be carefully determined in
order to achieve maximum strength and durability (Miqueleiz et al., 2012).
Consequently, the clay fraction and plasticity index are unreliable indicators of the
susceptibility to liquefaction of cohesive soils without taking into account the clay
mineralogy and its distinct adhesive bond strength on the boundary layers (Tosti
et al., 2013). It is these characteristics that contribute to the legendary unreliability
of clay bricks made using even properly tested mined clay in terms of technical
criteria such as compressive strength and water absorption quality.
The literature reviewed indicates that the physical properties of clay bricks
significantly affects the of design performance of brick walls subjected to bending.
Water absorption is the focus of this study and it is directly related to the bond
strength. It is, therefore, important to understand how each factor contributes to
another in order to provide a good-quality structural system. Although the
excessive mining of clay to make clay masonry has far-reaching consequences for
the environment, a lesser case scenario is that of obtaining good-quality clay
masonry walls rather than both defective masonry walls and a degraded
environment.
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METHODOLOGY
The researcher identified two sites in Qwaqwa and Newcastle, South Africa, where
clay bricks are manufactured by the community. From these sites, 11 samples of
each unit type (low and high burnt units) were received from each location for a
12-month period. These samples were newly made clay bricks. There was a total of
264 bricks (11 units x 2 types, low and high burnt x 12 months) obtained from each
site operated by developing entrepreneurs/ manufacturers. This yielded a total of
528 specimen tested from two (2) sites. The samples were tested for the water
absorption quality. Conducting the test needed three (3) tools, as laid out in Clause
6.9 of the South African National Standard 227. These tools are: a forced-draught
drying kiln capable of maintaining a temperature of at least 105 ºC; a lidded
heating tank with a grid at the bottom to allow circulation of water all around the
units; and a balance able to measure the mass of units to an accuracy of 0.1%. In
this process, elements are dried in a kiln at a minimum temperature of 105 °C until
the achievement of a constant mass (m1). The samples are dipped in clean water
for 24 hours in a constant room temperature of 24-25°C.
The samples are then removed from the water, wiped with a wet cloth, with the
mass (m2) measured immediately. After 24 hours of the immersion test, the
samples are put in a grid inside a tank. The samples are then subjected to a 5-hour
test where the temperature of the water is increased to boiling point for over a
one-hour period and preserved at boiling point for 5 hours. The samples are kept
in the tank without draining the water and left for 16-19 hours to cool off naturally.
After this period, the specimens are removed from the water, wiped with a wet
cloth before the mass (m3) is measured. The water absorption capacity of the
specimens is then calculated according to Clause 6.9.4 (South African National
Standard, 2007), namely: a) Calculate the cold water absorption of each unit (24 h
cold water absorption, %(m/m) = (m2 – m1)/m1 × 100) and then calculate the
average of the units; b) Calculate the boiling water absorption of each unit (5 h
boiling water absorption, %(m/m) = (m3 – m1)/m1 × 100) and then calculate the
average of the units; c) Record the individual results to the nearest 0,01 % and the
average result to the nearest 0,1 %; d) Calculate the saturation coefficient of each
unit (saturation coefficient = 24 h cold water absorption,%( m/m )/5 h boiling water
absorption,%( m/m)) and record the individual results and the maximum result to
the nearest 0,01 %. The two sites (Figure 3 and 4) were selected because they are
open to the public to quarry clay and transform it to usable building material such
as clay bricks and easy to drive to for purchasing clay bricks towards the end of
each month.
Figure 3. (Left) Madadeni and Figure 4. (Right) Qwaqwa clay bricks manufacturers
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Apparatuses used to conduct experiments are depicted in Figure 5, 6 and 7.
Figure 5. Scale used to measure the mass of clay bricks
Figure 6. Pot used to boil clay bricks
Figure 7. Oven used to dry clay bricks
A significance test, which is the act of comparing observable data to a claim (also
known as a hypothesis) whose veracity is being assessed, was omitted from the
research since it lacked a hypothesis and was purely exploratory in nature.
Additionally, no experimental soil samples were taken because it was determined
during the study’s preparation that no samples, with consistent geological
materials, would be obtained over a 12-month period because the area where the
mine is quarried can vary significantly, even during a month of clay brick
production. This means that the experimental soil samples will yield insignificant
findings.

Table 1 (Qwaqwa) and Table 2 (Madadeni) provide average moisture contents. The
trial began in February 2017 and concluded in January 2018. Although water
absorption rates over 30% are considerably too high, they were tested since the
public continues to purchase those bricks.
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Table 1 Qwaqwa
Final Moisture Less 7 % up to but
Brick Average 12 % to More
Month (%) content of than 7 not including
Type mass (g) 30 % than 30%
11 clay bricks % 12 %
Hard
February 2278 21.7 - - POOR -
Burnt
March 2270 23.6 - - POOR -
April 2196 32.3 - - - REJECT
May 2107 38.4 - - - REJECT
June 2227 26.1 - - POOR -
July 2209 31.1 - - - REJECT
August 2175 29.0 - - POOR -
September 2236 30.0 - - - REJECT
October 2279 31.5 - - - REJECT
November 2198 36.0 - - - REJECT
December 2275 27.1 - - POOR -
January 2168 35.5 - - - REJECT
Low
Burnt
March 2467 20.6 - - POOR -
April 2467 16.3 - - POOR -
May 2375 24.8 - - POOR -
June 2203 35.0 - - - REJECT
July 2498 20.0 - - POOR -
August 2379 25.8 - - POOR -
October 2495 16.0 - - POOR -
November 2387 24.7 - - POOR -
December 2267 32.1 - - - REJECT
January 2446 18.3 - - POOR -
Various combinations relating to the water absorption and site, type of brick and
month were analysed. Considering only the manufacturing site and the water
absorption of brick purchased from them, they produced the following results: (1)
Qwaqwa had 27.3% with a standard deviation of 6.6, which means that the data
was more spread out; (2) Madadeni had 34.3% with a standard deviation of 9.6
which also means that the data was more spread out. There is a significant
difference in the mean water absorption by site (p = 0.005). It is no surprise because
there are distinct clay soils that contain various types of clay minerals. The conduct
of clay soils is highly dependent on the included type of clay minerals. Quantitative
mineral evaluation of clay soils is a crucial step in ensuring correct identification
and behavior of soils. The partial eta squared value (η2 = 0.162) also confirms that
the site does play a significant role with respect to the water absorption (η2 > 0.14
implies a large effect).
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Table 2 Madadeni
7 % up to
Final Moisture
Average Less than 7 but not 12 % to More
Brick Type Month (%) content of
mass (g) % including 30 % than 30%
11 clay bricks
12 %
Light Burnt January 1972 28.3 - - POOR -
February 1980 33.0 - - - REJECT

March 2198 25.9 - - POOR -
April 2098 31.6 - - - REJECT
May 2154 24.4 - - POOR -
June 2008 44.7 - - - REJECT
July 2196 27.8 - - POOR -
August 2108 31.3 - - - REJECT
September 2106 29.8 - - POOR -
December 1869 54.5 - - - REJECT
Hard Burnt January 2078 22.6 - - POOR -

March 1997 33.6 - - - REJECT
April 2067 29.6 - - POOR -
May 1976 35.4 - - - REJECT
June 2069 27.5 - - POOR -
July 2097 24.0 - - POOR -
August 1976 46.6 - - - REJECT
December 2067 27.6 - - POOR -
This corresponds to the literature study about possible technical performance of

clay units due to varying mineralogical characteristics. In view of the site only and
with respect to the brick type, the investigation yielded the following means: (1)
Qwaqwa had 32.2% with a standard deviation of 7.5 which means that the data is
more spread out; (2) Madadeni had 29.4% with a standard deviation of 10.1, which
means that the data is more spread out. Even though hard burnt has a slightly
higher value than low burnt, the difference in the water absorption is not significant
(p = 0.287). This is also seen by the small effect η2 value (0.025). With respect to
the site and the brick type, there is a significant relationship between the water
absorption and a combination of site and brick type (p = 0.005). The η2 value
(0.039) indicates a small to medium effect. The month (which signifies the date of
mining) indicated a large effect (η2 = 0.213) on the level of moisture. As seen
1071
Khuzwayo
previously, the site and the month played a role in terms of the water absorption.
In addition, the combination of site and month was also a large contributor to the
water absorption. Since moisture absorption between hard and slight burnt brick
is insignificant, the results per site per month were combined as indicated in Figure
8.
Figure 8. Average water absorption for a period of 12 months
Results prove that natural materials, such as clay, do not always correspond to
technical demands (Maubec et al., 2017) in addition to the majority of
manufacturers who do not possess the required knowledge and skills, which has
resulted in the production of poor-quality clay units. Clay soils which consist of
distinct kinds of clay minerals (Ouhadi et al., 2006) provide difficulties as the
conduct of clay soils relies heavily on the type of clay minerals included (Hamidi
and Marandi, 2018) which further affects the manufacturing process. Quantitative
mineral assessment of clay soils is a key step in ensuring accurate soil recognition
and behaviour (Ouhadi and Yong, 2003) and this is lacking in most clay bricks
manufacturing processes. Necessary continuous testing of construction materials
is rarely undertaken if not at all. This presents difficulties in coming even close to
complying with technical requirements of clay bricks and ensuring consistent
performance. The results highlight a need for continuous testing of all materials
used in the manufacturing process to inform the public of the
characteristics/limitations, including those presented by clay bricks they use to
construct masonry walling.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

For the investigated sites, specifying clay units with less than 12% water absorption
may compromise the level of intended flexure performance, as clay bricks that offer
such performance do not exist. This is an issue because more ideal/satisfactory
characteristic flexural strength of masonry made with clay units, fkx, in MPa for
plane of failure equivalent to bed joint will be assumed. Even though hard burnt
has a slightly higher value than low burnt, the difference in the water absorption is
not significant (p = 0.287). This is also seen by the small effect η2 value (0.025).
With respect to the site and the brick type, there is a significant relationship
between the water absorption and a combination of site and brick type (p = 0.005).
The η2 value (0.039) indicates a small to medium effect. The unavailability of such
clay bricks from the merchants (12% to 20%) makes this almost impossible to
1072
Khuzwayo
achieve in real masonry walling. Independent confirmation concerning the water

absorption of clay units intended to be used in construction is absolutely necessary
for designers of masonry walling. The South African Bureau of Standards (SABS)
must promote and maintain standardization, quality and service provision related
to the manufacturing of construction materials such as clay bricks. This study is the
first to explore the water absorption quality of clay bricks made by emerging
manufacturers in South Africa.
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1075
INDEX OF AUTHORS
A Bamfo-Agyei, E., 457

Abba, M., 379 Bobadoye, S. A., 43
Abdulazeez, S. R., 177 C
Abdullah, A., 1023 Chan, A. P. C., 579, 895
Abdulmalik, B., 21 Charles-Afolabi, Y. C., 701
Abdulmumin, A., 333 Chindo, P. G., 333
Abdulrahman, R. S., 823 Chipungu, L., 137
Abdulrazaq, M., 779 Chiwuzie, A., 793, 909
Aborah-Osei, C., 629 Ciroma, F. B., 287
Abubakar, M., 81, 207, 685 D
Abubakar, M., 1001 Dabara, D. I., 909
Acquah, J. H., 457 Dahiru, D. D., 543
Adamu, A., 207 Danso, H., 99, 115
Adamu, A. D., 177 Danso, H., 457
Addy, M. N., 363 Danso, H., 569
Adedayo, A. G., 671 Danso, H., 629
Adedeji, J. A., 311 Danso, H., 715
Adedokun A. R., 431 Darko, A., 725
Adegbie, M. O., 739 Derbile, E. K., 875
Adegun, O. B., 739 Dipeolu, A. A., 311, 957
Adeleke, B. K., 515 Dodo, M., 21
Adeyemi, T. E., 1045 Dok-Yen, D. M., 363
Adinyira, E., 805 Dowelani, F., 351
Adogbo, A. K., 1013 Duah, D. Y. A, 363
Agbabiaka, H. I., 1045 Durosinmi, W. A., 701
Agyekum, K., 805 E
Ahmadu, H. A., 823 Ejeh, D. E., 59
Aidoo, I., 805 Ekweani, C. P., 1013
Aiyepada, E. G., 909 Elimisiemon, Monday Chris, 933
Ajenifujah-Abubakar, A. O., 43 Eludoyin, O. M., 501
Aju, D. E., 763 Emma-Ochu, C. A., 597
Akinlolu, M., 973 Eshun, B. T. B., 579
Akinremi, A. R., 671 Eze, B. D., 33
Akinsanya, A. Y., 557 F
Alaneme, G. U., 163 Fadairo, G., 311
Alfa, N. M., 515 Fadamiro, J. A., 311
Ali, Z. A., 259 Fajana, S., 33
Aluko-Olokun B. A., 779 Fateye, T. B., 431
Amanamba, E. C., 925 Fugar, F. D. K., 579
Angulu, H., 379 G
Ansah, N. B., 805 Gabriel-Wettey, F. K. N., 715
Antwi-Afari, M. F., 277 Galadima, M., 379
Anwer, S., 277 Gambo, M. M., 21
Appau, W. M., 875 Gambo, M. M., 529
Arowolo, L. A., 177 Gambo, S., 195
Assiamah, S., 569 Gambo, S., 529
Asumadu, R. S., 99 Gangas, P. C., 779
Atoyebi, A. K., 469 Garba, M. M., 543
Attakora-Amaniampong, E., 875 Ghali, A. A., 749
Auwalu, F. K., 749 Groenewald, B., 645
Ayeni, D. A., 43 H
Ayodele, T. O., 645 Haupt, T. C., 973
B I
Bala K., 21 Ibem, E. O., 311
Bala, K., 391 Ibrahim, A. D., 391
Bala, K., 945
- 1077 -
Ibrahim, A. D., 823 Ojo, O. M., 671
Ibrahim, A. D., 945 Ojo, S. O., 469
Ibrahim, A. G., 219 Oke, O. E., 1045
Ibrahim, A. G., 529 Okeke, F. O., 843
Ibrahim, A. M., 81 Okoli, O. G., 543
Ibrahim, A. M., 391 Okolie, K. C., 597
Ibrahim, Y. M., 1001 Olanipekun, A. O., 299
Ibuoye, A. A., 431 Olanipekun, A. O., 857
Idiake J. E., 259 Olanrele, O. O., 483
Ifeanyichukwu, N. E., 609 Olanrewaju S. D., 43
Ikemefuna, M., 609 Olatunji, S. A., 235
Iliyasu, I. I., 1023 Olawuyi, S. T., 909
Isah, I., 685 Olorunlana, F. A., 249
Ishaq, Z. H., 81 Oloruntoba, S. M., 857
Ishaq, Z. I., 685 Olowoporoku, O. A., 235
J Olowu, O. A., 557
Jiboye, A. D., 1045 Oluigbo, S. N., 59
Jiya, V. H., 945 Olusoga, O. O., 739
Jolaoso, B. A., 483 Onamade, A. O., 311, 957
K Onyelowe, K. C., 163, 763
Kado, D., 945 Onyelowe, K. C., 925
Kajimo-Shakantu, K., 645 Opara, V. I., 557
Keke, E. O., 163 Oyeleke, F. M., 195
Khuzwayo, B. P., 1063 Ozumba, A. O. U., 351
Kolo, B. A., 333, 779 P
Kolo, B. A., 823 Park, K. S., 277
Kolo, B. A., 1013 Poopola, J. O., 933
Kuforiji, A. A., 33 Popoola, A., 137
L Pretorius, J. H. C., 419
Lawal, Y. S., 81, 685 Prince, E. M., 909
Li, H., 277 R
M Raheem, A. A., 557
Magidimisha-Chipungu, H., 137 Rahim, A. A., 449
Maina, J. J., 59, 287 S
Mamman, M., 701 Sa’ad, M. M., 195
Marzbali, M. H., 1023 Saad, M. M., 219
Mbamali, I., 597 Sackey, K. A. N., 543
Medayese, S., 137 Sagada, M. L., 59, 287
Medayese, S. O., 661 Saheed, J., 671
Mkasi, P., 419 Salihu, A. A., 195
Mohammed, A., 1013 Salisu, A. S., 933
Mohammed, M., 661 Samad, N. A. A., 449
Mohammed, Y. D., 259 Samaila, H., 379
Morakinyo, T. E., 739 Santali, B. N., 661
Muhammad, J. A., 259 Sanusi, Y. A., 661
Muhammad, S., 685 Seman, W. M. W., 449
Muhammed, B., 749 Seo, J., 277
Musa-Haddary, Y. G., 333 Shakantu, W., 609
N Shika, A. S., 219
Nnaemeka-Okeke, R. C., 843 Shittu, A. A., 177, 259
Nwaogu, J. M., 895 Sodiya, A. K., 431
O Sufiyan, M. B., 59
Odesanmi, A., 379 Sulyman, A. O., 661
Odunfa, V. O., 431 T
Oduwole, A., 987 Tetteh, M. O., 725
Ofori, G., 405 Tolani, S. A., 609
Ogbeifun, E., 419 Torku, A., 277
Ogungbemi, D. A., 299 Tsado, A. J., 177
Ohadugha, C. B., 661
- 1078 -
U Y
Udeala, R. C., 163 Yahya, A., 529
Uranta, J. D. C., 163 Yevu, S. K., 725
Usman, J., 195 Yu, A. T. W., 725
Usman, J., 529 Yussuf, S. O., 671
W Yussuf, S. O., 1045
Wahab, M. B., 701 Z
Wirekoh, F. K., 115 Zailani, B. M., 207
Wu, Y., 749 Zailani, B. M., 1001
Zakari, D. U., 701
Zubairu, I. K., 391
- 1079 -
INDEX OF KEYWORDS
A concrete, 515, 529, 715

absorption, 529 conservation, 311
academic performance, 793 constrained simplex method, 763
acceptance, 287 construction, 597, 1013
access design solution, 449 construction firms, 177, 259
accessibility, 449 construction in developing countries, 405
adaptive neuro fuzzy inference construction industry, 207, 725, 843, 1001
system(ANFIS), 163 construction performance, 115
affordability, 671 construction personnel, 895
affordable housing, 363 construction procurement, 725
Africa, 137 construction project delivery, 299
aggregates, 529 construction projects, 597, 685
architects, 933 construction sites, 195, 457, 857
architectural education, 43 construction SMEs, 259
assessment, 219, 685 construction workers, 277
attitude, 1001 contractors’ pre-qualification, 419
awareness, 207, 287, 311 conventional and contemporary valuation
B methods, 909
behaviour, 609, 1001 coping strategies, 895
benchmark, 609 cost performance, 945
BIM, 351, 933 covid-19, 432
BIM education, 333, 933 COVID-19, 957
BIM tools, 933 COVID-19 pandemic, 33
BIM usage architects, 933 co-working, 432
binomial method, 81 crime pattern, 1023
body of knowledge, 405 curing method, 715
building construction industry, 629 curriculum, 43
building design, 1045 D
building information modelling (BIM), 115 data integration, 391
building investment, 81 data sharing, 391
building materials, 195 data transformation, 391
building projects, 945 delivery, 235
buildings, 351 design expert, 763
built environment, 1023 design for safety (DfS), 207
built environment professionals, 21 development models, 483
C District Assemblies Common Fund (DACF),
CA Markov, 749 629
CAD, 43 domestic energy, 661
capacity and capability, 405 durability, 529
carbon monoxide, 661 E
career, 973 ecosystems, 957
causes, 249 Ede, 793
cereal flours, 515 e-HR, 33
challenges, 432, 857 electronic procurement, 725
Clanwilliam dam, 419 emotional intelligence (EI), 33
clay bricks, 1063 energy consumption, 609
clayey soil, 925 energy poverty, 661
collaboration, 33 energy sector, 779
commercial properties, 701 engineering procurement and construction
commercial real estate, 875 (EPC), 779
communication patterns, 59 ENVI-met, 739
compliance, 99 environmental criminology, 1023
compressed stabilised earth brick, 543 environmental risks, 299
compressive strength, 515, 569, 715 environmental sustainability, 311, 957
conceptual model, 333 expansion option, 81
- 1081 -
extreme vertices, 763 laterite, 543, 569
F learning and teaching, 909
facilities, 351 liveable communities, 137
facilities management services, 219 LULC prediction, 749
fire outbreak, 99 M
flexural strength, 557, 715, 1063 management, 351
floods, 249 masonry walling, 1063
framework, 469 mass housing programme, 21
frugal innovation, 363 material sustainability, 805
G maximum aggregate size, 557
generational gap, 895 mental health, 957
generator, 661 Metropolitan Municipal and District
Geographic Information Systems(GIS), 749 Assemblies (MMDA’s), 629
geogrid, 763 Monte Carlo simulation, 81
geopolymer cement, 925 motivation, 857
Ghana, 115 Mutual Satisfaction (MS), 579
global south, 805 N
governance, 469 needs, 857
graduating students, 793 Nigeria, 207, 235, 469, 779
green infrastructure, 739, 957 Nigerian economic sustainability plan, 21
green infrastructure (GI), 311 non-industrialised economy, 333
H O
hazard recognition, 1001 occupiers, 671
health, 432, 597 ontology, 333
health and safety, 597 organisational culture, 59
health and safety measures, 177 outsourcing, 219
hedging capacity, 701 P
higher education, 333 palm kernel shell (PKS), 529
homeowners, 645 pavement subgrade, 925
hospitals, 219 payment delay, 457
hotel investment, 875 perceived usefulness, 287
housing, 671, 1045 perception, 235, 501
housing supply, 483 performance, 219
hybrid binder, 163 performance-based contracting (PBC), 779
I petroleum, 543
ICT, 351 physical fatigue, 277
impact, 685, 945 physiology, 501
impacts, 249 place-making, 137
implementation, 779 plaster of Paris (POP), 195
inclusive development, 449 PLS-SEM, 987
income, 671 policy, 483
indoor characteristics, 501 polytechnic, 909
inflation, 701 Portland cement, 379
information and communication pozzolans, 543
technology, 177 practice, 987
infrastructure, 235, 469 procurement process, 419
infrastructure services, 875 professional valuers, 645
inspection delay, 457 professionals, 207
interlocking blocks, 569 project, 195
interpersonal skills, 21 project contributory factors, 945
Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM), 579 project delivery, 629
intervention, 483 property value determinants, 645
K public building, 99
knowledge, 287 public infrastructure, 579
L public private partnership, 469
labour output, 457 Q
labour productivity, 457 quality, 685, 1045
land use/land cover change, 749 quality of life, 137
large projects, 823 quarry dust, 925
- 1082 -
R sustainable building development, 81
real estate, 793 sustainable development, 1045
real estate agents, 645 sustainable procurement, 725
real estate investment, 909 T
reduction measure, 609 technologically-enabled environment,
remedial and management strategies, 249 1013
remotely sensed data, 749 technology acceptance model, 987
rent, 671 temperature, 501
rental price, 701 tensile strength, 569
repetitive lifting task, 277 thermal comfort, 739
research new perspectives, 405 thermal stress, 501
residential building, 609 total inclusiveness, 843
residential outdoor space, 1045 transnational, 579
residential property, 645 U
responsible material, 805 unconfined compressive strength, 763
responsible sourcing, 805 unconfined compressive strength (UCS),
retarding admixture, 515 163
risk factors, 685 universal design, 449
risk interdependences, 823 university, 909
risk management, 823 university students, 973
risk systemicity, 823 unskilled women workers, 857
riss aggregate, 557 urban centre, 311
S urban design, 739
safety, 597, 1001 urban liveability, 137
safety compliance, 597 urban morphology, 1023
safety measures, 259 urban planning, 235
safety performance, 99 W
selection of quality contractor, 419 wastage, 195
self-efficacy, 973 water absorption quality, 1063
setting time, 515 water infrastructure delivery, 419
setting time test, 379 wearable insole pressure system, 277
shared office, 432 whole life cost data, 391
Sino-Ghana, 579 whole life cost models, 391
slump tests, 715 workplace, 33, 895
small city, 875 work-related musculoskeletal disorders,
smart contract, 1013 277
smart security system, 287 X
smartPLS, 987 x–ray fluorescence, 557
social housing, 483
social interactions, 59
social procurement, 843
social sustainability, 843
socially disadvantaged groups, 843
soft computing, 163
soil, 763
soil stabilization, 163
sorptivity, 529
soundness test, 379
South Africa, 973
space syntax, 59
spatial accessibility, 875
spatial layout, 59
steel slag, 557
stress, 895
suction, 925
supervised machine learning classifiers,
277
surveying, 987
sustainability, 363
- 1083 -
9-11 AUGUST 2021
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Accra, Ghana and Online
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13:30-14:40 PAPER PRESENTATIONS

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PRIZES TO BE AWARDED AT THE WABER 2021 CONFERENCE

BEST PRESENTATION AWARD

GIBRINE ADAM PROMISING YOUNG SCHOLAR AWARD

Professor Charles Egbu

Professor Egbu’s research interests focus on project management, construction

WABER 2021 CONFERENCE

He is a visiting professor at University College London and Politecnico di Milano and on

A Chartered Construction Manager, Engineer, Project Manager, and Surveyor by

His outstanding research performance has resulted in the appointment of Able

Professor Chan holds an MSc in Construction Management and Economics from

Professor Taibat Lawanson

She has conducted extensive research on issues relating to urban informality,

WABER 2021 CONFERENCE

Professor Dato’ Sri Ar Dr Asiah Abdul Rahim, is a Professor at the Department of

He was subsequently awarded a DSc degree by the University of London in

From 1983 to 2017, he was employed by the National University of Singapore,

We would like to sincerely thank

A STUDY ON INTERPERSONAL SKILLS OF NIGERIAN BUILT

Keywords: built environment professionals, interpersonal skills, mass housing

downturn. In both developed and developing countries, the housing sector is

MASS HOUSING IN NIGERIA

THE NIGERIAN ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY PLAN AND ITS MASS

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS FOR CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

a. Leadership: The ability to get things done through others;

c. Motivation: Creating an environment to meet project objectives while providing

d. Communication: Adopting communication styles and techniques that facilitate

g. Political and cultural awareness: Catering for stakeholder’s diversity in norms,

c. Coaching: Developing the project team to higher levels of competency and

where: X denotes the Mean Score

n represents the total number of responses

RI = 1n1+ 2n2 + …. AnA (0 ≤ RSI ≤ 1)

n1, n2, ... , nA = number of respondents scoring response stem integers 1 to

Amax (5), respectively.